boundscompusa

MARINEGEOCHEMISTRYTITLESOFRELATEDINTERESTCathodoluminescenceofgeologicalmaterialsD.
J.
MarshallChemicalfundamentalsofgeologyR.
GillDeepmarineenvironmentsK.
Pickeringetal.
ElementsofdynamicoceanographyD.
TolmazinExperimentsinphysicalsedimentologyJ.
R.
L.
AllenImageinterpretationingeologys.
DruryKarstgeomorphologyandhydrologyD.
C.
Ford&P.
W.
WilliamsMathematicsingeologyJ.
FergusonNeptune'sdomainM.
GlassnerPerspectivesonadynamicEarthT.
R.
PatonPetroleumgeologyF.
K.
NorthPetrologyofthesedimentaryrocksJ.
T.
GreensmithApracticalapproachtosedimentologyR.
C.
Lindholm(ed.
)PrinciplesofphysicalsedimentologyJ.
R.
L.
AllenSedimentarystructuresJ.
Collinson&D.
ThompsonSedimentology:processandproductM.
R.
LeederSoilsofthepastG.
RetallackVolcanicsuccessionsR.
A.
F.
Cas&J.
V.
WrightMARINEGEOCHEMISTRY--e--RoyChesterDepartmentofEarthSciences,UniversityofLiverpoolLondonUNWINHYMANBostonSydneyWellingtonRoyChester,1990ThisbookiscopyrightundertheBerneConvention.
Noreproductionwithoutpermission.
Allrightsreserved.
PublishedbytheAcademicDivisionofUnwinHymanLtd15/17BroadwickStreet,LondonW1V1FPAllen&UnwinInc.
,8WinchesterPlace,Winchester,Mass.
01890,USAAllen&Unwin(Australia)Ltd,8NapierStreet,NorthSydney,NSW2060,AustraliaAllen&Unwin(NewZealand)LtdinassociationwiththePortNicholsonPressLtd,CompusalesBuilding,75GhuzneeStreet,Wellington1,NewZealandFirstpublishedin1990BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataChester,RoyMarinegeochemistry.
1.
Oceans.
Chemicalcomposition&chemicalpropertiesI.
Title551.
46'.
01ISBN-I3:978-94-010-9490-0DOl:10.
1007/978-94-010-9488-7e-ISBN-13:978-94-010-9488-7LibraryofCongressCataloguing-in-PublicationDataChester,R.
(Roy),1936-Marinegeochemistry/RoyChester.
p.
cm.
Includesbibliographiesandindex.
1.
Chemicaloceanography.
I.
Title.
2.
Marinesediments.
3.
Geochemistry.
GCll1.
2.
C471989551.
46'01-dc20Typesetin10on12pointTimesbyColumnsofReading89-5735CIPPrefaceThepasttwoorthreedecadeshaveseenmanyimportantadvancesinourknowledgeofthechemistry,physics,geologyandbiologyoftheoceans.
Ithasalsobecomeapparentthatinordertounderstandthemannerinwhichtheoceansworkasa'chemicalsystem',itisnecessarytouseaframeworkwhichtakesaccountoftheseinterdisciplinaryadvances.
Marinegeochemistryhasbeenwritteninresponsetotheneedforasinglestate-of-the-arttextthataddressesthesubjectoftreatingtheseawater,sedimentandrockreservoirsasaunifiedsystem.
Intakingthisapproach,aprocess-orientatedframeworkhasbeenadoptedinwhichtheemphasisisplacedonidentifyingkeyprocessesoperatingwithinthe'unifiedocean'.
Indoingthis,particularattentionhasbeenpaidtomakingthetextaccessibletostudentsfromalldisciplinesinsuchawaythatfutureadvancescanreadilybeunderstood.
Iwouldliketoexpressmythankstothosepeoplewhohavehelpedwiththewritingofthisvolume.
Inparticular,IwishtoputonrecordmysincereappreciationofextremelyhelpfulsuggestionsmadebyProfessorJohnEdmond,FRS.
Inaddition,IthankDrS.
Rowlattforhiscommentsonthesectionscoveringthegeochemistryofoceanicsediments,andDrG.
Wolffforhisinvaluableadviceontheorganicgeochemistryofbiota,waterandsediments.
ItisagreatpleasuretoacknowledgethehelpofDrK.
J.
T.
Murphy,whogavesofreelyofhistimeatallstagesinthepreparationofthetext.
Ialsothankallthoseauthorswhohavekindlyallowedtheirdiagramsandtablestobereproducedinthebook.
Manyotherpeoplehaveinfluencedthewayinwhichmythoughtshavedevelopedovertheyears,andtothesefriendsandcolleaguesloweagreatdebtofgratitude.
IwouldliketothankUnwinHymanfortheirunderstandingduringthepreparationofthevolume;RogerJonesforhelpingtodeveloptheideainthebeginning,andAndyOppenheimer,whosepatienceinhandlingthemanuscripthasknownnobounds.
Finally,IwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetomywifeAlison,forallthedevotedsupportshehasgivenmeduringthewritingofthisbookandatallothertimes.
viiR.
ChesterLiverpoolAcknowledgementsWearegratefultothefollowingindividualsandorganizationswhohavekindlygivenpermissionforthereproductionofcopyrightmaterial(figurenumbersinparentheses):Figure3.
11970AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience;GeologicalSocietyofAmerica(3.
2,13.
la,15.
5b);Figures3.
3,6.
1aandWorksheet7.
1a,breproducedbypermissionofUnesco,Unesco1981;AcademicPress(3.
5a,3.
5b(i),3.
5b(ii),3.
5b(v),3.
7,4.
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1b,8.
1,8.
2,8.
6,9.
2b(i),9.
2b(iii),9.
3,904,11.
4,13.
5,14.
6,15.
6,16.
7,17.
1,Tables5.
1,11.
1,13.
5,15.
3,Worksheets8.
1a,14.
2(i;PergamonPress(3.
5b(iii),3.
6,4.
1,6.
3,7.
1a,7.
1b(i),7.
1c(i),7.
3,7.
5,9.
2a,10.
3,11.
2,l1.
5c,11.
5d,11.
7-9,13.
3a,14.
1,14.
5,14.
8a,15.
1,15.
9c,16.
3b,16.
4--6,16.
10,Tables4.
13,15.
2,Worksheets7.
3(i-iii),14Aii(b);ElsevierSciencePublishers(3.
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7b,5.
2,9.
5,9.
7,10.
2,11.
3,11.
5a,11.
5b,11.
5e,12.
1,12.
5,13.
3b,1304,14.
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7,15.
2,16.
2,16.
3a,16.
12,17.
2,Worksheets3.
1(i,ii),14.
3(i,ii;PlenumPublishing(11.
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10,Tables3.
6,3.
10);KluwerAcademicPublishers(4.
2a-b,4.
3b,8.
7);Figures404,4.
6,804,1504,16.
8AmericanGeophysicalUnion;Figures4.
5,7.
2,704,13.
2b1979JohnWiley&Sons,Inc;Springer-Verlag(4.
7a,4.
8,8.
5,14.
3);AcademicPressandGeologicalSocietyofAmerica(5.
1a);I.
A.
H.
S.
(6.
1b);SCOPEIUNEP(6.
1c,6.
2,12.
2);Tables6.
13,6.
14CRCPress,Inc;Figure7.
1b(ii)reproducedbypermissionofMacmillanPublishingCompany,1979J.
G.
Weihaupt;Figure7.
lc(ii)reproducedbypermissionofPrentice-Hall,Inc,1987;Worksheet7.
2(i-iii)reproducedbypermissionfromNature314,526,1985MacmillanMagazinesLtd;Worksheet8.
2(i)1974MunksgaardInternationalPublishersLtd;AcademicPressandGeochemicalResearchAssociation(Japan)(8.
3);Figure9.
1reproducedbypermissionfromNature282,677,1979MacmillanMagazinesLtd;Figure9.
2b(ii)reproducedbypermissionofPrentice-Hall,Inc,1970;G.
Wolff(Worksheet9.
1);CHIMIA(9.
8);Figure10.
1CRCPress,IncandElsevier;AberdeenUniversityPress(lOA);Figure11.
1reproducedbypermissionfromNature303,225,1983MacmillanMagazinesLtd;AmericanSocietyofLimnologyandOceanography,Inc(11.
6b,11.
6c,1404);U.
S.
NationalAcademyofScience(12.
3,1204,Table12.
2);Figures13.
1b,15.
5areproducedbypermissionofPrentice-Hall,Inc,1982;OxfordUniversityPress(13.
2a);Worksheet14.
1(i)1981JohnWiley&Sons,Inc;Figures14.
8b,15.
9a,15.
9bandWorksheets14A(i),14A(iia)reproducedbypermissionofAmericanJournalofScience;BlackwellScientificPublications(15.
3);D.
S.
CronanandS.
A.
Moorby(15.
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8);Figure16.
9areproducedbypermissionfromNature326,244,1987MacmillanMagazinesLtd;Figure16.
9breproducedbypermissionfromNature326,278,1987MacmillanMagazinesLtd;Figure16.
111973AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience.
viiiThisbookisdedicatedwithaffectionandgratitudetoDrG.
D.
Nicholls,aninnovativegeochemist,andafineteacherwhohasthetrulyraregiftofbeingabletoinspirehisstudentsContentsPrefaceAcknowledgementsSymbolsandconcentrationunits1Introduction1.
1Settingthebackground:.
aunified'process-orientated'approachtomarinegeochemistryReferencespageviiviiixv117PARTITHEGLOBALJOURNEY:MATERIALSOURCES92Theinputofmaterialtotheoceanreservoir2.
1ThebackgroundReferences3Thetransportofmaterialtotheoceans:111113theriverpathway143.
1Chemicalsignalstransportedbyrivers143.
2Themodificationofriver-transportedsignalsattheland/seainterface:estuaries41References774Thetransportofmaterialtotheoceans:theatmosphericpathway834.
1Materialtransportedviatheatmosphere:themarineaerosol834.
2Thechemistryofthemarineaerosol1064.
3Materialtransportedviatheatmosphere:theair/seainterfaceandtheseasurfacemicrolayer1254.
4Theatmosphericpathway:summary129References1295Thetransportofmaterialtotheoceans:thehydrothermalpathway1355.
1Hydrothermalactivity:high-temperatureseawater-basaltreactions135xiCONTENTS5.
2Hydrothermalactivity:low-temperatureseawater-basaltreactions5.
3Thehydrothermalpathway:summaryReferences1461471476Thetransportofmaterialtotheoceans:relativefluxmagnitudes1496.
1Riverfluxestotheoceans1496.
2Atmosphericfluxestotheoceans1636.
3Hydrothermalfluxestotheoceans1736.
4Relativemagnitudesoftheprimaryfluxestotheoceans1756.
5Relativemagnitudesoftheprimaryfluxestotheoceans:summaryReferences187188PARTIITHEGLOBALJOURNEY:THEOCEANRESERVOIR1937Descriptiveoceanography:watercolumnparameters1957.
1Introduction1957.
2Somefundamentalpropertiesofseawater1967.
3Oceaniccirculation2057.
4Tracers2127.
5Anoceanmodel2207.
6Characterizingoceanicwatercolumnsections2227.
7Watercolumnparameters:summary230References2308Dissolvedgasesinseawater2338.
1Introduction2338.
2Theexchangeofgasesacrosstheair/seainterface2348.
3Dissolvedoxygeninseawater2438.
4Dissolvedcarbondioxideinseawater:thedissolvedCO2cycle2478.
5Dissolvedgasesinseawater:summary267References2699Nutrients,organiccarbonandthecarboncycleinseawater2729.
1Thenutrientsinseawater9.
2Organicmatterinthesea9.
3Themarineorganiccarboncycle9.
4Organicmatterintheoceans:summaryReferencesxii272285306315316CONTENTS10Particulatematerialintheoceans10.
1Themeasurementandcollectionofoceanictotalsuspendedmatter10.
2Thedistributionoftotalsuspendedmatterintheoceans10.
3Thecompositionofoceanictotalsuspendedmatter10.
4Totalsuspendedmatterfluxesintheoceans10.
5Down-columnchangesinthecompositionofoceanictotalsuspendedmatter10.
6Particulatematerialintheoceans:summaryReferences11Traceelementsintheoceans32132132232833133734234334611.
1Introduction34611.
2Oceanicresidencetimes34911.
3Anoceanictracemetalframework35311.
4Geographicalvariationsinthedistributionsoftraceelementsinsurfaceoceanwaters35411.
5Theverticaldistributionoftraceelementsinthewatercolumn36411.
6Processescontrollingtheremovaloftraceelementsfromseawater38211.
7Traceelementsinseawater:summary415References41512Down-columnfluxesandthebenthicboundarylayer42212.
1Down-columnfluxes42212.
2Thebenthicboundarylayer:thesediment/waterinterface42912.
3Thebenthicboundarylayer43012.
4Down-columnfluxesandthebenthicboundarylayer:summaryReferences435437PARTIIITHEGLOBAL:TOURNEY:MATERIALSINKS43913Marinesediments44113.
1Introduction44113.
2Theformationofdeep-seasediments45213.
3Ageneralschemefortheclassificationofmarinesediments45613.
4Thedistributionofmarinesediments45813.
5Thechemicalcompositionofmarinesediments46113.
6Chemicalsignalstomarinesediments46413.
7Marinesediments:summary465References466xiiiCONTENTS14Sedimentinterstitialwatersanddiagenesis14.
1Thelong-termfateoforganicmatterinmarinesediments14.
2Earlydiagenesisinmarinesediments14.
3Organicmatterinsediments14.
4Redoxenvironmentsanddiagenesisinmarinesediments14.
5Diagenesis:summary14.
6Interstitial-waterinputstotheoceans14.
7Interstitial-waterinputstotheoceans:summaryReferences15Thecomponentsofmarinesediments15.
1Lithogenouscomponents15.
2Biogenouscomponents15.
3'Hydrogenous'components:halmyrolysatesandprecipitates15.
4CosmogenouscomponentsReferences16Unscramblingthesediment-formingsignals16.
1Definitionofterminology16.
2Thebiogenoussignal16.
3Thedetritalsignal16.
4Theauthigenicsignal16.
5Unscramblingthedetritalandauthigenicsignals16.
6Signalspikes16.
7Theocean-wideoperationofthesediment-formingsignals16.
8Unscramblingthesediment-formingchemicalsignals:summaryReferencesPARTIVTHEGLOBALJOURNEY:SYNTHESIS17Marinegeochemistry:anoverviewIndex17.
1Howthesystemworks17.
2Balancingthebooks17.
3ConclusionsReferencesxiv468468477485486493494523525529529540555588590594595599600600601624641656656661663663669674680681Symbolsandconcentrationunits1GeneralsymbolsAllsymbolsusedinthepresentworkaredefinedattheappropriateplaceinthetext,whichcanbefoundbyreferencetotheindexattheendofthevolume.
2UnitsTheunitsdefinedbelow,andthesymbolsbywhichtheyareidentified,areconfinedtoagenerallistofthosemostcommonlyusedinthepresentwork;otherunitswillbedefinedwherenecessaryinthetextitself.
Itmustbenotedthatanumberoftraditionalunitshavebeenretainedasamatterofpolicythroughouttheworkbecausetheyarestillwidelyusedinthecurrentaswellasinthepastliterature;e.
g.
thelitrehasbeenemployedasaunitvolumealthoughIAPSOhaverecommendedthatforhighprecisionmeasurementsofvolumeitbereplacedbythecubicdecimetre(dm3).
ForadetailedtreatmentoftheuseofSIunitsinoceanographyseetheIAPSOrecommendationspublishedbyUnesco(1985).
LengthSIunit=metrenm,nanometre=10-9m!
-lm,micrometre=10-6mmlli,millimetre=10-3mcm,centimetre=10-2mm,metrekm,kilometre=103mWeightormassSIunit=kilogrampg,picogram=10-12gng,nanogram=10-9glAg,microgram=10-6gmg,milligram=10-3gg,gramkg,kilogram=103gt,ton/tonne=106gxvSYMBOLSANDCONCENTRATIONUNITSVolumeSIunit=cubicmetredm3,cubicdecimetre=10-3m3=1litrem3,cubicmetreILl,microlitre=10-61ml,millilitre=10-311,litreTimeSIunit=seconds=secondmin=minuteh=hourd=dayyr=yearMa=millionyears=106yrConcentration*TheSIunitfortheamountofasubstanceisthemole.
However,themostcommonlyusedconcentrationforparticulatesandsedimentsisstillmassperunitmass;e.
g.
ILgg-1=ppm=partspermillionngg-1=ppb=partsperbillionAnumberofsystemsarecurrentlyincommonuseforexpressingtheconcentrationofsolutesinseawater.
(a)Theconcentrationscanbeexpressedinunitsofmassperunitvolumeorperunitmassofseawater:e.
g.
gkg-1ormgkg-1formajorcomponents,orngdm-3orngkg-1ofseawaterfortraceelements;however,traceelementconcentrationsarestilloftenexpressedintermsofmass1-1.
ExamplesofsuchconcentrationsareILg1-1=10-6g1-1(ordm-3,orkg-I)ng1-1=10-9g1-1(ordm-3,orkg-I)pg1-1=10-12g1-1(ordm-3,orkg-I)(b)Themostusualpracticenowistousethemoleastheunitofconcentrationforsolutesinseawater.
ExamplesofconcentrationsareILmoll-1=10-6mol1-1(ordm-3,orkg-I)nmoll-1=10-9mol1-1(ordm-3,orkg-I)pmoll-1=10-12mol1-1(ordm-3,orkg-I)xviSYMBOLSANDCONCENTRATIONUNITS(C)Traditionally,theconcentrationsofthenutrientshaveoftenbeenexpressedas!
Lg-at1-\where!
Lg-at1-1=!
Lg-atoms1-1=!
Lg/atomicweight1-1Theatmosphericconcentrationsofparticulateelementsgiveninthetextareexpressedin'theform!
Lgm-3ofair=10-6gpercubicmetreofairngm-3ofair=10-9gpercubicmetreofairRadioactivitySIunit=Bqm-3(becquerelspercubicmetre)orBqkg-1dpm=disintegrationsperminuteCi=curie;1Ci=3.
7x1010Bq3SomedatathatareusefulforfluxcalculationsAreastAreaoftheoceans=361110x103km2AreaoftheAtlanticOcean(to~800S)=98013x103km2AreaoftheNorthAtlantic=52264x103km2AreaoftheSouthAtlantic=45749x103km2AreaoftheIndianOcean(to~700S)=77700x103km2AreaofthenorthernIndianOcean=12482x103km2AreaofthesouthernIndianOcean=65218x103km2AreaofthePacificOcean(to~800S)=176888x103km2AreaoftheNorthPacific=81390x103km2AreaoftheSouthPacific=95498x103km2Areaofthecontinents=148904x103km2RivertransportRiverinflowintotheNorthAtlanticOcean=11405km3yr-1RiverinflowintotheSouthAtlanticOcean=7946km3yr-1RiverinflowintothenorthernIndianOcean=3247km3yr-1RiverinflowintothesouthernIndianOcean=2354km3yr-1RiverinflowintotheNorthPacificOcean=7678km3yr-1RiverinflowintotheSouthPacificOcean=4459km3yr-1Totalriverinflowtoalloceans=37400km3yr-1AtmospherictransportTheareaofthemarineatmosphereisequaltothetotalareaoftheoceans;however,theatmosphericvolumeusedforcalculatingatmosphericdepositionfluxesdependsonthescaleheighttowhichacomponentisdispersed,usuallybetweenabout3and5km-seeSection6.
2.
xviiSYMBOLSANDCONCENTRATIONUNITSReferencesBaumgartner,A.
&E.
Reichel1975.
Theworldwaterbalance.
Amsterdam:Elsevier.
Unesco1985.
UnescoTech.
Pap.
Mar.
Sci.
,no.
32.
Paris:Unesco.
Noteontheuseofconcentrationunits.
Theconcentrationofdissolvedelementsisusuallyexpressedinthetextinthemostwidelyusedmoleform.
However,sinceitisstillcommonpracticeformanyauthorstousetheJ.
tglngg-lformfortheexpressionofconcentrationsinparticulatesandsediments,theconventionhasbeenretainedhere.
Thisdoesnotpresentproblemsintheevaluationofelementaldistributionpattern(oroftheprocessesthatcontrolthem)ineitherseawaterorsediments.
However,theapproachadoptedinthetextistofollowaglobal'source-sink'journey,andinordertosimplifyandstandardizeassessmentsofthetransportofelementsfromseawatertothesedimentreservoir,moleconcentrationshavebeenconvertedtomassconcentrationsinwatercolumn/sedimentsurfacefluxcalculations.
tTakenmainlyfromBaumgartner&Reichel(1975).
xviii