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AcademicWritingMostinternationalstudentsneedtowriteessaysandreportsforexamsandcoursework.
YetwritinggoodacademicEnglishisoneofthemostdemandingtasksstudentsface.
ThisneweditionofAcademicWritinghasbeenfullyrevisedtohelpstudentsreachthisgoal.
Clearlyorganised,thecourseexplainsthewritingprocessfromstarttonish.
Eachstageisdemonstratedandpractised,fromselectingsuitablesources,reading,note-makingandplanningthroughtore-writingandproof-reading.
ThefourmainpartsofAcademicWritingallowteachersandstudentstoeasilyndthehelptheyneed.
Eachpartisdividedintoshortsections,whichcontainexamples,explanationsandexercises,foruseintheclassroomorself-study.
Cross-referencesalloweasyaccesstorelevantsections,andafullanswerkeyisfeaturedonthecompanionwebsite.
Thethirdeditionofthispopularcoursebuildsonthesuccessoftheearliereditionsandrespondstosuggestionsfrombothstudentsandteachers.
Plagiarismhasbecomeamajorconcerninhighereducation,andaspecialfeatureofAcademicWritingisasectiononavoidingplagiarism.
Therearealsounitsonthekeyskillsofparaphrasing,summarisingandreferencing.
Thebookincludessectionsoncrucialareassuchasargument,causeandeffect,comparison,denitionsandacademicstyle.
Workingingroups,dealingwithgraphs,chartsandnumbersandgivingexamplesareexplainedindetail.
Anotherpartdealswithaccuracyinwriting,providingpracticewithtopicssuchasvocabulary,conjunctionsandprepositions.
Thenalpartprovidesarangeofwritingmodelsofbothshortandlongeressaysandreports.
Anewcompanionwebsiteoffersfurtherpracticewitharangeofadditionalexercises,includinganswers.
Allinternationalstudentswantingtomaximisetheiracademicpotentialwillndthispracticalandeasy-to-usebookavaluableguidetowritinginEnglishfortheirdegreecourses.
StephenBaileyisafreelanceteacherandwriterofmaterialsforEnglishforAcademicPurposes.
HehastaughtinternationalstudentsformanyyearsattheUniversityofNottingham,UK,andhaspreviouslyworkedintheCzechRepublic,Japan,MalaysiaandSpain.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222InternationalstudentshavemanyadjustmentstomakeastheyenterBritishuniversitiesandStephen'sbookmakesatleastoneareaoftheirlives–academicstudy–muchmoreapproachable.
Withitsstraightforwardapproachandimprovedlayout,itwillbeabookmanystudentswillcometoregardasanessentialcompaniontotheiruniversitylives.
StephenDewhirst,FreelanceEAPteacher,UKStephenBaileyhasproducedanexcellentneweditionofhispopularbookAcademicWriting.
Thisbookpresentsagreatblendofadviceandpractice.
Theadvicefocusesonwhatisrequiredintermsofacademicwritingatuniversity.
Headdressesdifferenttypesofacademicwritingandevenincludessamplewritingtexts.
Thepracticebreaksdownacademicwritingbyfocussingonthelanguagetypicallyrequiredinacademicsettingswithlotsofstudentexercises.
Hisbooktakestheinternationalstudentwriterthroughtheprocessofacademicwriting,movingfromunderstandingacademicwritingtaskstousingreadingsourcesthroughtorevisinganddraftingthenaltext.
DrLindyWoodrow,DirectorChinaEducationCentre,UniversityofSydney,AustraliaInternationalstudentsandindeedallstudentsshouldndthisbookveryhelpful.
Itisaccessibletoreadandengagesinanexplicitandsharplyfocusedmannerwithmanyelementsofthecriticaluseofreading,ofwritingandofstudying.
Thebookusefullyexplains,exemplies,andtestsunderstanding.
Itdealswiththeproblematicareasofplagiarismandgrammaticalwork,ofdevelopingargumentandcounterargument,andessayexpression.
Itshouldbeveryusefulforinternationalstudentsengagedinacademicwriting.
ProfessorGinaWisker,UniversityofBrighton,UKStephenBailey'sAcademicWritingisoneofthefewacademicwritingbooksthatdealwithcoreareaseffectively-language,texttype,academicconventionsandthewritingprocess.
Thisisdonebygivingsimpleexplanations,authenticexamplesandusefulpracticeopportunitieswhichcaneitherbedoneinclassorasselfstudy.
Thebookappealstoarangeoflevelsincludingpreandinsessionalstudentsandequipsthemwitharangeofthekeylanguageandskillsneededtoembarkonacademicwritinginhighereducation.
FionaGilbert,OxfordBrookesUniversity,UKThethirdeditionofAcademicWriting:AHandbookforInternationalStudentswillbewelcomebyallstudentsnewtoacademicwritinginEnglish-mediumcollegesanduniversities.
Thebookiscarefullysetouttoguidestudentsstepbystepthroughthemazeofassignmenttypes,writingconventionsandmysteriousvocabularytheywillndwhenenteringhighereducation.
Movingfromthewritingprocessthroughcommonpatternsofgrammarandargumenttomodelsofliteraturereviews,essaysandreports,thehandbookoffersaclear,practicalandaccessibleintroductiontotheskillsstudentswillneedtowriteeffectivelyatuniversity.
ProfessorKenHyland,UniversityofHongKongThisbookprovidesinternationalstudentswithausefulintroductiontothebasicpracticesinreadingandwritingforacademicpurposes.
Itincludestopicssuchasthetypicalcontentofarticleabstracts,themechanicsofcitationandreferencing,andsomeusesofsourcesinwriting–topicsthatwillhelpinternationalstudents,studyinginanEnglishmediumuniversityforthersttime,tomeettheirtutors'expectationsinreadingandwritingassignments.
Thechapteronreadingadvisesacriticalattitudetointernetresources,advicemostrelevanttostudentstoday.
AntoniaChandrasegaran,NationalInstituteofEducation,Singapore1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222AcademicWritingAHandbookforInternationalStudentsThirdeditionStephenBaileyFirsteditionpublished2003byRoutledgeSecondeditionpublished2006byRoutledgeThiseditionpublished2011byRoutledge2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,OxonOX144RNSimultaneouslypublishedintheUSAandCanadabyRoutledge270MadisonAvenue,NewYork,NY10016RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness2011StephenBaileyAllrightsreserved.
Nopartofthisbookmaybereprintedorreproducedorutilisedinanyformorbyanyelectronic,mechanical,orothermeans,nowknownorhereafterinvented,includingphotocopyingandrecording,orinanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublishers.
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataAcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibraryLibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataBailey,Stephen,1947–Academicwritingforinternationalstudiesofbusiness/StephenBailey.
–1sted.
p.
cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
1.
Authorship.
2.
Academicwriting.
3.
Businesswriting.
I.
Title.
PN151.
B262011808′.
06665–dc222010014023ISBN13:978–0–415–59580–3(hbk)ISBN13:978–0–415–59581–0(pbk)ISBN13:978–0–203–83165–6(ebk)ThiseditionpublishedintheTaylor&Francise-Library,2011.
TopurchaseyourowncopyofthisoranyofTaylor&FrancisorRoutledge'scollectionofthousandsofeBookspleasegotowww.
eBookstore.
tandf.
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ISBN0-203-83165-9Mastere-bookISBNContents1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222AcknowledgementsxiTeachers'introductionxiiiStudents'introductionxvAcademicwritingquizxixPart1Thewritingprocess11.
1Backgroundtowriting3Thepurposeofacademicwriting3Commontypesofacademicwriting4Theformatoflongandshortwritingtasks5Thefeaturesofacademicwriting6Someothercommontextfeatures7Simpleandcomplexsentences8Writinginparagraphs91.
2AReading:ndingsuitablesources11Academictexts11Typesoftext14Usingreadinglists14Usinglibrarycatalogues15Usinglibrarywebsitestosearchelectronicresources171.
2BReading:developingcriticalapproaches19Readingmethods19Titles,sub-titlesandtextfeatures21Readingabstracts22Factandopinion23Assessinginternetsourcescritically24Criticalthinking271.
3Avoidingplagiarism30Whatisplagiarism30Acknowledgingsources31Degreesofplagiarism32Avoidingplagiarismbysummarisingandparaphrasing33Avoidingplagiarismbydevelopinggoodstudyhabits351.
4Fromunderstandingtitlestoplanning36Theplanningprocess36Analysingessaytitles37Brainstorming38Essaylength39Outlines401.
5Findingkeypointsandnote-making43Note-makingmethods44Findingkeypoints45Findingrelevantpoints46Effectivenote-making471.
6Paraphrasing50Theelementsofeffectiveparaphrasing50Techniquesforparaphrasing521.
7Summarising56Whatmakesagoodsummary56Stagesofsummarising571.
8Referencesandquotations62Whyusereferences62Citationsandreferences63Referenceverbsandsystems64Usingquotations65Organisingthelistofreferences691.
9Combiningsources72Mentioningsources72Takingacriticalapproach73Combiningthreesources761.
10Organisingparagraphs77Paragraphstructure77Developmentofideas80Linkingparagraphstogether811.
11Introductionsandconclusions83Introductioncontents83Introductionstructure84Openingsentences86Conclusions881.
12Re-writingandproof-reading90Re-writing90Proof-reading93Confusingpairs96viContentsPart2Elementsofwriting992.
1Argumentanddiscussion101Discussionvocabulary101Organisation102Thelanguageofdiscussion105Counter-arguments106Providingevidence1062.
2Causeandeffect109Thelanguageofcauseandeffect1092.
3Cohesion115Referencewords115Preventingconfusion1172.
4Comparisons119Comparisonstructures119Formsofcomparison121Usingsuperlatives1222.
5Denitions126Simpledenitions126Complexdenitions1282.
6Examples130Usingexamples130Phrasestointroduceexamples131Restatement1332.
7Generalisations134Usinggeneralisations134Structure135Buildingongeneralisations1382.
8Numbers139Thelanguageofnumbers139Percentages140Simplication141Furthernumericalphrases1422.
9Problemsandsolutions145Structure145Vocabulary1482.
10Style150Componentsofacademicstyle150Guidelines1521EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222viiContentsAvoidingrepetitionandredundancy154Varyingsentencelength1552.
11Visualinformation158Thelanguageofchange158Typesofvisuals159Describingvisuals162Labelling1632.
12Workingingroups166Whyworkingroups166Makinggroupworksuccessful168Dealingwithproblems169Pointstoremember170Part3Accuracyinwriting1733.
1Abbreviations175Typesofabbreviation175Somecommonabbreviations176Abbreviationsinwriting1773.
2Academicvocabulary179Adjectives,nounsandverbs179Formalityinverbs1823.
3Articles184Useofarticles184Usingdenitearticles1853.
4Caution188Theuseofcaution188Thelanguageofcaution189Usingmodiers1893.
5Conjunctions192Typesofconjunctions192Conjunctionsofopposition1963.
6Nounsandadjectives198Usingnounsandadjectives198Abstractnouns2013.
7Prexesandsufxes203Howprexesandsufxeswork203Prexes204Sufxes205viiiContents3.
8Prepositions207Usingprepositions2073.
9Punctuation212Capitals212Apostrophes213Semi-colons213Colons213Commas214Quotationmarks2143.
10Singularorplural217Fiveareasofdifculty217Groupphrases218Uncountablenouns2193.
11Synonyms222Howsynonymswork222Commonsynonymsinacademicwriting2233.
12Timewords226Howtimewordsareused226Timewordsandtenses2273.
13Verbs–passives231Activeandpassive231Structure232Usingadverbs2323.
14Verbsofreference236Usingverbsofreference236Commonreferringverbs2373.
15Verbs–tenses241Usingtenses241Simpleorcontinuous243Usingtimephrases244Part4Writingmodels2474.
1Formallettersandemails249Letters249Emails2524.
2WritingCVs254ThecontentsofaCV2541EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222ixContents4.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviews257Writingreports257Essaysandreports258Casestudies259Examplecasestudy260Literaturereviews264Exampleliteraturereview2644.
4Designingandreportingsurveys267Questionnairedesign268Surveylanguage2684.
5Writinglongeressays273Theprocessofresearchingandwritingalongeressay(2,000–5,000words)273Exampleessay275Self-assessmentexercises282Glossary287Index291xContentsIwouldliketothankthemanystaffandstudentsattheCentreforEnglishLanguageEducation(CELE)attheUniversityofNottinghamwhohavehelpeddevelopthesematerialsoveranumberofyears.
InparticularIshouldmentionSteveDewhirst,JohnHall,SandraHaywood,MickKavanagh,AnnKavanagh,RichardLee,JohnRaboneandAnnSmith,whohavehelpedmeunravelsomeofthenerpointsofacademiclanguage.
MywifeRenehasagainprovidedmewithinvaluablesupport,encourage-mentandadviceonmanyaspectsofacademicwritingduringthedevelopmentofthisproject.
Finalthanksareduetomydaughter,Sophie,forhelpingmekeepthewholesubjectinperspective!
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222AcknowledgementsThiscoursehasbeendevelopedtohelpinternationalstudentswiththeirwrittenassignmentsinEnglishatbothundergraduateandpostgraduatelevel.
StudentswhoarenotnativespeakersofEnglishoftenndthewrittendemandsoftheircoursesverychallenging.
InadditiontothevocabularyofacademicEnglishtheyhavetolearnnewconventionsofstyle,referencingandformat.
Furthermore,theirlecturersareoftenconcernedbytheirlackofcriticalthinkingskills,andalsomentionstudents'failuretoanswerthespecicquestionandtheirinabilitytodevelopanswerslogically.
Issuesaroundvocabulary,plagiarismandreferencingskillsaresignicantadditionalworries.
AcademicWriting:AHandbookforInternationalStudentssetsouttoaddresstheseproblemsdirectly.
ItrecognisesthatwhileinternationalstudentsarenotexpectedtowriteperfectEnglish,accurateandeffectivelanguageuseisanessentialskillforsuchstudents.
Whatmaybeindividuallyminorproblemswithprepositions,wordendings,spellingorarticlescanresultinessaysthatarebarelycomprehensibletothebest-motivatedmarker.
TodealwiththisstudentsareguidedthroughthestagesofthewritingprocessinPart1andthentherelatedwritingskillsareexplainedandpractisedinPart2.
Part3isdesignedasareferenceguidetotacklethemainproblemsofaccuracy,whilePart4providesexamplesofsomecommonformats.
TeachersmaywishtoworkthroughthewritingprocessinPart1whilereferringtounitsinPart2asthegroupprogresses.
(Part2isnotintendedtobetaughtfromstarttonish:notethealphabeticalorganisationofParts2and3.
)AfeatureofAcademicWritingisitsclearandlogicalorganisation,whichmakesitidealasaself-studyandreferenceguideforstudentsneedingtoworkindependently.
Thisisarecognitionthatmostcoursesinacademicwritingareinevitablytime-constrained,andthatsomestudentsmayhavenootheroption.
Itisdesignedtobeusedonbothpre-sessionalandin-sessionalcourses,andissuitableforsubject-specic(e.
g.
law,medicine)andmulti-disciplinecoursesinEnglishforAcademicPurposes(EAP).
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222IntroductionforteachersAcademicWritingusesauthentictextsandexamplestakenfromawiderangeofdisciplines.
Extensivecross-referencingisprovidedtoassistbothteacherandstudentsinndingrelevantsupport.
Allexercisescanbedoneindividuallyorinpairsandgroups.
Afullrangeofanswersplussomeextrapracticeexercisesareavailableonthebook'swebsite:(http://cw.
routledge.
com/textbooks/bailey)oremail:education@routledge.
comThematerialinthiscoursehasbeenextensivelytestedintheclassroom,butimprovementscanalwaysbeachieved.
ThereforeIwouldbeverygladtoreceiveanycommentsorsuggestionsaboutthebookfromteachersorstudentsforfutureeditions.
StephenBaileyxivIntroductionforteachersPartTopicMainApplication1ThewritingprocessClassroomusefromndingsourcestoproof-reading2ElementsofwritingClassroomusefromargumenttoworkingingroupsandself-study3AccuracyinwritingClassroomuse,self-fromabbreviationstoverbtensesstudyandreference4WritingmodelsSelf-studyandfromletterstolongeressaysreferenceWhatisthepurposeofthebookThisbookisdesignedtohelpyousucceedinthewritingtasksyoumaybegivenaspartofyouracademiccourse.
Thekindofwritingthatyouareaskedtodomaybedifferentfromtheassignmentsyouhavedonebefore,andforsomethismaybethersttimeyouhavehadtowritelongessaysorreportsinEnglish.
YourteachersknowthatEnglishisnotyournativelanguageandwillbesympathetictotheproblemsyouhaveinyourwriting.
Butatthesametimeyouwillwanttolearntowriteasclearlyandaccuratelyaspossible,notonlytosucceedonyourcurrentcoursebutalsoinpreparationforyourcareer.
AlmostalllargecompaniesandorganisationsexpecttheirstafftobeabletocommunicateeffectivelyinwrittenEnglish,aswellasorally.
Therefore,duringyourstudiesyouhavetheidealopportunitytolearntowriteEnglishwell,andthisbookcanhelpyouachievethatgoal.
Inadditiontoaccuracy,studentsonacademiccoursesareexpectedtotakeacriticalapproachtotheirsources.
Thismeansthatyourteacherswillexpectyoutoquestionandevaluateeverythingyouread,askingwhetheritisreliableorrelevant.
Youarealsoexpectedtorefercarefullytothesourcesofallyourideas,usingastandardsystemofreferencing.
AcademicWriting:AHandbookforInternationalStudentswillhelpyoutodeveloptheseskills.
ManagingyourtimeManyteacherscomplainaboutworkthatishandedinlateorshowssignsofhavingbeennishedinahurry.
Thisleadstopoormarks,andcanbeavoidedbybettertimemanagement.
Thismeansplanningyourtimecarefullyfromthestartofthecoursesothatyourworkisneverlateorrushed.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222IntroductionforstudentsxviIntroductionforstudentsIDecideifthefollowingideasabouttimemanagementaretrueorfalse:(a)Essaydeadlinesareoftenseveralmonthsafterthecoursestarts.
(T/F)(b)Thebestwaytoplananassignmentistousesomekindofwallchart.
(T/F)(c)Readingandnote-makingoftentakelongerthanwriting.
(T/F)(d)Thebesttimetostudyisaftermidnight.
(T/F)(e)It'sagoodideatomaketimeeverydaytorelaxwithfriends.
(T/F)Part1ThewritingprocessThisfollowstheprocessofwritingfromthereadingstagethroughtoproof-reading.
Part2ElementsofwritingThekeywritingskills,organisedalphabeticallyfromargumenttoworkingingroups.
Part3AccuracyinwritingThissectionrevisesandpractisesareasofgrammarandvocabulary,againarrangedalphabetically,fromabbreviationstoverbtenses.
Part4WritingmodelsGivesexamplesoflettersandemails,CVs,reports,casestudiesandlongeressays.
Infact,allofthesearetrueexceptfor(d):it'sbettertostudyduringthedayandthengetagoodnight'ssleep.
Thekeypointistoscheduletheworkforeachtaskweekbyweek,sothatyouallocatetimefordrafting,re-writingandproof-reading.
Bydoingthisyouwillavoidthelast-minutepanicthatleadstopoormarksandhavingtore-takecourses.
UsingthebookThebookcanbeusedeitherwithateacherorforself-studyandreference.
Eachunitcontainspracticeexercisesthatcanbecheckedusingtheanswerkeyonthewebsite.
Foreaseofuseitisdividedintothefollowingsections:Tohelpyougetthemostoutofthiscourse,notethefollowingpoints:Instructionsareprintedinadisplaytype,forexample:IListyourideasbelowLinkstorelevantunitsareshownlikethis:SeeUnit4.
5WritinglongeressaysTheselinkshelpyoutondextrainformation,butdonothavetobereadinordertocompletetheexercises.
ExtrapracticeinsomeareasisprovidedontheAcademicWritingwebsite(http://cw.
routledge.
com/textbooks/bailey).
Thisisshownby:@Referencing>Answersareprovidedformostexercisesonthewebsite.
Ifnodeniteanswercanbegiven,anexampleanswerisusuallyoffered.
Theindexcanbeusedtolocatespecicinformation.
Theglossaryexplainsacademictermsthatyoumaynotbefamiliarwith.
WARNING!
Everysemestermanystudentslosevitalwrittenworkbecauseoflostorbrokenlaptops.
Makeahabitofbackingupyourlesontoamemorystickatleastonceaday.
ThousandsofstudentshavealreadyfoundthatAcademicWritinghelpsthemtowritemoreclearlyandeffectively.
Thisneweditionhasbeendevelopedusingtheirfeedbackandideas,andIwouldbeverygladtoreceivecommentsandsuggestionsonanyaspectofthebooktohelpdevelopfurthereditions.
StephenBailey1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222xviiIntroductionforstudentsIHowmuchdoyouknowaboutacademicwritingFindoutbydoingthisfunquiz.
1Themaindifferencebetweenacademicwritingandnormalwritingisthatacademicwriting:(a)useslongerwords(b)triestobepreciseandunbiased(c)ishardertounderstand2Thedifferencebetweenaprojectandanessayis:(a)essaysarelonger(b)projectsarelonger(c)studentschooseprojects'topics3Teacherscomplainmostaboutstudents:(a)notansweringthequestiongiven(b)notwritingenough(c)notreferencingproperly4Thebesttimetowriteanintroductionisoften:(a)rst(b)last(c)afterwritingthemainbody5Plagiarismis:(a)adangerousdisease(b)anacademicoffence(c)anacademicwebsite1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222Academicwritingquiz6Makingcarefulnotesisessentialfor:(a)writingessays(b)revisingforexams(c)allacademicwork7Anin-textcitationlookslike:(a)(Manton,2008)(b)(RichardManton,2008)(c)(Manton,R.
2008)8Paraphrasingatextmeans:(a)makingitshorter(b)changingalotofthevocabulary(c)addingmoredetail9Paragraphsalwayscontain:(a)sixormoresentences(b)anexample(c)atopicsentence10Thepurposeofanintroductionis:(a)togiveyouraimsandmethods(b)toexcitethereader(c)tosummariseyourideas11Proof-readingmeans:(a)gettingafriendtocheckyourwork(b)checkingforminorerrors(c)re-writing12Teachersexpectstudentstoadoptacriticalapproachtotheirsources:(a)sometimes(b)onlyforMaster'swork(c)alwaysxxAcademicwritingquiz1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222ThewritingprocessPART11EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER1.
1Backgroundtowriting1ThepurposeofacademicwritingWritersshouldbeclearwhytheyarewriting.
Themostcommonreasonsforwritinginclude:toreportonapieceofresearchthewriterhasconductedtoansweraquestionthewriterhasbeengivenorchosentodiscussasubjectofcommoninterestandgivethewriter'sviewtosynthesiseresearchdonebyothersonatopicICanyousuggestanyotherreasonsInallcasesitisusefultobearinmindthelikelyreadersofyourwork.
HowcanyouexplainyourideastothemeffectivelyAlthoughthereisnoMostacademiccoursesassessstudentsthroughwrittenassignments.
Theseincludecoursework,whichmaytakeweekstowrite,andexamanswers,whichoftenhavetobewritteninanhourorless.
Thisunitdealswith:ThenamesofdifferentwritingtasksTheformatoflongandshortwritingtasksTheuseofsentencesandparagraphsxedstandardofacademicwriting,itisclearlydifferentfromthewrittenstyleofnewspapersornovels.
Similarly,itisgenerallyagreedthatacademicwritingattemptstobeaccurateandobjective.
WhatareitsotherfeaturesIWorkingaloneorinagroup,listyourideasbelow.
Impersonalstyle2CommontypesofacademicwritingBelowarethemostcommontypesofwrittenworkproducedbystudents.
IMatchthetermsonthelefttothedenitionsontheright.
4Part1ThewritingprocessNotesApieceofresearch,eitherindividualorgroupwork,withthetopicchosenbythestudent(s).
ReportThelongestpieceofwritingnormallydonebyastudent(20,000+words)oftenforahigherdegree,onatopicchosenbythestudent.
ProjectAwrittenrecordofthemainpointsofatextorlecture,forastudent'spersonaluse.
EssayAgeneraltermforanyacademicessay,report,presentationorarticle.
Dissertation/ThesisAdescriptionofsomethingastudenthasdonee.
g.
conductingasurvey.
PaperThemostcommontypeofwrittenwork,withthetitlegivenbytheteacher,normally1000–5000words.
3TheformatoflongandshortwritingtasksShortessays(includingexamanswers)generallyhavethispattern:IntroductionMainbodyConclusionLongeressaysmayinclude:IntroductionMainbodyLiteraturereviewCasestudyDiscussionConclusionReferencesAppendicesSeeUnits4.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviewsand4.
5WritinglongeressaysDissertationsandjournalarticlesmayhave:AbstractListofcontentsListoftablesIntroductionMainbodyLiteraturereviewCasestudyFindingsDiscussionConclusionAcknowledgementsReferencesAppendices1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE67893012345678940123622251.
1BackgroundtowritingIFindthewordsinthelistsabovethatmatchthefollowingdenitions:(a)Ashortsummaryof100–200words,whichexplainsthepaper'spurposeandmainndings.
(b)Alistofallthesourcesthewriterhasmentionedinthetext.
(c)Asection,attheend,whereadditionalinformationisincluded.
(d)Ashortsectionwherepeoplewhohavehelpedthewriterarethanked.
(e)Partofthemainbodyinwhichthewriterdiscussesrelevantresearch.
(f)Asectionwhereoneparticularexampleisdescribedindetail.
4ThefeaturesofacademicwritingThereisconsiderablevariationintheformatofacademicwritingrequiredbydifferentschoolsanddepartments.
Yourteachersmaygiveyouguide-lines,oryoushouldaskthemwhattheywant.
Butsomegeneralfeaturesapplytomostformats.
IReadthetextbelowandidentifythefeaturesunderlined,usingthewordsinthebox.
(a)Ashystory(b)Misleadinghealthclaimsregardingomega-3fattyacids(c)Introduction6Part1Thewritingprocesssentenceheadingsub-titleparagraphtitlephrase(d)Therehasbeenconsiderablediscussionrecentlyaboutthebenetsofomega-3fattyacidsinthediet.
(e)Itisclaimedthatthesereducetheriskofcardiovasculardiseaseandmayevencombatobesity.
Consequentlyfoodproducershaveaddedomega-3stoproductsrangingfrommargarinetosoftdrinksinanattempttomaketheirproductsappearhealthierandhenceincreasesales.
(f)However,consumersmaybeunawarethattherearetwotypesofomega-3s.
Thebest(long-chainfattyacids)arederivedfromsh,butothers(short-chainfattyacids)comefromcheapersourcessuchassoya.
Thislattergrouphavenotbeenshowntoproducethehealthbenetslinkedtothelong-chainvariety.
AccordingtoTamuraetal.
(2009)positiveresultsmayonlybeobtainedeitherbyeatingoilyshthreetimesaweek,orbytakingdailysupplementscontaining500mgofeicosapentaenoicacid(EPA)ordocosahexaenoicacid(DHA).
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)5Someothercommontextfeatures(a)Referencetosourcesusingcitation:AccordingtoTamuraetal.
(2009)(b)Theuseofabbreviationstosavespace:docosahexaenoicacid(DHA)(c)Italics:usedtoshowwordsfromotherlanguages:Tamuraetal.
(=andothers)(d)Brackets:usedtogivesubsidiaryinformationortoclarifyapoint:.
.
.
butothers(short-chainfattyacids)comefromcheapersourcessuchassoya.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE67893012345678940123622271.
1Backgroundtowriting6SimpleandcomplexsentencesIStudythetablebelow.
Annualvehicleproduction2005–9Allsentencescontainverbs:In2005thecompanyproducedover135,000vehicles.
Between2005and2006vehicleproductionincreasedby20percent.
Simplesentencesareeasiertowriteandread,butcomplexsentencesarealsoneededinacademicwriting.
However,studentsshouldmakeclarityapriority,andavoidwritingverycomplexsentencesuntiltheyfeelcondentintheirability.
Complexsentencescontainconjunctions,relativepronounsorpunctuation,whichlinktheclauses:In2005thecompanyproducedover135,000vehiclesbutbetween2005and2006productionincreasedby20percent.
Over164,000vehicleswereproducedin2007;by2009thishadfallento123,000.
IWritetwosimpleandtwocomplexsentencesusingdatafromthetableabove.
(a)(b)(c)(d)8Part1Thewritingprocess20052006200720082009135,470156,935164,820159,550123,0757WritinginparagraphsIDiscussthefollowingquestions:WhatisaparagraphWhyaretextsdividedintoparagraphsHowlongareparagraphsDoparagraphshaveastandardstructureIReadthetextbelowanddivideitintoasuitablenumberofparagraphs.
SeeUnit1.
10Organisingparagraphs1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE67893012345678940123622291.
1BackgroundtowritingBIOCHARCharcoalisproducedbyburningwoodslowlyinalow-oxygenenvironment.
Thismaterial,whichismainlycarbon,wasusedformanyyearstoheatironoretoextractthemetal.
ButwhenAbrahamDarbydiscoveredasmeltingprocessusingcoke(producedfromcoal)in1709demandforcharcoalcollapsed.
Atapproximatelythesametimethecarbondioxidelevelintheatmospherebegantorise.
Butanewuseforcharcoal,re-namedbiochar,hasrecentlyemerged.
Itisclaimedthatusingbiocharmadefromvarioustypesofplantscanbothimprovesoilqualityandcombatglobalwarming.
VariousexperimentsintheUnitedStateshaveshownthataddingburntcropwastestosoilincreasesfertilityandcutsthelossofvitalnutrientssuchasnitrates.
TheotherbenetofbiocharisitsabilitytolockCO2intothesoil.
Theprocessofdecaynormallyallowsthecarbondioxideinplantstoreturntotheatmosphererapidly,butwhentransformedintocharcoalthismaybedelayedforhundredsofyears.
Inaddition,soilcontainingbiocharappearstoreleaselessmethane,agaswhichcontributessignicantlytoglobalwarming.
AmericanresearchersclaimthatwidespreaduseofbiocharcouldreduceglobalCO2emissionsbyover10percent.
Butotheragriculturalscientistsareconcernedabouttheenvironmentaleffectsofgrowingcropsespeciallyforburning,andaboutthedisplacementoffoodcropsthatmightbecaused.
However,thepotentialtwinbenetsofgreaterfarmyieldsandreducedgreenhousegasesmeanthatfurtherresearchinthisareaisurgentlyneeded.
7.
110Part1ThewritingprocessExamplesoftypesofacademictextsArgumentanddiscussionUnit2.
1andWebsiteCasestudiesUnit4.
3CauseandeffectUnit2.
2ClassicationWebsiteComparisonsUnit2.
4andWebsiteDescriptionsWebsiteLaboratoryreportsWebsiteLiteraturereviewsUnit4.
3ProblemsandsolutionsUnit2.
9RecommendationsWebsiteReportsUnit4.
3SurveyreportsUnit4.
41AcademictextsYouneedtoreadavarietyoftexttypesforyourcourse,soitisimportanttoidentifysuitabletypesandrecognisetheirfeatures.
Thiswillhelpyoutoassesstheirvalue.
IYouarestudyingTourismMarketing.
Readthetextextracts1–4belowanddecidewhicharethemostsuitableforacademicuse,andwhy.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER1.
2AReading:ndingsuitablesourcesStudentsoftenunderestimatetheimportanceofeffectivereading,butonanycourseitisvitaltobeabletolocatethemostrelevantandsuitablesources.
Thisunit:examinesthemostappropriatetexttypesforacademicworkexploreswaysoflocatingrelevantmaterialinthelibraryexplainstheuseofelectronicresourcesTextSuitability1Yes,itsummarisessomerelevantresearch,andincludescitations23412Part1ThewritingprocessTopromotetourismandmarketdestination,itisimportanttostudythetourists'attitude,behaviouranddemand.
ThestudiesofLevitt(1986)andKotlerandArmstrong(1994)suggestthatanunderstandingofconsumerbehaviourmayhelpwiththemarketingplanningprocessintourismmarketing.
Theresearchofconsumerbehaviouristhekeytotheunderpinningofallmarketingactivity,whichiscarriedouttodevelop,promoteandselltourismproducts(SwarbrookeandHorner,1999;Asad,2005).
Therefore,thestudyofconsumerbehaviourhasbecomenecessaryforthesakeoftourismmarketing.
1.
1Theromanceoftravelhasalwaysfascinatedme,andourrecenttriptoThailandliveduptoexpectations.
WeewfromDubaiandafteracomfortableightarrivedinBangkokjustasthesunwasrising.
OurstayinthecitylastedonlyacoupleofdaysbeforewesetoffforthehillcountryaroundChangMai,wherewewereplanningtovisitsomeoftheindigenoustribeswholiveinthismountainousregion.
Whenwearrivedtheweatherwasratherdisappointing,butafteradaytheheavyraingavewaytosparklingclearsunshine.
1.
2HolidaytripstotheAntarcticahavequadrupledinthepastdecadeandlastyearmorethan46,000peoplevisitedthelandmassandsurroundingoceans.
However,safetyfearsandconcernsabouttheimpactvisitorsarehavingonthedelicatefrozenlandscapehavesoaredandmembersoftheAntarcticTreaty–anagreementbetween28nations,includingtheUK,ontheuseofthecontinent–arenowmeetingtodiscusswaystoregulatetourism.
Britishofcialsareseekingtoestablisha'strategicagreementfortourism'aroundtheSouthPole.
Ifsuccessful,itwillseetreatymembersintroducenewmeasurestoimprovethesafetyoftouristtrips,whilealsoreducingtheimpactthatvisitorswillhaveontheenvironment.
Theregulationscouldseelimitsonthenumberofshipsandlandings,restrictionsonhowclosetheycometoshore,abanonbuildingtouristfacilitiesandhotelsonthecontinent,andrulesonwastedischargesfromships.
1.
3IThemainfeaturesofacademictextsarelistedinthetablebelow.
Findexamplesofeachusingthetextsabove.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222131.
2AReading:ndingsuitablesourcesEqually,fromapoliticalperspective,thenatureofstateinvolvementinandpoliciesfortourismisdependentonboththepolitical-economicstructuresandtheprevailingpoliticalideologyinthedestinationstate,withcomparisonstypicallymadebetweenmarket-ledandcentrallyplannedeconomies.
Forexample,theThatcher–Reagan-inspiredneo-liberalismofthe1980s,andthesubsequentfocusonprivatisationandthemarketsinmanyWesternnationscontrastedstarklywiththethencentrallyplannedtourismsectorsintheformerEasternEurope(BuckleyandWitt,1990;Hall,1991).
Atthesametime,ofcourse,ithasalsolongbeenrecognisedthatthepolitical-economicrelationshipofonenationwithanotherorwiththewiderinternationalcommunity(thatis,theextentofpolitical-economicdependency)mayrepresentasignicantinuenceontourismdevelopment(Telfer,2002).
Thus,inshort,tourismplanninganddevelopmentinthedestinationtendstoreectboththestructuresandpoliticalideologiesofthestateanditsinternationalpolitical-economicrelations.
1.
4FeatureExamples1Formalvocabularythemarketingplanningprocessintourismmarketing.
.
.
theextentofpolitical-economicdependency.
.
.
2Useofreferences3Impersonalstyle4Long,complexsentences2TypesoftextIThetablebelowliststhemostcommonwrittensourcesusedbystudents.
Workwithapartnertoconsidertheirlikelyadvantagesanddisadvantages.
3UsingreadinglistsYourteachermaygiveyouaprintedreadinglist,oritmaybeavailableonlinethroughthelibrarywebsite.
Thelistwillusuallyincludetextbooks,journalarticlesandwebsites.
Ifthelistiselectronictherewillbelinkstothelibrarycataloguetoletyoucheckontheavailabilityofthematerial.
Ifthelistisprinted,youwillhavetousethelibrarycataloguetondthetexts.
Youdonothavetoreadeverywordofabookbecauseitisonthelist.
Yourteacherwillprobablysuggestwhichpagestoread,andalsotellyouwhichpartsarethemostimportant.
Onreadinglistsyouwillndthefollowingformats:14Part1ThewritingprocessTexttypeAdvantagesDisadvantagesTextbookWrittenforstudentsMaybetoogeneralWebsiteJournalarticleOfcialreport(e.
g.
fromgovernment)Newspaperormagazinearticlee-bookBooksMiles,T.
R.
Dyslexia:AHundredYearsOn/T.
R.
MilesandElaineMiles,2nded.
OpenUniversityPress,1999.
JournalarticlesPaulesuE.
etal.
Dyslexia:CulturalDiversityandBiologicalUnity.
Science,2001,291,pages2165–7.
Websiteswww.
well.
ox.
ac.
uk/monaco/dyslexia.
shtml4UsinglibrarycataloguesUniversityandcollegelibrariesusuallyhaveonlinecatalogues.
Theseallowstudentstosearchforthematerialstheywantinvariousways.
Ifthetitleandauthor'snameareknownitiseasytocheckifthebookisavailable,butifyouaremakingasearchformaterialonaspecictopicyoumayhavetovarythesearchterms.
Forinstance,ifyouhavebeengivenanessaytitle:'IsthereapracticallimitontheheightoftallbuildingsIllustrateyouranswerwithreferencetosomerecentskyscrapers.
'youmighttry:SkyscraperdesignSkyscraperconstructionDesignoftallbuildingConstructionoftallbuildingsIfyouuseaveryspecicphraseyouwillprobablyonlyndafewtitles.
'Skyscraperconstruction',forexample,onlyproducedthreeitemsinonelibrarydatabase,butamoregeneraltermsuchas'skyscrapers'found57.
IYouhaveenteredtheterm'skyscrapers'inthelibrarycataloguesearchengine,andthesearethersteightresults.
Inordertoanswertheessaytitleabove,whichwouldyouselecttoborrowGiveyourreasons.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222151.
2AReading:ndingsuitablesourcesFulldetailsIfyouclickonthisyouwillgetmoreinformationaboutthebook,includingthenumberofpagesandasummaryofthecontents.
Thismayhelpyoudecidewhethertoborrowit.
Ed/yearIfabookhashadmorethanoneeditionitsuggeststhatitisasuccessfultitle.
Thebooksarelistedbythemostrecentrst;alwaystrytousethemostup-to-datesources.
16Part1ThewritingprocessFulldetailsTitleEd/YearLocationHoldings1Skyscraper:thepoliticsandpowerofbuildingNewYorkcityinthetwentiethcentury/BenjaminFlowers.
c2009MainlibraryAvailability2SkyscraperfortheXXIcentury/editedbyCarloAiello.
2008SciencelibraryAvailability3Taipei101/GeorgesBinder[editor].
2008MainlibraryAvailability4Tallbuildings:imageoftheskyscraper/ScottJohnson.
2008FineArtsLibraryAvailability5Skyscrapers:FabulousBuildingsthatReachfortheSky/HerbertWright.
2008MainlibraryAvailability6Ecoskyscrapers/KenYeang.
3rdEd.
2007SciencelibraryAvailability7Costoptimizationofstructures:fuzzylogic,geneticalgorithms,andparallelcomputing/HojjatAdeli,KamalC.
Sarma.
2006SciencelibraryAvailability8Skyscrapers:asocialhistoryoftheverytallbuildinginAmerica/byGeorgeH.
Douglas.
2004MainlibraryAvailabilityLocationManylargeuniversitieshavemorethanonelibrary.
Thistellsyouwhichonethebookiskeptin.
HoldingsIfyouclickonavailabilityitwilltellyouhowmanycopiesthelibraryholdsandiftheyareavailabletoborroworoutonloan.
5UsinglibrarywebsitestosearchelectronicresourcesE-journalsandotherelectronicresourcessuchassubjectdatabasesarebecomingincreasinglyimportant.
Theiradvantageisthattheycanbeaccessedbycomputer,savingtheneedtovisitthelibraryandndatext.
Mostlibrarywebsiteshaveaseparateportalorgatewayforsearchingelectronicresources.
Thisallowsyoutoenterthenameofaspecicjournal,orlookforpossiblejournalsinyoursubjectareabyenteringatermsuchas'internationalbusinesslaw'.
Inthiscase,thedatabasemayofferthefollowingtitles:EuropeanBusinessLawReviewEuropeanBusinessOrganisationLawReviewInternationalTradeandBusinessLawReviewLawandBusinessReviewoftheAmericasIneachcase,youcanaccessalistofissuesavailable,whichwillletyoureadalistofpublishedarticles.
Mostjournalspublishfourissuesperyear.
InthecaseofEuropeanBusinessOrganisationLawReview,thelistwouldinclude:Dec2009Vol.
10Issue4Sep2009Vol.
10Issue3June2009Vol.
10Issue2Mar2009Vol.
10Issue1Byclickingonanyoftheseissuesyoucanreadafulllistofarticles.
Itisusuallysufcienttoreadtheabstracttondoutifthearticlewillberelevanttoyourwork.
Notethatmostjournalwebsitescontainasearchenginetoallowyoutosearchallbackissuesbysubject.
Theymayalsoofferlinkstoarticlesinotherjournalsonthesametopic.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222171.
2AReading:ndingsuitablesourcesThebestwaytobecomefamiliarwiththesemethodsistopractise.
Librarywebsitesusuallycontaintutorialsfornewstudents,andlibrariansarealwayswillingtogivehelpandadvicewhenneeded.
ISelectaspecictopicfromyoursubjectarea.
(a)Usethelibrarycataloguetosearchforrelevantbooks.
Writedownthemostusefultitles.
(b)Lookforafewrelevantjournalarticles,usingthelibraryportal.
Writeareferenceforeacharticle.
18Part1Thewritingprocess1ReadingmethodsItiseasyforstudentstounderestimatetheimportanceofreadingskills.
Especiallyforinternationalstudents,readingacademictextsinthequantityrequiredformostcoursesisademandingtask.
Butstudentswillnotbenetfromattendinglecturesandseminarsunlessthereadingisdonepromptly,whileclearlymostwritingtasksrequireextensivereading.
Moreover,thetextsoftencontainnewvocabularyandphrases,andmaybewritteninaratherformalstyle.
Thismeansthatdistinctmethodshavetobeadoptedtocopewiththevolumeofreadingrequired,whichisespeciallyimportantwhenyouarereadinginanotherlanguage.
Clearly,youdonothavetimetoreadeverywordpublishedonthetopicyouarestudying.
Thechartbelowillustratesanapproachtondinganddealingwithtexts.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER1.
2BReading:developingcriticalapproachesStudentsareexpectedtoadoptacriticalapproachtosources,whichrequiresafullunderstandingofwrittentexts.
Thisunitexplainseffectivereadingmethodsexaminescommontextfeatures,includingabstractsexploresandpractisesacriticalanalysisoftextsICompletetheemptyboxesinthechartwiththefollowingtechniques:ReadintensivelytomakenotesonkeypointsScantextforinformationyouneed(e.
g.
names)Surveytextfeatures(e.
g.
abstract,contents,index)ChoosingsuitabletextsICanyousuggestanyotherreadingskillstoaddtothechartabove20Part1ThewritingprocessLookattitleandsub-titleReadextensivelywhenusefulsectionsarefoundSkimtextforgist–isitrelevant2Titles,sub-titlesandtextfeaturesManybooksandarticleshavebothatitleandasub-title:TheRighttoHaveRights:CitizenshipPracticeandthePoliticalConstitutionoftheEU.
Thetitleisusuallyshorter;thesub-titleoftengivesmoreinformationaboutthefocus.
Afterndingarelevanttext,itisworthcheckingthefollowingtextfeaturesbeforestartingtoread:AuthorIsthewriterwell-knowninhis/hereldWhatelsehashe/shepublishedPublicationdateandeditionDonotusearsteditionifthereisa(revised)secondeditionavailable.
AbstractSeesectionbelow.
ContentsAlistofthemainchaptersorsections.
Thisshouldtellyouwhatproportionofthetextisdevotedtothetopicyouareresearching.
IntroductionorprefaceThisiswheretheauthoroftenexplainshis/herreasonsforwriting,andalsohowthetextisorganised.
ReferencesThislistshowsallthesourcesusedbytheauthorandreferredtointhetext.
Itshouldgiveyousomesuggestionsforfurtherreading.
BibliographyThesearethesourcestheauthorhasusedbutnotspecicallyreferredto.
IndexAnalphabeticallistofallthetopicsandnamesmentionedinabook.
If,forexample,youarelookingforinformationaboutaperson,theindexwilltellyouifthatpersonismentioned,andhowoften.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222211.
2BReading:developingcriticalapproaches3ReadingabstractsTheyarenormallyfoundinpeer-reviewedjournalarticles,wheretheyactasakindofsummarytoenableresearcherstodecideifitisworthreadingthefullarticle.
Asastudentyouwillnotnormallyhavetowriteabstracts,butitisimportanttobeabletoreadthemeffectively.
IStudythisexample:Abstractsnormallyhaveastandardstructure.
IUnderlinethemaincomponentsoftheabstractabove.
(a)Backgroundposition(b)Aimandthesisofarticle(c)Methodofresearch(d)Resultsofresearch22Part1ThewritingprocessCITIZENSHIPNORMSANDTHEEXPANSIONOFPOLITICALPARTICIPATIONRussellJ.
DaltonAgrowingchorusofscholarslamentsthedeclineofpoliticalparticipationinAmerica,andthenegativeimplicationsofthistrendforAmericandemocracy.
Thisarticlequestionsthisposition–arguingthatpreviousstudiesmisdiagnosedthesourcesofpoliticalchangeandtheconsequencesofchangingnormsofcitizenshipforAmericans'politicalengagement.
Citizenshipnormsareshiftingfromapatternofduty-basedcitizenshiptoengagedcitizenship.
Usingdatafromthe2005'Citizenship,Involvement,Democracy'surveyoftheCenterforDemocracyandCivilSociety(CDACS)Idescribethesetwofacesofcitizenship,andtracetheirimpactonpoliticalparticipation.
Ratherthantheerosionofparticipation,thisnormshiftisalteringandexpandingthepatternsofpoliticalparticipationinAmerica.
(Dalton,R.
J.
(2008)PoliticalStudies56(1)76–98)3.
14FactandopinionWhenreading,itisimportanttodistinguishbetweenfacts:Riceisgrowninwarmwetclimates.
andopinions:Ilikerice.
IDecideifthefollowingstatementsarefacts,opinionsorboth.
Ifsuggestionsaremadeinacademicwriting(smokingshouldbebanned)itisimportantthattheyaresupportedbytruefacts(smokingisdangerous).
IReadthefollowingsentencesanddecideiftheyarefactoropinion.
Iftheyarefact,decideiftheyaretrueorfalse.
Iftheyareopinion,decideifyouagreeordisagree.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222231.
2BReading:developingcriticalapproachesFactOpinion1Smokingcanbedangeroustohealth.
2Smokingisaddictive.
3Smokingshouldbebanned.
4Smokingisdangeroussoitshouldbebanned.
FactoropinionFacts–trueorfalseOpinions–agreeordisagree1Britainhasthehighestcrimerateintheworld.
2InBritain,hundredsofcrimesarecommittedeveryday.
3Manycriminalsarenevercaught.
4Thepoliceareinefcient.
5Thepoliceshouldbeabolished.
5AssessinginternetsourcescriticallyYoucannotaffordtowastetimeontextsthatareunreliableorout-of-date.
Ifyouareusingmaterialthatisnotonthereadinglistyoumustassessitcriticallytoensurethatthematerialistrustworthy.
Internetsourcesareplentifulandconvenientlyavailable,butyouneedtoaskseveralquestionsabouteachsite:Isthisareputablewebsite,forexamplewithac.
(=academic)intheURLIsthenameoftheauthorgiven,andishe/shewell-knownintheeldIsthelanguageofthetextinasuitableacademicstyleArethereanyobviouserrorsinthetext,e.
g.
spellingmistakes,whichsuggestacarelessapproachIComparethesetwointernettextsondeforestation.
Whichislikelytobemorereliable24Part1ThewritingprocessWearedestroyingthelastofourvitalnaturalresources,justaswearestartingtowakeuptohowprecioustheyare.
Rainforestoncecovered14percentofthelandnowit'sdowntoamere6percent.
Scientistspredictthattherestcoulddisappearinlessthan40years.
Thousandsofacresarecutdowneachsecondwithdireconsequencesforthecountriesinvolvedandtheplanetasawhole.
Scientistsestimatethatweloose50,000specieseveryyear,manyspecieseverysecondincluding137planttypes(notevenspeciesbutwholegroupsofplantspecies)andastheseplantsdisappearbeforesciencecanrecordthemsodoesthechancetogainhelpfulknowledgeandpossiblemedicines.
5.
1Thescaleofhumanpressuresonecosystemseverywherehasincreasedenormouslyinthelastfewdecades.
Since1980theglobaleconomyhastripledinsizeandtheworldpopulationhasincreasedby30percent.
Consumptionofeverythingontheplanethasrisen–atacosttoourecosystems.
In2001,TheWorldResourcesInstituteestimatedthatthedemandforrice,wheat,andcornisexpectedtogrowby40percentby2020,increasingirrigationwaterdemandsby50percentormore.
Theyfurtherreportedthatthedemandforwoodcoulddoublebytheyear2050;unfortunatelyitisstillthetropicalforeststhatsupplythebulkoftheworld'sdemandforwood.
5.
2Thereareseveralaspectsof(1)whichshouldmakethereadercautious:thestyleisverypersonal(weare.
.
.
)andinformal(it'sdownto.
.
.
)andthereisawordusedwrongly('loose'insteadof'lose').
Nosourcesareprovided.
Butpossiblymoredisturbingiscarelessnesswithfacts.
IsitreallypossiblethatthousandsofacresofrainforestarebeingcutdowneverysecondThewriteralsoclaimsthatmanyspeciesarebeinglosteverysecond,butifwetakethegureof50,000peryearitmeansonespeciesislostevery10minutes.
Clearlythewriterisseekingtodramatisethesubject,butitisquiteunsuitableasanacademicsource.
Incontrast,thesecondtextiswritteninaccurate,semi-formallanguageandincludesasource.
Itseemsmorelikelytobereliable.
6PracticeI(a)Readthefollowingtextsanddecideifyoucantrusttheinformation.
Givereasonsforyourdecisionsinthetablebelow.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222251.
2BReading:developingcriticalapproachesHardupWhystrugglewhenyoucouldliveinluxurySolveyourmoneyworrieseasilyandquicklybyworkingforus.
Noexperienceneeded,youcanearnhundredsofpoundsforjustafewhours'workperday.
Workwhenitsuitsyou,dayornight.
Don'tdelay,calltodayforaninterviewon07795–246791.
6.
1Ifyouhavemoneyproblems,there'slotsofwaysyoucansavecash.
Insteadofspendingmoneyonnewclothes,trybuyingthemsecondhandfromcharityshops,whereyou'llndlotsofstylishbargains.
Eatingoutisanotherbigexpense,butinsteadyoucangettogetherwithafewfriendsandcookamealtogether;it'scheaperandit'sfun.
Busfaresandtaxiscanalsocostalot,soitmightbeworthlookingforacheapbicycle,whichletsyoutravelwhereyouwant,whenyouwant.
6.
2I(b)Youarewritinganessayonexpandingeducationalprovisionindevelopingcountries,titled:'Improvingliteracyinsub-SaharanAfrica.
'IYoundthefollowingarticleinarecentmagazine.
Readitcriticallyanddecidewhetheryoucoulduseitinyourwork.
26Part1Thewritingprocess123Howcanwegettheworld'spoorestchildrenintoschoolThisisadifcultquestionwithnoeasyanswer.
In1999theUNadoptedasetofgoalscalled'EducationforAll',butinmanycountriestherehasbeenlittleprogresstowardstheseaims.
InNigeria,forinstance,thenumberofchildrennotgoingtoschoolhashardlychangedsincethen.
Itisestimatedthatworldwideabout72mchildrenneverattendschool,45percentofwhomareinsub-SaharanAfrica.
Evenwhenschoolsandteachersareprovided,there'snoguaranteethatteachingisgoingon:WorldBankresearchinIndiashowsthataquarterofteachersdon'tturnuponanyday.
Severalproposalshavebeenmadetoimprovematters.
ABritishacademic,ProfessorTooley,arguesthatlow-costprivateschoolsaremoreeffectiveindeliveringeducationtothepoorsinceparentalpressuremaintainsgoodstandards.
Stateschoolscouldalsorelatepaytoperformance:researchbyMuralihadanandSundararamaninIndiafoundthatthisimprovedstudents'testperformancefarmoresignicantlythanspendingthesamemoneyonteachingmaterials.
6.
4Moststudentsndthattheyhavenancialdifcultiesattimes.
Ithasbeenestimatedthatnearly55percentexperiencenancialdifcultiesintheirrstyearatcollegeoruniversity.
It'softenhardlivingonasmallxedincome,andthecostofaccommodationandfoodcancomeasashockwhenyourstliveawayfromyourparents.
Themostimportantthing,ifyoundyouaregettingintodebt,istospeaktoanancialadvisorintheStudentUnion,whomaybeabletohelpyousortoutyourproblems.
6.
3Positiveaspects:Negativeaspects:7CriticalthinkingEvenwhenyoufeelthatatextisreliableandthatyoucansafelyuseitasasource,itisstillimportanttoadoptacriticalattitudetowardsit.
Thisapproachisperhapseasiesttolearnwhenreading,butisimportantforallotheracademicwork(i.
e.
listening,discussingandwriting).
Criticalthinkingmeansnotjustpassivelyacceptingwhatyouhearorread,butinsteadactivelyquestioningandassessingit.
Asyoureadyoushouldaskyourselfthefollowingquestions:(a)Whatarethekeyideasinthis(b)Doestheargumentofthewriterdeveloplogically,stepbystep(c)AretheexamplesgivenhelpfulWouldotherexamplesbebetter(d)Doestheauthorhaveanybias(e)Doestheevidencepresentedseemreliable,inmyexperienceandusingcommonsense(f)IsthisargumentsimilartoanythingelseIhaveread(g)DoIagreewiththewriter'sviewsIReadthefollowingtext(7.
1),thinkingcriticallyaboutthesectionsinbold.
Thenanswerquestions1–9.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222271.
2BReading:developingcriticalapproaches28Part1ThewritingprocessThegrowthoftheworldwidewebInthehistoryofcivilisationtherehavebeenmanysignicantdevelopments,suchastheinventionofthewheel,moneyandthetelephone,butthedevelopmentoftheinternetisperhapsthemostcrucialofall.
InthespaceofafewyearstheworldwidewebhaslinkedbuyersinNewYorktosellersinMumbaiandteachersinBerlintostudentsinCairo,sothatfewpeoplecanimaginelifewithoutit.
Itisestimatedthatover70percentofNorthAmericans,forinstance,haveinternetaccess,andthisgureissteadilyincreasing.
Physicalshopsareunderthreat,asgrowingnumbersshoponline.
Inareassuchastravelitisnowimpossibletobuyticketsoncertainairlinesexceptontheinternet.
ThewebalsolinkstogethermillionsofindividualtraderswhoselltobuyersthroughwebsitessuchasEbay.
Beyondthecommercialsphere,theinternetisalsocriticallyimportantintheacademicworld.
Ahugerangeofjournalsandreportsarenowavailableelectronically,meaningthatresearcherscanaccessavastamountofinformationthroughtheircomputerscreens,speedinguptheirworkandallowingthemtoproducebetterqualityresearch.
Inaddition,emailpermitsacademicstomakeeffortlesscontactwithfellow-researchersallovertheworld,whichalsoassiststhemtoimprovetheiroutput.
Thereis,ofcourse,adarkersidetothisphenomenon,whichistheusecriminalshavemadeoftheirabilitytotradeillegalorfraudulentproductsovertheinternet,withlittlecontrolovertheiractivities.
Butsuchbehaviourishugelycompensatedforbythebenetsthathavebeenobtainedbybothindividualsandbusinesses.
Wearereachingasituationinwhichallkindsofinformationarefreelyavailabletoeveryone,whichmustleadtoahappier,healthierandrichersociety.
7.
11'.
.
.
suchastheinventionofthewheel,moneyandthetelephone.
.
.
'Arethesereallycriticaldevelopments2'.
.
.
thedevelopmentoftheinternetisperhapsthemostcrucialofall.
'Isthistrue3'.
.
.
sothatfewpeoplecanimaginelifewithoutit.
'Isthisclaimcredible4'Itisestimatedthatover70percentofNorthAmericans,forinstance,haveinternetaccess.
.
.
'Nosourcegiven.
Doesthisgureseemlikely5'Physicalshopsareunderthreat,asgrowingnumbersshoponline.
'Istherstparttrue,andifso,isitcausedbyonlineshopping6'.
.
.
speedinguptheirworkandallowingthemtoproducebetterqualityresearch.
'Iftherstpartistrue,doestheresultlogicallyfollow7'Wearereachingasituationinwhichallkindsofinformationarefreelyavailabletoeveryone,whichmustleadtoahappier,healthierandrichersociety.
'DoestherstpartneedanyqualicationIstheconclusionjustied8Isthewriterobjectiveorbiased9DoIagreewiththisargumentoverall@Criticalthinking>SeeUnit2.
1Argumentanddiscussion1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222291.
2BReading:developingcriticalapproaches1WhatisplagiarismBasicallyplagiarismmeanstakingideasorwordsfromasourcewithoutgivingcredit(acknowledgement)totheauthor.
Itisseenasakindoftheft,andisconsideredtobeanacademiccrime.
Inacademicwork,ideasandwordsareseenasprivatepropertybelongingtothepersonwhorstthoughtorwrotethem.
Thereforeitisimportantforallstudents,includinginternationalones,tounderstandthemeaningofplagiarismandlearnhowtopreventitintheirwork.
Themaindifcultythatstudentsfaceisthattheyareexpected:(a)toshowthattheyhavereadtheprincipalexpertsonasubject–bygivingcitations(b)toexplaintheseideasintheirownwordsandcometotheirownoriginalconclusionsCHAPTER1.
3AvoidingplagiarismIntheEnglish-speakingacademicworlditisessentialtouseawiderangeofsourcesforyourwriting,andtoacknowledgethesesourcesclearly.
Thisunitexplainswhythisisvital,andintroducesthetechniquesstudentsneedtouse.
FurtherpracticewiththeseisprovidedinUnits1.
6Paraphrasing,1.
7Summarisingand1.
8Referencesandquotations.
Thereareseveralreasonswhystudentsmustavoidplagiarism:CopyingtheworkofotherswillnothelpyoudevelopyourownunderstandingToshowthatyouunderstandtherulesoftheacademiccommunityPlagiarismiseasilydetectedbyteachersandcomputersoftwareItmayleadtofailingacourseorevenhavingtoleavecollege2AcknowledgingsourcesIfyouborrowfromorrefertotheworkofanotherperson,youmustshowthatyouhavedonethisbyprovidingthecorrectacknowledgement.
Therearetwowaystodothis:SummaryandcitationSmith(2009)claimsthatthemodernstatewieldspowerinnewways.
QuotationandcitationAccordingtoSmith:'Thepointisnotthatthestateisinretreatbutthatitisdevelopingnewformsofpower.
.
.
'(Smith,2009:103).
Thesein-textcitationsarelinkedtoalistofreferencesattheendofthemaintext,whichincludesthefollowingdetails:ThecitationmakesitcleartothereaderthatyouhavereadSmithandborrowedthisideafromhim.
Thisreferencegivesthereaderthenecessaryinformationtondthesourceifthereaderneedsmoredetail.
SeeUnit1.
8Referencesandquotations1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222311.
3AvoidingplagiarismAuthorDateTitlePlaceofpublicationPublisherSmith,M.
(2009)PowerandtheStateBasingstokePalgraveMacmillan3DegreesofplagiarismAlthoughplagiarismessentiallymeanscopyingsomebodyelse'swork,itisnotalwayseasytodene.
IWorkingwithapartner,considerthefollowingacademicsituationsanddecideiftheyareplagiarism.
Thisexerciseshowsthatplagiarismcanbeaccidental.
Forexample,situation(10)above,whentheauthor'snameismis-spelt,istechnicallyplagiarismbutreallycarelessness.
Insituation(9)yourteachermayhaveencouragedyoutodiscussthetopicingroups,andthenwriteanessayonyourown,inwhichcaseitwouldnotbeplagiarism.
Self-plagiarismisalsotheoreticallypossible,asinsituation(7).
Itcanbedifculttodecidewhatisgeneralorcommonknowledge(situation6),butyoucanalwaystryaskingcolleagues.
32Part1ThewritingprocessSituationYes/No1Copyingaparagraph,butchangingafewwordsandgivingacitation.
Yes2Cuttingandpastingashortarticlefromawebsite,withnocitation.
3Takingtwoparagraphsfromaclassmate'sessay,withoutcitation.
4Takingagraphfromatextbook,givingthesource.
5Takingaquotationfromasource,givingacitationbutnotusingquotationmarks.
6Usingsomethingthatyouthinkofasgeneralknowledge,e.
g.
largeareasofrainforesthavebeencutdowninrecentyears.
7Usingaparagraphfromanessayyouwroteandhadmarkedtheprevioussemester,withoutcitation.
8Usingtheresultsofyourownresearch,e.
g.
fromasurvey,withoutcitation.
9Discussinganessaytopicwithagroupofclassmatesandusingsomeoftheirideasinyourownwork.
10Givingacitationforsomeinformationbutmis-spellingtheauthor'sname.
However,itisnotagoodexcusetosaythatyoudidn'tknowtherulesofplagiarism,orthatyoudidn'thavetimetowriteinyourownwords.
Norisitadequatetosaythattherulesaredifferentinyourowncountry.
Ingeneral,anythingthatisnotcommonknowledgeoryourownideasandresearch(publishedornot)mustbecitedandreferenced.
4AvoidingplagiarismbysummarisingandparaphrasingQuotationsshouldnotbeover-used,soyoumustlearntoparaphraseandsummariseinordertoincludeotherwriters'ideasinyourwork.
Thiswilldemonstrateyourunderstandingofatexttoyourteachers.
Paraphrasinginvolvesre-writingatextsothatthelanguageissubstantiallydifferentwhilethecontentstaysthesame.
Summarisingmeansreducingthelengthofatextbutretainingthemainpoints.
SeeUnits1.
6Paraphrasingand1.
7SummarisingNormallybothskillsareusedatthesametime,ascanbeseenintheexamplesbelow.
IReadthefollowingtextandthencomparetheveparagraphsbelow,whichuseideasandinformationfromit.
Decidewhichareplagiarisedandwhichareacceptable,andgiveyourreasonsinthetable.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222331.
3AvoidingplagiarismRAILWAYMANIASIn1830therewereafewdozenmilesofrailwaysinalltheworld–chieyconsistingofthelinefromLiverpooltoManchester.
By1840therewereover4,500miles,by1850over23,500.
Mostofthemwereprojectedinafewburstsofspeculativefrenzyknownasthe'railwaymanias'of1835–7andespeciallyin1844–7;mostofthemwerebuiltinlargepartwithBritishcapital,Britishiron,machinesandknow-how.
Theseinvestmentboomsappearirrational,becauseinfactfewrailwaysweremuchmoreprotabletotheinvestorthanotherformsofenterprise,mostyieldedquitemodestprotsandmanynoneatall:in1855theaverageinterestoncapitalsunkintheBritishrailwayswasamere3.
7percent.
(FromTheAgeofRevolutionbyEricHobsbawm,1995,p.
45)4.
1(a)Between1830and1850therewasveryrapiddevelopmentinrailwayconstructionworldwide.
Twoperiodsofespeciallyfeverishgrowthwere1835–7and1844–7.
Itishardtounderstandthereasonforthisintenseactivity,sincerailwayswerenotparticularlyprotableinvestmentsandsomeproducednoreturnatall.
(Hobsbawm,1995:45)(b)Therewereonlyafewdozenmilesofrailwaysin1830,includingtheLiverpooltoManchesterline.
Butby1840therewereover4,500milesandover23,500by1850.
MostofthemwerebuiltinlargepartwithBritishcapital,Britishiron,machinesandknow-how,andmostofthemwereprojectedinafewburstsofspeculativefrenzyknownasthe'railwaymanias'of1835–7andespeciallyin1844–7.
Becausemostyieldedquitemodestprotsandmanynoneatalltheseinvestmentboomsappearirrational.
Infactfewrailwaysweremuchmoreprotabletotheinvestorthanotherformsofenterprise.
(Hobsbawm,1995:45)(c)AsHobsbawm(1995)argues,nineteenth-centuryrailwaymaniawaspartlyirrational:'becauseinfactfewrailwaysweremuchmoreprotabletotheinvestorthanotherformsofenterprise,mostyieldedquitemodestprotsandmanynoneatall:in1855theaverageinterestoncapitalsunkintheBritishrailwayswasamere3.
7percent.
'(Hobsbawm,1995:45)(d)Globally,railwaynetworksincreaseddramaticallyfrom1830to1850;themajorityinshortperiodsof'mania'(1835–7and1844–7).
Britishtechnologyandcapitalwereresponsibleformuchofthisgrowth,yetthereturnsontheinvestmentwerehardlyanybetterthancomparablebusinessopportunities.
(Hobsbawm,1895:45)(e)Thedramaticgrowthofrailwaysbetween1830and1850waslargelyachievedusingBritishtechnology.
However,ithasbeenclaimedthatmuchofthisdevelopmentwasirrationalbecausefewrailwaysweremuchmoreprotabletotheinvestorthanotherformsofenterprise;mostyieldedquitemodestprotsandmanynoneatall.
34Part1Thewritingprocess5AvoidingplagiarismbydevelopinggoodstudyhabitsFewstudentsdeliberatelytrytocheatbyplagiarising,butsomedeveloppoorstudyhabitsthatresultintheriskofplagiarism.
IWorkingwithapartner,addtothelistofpositivehabits.
Planyourworkcarefullysoyoudon'thavetowritetheessayatthelastminute.
Takecaretomakenotesinyourownwords,notcopyingfromthesource.
Keeparecordofallthesourcesyouuse(e.
g.
author,date,title,pagenumbers,publisher).
Makesureyourin-textcitationsareallincludedinthelistofreferences.
6ResearchDoesyourcollegeoruniversityhaveapolicyonplagiarismLookonthewebsitetondout.
Itmayraisesomeissuesthatyouwanttodiscusswithcolleaguesoryourteachers.
Ifyoucan'tndanythingforyourinstitutiontryoneofthesesites:http://owl.
english.
purdue.
edu/owl/resource/589/01/http://uefap.
com/writing/plagiar/plagfram.
htm1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222351.
3AvoidingplagiarismPlagiarisedoracceptableabcde1TheplanningprocessAlthoughteachersfrequentlycomplainthatstudentsdonotanswerthequestionset,thisproblemcanbeavoidedbymorecareatthestartoftheprocess.
Planningisnecessarywithallacademicwriting,butclearlythereareimportantdifferencesbetweenplanninginexams,whentimeisshort,andforcoursework,whenpreparatoryreadingisrequired.
However,inbothcasestheprocessofplanningshouldincludethesethreesteps:(a)Analysethetitlewordinganddecidewhatisrequired.
(b)Brainstormthetopictofocusyourideas.
(c)Prepareanoutlineusingyourpreferredmethod.
CHAPTER1.
4FromunderstandingtitlestoplanningInbothexamsandcourseworkitisessentialforstudentstounderstandwhatanessaytitleisaskingthemtodo.
Aplancanthenbeprepared,whichshouldensurethequestionisansweredfully,whilepreventingtimebeingwasted.
Thisunitlooksat:keywordsintitlesbrainstormingideasalternativemethodsofessayplanningWithcourseworkyouroutlinewillprobablyberevisedasyoureadaroundthetopic.
SeeUnit4.
5Writinglongeressays2AnalysingessaytitlesTitlescontainkeywordsthattellthestudentwhattodo.
Notethattitlesoftenhavetwo(ormore)parts:'Whatismeantbyademandcurveandwhywouldweexpectittoslopedownwards'Inthiscase'what'isaskingforadescriptionand'why'forareasonorexplanation.
IMatchthekeywordsonthelefttothedenitionsontheright.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222371.
4FromunderstandingtitlestoplanningAnalyseExplainatopicbrieyandclearlyAssess(Evaluate)DealwithacomplexsubjectbyreducingittothemainelementsDescribeDivideintosectionsanddiscusseachcriticallyDiscussBreakdownintothevariouspartsandtheirrelationshipsExamine(Explore)MakeaproposalandsupportitIllustrateLookatvariousaspectsofatopic,comparebenetsanddrawbacksOutline(Trace)GiveadetailedaccountofsomethingStateGiveasimple,basicaccountofthemainpointsofatopicSuggestGiveexamplesSummariseDecidethevalueorworthofasubject3PracticeIUnderlinethekeywordsinthefollowingtitlesandconsiderwhattheyareaskingyoutodo.
(a)HowandwhyhasthemarketforinternationaltourismsegmentedsincethemiddleofthetwentiethcenturyWhataretheeconomicandsocialforcesthathavedriventhisprocess(b)Describesomeofthereasonswhypatientsdonotalwaystaketheirmedicationasdirected.
(c)Howcanpsychologycontributetothereductionofbullyingbehaviourinschools(d)IsthereamovetowardssubjectivityincriminallawShouldtherebe(e)Discusstheresponseofbuildingsandsoiltoearthquakes,indicatingwhatmeasurescanbeusedtoensurestructuralstability.
4BrainstormingItisoftenhelpfultostartthinkingaboutatopicbywritingdownanyideasyouhave,inanyorder.
Takingtheexamplefrom(3a),youmightcollectthefollowingpoints:Internationaltourism–segmentationofmarketHowandwhy:PackageholidaysmadeforeignholidayspopularInternetallowstravellerstoplanownholidaysIn60sjetaircraftpermitfastertravel–longandshorthaulholidaysIn90sbudgetairlineslowercosts–shortbreaksEconomicandpoliticalforces:RisingdisposableincomespermitmorespendingontravelDevelopingcountriesseetourismasroutetogrowthOlder,retiredpeoplespendmoreontravel38Part1ThewritingprocessIWorkingwithapartner,brainstormideasforthetitlebelow.
5EssaylengthCourseworkessaysusuallyhavearequiredlength,normallybetween1,000and5,000words.
Youmustkeeptothislimit,althoughdeviationsof5percentmoreorlessaregenerallyacceptable.
However,attheplanningstageyouneedtoconsiderwhatproportionoftheessaytoallocatetoeachpartofthequestion.
Asabasicguide,20percentisusuallysufcientfortheintroductionandconclusiontogether(referencesarenotincludedinthewordcount).
Therefore,ina2,000wordessaythemainbodywouldhave1,600words.
Ifthiswasthelengthgivenfortitle(3a)above,youmightdecideonthefollowingallocation:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222391.
4FromunderstandingtitlestoplanningWhatarethebenefitsoflearningasecondlanguageatprimaryschool(age6–10)ArethereanydrawbackstoearlylanguagelearningSegmentationofthemarketforinternationaltourism–how300words–why500wordsEconomicforces400wordsSocialforces400wordsTotal1,600wordsThiscalculationisusefulsinceitcanguidetheamountofreadingyouneedtodo,aswellasprovidingthebasisforanoutline.
Moreover,itpreventsyoufromwritinganunbalancedanswer,inwhichpartofthequestionisnotfullydealtwith.
Essaysinexamsdonothaveawordlimit,butitisequallyimportanttoplantheminsimilarterms,e.
g.
part140percent,part260percent.
IIdentifythekeywordsinthefollowingtitlesanddecidewhatpercentageofthemainbodytogivetoeachpart.
6OutlinesAnoutlineshouldhelpthewritertoanswerthequestionaseffectivelyaspossible.
Careatthisstagewillsavewastedeffortlater.
Themoredetailyouincludeinyouroutline,theeasierthewritingprocesswillbe.
Notethatforcourseworkitisusuallybettertowritethemainbodyrst,thentheintroductionandnallytheconclusion.
Thereforeyoumayprefertooutlinejustthemainbodyatthisstage.
Thereisnoxedpatternforanoutline;differentmethodsappealtodifferentstudents.
Forexample,withrstpartoftitle(5a)above:'Describethetypicalsocial,culturalandenvironmentalimpactsexperiencedbytouristdestinationsindevelopingcountries.
'40Part1ThewritingprocessTitlePart1(%)Part2(%)(a)Describethetypicalsocial,culturalandenvironmentalimpactsexperiencedbytouristdestinationsindevelopingcountries.
Howcanharmfulimpactsbereducedoravoided(b)HowcanschoolsmakebetteruseofIT(informationtechnology)Illustrateyouranswerwithexamples.
(c)Outlinethemaindifcultiesincombatingmalaria.
Suggestpossiblestrategiesformoreeffectiveanti-malariacampaigns.
(d)Whatis'donorfatigue'ininternationalaidandhowcanitbeovercome(a)Theoutlinemightbealist:(i)Socialimpactsincreaseinvarietyofjobsavailablepriceinationnewrangeofbusinessopportunities(ii)Culturalimpactsnewpatternsofdressandbehaviourmaycauseproblemsmarketfortraditionalcraftsand/orritualsgrows(iii)Environmentalimpactsincreasedpressureonlimitedresources,e.
g.
waterlossofnaturalhabitattobuildingprojectsprovisionofnewinfrastructure,e.
g.
roads(b)Analternativeisamindmap:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222411.
4FromunderstandingtitlestoplanningIncreaseinvarietyofjobsavailableNewrangeofbusinessopportunitiesLossofnaturalhabitattobuildingprojectsPriceinflationSocialimpactsIncreasedpressureonlimitedresourcese.
g.
waterProvisionofnewinfrastructuree.
g.
roadsEnvironmentalimpactsMarketfortraditionalcraftsand/orritualsgrowsNewpatternsofdressandbehaviourmaycauseproblemsCulturalimpactsI(i)WhataretheadvantagesanddrawbacksofeachmethodI(ii)Prepareanoutlineforthesecondpartofthesametitle,usingeithermethod:'Howcanharmfulimpactsbereducedoravoided'42Part1ThewritingprocessOutline1WhymakenotesIWhatarethemainreasonsfornote-makingAddtothelistbelow.
(a)Toprepareforessaywriting(b)(c)(d)(e)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER1.
5Findingkeypointsandnote-makingAfterndingasuitablesourceandidentifyingrelevantsectionsoftext,thenextstepistoselectthekeypointsthatrelatetoyourtopicandmakenotesonthem.
Thisunitexplainsandpractisesthisprocess,whichalsoinvolvesskillsdevelopedinUnits1.
6Paraphrasingand1.
7Summarising.
2Note-makingmethodsIYouarelookingforinformationonthecurrentmediarevolution.
Studythetextbelow(keypointsunderlined)andthenotesinthebox.
Whatdoyounoticeaboutthelanguageofthenotes44Part1ThewritingprocessTHEDEATHOFTHEPRESSAhundredyearsagonewswasexclusivelyprovidedbynewspapers.
Therewasnootherwayofsupplyingthelatestinformationonpolitics,crime,nanceorsporttothemillionsofpeoplewhoboughtandreadnewspapers,sometimestwiceaday.
Todaythesituationisverydifferent.
Thesamenewsisalsoavailableontelevision,radioandtheinternet,andbecauseofthenatureofthesemedia,canbemoreup-to-datethaninprint.
Foryoungpeopleespecially,theinternethasbecomethenaturalsourceofnewsandcomment.
Thisdevelopmentmeansthatinmanycountriesnewspapercirculationisfalling,andalossofreadersalsomeansafallinadvertising,whichisthemainincomeformostpapers.
Consequently,inbothBritainandtheUSAnewspapersareclosingeveryweek.
Butwhenalocalnewspapergoesoutofbusinessanimportantpartofthecommunityislost.
Itallowsdebateonlocalissues,aswellasprovidinganoticeboardforeventssuchasweddingsandsocietymeetings.
Allnewspapersareconcernedbythesedevelopments,andmanyhavetriedtondmethodsofincreasingtheirsales.
Oneapproachistofocusonmagazine-typearticlesratherthannews,anotheristogivefreegiftssuchasDVDs,whileothershavedevelopedtheirownwebsitestoprovidecontinuousnewscoverage.
However,assomuchisnowfreelyavailableonlinetoanyonewithawebbrowser,noneofthesehavehadasignicantimpactonthesteadydeclineofpaid-fornewspapers.
(Source:NewBusinessMonthly,May2010,p.
37)2.
13FindingkeypointsIReadthefollowingtextandunderlinetwokeypoints.
Thenchooseatitlefortheparagraph.
Title:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222451.
5Findingkeypointsandnote-makingThegenerationbornafterthesecondworldwar,sometimescalledthebaby-boomers,arenowreachingretirementage,andbusinessesarestartingtorealisethattheyareawealthiermarketthananypreviousretirementgroup.
Financialproducts,travelandmedicinesarewell-establishedindustrieswhichinteresttheover-60s,butothersarenowfocusingonthisagegroup.
Volkswagen,forinstance,hasproducedacarwithraisedseatsandmoreinteriorspacetoappealtotheirtastes.
InJapan,withitsageingpopulation,companieshavemoreexperienceofsellingtotheretired,andhavebeensuccessfulwithunusualproductssuchasaroboticseal,whichservesasapetsubstituteforthelonely.
Thereare,however,certaindifcultiesinsellingtothismarket.
Somecustomersresentbeingaddressedas'old'sincetheyseethemselvesasmoreyouthful,whilethereisahugevariationintheproleofthebabyboomers,rangingfromhealthyandactivetothebed-riddenandinrm.
3.
1Declineofnewspapers(NewBusinessMonthly,May2010,p.
37)a)Newspapersonlysourceofnews100yrsago–nowalsoTV,radio+wwwb)Newspapersales>declineinadvertising>newspapersshuttingc)Attemptstoincreasesales:–moremagazinecontent–gifts–websitesbutnoneeffective.
4FindingrelevantpointsWhenpreparingtowriteanessayyouhavetosearchforinformationandideasrelevanttoyoursubject.
Thereforethekeypointsthatyouselectmustrelatetothattopic.
Youaregivenanessaytitle:'Doesthestatehavearoleinpromotingpublichealth'IReadthefollowingarticleandunderlinethekeypointsthatrelatetoyouressaytopic.
46Part1ThewritingprocessASLIMMERAMERICACurrentlyovertwo-thirdsofAmericansarebelievedtobeeitheroverweightorobese,butrecentlyithasbeendiscoveredthatthesituationmayhavestabilised.
Therateofincreaseappearstohavevirtuallystopped,sothatonaveragewomenandchildrenweighnomorenowthantheydidtenyearsago.
Thistrendmayhaveimportantconsequencesforthehealthcaresystem:accordingtoarecentstudy(Finkelsteinetal.
,2009)anobeseAmericanislikelytocostthesystemover40percentmorethansomeonewithnormalweight.
Thisisduetotheincreasedrisksofmedicalconditionssuchasdiabetes,towhichshouldbeaddedextracostsconnectedwithillnessandresultingabsencefromwork.
Untilrecentlyitwasassumedthatthelong-termtrendwouldcontinuesothatultimatelyallAmericanswouldbecomeoverweight;Wang(2008)hadestimatedthatthiswouldhappenby2048.
Obviously,suchanassumptionimpliessteadilyrisingmedicalinsurancecosts.
Ifthenewtrendcontinuesthereareclearbenetsforpublichealthandtheassociatednances,butmedicalresearchersstillstruggletounderstandthebasiccausesoftheproblem,whichisthatobesityinAmericaisnowthreetimesgreaterthanftyyearsago.
Thereissubstantialevidencethatobesityislinkedtosocialclass:thosewithirregularandbadlypaidemploymentaremorelikelytoeatwhatisconvenientandtastyratherthanhavethetimeorenergytoorganiseahealthydiet.
Thenumberofpeopleinthiscategorymayhaveriseninrecentyears.
Anotherpossibilityisthatfoodnowischeaperrelativetoincome,whilefreetimeismorevaluable,so4.
1continued.
.
.
5Effectivenote-makingNotesareforyourpersonalusesoyoushouldcreateyourownstyle.
(a)Youmustuseyourownwordsandnotcopyphrasesfromtheoriginaltoavoidtheriskofplagiarism.
Thequantityofnotesyoumakedependsonyourtask:youmayonlyneedafewpoints,oralotofdetail.
(b)Alwaysrecordthesourceofyournotes,tosavetimewhenyouhavetowritethelistofreferences.
(c)Notesarewrittenquickly,sokeepthemsimple.
Donotwritesentences.
Leaveoutarticles(a/the)andprepositions(of/to).
(d)Ifyouwritelists,itisimportanttohaveclearheadings(underlined)andnumberingsystems(a,b,c,or1,2,3,)toorganisetheinformation.
Donotcrowdyournotes.
(e)Usesymbolstosavetime.
(f)Useabbreviations(e.
g.
=forexample).
Youneedtomakeupyourownabbreviationsforyoursubjectarea.
Butdonotabbreviatetoomuch,oryoumayndyournoteshardtounderstandinthefuture!
SeeUnit3.
1Abbreviations1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222471.
5Findingkeypointsandnote-makingpeopleareattractedtoconsumingconvenientbutoftenunhealthyfastfood.
Inaddition,washingmachinesandotherdevicesmeanthatfewercaloriesareusedindoingdomesticchoresaroundthehouse.
Althoughvalid,thesefactorsapplyinmanyothercountrieswherethesamegrowthinobesityhasnotbeenseen.
Recentyearshavecertainlyseenmorepressureforinformativefoodlabellingandcampaignstoencourageschoolchildrentoeatmorefruitandvegetables.
AlthoughAmericansoftendislikebeingtoldwhattodobytheirgovernment,thesecampaignsmaynallybehavinganeffect.
Certainlyaboutathirdofthepopulationattemptaslimmingprogrammeeveryyear,andalthoughmanygiveupitappearsthatthenumberofpeoplewhosucceedmayberising.
(Herapath,T.
(2010)JournalofTransatlanticContexts14,319)cont.
6PracticeAICompletethenotesfor'Doesthestatehavearoleinpromotingpublichealth'usingthekeypointsunderlinedin(4)above.
7PracticeBYouhavetowriteanessaytitled:'Improvingstudentperformance:anoutlineofrecentresearch.
'IReadthefollowingtextandmakenotesontherelevantkeypoints.
48Part1ThewritingprocessSource:(Herapath,T.
(2010)JournalofTransatlanticContexts14,319)HaveAmericansstoppedgettingfatter(1)2/3Americansoverweight,butlatelygrowthinobesityseemstohavestopped(2)Mayreducefuturehealthcarecosts(obesityadds40percenttomedicalexpenses–Finkelsteinetal.
,2009)(3)(4)(5)SLEEPANDMEMORYInmanycountries,especiallyinhotclimates,itisthecustomtotakeashortsleepintheafternoon,oftenknownasasiesta.
Nowitappearsthatthishabithelpstoimprovetheabilitytorememberandthereforetolearn.
Researchershaveknownforsometimethatnewmemoriesarestoredshort-terminanareaofthebraincalledthehippocampus,butarethentransferredtothepre-frontalcortexfor7.
1continued.
.
.
@Note-making>1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222491.
5Findingkeypointsandnote-makinglong-termstorage.
Theynowbelievethatthistransferprocessoccursduringakindofsleepcalledstage2non-REMsleep.
Afterthishasoccurredthebrainisbetterabletotakeinnewinformation,andhavingasleepofabout100minutesafterlunchseemstobeaneffectivewaytopermitthis.
ResearchbyateamfromtheUniversityofCaliforniasoughttoconrmthistheory.
Theywantedtoestablishthatashortsleepwouldrestorethebrain'sabilitytolearn.
Agroupofabout40peoplewereaskedtotakepartintwo'lessons';at12noonand6pm.
Halfthevolunteerswereputinagroupwhichstayedawakeallday,whiletheotherswereencouragedtosleepforanhourandahalfaftertherstsession.
Itwasfoundthatinthesecondlessonthesecondgroupwerebetteratrememberingwhattheyhadlearnt,whichindicatesthatthesiestahadhelpedtorefreshtheirshort-termmemories.
Themosteffectivesiestaseemstoconsistofthreeparts:roughly30minutesoflightsleeptorestthebody,followedby30minutesofstage2sleepwhichclearsthehippocampus,andnally30minutesofREMsleepwhichiswhendreamsareexperienced:possiblyasaresultofthenewmemoriesbeingprocessedastheyarestoredinthepre-frontalcortex.
Thisprocessisbelievedtobesovaluablethatsomeresearchersarguethatasiestacanbeasbenecialasafullnight'ssleep.
(Kitschelt,P.
(2006)HowtheBrainWorks.
Berlin:Freihaus,p.
73)cont.
1TheelementsofeffectiveparaphrasingParaphrasingandsummarisingarenormallyusedtogetherinessaywriting,butwhilesummarisingaimstoreduceinformationtoasuitablelength,paraphrasingattemptstorestatetherelevantinformation.
Forexample,thefollowingsentence:Therehasbeenmuchdebateaboutthereasonsfortheindustrialrevolutionhappeningineighteenth-centuryBritain,ratherthaninFranceorGermany.
couldbeparaphrased:WhytheindustrialrevolutionoccurredinBritainintheeighteenthcentury,insteadofonthecontinent,hasbeenthesubjectofconsiderablediscussion.
CHAPTER1.
6ParaphrasingParaphrasingmeanschangingthewordingofatextsothatitissignicantlydifferentfromtheoriginalsource,withoutchangingthemeaning.
Effectiveparaphrasingisakeyacademicskillneededtoavoidtheriskofplagiarism:itdemonstratesyourunderstandingofasource.
Thisunitfocusesontechniquesforparaphrasingaspartofthenote-makingandsummarisingprocess.
Notethataneffectiveparaphraseusually:hasadifferentstructuretotheoriginalhasmainlydifferentvocabularyretainsthesamemeaningkeepssomephrasesfromtheoriginalthatareincommonusee.
g.
'industrialrevolution'or'eighteenthcentury'2PracticeAIReadthetextbelowandthenevaluatethethreeparaphrases(1=best),givingreasons.
(a)AfocusondemandmayhelptoexplaintheUKoriginoftheindustrialrevolution.
Atthattimeworkers'paywashigh,butenergyfromcoalwasinexpensive.
Thisencouragedthedevelopmentofmechanicalinventionsbasedonsteampower,whichenabledbossestosavemoneybymechanisingproduction(Allen,2009).
(b)ThereasonwhyBritainwasthebirthplaceoftheindustrialrevolutioncanbeunderstoodbyanalysingdemandintheearly1700s,accordingtoAllen(2009).
Hemaintainsthat,1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222511.
6ParaphrasingTHECAUSESOFTHEINDUSTRIALREVOLUTIONAllen(2009)arguesthatthebestexplanationfortheBritishlocationoftheindustrialrevolutionisfoundbystudyingdemandfactors.
BytheearlyeighteenthcenturyhighwagesandcheapenergywerebothfeaturesoftheBritisheconomy.
Consequently,themechanisationofindustrythroughsuchinventionsasthesteamengineandmechanicalspinningwasprotablebecauseemployerswereabletoeconomiseonlabourbyspendingoncoal.
Atthattime,noothercountryhadthisparticularcombinationofexpensivelabourandabundantfuel.
2.
1uniquely,Britainhadthecriticalcombinationofcheapenergyfromcoalandhighlabourcosts.
Thisencouragedtheadoptionofsteampowertomechaniseproduction,thussavingonwagesandincreasingprotability.
(c)Allen(2009)claimsthattheclearestexplanationfortheUKlocationoftheindustrialrevolutionisseenbyexaminingdemandfactors.
BytheeighteenthcenturycheapenergyandhighwageswerebothaspectsoftheBritisheconomy.
Asaresult,themechanisationofindustrythroughinventionssuchasthesteamengineandmechanicalspinningwasprotablebecauseemployerswereabletosavemoneyonemployeesbyspendingoncoal.
Atthattime,Britainwastheonlycountrywithsignicantdepositsofcoal.
3Techniquesforparaphrasing(a)Changingvocabularybyusingsynonyms:argues>claims/eighteenthcentury>1700s/wages>labourcosts/economise>savingNB.
Donotattempttoparaphraseeveryword,sincesomehavenotruesynonym,e.
g.
demand,economy,energy(b)Changingwordclass:explanation(n.
)>explain(v.
)/mechanical(adj.
)>mechanise(v.
)/protable(adj.
)>protability(n.
)(c)Changingwordorder:.
.
.
thebestexplanationfortheBritishlocationoftheindustrialrevolutionisfoundbystudyingdemandfactors.
>AfocusondemandmayhelpexplaintheUKoriginoftheindustrialrevolution.
SeeUnits3.
2Academicvocabularyand3.
11Synonyms52Part1Thewritingprocessabc4PracticeBIReadthefollowingtextandthenpractisethetechniquesillustratedabove.
I(a)Findsynonymsforthewordsunderlined.
(i)Thegrowthofthecarindustryparallelsthedevelopmentofmoderncapitalism.
Example:Theriseoftheautomobileindustrymatchestheprogressofcontemporarycapitalism.
(ii)ItbeganinFranceandGermany,buttookoffintheUnitedStates.
(iii)ThereHenryFordadaptedthemovingproductionlinefromtheChicagomeatindustrytomotormanufacturing,thusinventingmassproduction.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222531.
6ParaphrasingFOURWHEELSGOODThegrowthofthecarindustryparallelsthedevelopmentofmoderncapitalism.
ItbeganinFranceandGermany,buttookoffintheUnitedStates.
ThereHenryFordadaptedthemovingproductionlinefromtheChicagomeatindustrytomotormanufacturing,thusinventingmassproduction.
Inthe1920sAlfredSloan'smanagementtheorieshelpedGeneralMotorstobecometheworld'sdominantcarcompany.
Afterthesecondworldwarthecarmakersfocusedonthestylingoftheirproductstoencouragemorefrequentmodelchanges.
Fromthe1970stherewascriticismoftheindustryduetotheinefciencyofmostvehicles,whichusedpetrolwastefully.
Atthesametime,tradesunionsbecameincreasinglymilitantindefenceoftheirmembers'jobs.
Todaytheindustryownssomeofthemostfamousbrandsintheworld.
However,manycarmakersarecurrentlythreatenedbyincreasedcompetitionandsaturatedmarkets.
4.
1I(b)Changethewordclassoftheunderlinedwords,andthenre-writethesentences.
(i)Inthe1920sAlfredSloan'smanagementtheorieshelpedGeneralMotorstobecometheworld'sdominantcarcompany.
Example:Inthe1920s,withhelpfromthemanagerialtheoriesofAlfredSloan,GeneralMotorsdominatedtheworld'scarcompanies.
(ii)Afterthesecondworldwarthecarmakersfocusedonthestylingoftheirproducts,toencouragemorefrequentmodelchanges.
(iii)Fromthe1970stherewascriticismoftheindustryduetotheinefciencyofmostvehicles,whichusedpetrolwastefully.
I(c)Changethewordorderofthefollowingsentences(otherchangesmaybeneeded).
(i)Atthesametime,tradesunionsbecameincreasinglymilitantindefenceoftheirmembers'jobs.
Example:Atthesametimeincreasinglymilitanttradesunionsdefendedtheirmembers'jobs.
(ii)Todaytheindustryownssomeofthemostfamousbrandsintheworld.
(iii)However,manycarmakersarecurrentlythreatenedbyincreasedcompetitionandsaturatedmarkets.
I(d)Combineallthesetechniquestoparaphrasetheparagraphasfullyaspossible.
54Part1Thewritingprocess5PracticeCIUsethesametechniquestoparaphrasethefollowingtext.
@Paraphrasing>1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222551.
6ParaphrasingTHEPASTBELOWTHEWAVESMorethanthreemillionshipwrecksarebelievedtolieontheseabed,theresultofstormsandaccidentsduringthousandsofyearsofsea-bornetrading.
Thesewrecksoffermarinearchaeologistsvaluableinformationabouttheculture,technologyandtradepatternsofancientcivilisations,butthevastmajorityhavebeentoodeeptoresearch.
Scubadiverscanonlyoperatedownto50metres,whichlimitsoperationstowrecksnearthecoast,whichhaveoftenbeendamagedbystormsorplantgrowth.
Afewdeepseasites(suchastheTitanic)havebeenexploredbymannedsubmarines,butthiskindofequipmenthasbeentooexpensiveforlessfamoussubjects.
However,thissituationhasbeenchangedbytheintroductionofanewkindofminisubmarine:theautomaticunderwatervehicle(AUV).
Thischeap,smallcraftisfreemovinganddoesnotneedanexpensivemother-shiptocontrolit.
NowateamofAmericanarchaeologistsareplanningtouseanAUVtoexploreanareaofseanorthofEgyptwhichwastheapproachtoamajortradingport4,000yearsago.
5.
11WhatmakesagoodsummaryIWriteasummaryofoneofthetopicsbelowinnomorethan20words.
(a)Oneofyourparents(b)Atownorcityyouknowwell(c)AlmyouhaverecentlywatchedCHAPTER1.
7SummarisingMakingoralsummariesisacommonactivity,forexamplewhendescribingalmorabook.
Inacademicwritingitisavitalskill,allowingthewritertocondenselengthysourcesintoaconciseform.
Likemostskillsitbecomeseasierwithpractice,andthisunitexplainsthebasicstepsneededtoachieveanaccuratesummary.
ICompareyoursummarywithothersinyourclass.
Whatisneededforagoodsummary2StagesofsummarisingSummarisingisaexibletool.
Youcanuseittogiveaone-sentencesynopsisofanarticle,ortoprovidemuchmoredetail,dependingonyourwritingneeds.
Butineverycasethesamebasicstepsneedtobefollowedinordertomeetthecriteriadiscussedin(1).
IStudythestagesofsummarywritingbelow,whichhavebeenmixedup.
Puttheminthecorrectorder.
(a)Writethesummaryfromyournotes,re-organisingthestructureifneeded.
(b)Makenotesofthekeypoints,paraphrasingwherepossible.
(c)Readtheoriginaltextcarefullyandcheckanynewordifcultvocabulary.
(d)Markthekeypointsbyunderliningorhighlighting.
(e)Checkthesummarytoensureitisaccurateandnothingimportanthasbeenchangedorlost.
3PracticeAIReadthefollowingtext(3.
1)andthesummaries(a)–(c).
Ratethem1(best)–3.
(a)Fruitcropshaveusuallybeenpickedbyhand,asitisdifculttomechanisetheprocess.
Butinrichcountriesithasbecomehardtondaffordablepickersattherighttimesofruitisoftenwasted.
Thereforeintelligentmachineshavebeendevelopedthatcanovercomethetechnicalproblemsinvolved,andalsoprovidethefarmerwithusefuldataabouttheplants.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222571.
7Summarising(b)Developingmachinesthatcanpickfruitsuchastomatoesorapplesisachallengingtask,duetothecomplexityoflocatingripefruitinanunpredictableoutdoorenvironment,wheredifcultconditionscanbeproducedbywindorwater.
Butrecentdevelopmentsincomputingabilitymeanthatgrowerscannowautomatethisprocess,whichshouldsavethemmoneyandincreasetheirprots.
(c)Strawberriesandgrapesarethekindofcropsthathavealwaysbeenhand-picked.
Butmanyfarmers,forexampleinCalifornia,nownditincreasinglydifculttoattractenoughpickerswhenthefruitisripe.
However,computingadvanceshaveproducedasolutiontothisproblem,whichwillsavefarmersfromworryingaboutthepickers,andalsocollectvitaldata.
58Part1ThewritingprocessMECHANICALPICKERSAlthoughharvestingcerealcropssuchaswheatandbarleyhaslongbeendonebylargemachinesknownascombineharvesters,mechanisingthepickingoffruitcropssuchastomatoesorappleshasprovedmoredifcult.
Farmershavegenerallyreliedonhumanlabourtoharvestthese,butinwealthycountriesithasbecomeincreasinglydifculttondpickerswillingtoworkforthewagesfarmersareabletopay.
Thisispartlybecausethedemandforlabourisseasonal,usuallyintheautumn,andalsobecausetheworkishardanddemanding.
Asaresult,inareassuchasCaliforniapartofthefruitharvestisoftenunpickedandlefttorot.
Thereareseveralobviousreasonswhydevelopingmechanicalpickersischallenging.
Fruitsuchasgrapesorstrawberriescomesinavarietyofshapesanddoesnotalwaysripenatthesametime.
Outdoors,thegroundconditionscanvaryfromdrytomuddy,andwindsmaymovebranchesaround.
Clearlyeachcroprequiresitsownsolution:machinesmaybetowedthroughorchardsbytractorsormovearoundbythemselvesusingsensorstodetecttheripestfruit.
Thisnewgenerationoffruitharvestersispossibleduetoadvancesincomputingpowerandsensingability.
Suchdeviceswillinevitablybeexpensive,butwillsavefarmersfromthecomplexitiesofmanagingalabourforce.
Inaddition,themoreintelligentpickersshouldbeabletodevelopadatabaseofinformationonthehealthofeachindividualplant,enablingthegrowertoprovideitwithfertiliserandwatertomaintainitsmaximumproductivity.
3.
14PracticeBIReadthefollowingtextandunderlinethekeypoints.
SeeUnit1.
5Findingkeypointsandnote-makingICompletethenotesofthekeypointsbelow.
(a)Fallinglevelsoffertilityhavegenerallybeenfound(b)Insome,numberofchildrenborn(c)Tworesults:smallerpopulationsand(d)Recentresearchclaimsthat1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222591.
7SummarisingWEALTHANDFERTILITYFormostofthepastcenturyaninversecorrelationbetweenhumanfertilityandeconomicdevelopmenthasbeenfound.
Thismeansthatasacountrygotricher,theaveragenumberofchildrenborntoeachwomangotsmaller.
Whileinthepoorestcountrieswomenoftenhaveeightchildren,theratefellaslowas1.
3insomeEuropeancountriessuchasItaly,whichisbelowthereplacementrate.
Suchalowratehastwolikelynegativeconsequences:thepopulationwillfallinthelongterm,andagrowingnumberofoldpeoplewillhavetobesupportedbyashrinkingnumberofyoung.
ButarecentstudybyresearchersfromPennsylvaniaUniversitysuggeststhatthispatternmaybechanging.
Theyrelatedcountries'fertilityratestotheirhumandevelopmentindex(HDI),agurewithamaximumvalueof1.
0,whichassesseslifeexpectancy,averageincomeandeducationlevel.
Over20countriesnowhaveanHDIofmorethan0.
9,andinamajorityofthesethefertilityratehasstartedtoincrease,andinsomeisapproachingtwochildrenperwoman.
AlthoughthereareexceptionssuchasJapan,itappearsthateverhigherlevelsofwealthandeducationeventuallytranslateintoadesireformorechildren.
4.
1(e)ComparisonofHDI(humandevelopmentindex:withfertilityfoundthatinmosthighlyrated(+0.
9)countries,IJointhenotestogetherandexpandthemtomakethenalsummary.
Checkthatthemeaningisclearandnoimportantpointshavebeenleftout.
Findasuitabletitle.
Thissummaryisabout35percentoftheoriginallength,butitcouldbesummarisedfurther.
ISummarisethesummaryinnomorethan20words.
60Part1Thewritingprocess5PracticeCISummarisethefollowingtextinabout50words.
@Summarising>1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222611.
7SummarisingTHELASTWORDINLAVATORIESTotoisaleadingJapanesemanufacturerofbathroomceramicware,withannualworldwidesalesofaround$5bn.
Oneofitsbest-sellingrangesistheWashletlavatory,pricedatupto$5,000andusedinmostJapanesehomes.
Thishasfeaturessuchasaheatedseat,andcanplayarangeofsounds.
Thistypeoftoiletissuccessfulinitshomemarketsincemanyatsaresmallandcrowded,andbathroomsprovidevaluedprivacy.
NowTotohopestoincreaseitssalesinEuropeandAmerica,whereitfacesavarietyofdifculties.
Europeancountriestendtohavetheirownrulesaboutlavatorydesign,sothatdifferentmodelshavetobemadeforeachmarket.
AlthoughTotoclaimsthatitsWashlettoiletuseslesswaterthantheaveragemodel,onefactorthatmaydelayitspenetrationintoEuropeisitsneedforanelectricalsocketforinstallation,astheseareprohibitedinbathroomsbymostEuropeanbuildingregulations.
5.
11WhyusereferencesTherearethreeprincipalreasonsforprovidingreferencesandcitations:(a)Toshowthatyouhavereadsomeoftheauthoritiesonthesubject,whichwillgiveaddedweighttoyourwriting.
(b)Toallowthereadertondthesource,ifhe/shewishestoexaminethetopicinmoredetail.
(c)Toavoidplagiarism.
SeeUnit1.
3AvoidingplagiarismCHAPTER1.
8ReferencesandquotationsAcademicwritingdependsontheresearchandideasofothers,soitisvitaltoshowwhichsourcesyouhaveusedinyourwork,inanacceptablemanner.
Thisunitexplains:theformatofin-textcitationthemainreferencesystemstheuseofquotationsthelayoutoflistsofreferencesIDecideifyouneedtogiveareferenceinthefollowingcases.
2CitationsandreferencesItisimportanttorefercorrectlytotheworkofotherwritersthatyouhaveused.
Youmaypresentthesesourcesaseitherasummary/paraphraseorasaquotation.
Ineachcaseacitationisincludedtoprovidealinktothelistofreferencesattheendofyourpaper:Smith(2009)arguesthatthepopularityoftheSportsUtilityVehicle(SUV)isirrational,asdespitetheirhighcostmostareneverdrivenoff-road.
Inhisview'theyarebadforroadsafety,theenvironmentandroadcongestion'(Smith,2009:37).
IUnderlinethecitationsintheexampleabove.
WhichisasummaryandwhichaquotationWhataretheadvantagesofeachGivingcitations1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222631.
8ReferencesandquotationsY/N(a)Datayoufoundfromyourownprimaryresearch(b)Agraphfromaninternetarticle(c)Aquotationfromabook(d)Anitemofcommonknowledge(e)Atheoryfromajournalarticle(f)AnideaofyourownbasedonreadingseveralsourcesAquotationAuthor'sname,dateofpublication,pageno.
(Smith,2009:37)AsummaryAuthor'sname,dateofpublicationSmith(2009)ReferencesSmith,M.
(2009)PowerandtheState.
Basingstoke:PalgraveMacMillan.
3ReferenceverbsSummariesandquotationsareusuallyintroducedbyareferenceverb:Smith(2009)arguesthat.
.
.
Janovic(1972)claimedthat.
.
.
Theseverbscanbeeitherinthepresentorthepasttense.
Normallytheuseofthepresenttensesuggeststhatthesourceisrecentandstillvalid,whilethepastindicatesthatthesourceisolderandmaybeout-of-date,buttherearenohard-and-fastdistinctions.
Insomedisciplinesanoldsourcemaystillhavevalidity.
SeeUnit3.
14Verbsofreference4ReferencesystemsTherearevarioussystemsofreferencinginuseintheacademicworld,soyoushouldaskyourteachersifyouarenotsurewhichtouse.
Withanysystem,themostimportantpointistobeconsistent.
(a)TheHarvardsystem,generallyusedforEnglishLanguageandBusiness,illustratedin(2)above.
(b)TheVancouversystem,widelyusedinMedicineandScience.
Numbersinbracketsareinsertedafterthecitationandtheselinktoanumberedlistofreferences:Jasanoff(5)makesthepointthattheriskofcross-infectionisgrowing.
(c)Thefootnotesystem(alsoknownasendnotes),commonlyusedintheHumanities,inwhichsourcesarelistedatthebottomofthepageandagainattheendofthepaper.
Thenumbersinsuperscriptrunconsecutivelythroughoutthepaper:TheeffectsoftheFrenchRevolutionwerefeltthroughoutEurope.
364Part1Thewritingprocess(5)Jasanoff,M.
Tuberculosis:ASub-SaharanPerspective.
NewYork:Schaffter(2001)5UsingquotationsUsingaquotationmeansbringingtheoriginalwordsofawriterintoyourwork.
Quotationsareeffectiveinsomesituations,butmustnotbeover-used.
Theycanbevaluable:whentheoriginalwordsexpressanideainadistinctivewaywhentheoriginalismoreconcisethanyoursummarycouldbewhentheoriginalversioniswell-knownAllquotationsshouldbeintroducedbyaphrasethatshowsthesource,andalsoexplainshowthisquotationtsintoyourargument:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222651.
8Referencesandquotations3KarlWildavsky,TheEndofanEra:Spain1785–1815(Dublin:UniversityPress,2006),p.
69NB.
Referencingisacomplexsubjectandstudentsshoulduseanonlinereferenceguidefordetailedinformation.
Theiruniversitylibrarymayprovideone.
ForafullguidetotheuseoftheHarvardsystemsee:www.
home.
ched.
coventry.
ac.
uk/caw/harvard/FortheVancouversystemsee:www.
imperial.
ac.
uk/Library/pdf/Vancouver_referencing.
pdfForthefootnotessystemsee:www.
resources.
glos.
ac.
uk/shareddata/dms/9F4295CDBCD42A0399BA0A2A6E688835.
pdfIntroductoryphraseAuthorReferenceverbQuotationCitationThisviewiswidelyshared;asFriedmanstated:'Inationistheoneformoftaxationthatcanbeimposedwithoutlegislation'(1974:93).
(a)Shortquotations(2–3lines)areshownbysinglequotationmarks.
Quotationsinsidequotations(nestedquotations)usedouble:AsJamesremarked:'Martin'sconceptof"internalspace"requirescloseanalysis.
'(b)Longerquotationsareeitherindented(givenawidermargin)orareprintedinsmallertype.
Inthiscasequotationsmarksarenotneeded.
(c)Pagenumbersshouldbegivenafterthedate.
(d)Caremustbetakentoensurethatquotationsaretheexactwordsoftheoriginal.
Ifitisnecessarytodeletesomewordsthatareirrelevant,usepoints.
.
.
toshowwherethemissingsectionwas:'Fewinventions.
.
.
havebeenassignicantasthemobilephone.
'(e)Itmaybenecessarytoinsertawordorphraseintothequotationtoclarifyapoint.
Thiscanbedonebyusingsquarebrackets[]:'modernideas[offreedom]differradicallyfromthoseoftheancientworld.
.
.
'6PracticeIStudythefollowingparagraphfromanarticletitled'Themobilerevolution'inthejournal'DevelopmentQuarterly'(Issue34pages85–97,2009)byK.
Hoffman.
p.
87.
66Part1ThewritingprocessAccordingtorecentestimatesthereareatleast4billionmobilephonesintheworld,andthemajorityoftheseareownedbypeopleinthedevelopingworld.
Ownershipinthedevelopedworldreachedsaturationlevelby2007,socountriessuchasChina,IndiaandBrazilnowaccountformostofthegrowth.
Inthepoorestcountries,withweaktransportnetworksandunreliablepostalservices,accesstotelecommunicationsisavitaltoolforstartingordevelopingabusiness,sinceitprovidesaccesstowidermarkets.
Studieshaveshownthatwhenhouseholdincomesrise,moremoneyisspentonmobilephonesthananyotheritem.
6.
1a(a)SummaryHoffman(2009)stressesthecriticalimportanceofmobilephonesinthedevelopingworldinthegrowthofsmallbusinesses.
(b)QuotationAccordingtoHoffman,mobilephoneownershipcompensatesfortheweaknessesofinfrastructureinthedevelopingworld:'Inthepoorestcountries,withweaktransportnetworksandunreliablepostalservices,accesstotelecommunicationsisavitaltoolforstartingordevelopingabusiness,sinceitprovidesaccesstowidermarkets'(2009:87).
(c)SummaryandquotationHoffmanpointsoutthatmostofthegrowthinmobilephoneownershipnowtakesplaceinthedevelopingworld,whereithasbecomecrucialforestablishingabusiness:accesstotelecommunicationsisavitaltoolforstartingordevelopingabusiness,sinceitprovidesaccesstowidermarkets'(2009:87).
IReadthenextparagraphofthesamearticle,alsoonp.
87.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222671.
8ReferencesandquotationsInsuchcountriestheeffectofphoneownershiponGDPgrowthismuchstrongerthaninthedevelopedworld,becausetheabilitytomakecallsisbeingofferedforthersttime,ratherthanasanalternativetoexistinglandlines.
Asaresult,mobilephoneoperatorshaveemergedinAfrica,IndiaandotherpartsofAsiathatarelargerandmoreexiblethanWesterncompanies,andwhichhavegrownbycateringforpoorercustomers,beingthereforewell-placedtoexpanddownmarket.
InadditionChinesephonemakershavesuccessfullychallengedtheestablishedWesterncompaniesintermsofqualityaswellasinnovation.
Afurthertrendistheprovisionofservicesviathemobilenetworkwhichofferaccesstoinformationabouttopicssuchashealthcareoragriculture.
6.
1bI(a)Writeasummaryofthemainpoint,includingacitation.
I(b)Introduceaquotationtoshowthekeypoint,referringtothesource.
I(c)Combine(a)and(b),againacknowledgingthesource.
@Referencing>68Part1Thewritingprocess7AbbreviationsincitationsIn-textcitationsusethefollowingabbreviations,derivedfromLatinandprintedinitalics:etal.
:normallyusedwhentherearethreeormoreauthors.
Thefulllistofnamesisgiveninthereferencelist:ManyAmericansfailtovote(Hoboltetal.
,2006:137).
ibid.
:takenfromthesamesource(i.
e.
thesamepage)asthepreviouscitation:OlderAmericansaremorelikelytovotethantheyoung(ibid.
).
.
.
op.
cit.
:takenfromthesamesourceaspreviously,butadifferentpage.
8OrganisingthelistofreferencesAttheendofanessayorreporttheremustbealistofallthesourcescitedinthewriting.
IntheHarvardsystem,illustratedhere,thelistisorganisedalphabeticallybythefamilynameoftheauthor.
Youshouldbeclearaboutthedifferencebetweenrstnamesandfamilynames.
Ontitlepagesthenormalformatofrstnamethenfamilynameisused:SheilaBurford,JuanGonzalezButincitationsonlythefamilynameisused:Burford(2001),Gonzalez(1997)Inreferencelistsusethefamilynameandtheinitial(s):Burford,S.
,Gonzalez,J.
Ifyouarenotsurewhichnameisthefamilyname,askaclassmatefromthatculturalbackground.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222691.
8ReferencesandquotationsIStudythereferencelistbelow,fromanessayontheeffectsofageonsecondlanguagelearning,andanswerthefollowingquestions.
(a)Findanexampleof:(i)abookbyoneauthor(ii)ajournalarticle(iii)achapterinaneditedbook(iv)anauthoredundatedwebsitearticle(v)ananonymouswebpage(vi)abookbytwoauthors70Part1ThewritingprocessREFERENCESBialystock,E.
(1997)'Thestructureofage:Insearchofbarrierstosecondlanguageacquisition'.
SecondLanguageResearch13(2)116-37.
Drnyei,Z.
(2009)ThePsychologyofSecondLanguageAcquisition.
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Flege,J.
(1999)'Ageoflearningandsecondlanguagespeech'inBirdsong,D.
(ed.
)SecondLanguageAcquisitionandtheCriticalPeriodHypothesis.
London:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates101-32.
Gass,S.
andSelinker,L.
(2001)SecondLanguageAcquisition:AnIntroductoryCourse.
London:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.
Larson-Hall,J.
(2008)'Weighingthebenetsofstudyingaforeignlanguageatayoungerstartingageinaminimalinputsituation'.
SecondLanguageResearch24(1)35-63.
Myles,F.
(nd)'Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)research:itssignicanceforlearningandteachingissues'.
SubjectCentreforLanguages,LinguisticsandAreaStudies.
www.
llas.
ac.
uk/resources/gpg/421.
Accessed1May2010.
TheInternationalCommissiononSecondLanguageAcquisition(nd)'WhatisSLA'http://hw.
ac.
uk/langWWW/icsla/icsla.
htm#SLA.
Accessed6May2010.
8.
1(b)Whatarethemaindifferencesinthewaythesesourcesarereferenced(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)(vi)(c)Whenareitalicsused(d)Howarecapitallettersusedintitles(e)Howisasourcewithnogivenauthorlisted(f)Writecitationsforsummariesfromeachofthesources.
(i)(ii)(iii)(iv)(v)(vi)(vii)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222711.
8Referencesandquotations1MentioningsourcesIntheearlystagesofanessayitiscommontomentionthecontributionsofotherwriterstothesubject,toshowthatyouarefamiliarwiththeirwork.
IReadthefollowingexample,fromacomparisonof'technologyreadiness'inChineseandAmericanconsumers,andanswerthequestionsbelow.
(a)Howmanysourcesarementionedhere(b)WhatwasthesubjectofMeuter,Ostrom,BitnerandRoundtree'sresearch(c)Whichsourcecontrastedfearofcomputerswithplayingwithcomputers(d)Whichsourceexaminedtheparadoxofpositiveandnegativeattitudestocomputers(e)HowmanysourcesarecitedthatstudiedattitudestoparticulartechnologiesCHAPTER1.
9CombiningsourcesFormostassignmentsstudentsareexpectedtoreadavarietyofsources,oftenreectingconictingviewsonatopic.
Insomecasesthecontrastbetweenthevariousviewsmaybethefocusofthetask.
Thisunitexplainshowawritercanpresentandorganisearangeofcontrastingsources.
SeeUnit4.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviews2TakingacriticalapproachIThetwotextsbelowreectdifferentviewsonthetopicofclimatechange.
Readthembothandthenstudytheextractfromanessaythatmentionsthetwosources.
Answerthequestionsthatfollow.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222731.
9CombiningsourcesTheextenttowhichconsumersdesiretousenewtechnologyiscommonlyinuencedbyfactorssuchasconsumerattitudestowardspecictechnologies(BobbitandDabholkar,2001;Curranetal.
,2003),theleveloftechnologyanxietyexhibitedbyconsumers(Meuter,Ostrom,BitnerandRoundtree,2003),andconsumercapacityandwillingness(Walker,Lees,HeckerandFrancis,2002).
MickandFournier(1998)arguethatconsumerscansimultaneouslyexhibitpositivefeelings(suchasintelligenceandefcacy)andnegativefeelings(suchasignoranceandineptitude)towardsnewtechnology.
Venkatesh(2000)foundthat'computerplayfulness'and'computeranxiety'serveasanchorsthatusersemployinformingperceptionsofeaseofuseaboutnewtechnology.
1.
1CLIMATECHANGEMostscientistsnowagreethatglobaltemperatureshaverisenoverthelastcentury,andthatthistrendisreectedinsuchphenomenaasthemeltingofseaiceandtheretreatofglaciers.
Thereisalsoaconsensusthatovertheperiodthelevelofcarbondioxide(CO2)intheearth'satmospherehasalsorisen,mainlyasaresultofburningfossilfuelssuchascoalandoil.
Thecommonviewisthattherstchangeistheresultofthesecond;inotherwordsawarmerclimatehasbeencausedbytheCO2,whichhastheeffectofcausingthewarmthfromthesun'sraystobetrappedinsidetheatmosphere;theso-called'greenhouseeffect'.
Ifthesetheoriesareaccepteditcanbeexpectedthattemperatureswillcontinuetoincreaseinfutureascarbondioxidelevelsrise,andsincethiswillhaveharmfuleffectsonagricultureandotherhumanactivities,effortsshouldbemadetoreducetheburningoffossilfuels.
(Lombardo,2009)2.
1a74Part1ThewritingprocessTheconventionalviewthatglobalwarmingiscausedbyariseincarbondioxidelevelshasbeencriticisedonanumberofgrounds.
Somecriticsclaimthattherecentperiodofwarmingispartofanaturalcycleoftemperatureuctuationswhichhavebeenrecordedoverthepastfewthousandyears.
TheypointoutthatEuropeexperiencedawarmperiodabout800yearsagowhichwasunrelatedtoCO2levels.
Othercriticsdoubtthereliabilityofthebasictemperaturedataandmaintainthattheapparentriseintemperaturesiscausedbythegrowthofcities,regardedas'heatislands'.
Inadditionsomeclaimthatthewarmingiscausedbyareductionincloudcover,allowingmoresunlighttoreachtheearth'ssurface.
Thiseffect,theybelieve,istheresultofsolaractivityorsunspots,whichareknowntouctuateonan11-yearcycle.
Asaresultofthesedoubts,scepticsarguethatthereisnoneedtoattempttoreducetheindustrialactivitythatcausescarbondioxidetobeproduced.
(Wong,2007)2.
1bHOWSTRONGISTHEEVIDENCEFORGLOBALWARMINGLombardo(2009)putsforwardtheviewthatthesignicantriseintheearth'stemperatureoverthepastcenturyistheproductofincreasedlevelsofatmosphericCO2causedbygreateruseoffossilfuels.
Hemaintainsthatthispositionisnowgenerallyagreed,andthatstepsshouldbetakentoreducefuturewarmingbyrestrictingtheoutputofgreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxide.
However,Wong(2007)presentsarangeofcounter-arguments.
ShementionsevidenceofhistoricalclimatechangewhichcannothavebeencausedbyrisinglevelsofCO2,andalsodiscussesthedifcultyofobtainingreliabledataontemperaturechanges,aswellasotherclaimsthatsolaractivitymayaffecttheamountofcloudcoverandhencetemperaturelevels.
Suchuncertainty,sheconsiders,mayraisedoubtsaboutthevalueofcuttingCO2production.
2.
2I(a)TheextractabovesummarisesideasfrombothLombardoandWong.
Findtwoexamplesofasummaryintheextractandmatchthemwiththeoriginaltextfrom(a)or(b).
(b)Whichverbsareusedtointroducethesummaries(c)WhichwordmarksthepointwherethewriterswitchesfromsummarisingLombardotoWong(d)Whatotherwordsorphrasescouldbeusedatthispoint1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222751.
9CombiningsourcesSummaryOriginalExample:.
.
.
thesignificantriseintheearth'stemperatureoverthepastcenturyistheproductofincreasedlevelsofatmosphericCO2causedbygreateruseoffossilfuels.
Thereisalsoaconsensusthatovertheperiodthelevelofcarbondioxide(CO2)intheearth'satmospherehasalsorisen,mainlyasaresultofburningfossilfuelssuchascoalandoil.
3CombiningthreesourcesIReadthethirdtextonclimatechangebelow,andthencompletetheparagraphfromtheessayabovetitled:'Howstrongistheevidenceforglobalwarming'bysummarisingLahav'scomments.
@Combiningsources>76Part1ThewritingprocessDebateontheissuesaroundclimatechangehaveintensiedrecently,sincewhilemostscientistsagreethatglobaltemperaturesarerisingasaresultofever-higherlevelsofcarbondioxideintheearth'satmosphere,aminoritycontinuetoarguethattheriseisinsignicant,shorttermorunrelatedtoCO2levels.
Thecontroversyclearlyhasimportantpoliticalandeconomicconsequences,sinceinternationalagreementisneededtocontroltheoutputofgreenhousegases.
Climatescepticsinsistthatcomputermodelsareunabletohandlethecomplexityoftheworld'sweathersystems,andsoshouldnotbeusedasabasisformakingmajordecisions.
Theirviewisthatbecausethescienceofglobalwarmingisuncertain,themoneythatwouldbespent,forexample,onbuildingwindfarmscouldbebetterspentonimprovinghealthandeducationinthedevelopingworld.
(Lahav,2010)3.
11ParagraphstructureIDiscussthefollowingquestions.
WhatisaparagraphWhatisthenormallengthofaparagraphIsthereastandardstructureforparagraphsHowisaparagraphlinkedtogether1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER1.
10OrganisingparagraphsParagraphsarethebasicbuildingblocksofacademicwriting.
Well-structuredparagraphshelpthereaderunderstandthetopicmoreeasilybydividinguptheargumentintoconvenientsections.
Thisunitlooksat:thecomponentsofparagraphsthewaythecomponentsarelinkedtogetherthelinkagebetweenparagraphsintheoveralltext2ExampleparagraphIStudytheparagraphbelow.
Itisfromtheintroductiontoanessaytitled'Shouldhomeownershipbeencouraged'Thisparagraphcanbeanalysed:Thisexampleshowsthat:(a)Aparagraphisagroupofsentencesthatdealwithasingletopic.
(b)Thelengthofparagraphsvariessignicantlyaccordingtotexttype,butshouldbenolessthanfourorvesentences.
(c)Normally(butnotalways)therstsentenceintroducesthetopic.
Othersentencesmaygivedenitions,examples,information,reasons,restatementsandsummaries.
78Part1ThewritingprocessTherateofhomeownershipvarieswidelyacrossthedevelopedworld.
Germany,forinstance,hasoneofthelowestrates,at42percent,whileinSpainitistwiceashigh,85percent.
BoththeUSAandBritainhavesimilarratesofabout69percent.
Thereasonsforthisvariationappeartobemoreculturalandhistoricthaneconomic,sincehighratesarefoundinbothrichandpoorercountries.
Thereappearstobenoconclusivelinkbetweennationalprosperityandthenumberofhomeowners.
2.
11TopicsentenceTherateofhomeownershipvarieswidelyacrossthedevelopedworld.
2Example1Germany,forinstance,hasoneofthelowestrates,at42percent,whileinSpainitistwiceashigh,85percent.
3Example2BoththeUSAandBritainhavesimilarratesofabout69percent.
4ReasonThereasonsforthisvariationappeartobemoreculturalandhistoricthaneconomic,sincehighratesarefoundinbothrichandpoorercountries.
5SummaryThereappearstobenoconclusivelinkbetweennationalprosperityandthenumberofhomeowners.
(d)Thepartsoftheparagrapharelinkedtogetherbythephrasesandconjunctionsshowninboldinthetable.
Theyguidethereaderthroughtheargumentspresented.
3PracticeAIReadthenextparagraphfromthesameessayandanswerthequestionsbelow.
(a)Analysetheparagraphbycompletingthelefthandcolumninthetablebelowwiththefollowingtypesofsentence:Supportingpoint1,Supportingpoint2,Supportingpoint3,Example,Reason,Topic.
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10OrganisingparagraphsDespitethis,manycountriesencouragethegrowthofhomeownership.
IrelandandSpain,forexample,allowmortgagepayerstooffsetpaymentsagainstincometax.
Itiswidelybelievedthatowningyourownhomehassocialaswellaseconomicbenets.
Comparedtorenters,homeownersarethoughttobemorestablemembersofthecommunitywhocontributemoretolocalaffairs.
Inaddition,neighbourhoodsofowneroccupiersareconsideredtohavelesscrimeandbetterschools.
Butaboveall,ownershipencouragessavingandallowsfamiliestobuildwealth.
3.
1Despitethis,manycountriesencouragethegrowthofhomeownership.
IrelandandSpain,forexample,allowmortgagepayerstooffsetpaymentsagainstincometax.
Itiswidelybelievedthatowningyourownhomehassocialaswellaseconomicbenets.
Supportingpoint1Comparedtorenters,homeownersarethoughttobemorestablemembersofthecommunitywhocontributemoretolocalaffairs.
Inaddition,neighbourhoodsofowneroccupiersareconsideredtohavelesscrimeandbetterschools.
Butaboveall,ownershipencouragessavingandallowsfamiliestobuildwealth.
(b)Underlinethewordsandphrasesusedtolinkthesentencestogether.
(c)Whichphraseisusedtolinkthisparagraphtotheonebefore4DevelopmentofideasI(a)Thesentencesbelowformthethirdparagraphofthesameessay,buttheyhavebeenmixedup.
Usethetablebelowtoputtheminthecorrectorder.
(i)Thesehadbeendevelopedtoallowhigher-riskpoorerfamiliestobuytheirownhomes,butcontributedtoapropertypricebubble.
(ii)Manyeconomistsnowarguethatthereisamaximumlevelofhomeownershipthatshouldnotbeexceeded.
(iii)Alltheseclaimswerechallengedbytheeconomiccrashof2008,whichwasinlargepartcausedbydefaultsonAmericansub-primemortgages.
(iv)Evenhouseholdsthathadpositiveequitystillfeltpoorerandreducedtheirspending.
(v)Othersweretrappedintheirhousesbynegativeequity,inotherwordstheirhouseswereworthlessthantheyhadpaidforthem.
(vi)Whenthisburst,millionsofpeoplelosttheirhomes,whichformanyhadcontainedtheirsavings.
80Part1ThewritingprocessTopicsentenceAlltheseclaimswerechallengedbytheeconomiccrashof2008,whichwasinlargepartcausedbydefaultsonAmericansub-primemortgages.
DenitionResult1Result2Result3Conclusion(b)Underlinethephraseusedtolinktheparagraphtothepreviousone.
(c)Underlinethewordsandphrasesusedtolinktheparagraphtogether.
5LinkingparagraphstogetherIntheexamplesabove,eachnewparagraphbeginswithaphrasethatlinksittothepreviousparagraph,inordertomaintaincontinuityofargument:Despitethis(i.
e.
thelackofaconclusivelink)Alltheseclaims(i.
e.
argumentsinfavourofhomeownership)Inordertobeginanewtopicyoumayuse:Turningtotheissueof.
.
.
Ratesofinfectionmustalsobeexamined.
.
.
.
.
.
isanotherareaforconsiderationParagraphscanalsobeintroducedwithadverbs:Traditionally,fewexampleswere.
.
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Finally,theperformanceof.
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6PracticeBI(a)Usethenotesbelowandthetableonp.
82tocompleteaparagraphofanessaytitled:'Highratesofhomeownershiparebadfortheeconomy–Discuss.
'ItisclaimedthatincreasesinrateofhomeownershipleadtounemploymentHomeownershipappearstomakepeoplemorereluctanttomovetondworke.
g.
Spain(highownership+highunemployment)vs.
Switzerland(lowownership+lowunemployment)Otherfactorshavebeenproposed,e.
g.
liquidityofhousingmarkets(howeasytosellhouses)Theorystillcontroversial811.
10OrganisingparagraphsI(b)Usethenotesbelowtowritethenextparagraphoftheessay,includingaphraselinkingittothepreviousparagraph.
Recessionof2008–9gavesupporttotheoryinsomeUSstates(e.
g.
California,MichiganandFlorida)Theyhadmajorhousingboomin1990sAfterrecessionrateofhousemovingfellsharplyOnefactorwasnumberofhouseholdsinnegativeequityHavingnegativeequitymeanssellinghouseatlossHighratesofownershipmaydeepenrecessioniflabourismorestatic82Part1Thewritingprocess1TopicIthasbeenarguedthatrisesintherateofhomeownershipcanincreasetherateofunemployment.
2Reason3Example4Argument5Conclusion1234561IntroductioncontentsIntroductionsareusuallynomorethanabout10percentofthetotallengthoftheassignment.
Thereforeina2,000wordessaytheintroductionwouldbeabout200words.
I(a)WhatisnormallyfoundinanessayintroductionChoosefromthelistbelow.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER1.
11IntroductionsandconclusionsAneffectiveintroductionexplainsthepurposeandscopeofthepapertothereader.
Theconclusionshouldprovideaclearanswertoanyquestionaskedinthetitle,aswellassummarisingthemainpoints.
Incourseworkbothintroductionsandconclusionsarenormallywrittenafterthemainbody.
Y/N(i)Adenitionofanyunfamiliartermsinthetitle.
(ii)Youropinionsonthesubjectoftheessay.
(iii)Mentionofsomesourcesyouhavereadonthetopic.
(iv)Aprovocativeideaorquestiontointerestthereader.
(v)Youraimorpurposeinwriting.
(vi)Themethodyouadopttoanswerthequestion(oranoutline).
(vii)Somebriefbackgroundtothetopic.
(viii)Anylimitationsyousetyourself.
I(b)Readtheextractsbelowfromintroductionstoarticlesanddecidewhichofthefunctionslistedabove(i–viii)theyareexamplesof.
(i)Inthepast20yearstheabilityofjuriestoassesscomplexorlengthycaseshasbeenwidelydebated.
(ii)Therestofthepaperisorganisedasfollows.
Thesecondsectionexplainswhycorporategovernanceisimportantforeconomicprosperity.
Thethirdsectionpresentsthemodelspecicationanddescribesthedataandvariablesusedinourempiricalanalysis.
Thefourthsectionreportsanddiscussestheempiricalresults.
Thefthsectionconcludes.
(iii)Thepurposeofthispaperistoinvestigatechangesintheincidenceofextremewarmandcoldtemperaturesovertheglobesince1870.
(iv)Thereisnoclearempiricalevidencesustaininga'managerialmyopia'argument.
Pughetal.
(1992)ndevidencethatsupportssuchtheory,butMeulbrooketal.
(1990),Mahoneyetal.
(1997),GarveyandHanka(1999)andastudybytheOfceoftheChiefEconomistoftheSecuritiesandExchangeCommission(1985)ndnoevidence.
(v)'Socialcohesion'isusuallydenedinreferencetocommonaimsandobjectives,socialorder,socialsolidarityandthesenseofplaceattachment.
(vi)Thisstudywillfocusonmergersinthemediabusinessbetween1990and2005,sincewithmorerecentexamplesanaccurateassessmentoftheconsequencescannotyetbemade.
2IntroductionstructureNoteveryintroductionwillincludealltheelementslistedabove.
IWhichareessentialandwhichareoptionalThereisnostandardpatternforanintroduction,sincemuchdependsonthetypeofresearchyouareconductingandthelengthofyourwork,butacommonframeworkis:84Part1ThewritingprocessIStudytheextractsbelowfromtheintroductiontoanessaytitled:'Evaluatetheexperienceofe-learningforstudentsinhighereducation.
'(a)Certainwordsorphrasesinthetitlemayneedclarifyingbecausetheyarenotwidelyunderstood:Therearearangeofdenitionsofthisterm,butinthispaper'e-learning'referstoanytypeoflearningsituationwherecontentisdeliveredviatheinternet.
SeeUnit2.
5Denitions(b)Itisusefultoremindthereaderofthewidercontextofyourwork.
Thismayalsoshowthevalueofthestudyyouhavecarriedout:Learningisoneofthemostvitalcomponentsofthecontemporaryknowledge-basedeconomy.
Withthedevelopmentofcomputingpowerandtechnologytheinternethasbecomeanessentialmediumforknowledgetransfer.
(c)Whilealongerarticlemayhaveaseparateliteraturereview,inashorteressayitisstillimportanttoshowfamiliaritywithresearcherswhohavestudiedthistopicpreviously.
Thismayalsorevealagapinresearchthatjustiesyourwork:Variousresearchers(WebbandKirstin,2003;Honigetal.
,2006)haveevaluatede-learninginahealthcareandbusinesscontext,butlittleattentionsofarhasbeenpaidtothereactionsofstudentsinhighereducationtothismethodofteaching.
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11IntroductionsandconclusionsaDenitionofkeyterms,ifneeded.
bRelevantbackgroundinformation.
cReviewofworkbyotherwritersonthetopic.
dPurposeoraimofthepaper.
eYourmethodsandtheresultsyoufound.
fAnylimitationsyouimposed.
gTheorganisationofyourwork.
(d)Theaimofyourresearchmustbeclearlystatedsothereaderknowswhatyouaretryingtodo:Thepurposeofthisstudywastoexaminestudents'experienceofe-learninginahighereducationcontext.
(e)Themethoddemonstratestheprocessthatyouundertooktoachievetheaimgivenbefore:Arangeofstudieswasrstreviewed,andthenasurveyof200studentsfromavarietyofdisciplineswasconductedtoassesstheirexperienceofe-learning.
(f)Youcannotdealwitheveryaspectofthistopicinanessay,soyoumustmakecleartheboundariesofyourstudy:Clearlyastudyofthistypeisinevitablyrestrictedbyvariousconstraints,notablythesizeofthestudentsample,andthiswaslimitedtostudentsofPharmacyandAgriculture.
(g)Understandingthestructureofyourworkwillhelpthereadertofollowyourargument:Thepaperisstructuredasfollows.
Therstsectionpresentsananalysisoftherelevantresearch,focusingonthecurrentlimitedknowledgeregardingthestudentexperience.
Thesecondpart.
.
.
3OpeningsentencesItcanbedifculttostartwritinganessay,butespeciallyinexams,hesitationwillwastevaluabletime.
Therstfewsentencesshouldbegeneralbutnotvague,tohelpthereaderfocusonthetopic.
Theyoftenhavethefollowingpattern:86Part1ThewritingprocessTimephraseTopicDevelopmentCurrently,thecontrolofwaterresourceshasemergedaspotentialcauseofinternationalfriction.
Since2008electricvehicleshavebecomeaseriouscommercialproposition.
Itisimportanttoavoidopeningsentencesthatareover-general.
Compare:Nowadaysthereisalotofcompetitionamongdifferentprovidersofnews.
Newspapersarecurrentlyfacingstrongcompetitionfromrivalnewsproviderssuchastheinternetandtelevision.
IWriteintroductorysentencesforthreeofthefollowingtitles.
(a)Howimportantisitforcompaniestohavewomenasseniormanagers(b)Arethereanytechnologicalsolutionstoglobalwarming(c)Whatcanbedonetoreduceinfantmortalityindevelopingcountries(d)Comparetheurbanisationprocessintwocontrastingcountries.
SeeUnit2.
7Generalisations4PracticeAIYouhavetowriteanessaywiththetitle'Caneveryonebenetfromhighereducation'IUsethenotesbelowtowritetheintroductioninabout150words(itisnotnecessarytorefertosourcesinthisexercise).
Denition:Highereducation(HE)=universityeducationBackground:IncreasingdemandforHEworldwideputspressureonnationalbudgets>manystatesseektoshiftcoststostudents.
Inmostcountriesdegree=keytobetterjobsandopportunitiesPurpose:TodecideifaccesstoHEshouldberestrictedoropentoall,givencostsinvolved1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222871.
11IntroductionsandconclusionsMethod/Outline:Discussionoffollowingpoints:HEisexpensive,sowhowillpayIncreasingnumbers=lowerqualityIsitfairforalltaxpayerstosupportstudentswhowillearnhighsalariesHowtokeepHEopentocleverstudentsfrompoorbackgroundsLimitations:Theuseofyourowncountryasanexample5ConclusionsConclusionstendtobeshorterandmorediversethanintroductions.
Somearticlesmayhavea'summary'or'concludingremarks'.
Butstudentpapersshouldgenerallyhaveanalsectionthatsummarisestheargumentsandmakesitcleartothereaderthattheoriginalquestionhasbeenanswered.
IWhichofthefollowingaregenerallyacceptableinconclusions(a)Astatementshowinghowyouraimhasbeenachieved.
(b)Adiscussionoftheimplicationsofyourresearch.
(c)Somenewinformationonthetopicnotmentionedbefore.
(d)Ashortreviewofthemainpointsofyourstudy.
(e)Somesuggestionsforfurtherresearch.
(f)Thelimitationsofyourstudy.
(g)Comparisonwiththeresultsofsimilarstudies.
(h)Aquotationthatappearstosumupyourwork.
88Part1ThewritingprocessIMatchtheextractsfromconclusionsbelowwiththeacceptablecomponentsabove.
Example:a=vi(i)Asalways,thisinvestigationhasanumberoflimitationstobeconsideredinevaluatingitsndings.
(ii)Theseresultssuggestthattheriskofoodingonthiscoasthasincreasedsignicantlyandislikelytoworsen.
(iii)Anotherlineofresearchworthpursuingfurtheristostudytheimportanceoflanguageforsuccessfulexpatriateassignments.
(iv)Ourreviewof13studiesofstrikesinpublictransportdemonstratesthattheeffectofastrikeonpublictransportridershipvariesandmayeitherbetemporaryorpermanent.
(v)TheseresultsoftheColombiastudyreportedhereareconsistentwithothersimilarstudiesconductedinothercountries(BaronandNorman,1992).
(vi)Thisstudyhasclearlyillustratedthedrawbackstofamilyownershipofretailbusinesses.
6PracticeBILookatUnit1.
10Organisingparagraphs,section6.
Studythenotesforthersttwoparagraphs,thenwriteaconcludingparagraphthatsummarisesthemainpointsandanswersthequestioninthetitle(i.
e.
Arehighratesofhomeownershipbadfortheeconomy).
Discussanyimplicationsthatariseandsuggestpossiblefurtherresearch.
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11Introductionsandconclusions1Re-writingAlthoughitistemptingtothinkthattherstdraftofanessayisadequate,itisalmostcertainthatitcanbeimproved.
Aftercompletingyourrstdraftyoushouldleaveitforadayandthenre-readit,askingthefollowingquestions:(a)Doesthisfullyanswerthequestion(s)inthetitle(b)Dothedifferentsectionsofthepaperhavetherightweight,i.
e.
isitwellbalanced(c)Doestheargumentordiscussiondevelopclearlyandlogically(d)HaveIforgottenanyimportantpointsthatwouldsupportthedevelopmentCHAPTER1.
12Re-writingandproof-readingInexamsyouhavenotimeforre-writing,butforcourseworkassignmentsitisimportanttotaketimetoreviseyourworktoimproveitsclarityandlogicaldevelopment.
Inbothsituationsproof-readingisessentialtoavoidthesmallerrorsthatmaymakepartsofyourworkinaccurateorevenincomprehensible.
2PracticeAIAspartofamoduleonQualitativeResearchMethods,youhavewrittentherstdraftofa1,000wordpapertitled:'WhatwouldbeanacceptablenumberofinterviewstocarryoutforaMaster'sdissertation'IStudytheintroductiontothispaperbelow,anddecidehowitcouldbeimproved,listingyoursuggestionsinthetable.
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12Re-writingandproof-readingAninterviewcanbedenedasaconversationwithadenitestructureandobjective.
Itgoesbeyondaneverydaydiscussionwithnoparticularpurpose.
Therearemanypossibleinterviewsituations,butallinvolveaninterviewerandaninterviewee.
Itisnormalfortheformertoaskthelatterdirectquestions,andrecordtheanswers.
Thequestionsmaybepreparedinadvanceortheymayoccurastheinterviewdevelops.
Therecordingisoftendoneonpaper,butmayalsobedonebyaudioorvideorecording.
Interviewscantakeplaceanywhere,inastreet,café,ofce,bar,restaurantetc.
Itishardtosayhowmanyinterviewscanbecarriedoutinoneday.
Ipersonallythinkthattwoisthemaximumbecauseitcangetverytiring.
Alotdependsonthesubjectbeingresearched.
2.
1Suggestionsforimprovement(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)Commentsontherstdraftmightincludesomeofthefollowing:Withthesepointsinmind,theintroductioncouldbere-writtenasfollows:3PracticeBIReadthenextsectionon'Possibleethicalissuesraisedbythiskindofresearch'.
IDecidehowitcouldbeimproved,andre-writeitintheboxbelow.
92Part1Thewritingprocessa)Toomuchspacegiventobasicpointsb)Noreferencesaregivenc)Sentencesaretooshortd)Stylee.
g.
Ipersonallythinknotsuitablee)QuestionintitlenotaddressedOrganisinganinterviewinvolvesaseriesofsteps(Davies,2007)includingrecruitinginterviewees,ndingasuitablevenueandwritingappropriateguidelines.
However,dependingontheresearchsubjectamoreexibleapproachcanbeadopted,resultinginalessstructuredinterview(CooperandSchindler,2008).
ForaMaster'sdissertation,interviewsmustcontaindatarelevanttotheresearchtopicwhichtheinterviewercanlaterprocess.
AsKingstates:'gatheringalargevolumeofcasesdoesnotguaranteethecredibilityofastudy'(King,2004:16).
Mostwritersagreethattwoone-hourinterviewsperdayareeffectivelythemaximumforoneinterviewer,giventhetimeneededforpreparationandsubsequentprocessing.
Moreover,ifaudioorvideorecordingisusedthereismorecontenttobeanalysed,forinstanceintermsoffacialexpression.
Theanalysisofoneinterviewcantakeuptothreedays'work.
Inordertoanswerthequestion,clearlymuchdependsontheresearchtopicandthetimetheresearcherhasavailable.
2.
24Proof-reading(a)Proof-readingmeanscheckingyourworkforsmallerrorsthatmaymakeitmoredifcultforthereadertounderstandexactlywhatyouwanttosay.
Ifasentencehasonlyoneerror:Shehasnoenoughinterpersonalskillstohandledifferentrelationships.
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1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222931.
12Re-writingandproof-readingAnyorganisationthatallowsresearcherstointerviewitsemployeesrunsarisk.
Theymaycomplainaboutthebossoraboutotherworkers.
Thedangeristhatemployeesmayfeelobligedtogivepositiveanswerstoquestionsinsteadoftheirhonestopinions,becausetheyareafraidoftheirbossesndingoutwhattheyreallythink.
Thereputationoftheorganisationmaysuffer.
Soitisthedutyofresearcherstoensurethatthisdoesnothappen.
Theymustmakeitclearwhytheyaredoingtheresearch,andmaintaintheanonymityofeveryoneinvolvedbyusingfalsenames.
Ifthisisnotdonethereisagoodchanceofthevalidityofthewholeresearchprojectbeingthreatened.
3.
1itisnotdifculttounderstand,butiftherearemultipleerrors,eventhoughtheyareallquiteminor,thecumulativeeffectisveryconfusing:DemolitionofsevralukbankslikenorthrenRockandmayothers.
.
.
Clearly,youshouldaimtomakeyourmeaningasclearaspossible.
Notethatcomputerspellchecksdonotalwayshelpyou,sincetheymayignoreawordthatisspeltcorrectlybutthatisnotthewordyoumeanttouse:Towfactorsneedtobeconsidered.
.
.
I(b)Examplesofthemostcommontypesoferrorinstudentwritingareshownbelow.
Ineachcaseunderlinetheerrorandcorrectit.
(i)Factual:corruptionisaprobleminmanycountriessuchasAfrica(ii)Wordending:shewasyoungandinnocence(iii)Punctuation:Howeversomestrainsofmalariaareresistant.
.
.
(iv)Tense:Since2005therewerethreemajorearthquakesintheregion(v)Vocabulary:.
.
.
vitaltothesuccessfulnessofacompanyoperatinginChina(vi)Spelling:perviousexperiencecansometimesgiveresearchers.
.
.
(vii)Singular/plural:oneofthelargestcompanyinAsia(viii)Style:.
.
.
nally,theessaywillconcludewithaconclusion(ix)Missingword:anideaestablishedbyDavidRicardoinnineteenthcentury(x)Wordorder:aruleofmarketingwhichstatesthatconsumerswhengooutshopping.
.
.
I(c)Thefollowingextractseachcontainonetypeoferror.
Matcheachtooneoftheexamples(i–x)above,andcorrecttheerror.
(i)ProductslikeTigerbiscuitsarewell-knowntokids.
.
.
(ii)Bothcompaniesfocusonmassmarketingtopromoteitslineofproducts.
94Part1Thewritingprocess(iii)Failuretondtherightcoffeemayleadtotormentforconsumers.
(iv).
.
.
differentresearchershavedifferentlyeffectsontheresearch.
(v)AfterthesingleEuropeanmarketwasestablishedin1873.
.
.
(vi).
.
.
experiencedresearcherscanmostlikelycomeovertheseproblems.
(vii)Firstlybecause,itprovidesthemwithanopportunityofborrowingcapital.
.
.
(viii)ThecompanyselectedHungryforsettingupitsresearchcentre.
(ix)Thesecasesdemonstratewhyspecialistsfromtherestofworldareeagerto.
.
.
(x)Since2003,fewcompaniesenteredtheFrenchmarket.
.
.
I(d)Underlinetheerrorsintheparagraphbelowandthenre-writeit.
@Proof-reading>1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222951.
12Re-writingandproof-readingOPPORTUNITIESFORNON-EUROPEANBUSINESSESINEUROPEManynon-EuropeanbusinessesareaimingtoentersingleEuropeanmarketastheyseeanunexploitedpotentialthere.
Therearetworeasonsofthisinterest.
Firstlythenon-europeanorganisationsarekeentodoabusinessintheEuropeanmarketsbecauseitisoneofleadinginvestmentdestinationandeasiestplacetosetupandrunabusiness.
Secondly,thesingleEuropeanmarketprovideforeininvestorswithaninternationallycompetitivetaxenvironment.
Lastlythere'slotsofrichpeoplelivinginthecountry.
4.
15ConfusingpairsWhenproof-readingitisimportanttocheckformistakeswithsomeconfusingpairsofwords,whichhavesimilarbutdistinctspellingsandmeanings:ThedroughtaffectedthewheatharvestinAustralia.
Animmediateeffectofthepricerisewasafallindemand.
'Affect'and'effect'aretwodifferentwords.
'Affect'isaverb,while'effect'iscommonlyusedasanoun.
IStudythedifferencesbetweenothersimilarconfusingpairs(mostcommonusesinbrackets).
96Part1Thewritingprocessaccept(verb)/except(prep)Itisdifculttoaccepttheirndings.
Thereportisnishedexceptfortheconclusion.
compliment(noun/verb)/complement(verb)Hercolleaguescomplimentedheronherpresentation.
HislatestbookcomplementshispreviousresearchonAfricanpolitics.
economic(adj)/economical(adj)Sharingacartoworkwasaneconomicalmove.
Inationwasoneeconomicresultofthewar.
its(pronoun)/it's(pronoun+verb)It'swidelyagreedthatcarbonemissionsarerising.
Thecar'sadvanceddesignwasitsmostdistinctfeature.
lose(verb)/loose(adj)Nogeneraleverplanstoloseabattle.
Hestressedthelooseconnectionbetweenreligionandpsychology.
principal(adj/noun)/principle(noun)Alleconomistsrecognisetheprincipleofsupplyanddemand.
ZurichistheprincipalcityofSwitzerland.
rise(verb–pasttenserose)/raise(verb–pasttenseraised)ThepopulationofSydneyroseby35%inthecentury.
Theuniversityraiseditsfeesby10%lastyear.
IChoosethecorrectwordineachsentence.
(a)Thecompanywasfoundedontheprincipals/principlesofqualityandvalue.
(b)Millionsofpeopleareattemptingtolose/looseweight.
(c)Sunspotshavebeenknowntoaffect/effectradiocommunication.
(d)ProfessorPolednareceivedtheircompliments/complementspolitely.
(e)Theancientsymboldepictedasnakeeatingit's/itstail.
(f)Bothsocialandeconomical/economiccriterianeedtobeexamined.
(g)IttookmanyyearsforsomeofEinstein'stheoriestobeaccepted/excepted.
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12Re-writingandproof-readingsite(noun)/sight(noun)Thesiteofthebattleisnowcoveredbyanairport.
Hissightbegantoweakenwhenhewasinhiseighties.
tendto(verb)/trend(noun)Youngchildrentendtoenjoymakinganoise.
Inmanycountriesthereisatrendtowardssmallerfamilies.
Elementsofwriting1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222PART21DiscussionvocabularyEssaytitlescommonlyaskstudentsto'discuss'atopic:'Childrenwilllearnaforeignlanguagemoreeasilyifitisintegratedwithanothersubject–Discuss.
'Thisrequiresanevaluationofboththebenetsanddisadvantagesofthetopic,withasectionoftheessay,sometimesheaded'Discussion',inwhichasummaryoftheseismade.
Thefollowingvocabularycanbeused:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER2.
1ArgumentanddiscussionOnmostcoursesitisnotenoughtoshowthatyouarefamiliarwiththeleadingauthorities.
Studentsareexpectedtostudytheconictingviewsonanytopicandengagewiththem.
Thismeansanalysingandcritiquingthemifappropriate.
Thisunitpresentswaysofdemonstratingyourfamiliaritywithbothsidesofanargumentandpresentingyourownconclusionsinasuitablyacademicmanner.
Onedrawbacktointegratingcontentandlanguageisthedemanditplacesontheteacher.
Asignicantbenetofteachingasubjectthroughalanguageistheincreasedmotivationtomasterthelanguage.
IFillthegapsinthefollowingparagraphusinglanguagefromthetableabove.
Everyyearmillionsofstudentschoosetostudyinaforeigncountry.
Thiscanhaveconsiderable(a)suchasthechancetoexperienceanotherculture,butalsoinvolvescertain(b)whichmayincludefeelingsofisolationorhomesickness.
Another(c)aspectmaybethehighcost,involvingbothfeesandlivingexpenses.
However,moststudentsappeartondthatthe(d)outweighthe(e)andthatthechancetojoinaninternationalgroupofstudentsisamajor(f)indevelopingacareer.
2OrganisationThediscussionsectioncanbeorganisedintwoways;eitherbygroupingthebenetsinoneparagraphandthedisadvantagesinanother(vertical),orbyexaminingthesubjectfromdifferentviewpoints(horizontal).
Forexample,thefollowingessaytitlecanbediscussedinthetwowaysasshown:'Prisonsdolittletoreformcriminalsandtheiruseshouldbelimited–Discuss.
'102Part2Elementsofwriting+–benetadvantageapositiveaspectpro(informal)plus(informal)onemajoradvantageis.
.
.
drawbackdisadvantageanegativefeaturecon(informal)minus(informal)aseriousdrawbackis.
.
.
(a)Vertical(b)HorizontalIWhataretheadvantagesofeachformat(i.
e.
verticalandhorizontal)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221032.
1ArgumentanddiscussionDrawbacks:Prisonsareexpensive,maybe'universitiesofcrime',mostprisonersre-offendafterleaving,manyprisonershavementalhealthproblemsthatareuntreated.
Benets:Prisonsisolatedangerouscriminalsfromsociety,actasadeterrenttocriminalactivity,mayprovideeducationortreatment(e.
g.
fordrugaddiction),providepunishmentforwrong-doing.
Discussion:Numbersofprisonersarerisinginmanycountries,whichsuggeststhatthesystemisfailing.
Evidencethatshortsentencesareoflittlevalue.
Butprisonswillalwaysbenecessaryforsomeviolentcriminals,andasdeterrent.
Economic:Highcostsofkeepingprisonerssecure.
Comparewithotherformsofpunishment.
Ethical:WhatrightsshouldprisonershaveCasesofwrongfulimprisonment.
Social:Effectonfamiliesofprisoners,especiallyfemaleprisonerswithchildren.
Butalsonecessarytoconsiderthevictimsofcrime,especiallyviolentcrime.
Discussion:Numbersofprisonersarerisinginmanycountries,whichsuggeststhatthesystemisfailing.
Evidencethatshortsentencesareoflittlevalue.
Butprisonswillalwaysbenecessaryforsomeviolentcriminals,andasdeterrent.
3PracticeAYouhavetowriteanessaytitled:'Discusswhethersomeemployeesshouldbepermittedtoworkfromhome.
'IBrainstormthepositiveandnegativeaspectsintheboxbelow,andthenwriteanoutlineusingoneofthestructures(verticalorhorizontal)above.
104Part2Elementsofwriting+–NotimespentcommutingtoworkDiscusswhethersomeemployeesshouldbepermittedtoworkfromhome.
Outline4ThelanguageofdiscussionWhendiscussingcommonideasavoidpersonalphrasessuchasinmyopinionorpersonally,Ithink.
.
.
Useimpersonalphrasesinsteadsuchas:Thesephrasessuggestaminorityviewpoint:Whenyouaresupportingyouropinionswithsourcesusephrasessuchas:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221052.
1ArgumentanddiscussionItisgenerallyacceptedthatworkingfromhomesavescommutingtime.
.
.
Itiswidelyagreedthatemailandtheinternetreducerelianceonanofce.
.
.
Mostpeopleappeartoneedface-to-facecontactwithcolleagues.
.
.
Itisprobablethatmorecompanieswillencourageworkingfromhome.
.
.
Theevidencesuggeststhatcertainpeoplearebetteratself-management.
.
.
Itcanbearguedthathome-workingencouragestime-wastingOneviewisthathome-workersbecomeisolatedAccordingtoEmerson(2003)fewcompanieshavedevelopedclearpolicies.
.
.
Poledna(2007)claimsthatmostemployeesbenetfromexiblearrangements5Counter-argumentsCounter-argumentsareideasthatareoppositetoyourideas.
Inanacademicdiscussionyoumustshowthatyouarefamiliarwithbothsidesoftheargument,andprovidereasonstosupportyourposition.
Itisusualtodealwiththecounter-argumentsrst,beforegivingyourview.
IWhatisthewriter'spositioninthefollowingexample,onthetopicofprisons(2above)IStudytheexamplebelow,andwritetwomoresentencesusingideasfromthetitlein(3).
6ProvidingevidenceNormallyyourconclusionsonatopicfollowanassessmentoftheevidence.
Youmustshowthatyouhavestudiedtherelevantsourcessinceonlythencanyougiveabalancedjudgement.
IStudythefollowingtext,whichdiscussestheideathatyoungpeopletoday,whohavegrownupwithcomputingandtheinternet,aredifferentfrompreviousgenerations.
106Part2ElementsofwritingItisclaimedthatprisonsareneededtoisolatedangerouscriminalsfromsociety,butwhilethismaybetrueinsomecases,morecommonlyprisonsactas'universitiesofcrime',whichreinforcecriminalbehaviour.
5.
1Counter-argumentYourpositionSomepeoplebelievethathome-workersbecomeisolated,butthiscanbeavoidedbyholdingweeklymeetingsforalldepartmentalstaff.
IThetablebelowshowsthestructureofthetext,butthedescriptorshavebeenmixedup.
Re-arrangetheminthecorrectorder.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221072.
1ArgumentanddiscussionDO'DIGITALNATIVES'EXISTVariouswritershavearguedthatpeopleborninthelasttwodecadesofthetwentiethcentury(1980–2000)andwhohavebeenusingcomputersalltheirliveshavedifferentabilitiesandneedstootherpeople.
PalfreyandGasser(2008)refertothemasthe'netgeneration'andarguethatactivitiessuchasputtingvideosonYouTubearemorenaturalforthemthanwritingessays.
SimilarlyPrensky(2001a)claimsthattheeducationalsystemneedstoberevisedtocaterforthepreferencesofthese'digitalnatives'.
Butotherresearchersdoubtthattheseclaimscanapplytoawholegeneration.
Bennett,MatonandKervin(2008)arguethattheseyoungpeoplecompriseawholerangeofabilities,andthatmanyofthemonlyhavealimitedunderstandingofdigitaltools.
Theyinsistthattheso-called'digitalnative'theoryisamyth,andthatitwouldbeamistaketore-organisetheeducationalsystemtocaterfortheirsupposedrequirements.
Clearlytherearesomeyoungpeoplewhoareveryprocientinonlinetechnologies,buttakingaglobalperspectivemanystillgrowupandareeducatedinatraditionalmanner.
Teachingmethodsareconstantlybeingrevised,butthereisnoclearevidenceofaneedtoradicallychangethem.
6.
11Argumentsagainst2Writer'sviewpoint3Claimsfor'digitalnatives'7PracticeBIWritetwoparagraphsonthetopic:'Istheexplorationofspaceworthwhile'Usetheideasbelowandmakeyourstanceclear.
SeeUnit2.
9Problemsandsolutions108Part2ElementsofwritingProsScientistsneedtocollectinformationtounderstanduniverseSpaceengineeringhasproducedmanyusefuldiscoveries(e.
g.
satellitecommunication)Explorationpromoteshealthyco-operationbetweennations(e.
g.
spacestation)(Source:Donnet-Kammel,2005)ConsHugeamountsofmoneyarespentwithlittleresultResourcesshouldbespentonurgentneedsonearth(e.
g.
diseasecontrol)Nationalspaceprogrammesaretestingpotentialweapons(e.
g.
missiles)(Source:Soroka,2000)1ThelanguageofcauseandeffectAwritermaychoosetoputtheemphasisoneitherthecauseortheeffect.
Inbothcases,eitheraverboraconjunctioncanbeusedtoshowthelink.
(a)Focusoncauses1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER2.
2CauseandeffectAcademicworkfrequentlyinvolvesdemonstratingalinkbetweenacause,suchasacoldwinter,andaneffect,suchasanincreaseinillness.
Thisunitexplainstwomethodsofdescribingthelink,withthefocuseitheronthecauseorontheeffect.
WithverbsTheheavyraincausedcreatedledtoresultedinproducedtheoodWithconjunctionsBecauseofDuetoOwingtoAsaresultoftheheavyraintherewasaood(b)FocusoneffectsComparethefollowing:Becausechildrenwerevaccinateddiseasesdeclined(because+verb)Becauseofthevaccinationdiseasesdeclined(becauseof+noun)As/sincechildrenwerevaccinateddiseasesdeclined(conjunction+verb)Owingto/duetothevaccinationdiseasesdeclined(conjunction+noun)Conjunctionsarecommonlyusedwithspecicsituations,whileverbstendtobeusedingeneralcases:Printingmoneycommonlyleadstoination(general)DuetoJuly'shotweatherdemandforicecreamincreased(specic)110Part2ElementsofwritingWithverbsTheoodwascausedbywasproducedbyresultedfrom(noteuseofpassives)theheavyrainWithconjunctionsTherewasaoodduetobecauseofasaresultoftheheavyrain2PracticeAIMatchthecauseswiththeirlikelyeffectsandwritesentenceslinkingthemtogether.
(a)Owingtothecoldwinterof1995therewasincreaseddemandforelectricity.
(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)3PracticeBICompletethefollowingsentenceswithlikelyeffects.
(a)Increasinguseoftheinternetforshopping1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221112.
2CauseandeffectCausesEffectsColdwinterof1995moretouristsarrivingHigherratesofliteracyanewgovernmentbeingformedConstructinganairportreducedinfantmortalityLastyear'snationalelectiongreaterdemandforsecondaryeducationInstallingspeedcamerasonmainroadsincreaseddemandforelectricityOpeninganewhospitalin2006afallinthenumberoffatalaccidents(b)Theviolentstormslastweek(c)ThenewvaccineforTB(d)Buildingahigh-speedrailwaylineICompletethesesentenceswithpossiblecauses.
(e)Theseriousmotorwayaccident(f)Thewarof1856–8(g)Earthquakes(h)Therisingprisonpopulation4PracticeCIUseconjunctionsorverbstocompletethefollowingparagraph.
112Part2ElementsofwritingWHYWOMENLIVELONGERSomeBritishscientistsnowbelievethatwomenlivelongerthanmen(a)Tcells,avitalpartoftheimmunesystemthatprotectsthebodyfromdiseases.
Previously,varioustheorieshaveattemptedtoexplainlongerfemalelifeexpectancy.
Biologistsclaimedthatwomenlivedlonger(b)theyneedtobringupchildren.
Othersarguedthatmentakemorerisks,(c)theydieearlier.
ButateamfromImperialCollegethinkthatthedifferencemaybe(d)womenhavingbetterimmunesystems.
HavingstudiedagroupofmenandwomentheyfoundthatthebodyproducesfewerTcellsasitgetsolder,(e)theageingprocess.
However,theyadmitthatthismaynotbetheonlyfactor,and(f)anotherresearchprojectmaybeconducted.
4.
15PracticeDI(a)Studytheowchartbelow,whichshowssomeofthepossibleeffectsofahigheroilprice.
Completetheparagraphdescribingthissequence.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221132.
2CauseandeffectPriceofoilrisesby25%CostoftransportandfreightrisesReduceddemandforlargecarsOilconsumptionfallsIncreasedinvestmentinoilexplorationIncreaseddemandforsmallcarsIncreaseddemandforoilrigsDemandforalternativefuelsrisesAirlineprofitsfallAnincreaseof25percentinthepriceofoilwouldhavenumerousresults.
First,itwouldleadtoI(b)Chooseasimilarsituationinyourownsubject.
Drawaowchartshowingsomeprobableeffects,andwriteaparagraphtodescribethem.
114Part2Elementsofwriting1ReferencewordsTheseareusedtoavoidrepetition:LeonardodaVinciwasafteenth-centuryItaliangeniuswhoproducedonlyahandfulofnishedworks.
However,theyincludetheMonaLisaandtheLastSupper,theformerperhapsthemostfamouspaintingintheworld.
Althoughheisrememberedmainlyasanartist,healsowasaninnovativeengineer,scientistandanatomist.
Herethereferencewordsfunctionasfollows:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER2.
3CohesionCohesionmeansjoiningatexttogetherwithreferencewords(e.
g.
he,theirs,theformer)andconjunctions(e.
g.
but,then)sothatthewholetextisclearandreadable.
Thisunitpractisestheuseofreferencewords,whileconjunctionsareexaminedinUnit3.
5.
LeonardodaVincinishedworksMonaLisahetheytheformerExamplesofreferencewordsandphrases2PracticeAIReadthefollowingparagraphandcompletethetable.
116Part2ElementsofwritingPronounshe/she/it/theyPossessivepronounshis/her/hers/its/their/theirsObjectivepronounsher/him/themDemonstrativepronounsthis/that/these/thoseOtherphrasestheformer/thelatter/therst/thesecond/suchaLaFerrera(1997)hasresearchedthelifecycleofnewbusinesses.
Shefoundthattheyhaveanaveragelifeofonly4.
7years.
Thisisduetotwomainreasons;oneeconomicandonesocial.
Theformerappearstobealackofcapital,thelatterafailuretocarryoutsufcientmarketresearch.
LaFerreraconsidersthattogethertheseaccountforapproximately70percentofbusinessfailures.
2.
1ReferenceReferenceword/phraseLaFerreraShenewbusinessesaveragelifeofonly4.
7yearsoneeconomiconesocialtheformer.
.
.
,thelatter.
.
.
3PreventingconfusionToavoidconfusingthereaderitisimportanttousereferencewordsonlywhenthereferenceisclear.
Forexample:PabloPicassomovedtoParisin1904andworkedwithGeorgeBraquefrom1908to1909.
Hebecameinterestedintheanalysisofform,whichledtocubism.
Inthiscaseitisnotclearwhichperson(PicassoorBraque)'he'refersto.
Sotoavoidthiswrite:PabloPicassomovedtoParisin1904andworkedwithGeorgeBraquefrom1908to1909.
Picassobecameinterestedintheanalysisofform,whichledtocubism.
4PracticeBIInthefollowingparagraph,insertsuitablereferencewordsfromtheboxbelowinthegaps(morewordsthangaps).
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221172.
3CohesionFAMOUSFORWhenAndyWarholdiedattheageof58in1987fewpeopleguessedthat(a)wouldsoonbecomeoneofthemostvaluableartistsintheworld.
In2007totalsalesof(b)workatauctionreached428milliondollars.
When,ayearlater,(c)painting'EightElvises'soldforover$100million,(d)wasoneofthehighestpriceseverpaidforaworkofart.
In(e)workinglife(f)madeabout10,000artworks,anddealersbelievethat(g)willcontinuetobepopularwithcollectorsinfuture.
(h)isbecauseofWarhol'shugereputationasasuper-cooltrendsetterandinnovator.
4.
1he/he/his/his/his/it/them/they/this5PracticeCIReadtheparagraphbelowandreplacethewordsinboldwithreferencewords.
6PracticeDIUsethefollowinginformationtowriteaparagraphaboutnylon,payingcarefulattentiontotheuseofreferencewords.
NylonInventor:WallaceCarothersCompany:DuPontCorporation(USA)Carothers'position:DirectorofresearchcentreCarothers'background:Chemistrystudent,specialisinginpolymers(moleculescomposedoflongchainsofatoms)Properties:StrongbutnesyntheticbrePatented:1935Massproduced:1939Applications:Stockings,toothbrushes,parachutes,shinglines,surgicalthread118Part2ElementsofwritingVELCROVelcroisafabricfastenerusedwithclothesandshoes.
VelcrowasinventedbyaSwissengineercalledGeorgedeMestral.
Mestral'sideawasderivedfromstudyingthetinyhooksfoundonsomeplantseeds.
Thetinyhooksclingtoanimalsandhelpdispersetheseeds.
MestralspenteightyearsperfectingMestral'sinvention,whichMestralcalled'Velcro'fromtheFrenchwords'velour'and'crochet'.
Theinventionwaspatentedin1955andtodayover60millionmetresofVelcroaresoldannually.
5.
11Comparisonstructures(a)Somestudiesarebasedonacomparison:ThepurposeofthisstudyistocompareChineseandAmericanconsumersontheirpropensitytouseself-servicetechnologyinaretailsetting.
.
.
Inothercasesacomparisonprovidesusefulcontext:Therstattempttodecodethehumangenometook10years;nowitcanbedoneinlessthanaweek.
(b)Thetwobasiccomparativeformsare:(i)FranceislargerthanSwitzerland.
Thestudentswerehappieraftertheexam.
(-erisaddedtoone-syllableadjectivesandtwo-syllableadjectivesendingin-y,whichchangesintoani)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER2.
4ComparisonsItisoftennecessarytomakecomparisonsinacademicwriting.
Thecomparisonmightbethesubjectoftheessay,ormightprovideevidencefortheargument.
Inallcasesitisimportanttoexplainclearlywhatisbeingcomparedandtomakethecomparisonasaccurateaspossible.
Thisunitdealswithdifferentformsofcomparisonandpractisestheiruse.
(ii)LearningChineseismoredifcultthanlearningEnglish.
(more.
.
.
isusedwithotheradjectivesoftwoormoresyllables)(c)Thesecomparisonscanbemodiedbytheuseofadverbssuchasslightly,considerably,signicantlyandsubstantially:FranceissubstantiallylargerthanSwitzerland.
SwitzerlandisslightlysmallerthanHolland.
WintersinPolandaresignicantlycolderthaninPortugal.
(d)Similaritycanbenotedbytheuseofas.
.
.
asorthesameas:ThepopulationofFranceisthesameasthepopulationofBritain.
SummersinTokyoareaswetasinSingapore.
Thisformcanbeusedforquantitativecomparison:BritainishalfaslargeasFrance.
(alsotwiceaslargeas,tentimesasfastas)2PracticeAIStudythetableonthenextpage,whichshowsthepriceofqualityresidentialpropertyinvariouscities.
Completethefollowingcomparisons,andwritetwomore.
(a)ResidentialpropertyinLondonistwiceasexpensiveinRome.
(b)PropertyinMoscowischeaperthaninNewYork.
(c)Tokyopropertyisnearlyasexpensiveaspropertyin(d)SingaporehassignicantlycheaperpropertyNewYork.
120Part2Elementsofwriting(e)Londonistheexpensiveoftheeightcities,whileSydneyisthecheapest.
(f)(g)3FormsofcomparisonComparethesethreepossibleforms:ParisianpropertyismoreexpensivethanRoman(property).
PropertyinParisismoreexpensivethaninRome.
ThepriceofpropertyinParisishigherthaninRome.
Notethathigh/lowareusedforcomparingabstractideas(e.
g.
rates)Thebirthratewashigher20yearsago.
more/lessmustbeusedwiththan+comparison:Thismoduleismoredifcultthanthelastone.
DivorceislesscommoninTurkeythaninGermany.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221212.
4Comparisonspersq.
m.
City28,000London16,500NewYork16,200Moscow16,000Paris15,850Tokyo13,500Rome11,850Singapore11,000Sydney4Usingsuperlatives(e.
g.
thelargest/smallest)Whenusingsuperlativestakecaretodenethegroup,e.
g.
'thecheapestcar'hasnomeaning:thecheapestcarintheFordrange/thefastestcarintheUSAthemost/theleastarefollowedbyanadjective:themostinterestingexampleisIreland.
.
.
themost/thefewestareusedinrelationtonumbers:thefeweststudentsstudiedbiogenetics(i.
e.
thelowestnumber)5PracticeBIStudythetable,whichshowstheincomeofthetoptenclubsinworldfootball.
Thenreadthecomparisons.
Eachsentencecontainsoneerror.
Findandcorrectit.
122Part2ElementsofwritingClubRevenuem.
2007–8RealMadrid366ManchesterUnited310FCBarcelona304BayernMunich295Chelsea270Arsenal265Liverpool210ACMilan205ASRoma180Internazionale175(a)RealMadridwastherichestclub.
(b)RealMadrid'sincomewastwicemuchasASRoma's.
(c)FCBarcelonaearnedsignicantlylessthanManchesterUnited.
(d)InternazionalehadlessrevenueACMilan.
(e)Liverpool'sincomewasslightlylowerthanACMilan's.
6PracticeCIStudythetablebelowandcompletethegapsintheparagraph(onewordpergap).
Marriageanddivorcerates(per1,000population).
Thetable(a)marriageanddivorceratesinavarietyofcountries.
Themarriage(b)rangesfrom10.
6perthousandinEgyptto3.
9inLibya,whiletherate1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221232.
4ComparisonsCountryMarriagerateDivorcerateEgypt10.
61.
5UnitedStates8.
44.
7Iran8.
40.
8Turkey8.
30.
6Japan6.
21.
9Russia5.
22.
9Spain5.
20.
8UnitedKingdom5.
23.
1SouthAfrica4.
00.
9Libya3.
90.
3ofdivorce(c)evenmore,from4.
7intheUSAtoonly0.
3inLibya.
ThemarriagerateinAmericaisthe(d)asinIran,whichhasa(e)higherrate(f)Turkey's.
IncountriessuchasIran,TurkeyandLibyaonly10percentofmarriagesappeartoendindivorce,butinRussiaandtheUSAthenumberis(g)half.
Itseemspossiblethatthe(h)marriagerateintheUSAmaybepartlyduetosecondmarriages.
7PracticeDIThetablebelowcomparesthenumberofNobelprizewinners(Literature,MedicineandPhysics)foreightcountriesbetween1901and2002.
Writecomparativesentencesbasedonthisdata.
124Part2ElementsofwritingCountryLiteratureMedicinePhysicsUSA124845France1468UK92119Germany71417Sweden674Italy533Russia3–6Switzerland–64(a)FrancehadthehighestnumberofprizewinnersforLiterature.
(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)(g)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221252.
4Comparisons1SimpledenitionsBasicdenitionsareformedbygivingacategoryandtheapplication:CHAPTER2.
5DenitionsDenitionsareusuallyfoundinintroductions(seeUnit1.
11).
Theyarenotneededineverycase,butifthetitleincludesanunfamiliarphrase,orifthewriterwantstouseaterminaspecialway,itisimportanttomakecleartothereaderexactlywhatismeantinthiscontext.
Thisunitpresentswaysofwritingbothsimpleandcomplexdenitions.
WordCategoryApplicationAnagendaisasetofissuestobediscussedinameetingAmaster'sdegreeisanacademicawardforpost-graduatestudents,givenoncompletionofadissertationICompletethefollowingdenitionsbyinsertingasuitablecategorywordorphrasefromthebox(Therearemorewordsthangaps).
(a)Abarometerisascienticdesignedtomeasureatmosphericpressure.
(b)Kidneysarethatseparatewasteuidfromtheblood.
(c)Amulti-nationalcompanyisabusinessthatoperatesinmanycountries.
(d)Reinforcedconcreteisabuildingconsistingofcement,sandandsteelrods.
(e)Bullyingisapatternofanti-socialfoundinmanyschools.
(f)Recyclingisainwhichmaterialsareusedagain.
(g)Arecessionisaofreducedeconomicactivity.
(h)Cerealsarewidelygrownforfoodproduction.
IWritedenitionsforthefollowing:(i)Alectureis(j)Tuberculosis(TB)is(k)TheRedCrossis(l)Anidiomis1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221272.
5Denitionsmaterialtheorybehaviourorganisationorgansinstrumentprocessperiodgrainsprofession2ComplexdenitionsIStudythefollowingexamplesandunderlinethetermbeingdened.
(a)Thedenitionforafailedprojectrangesfromabandonedprojectstoprojectsthatdonotmeettheirfullpotentialorsimplyhavescheduleoverrunproblems.
(b)Developmentisasocio-economic-technologicalprocesshavingthemainobjectiveofraisingthestandardsoflivingofthepeople.
(c)Bowlby(1982)suggestedthatattachmentisanorganisedsystemwhosegoalistomakeindividualsfeelsafeandsecure.
(d).
.
.
thenon-lineareffectcalled'self-brightening'inwhichlarge-amplitudewavesdecaymoreslowlythansmall-amplitudeones.
.
.
(e)Globalisation,inaneconomicsense,describestheopeningupofnationaleconomiestoglobalmarketsandglobalcapital,thefreermovementanddiffusionofgoods,services,nance,people,knowledgeandtechnologyaroundtheworld.
Theseexamplesillustratethevarietyofmethodsusedingivingdenitions.
IWhichoftheabove(i)quotesadenitionfromanotherwriter(ii)givesavarietyofrelevantsituations(iii)explainsaprocess(iv)usescategorywords3PracticeWhenwritingintroductionsitisoftenusefultodeneaterminthetitle,evenifitisfairlycommon,inordertodemonstrateyourunderstandingofitsmeaning.
Example:Title:'Highereducationshouldbefreeandopentoall–Discuss.
'Highereducationusuallymeansuniversity-levelstudyforrstorhigherdegrees,normallyattheageof18orabove.
128Part2ElementsofwritingIStudythefollowingtitles,underlinethetermsthatareworthdening,andwritedenitionsforthreeofthem.
(a)Capitalpunishmenthasnoplaceinthemodernlegalsystem–Discuss.
(b)Howcanthemanagementofanentrepreneurialbusinessretainitsentrepreneurialcultureasitmatures(c)E-booksarelikelytoreplaceprintedbooksinthenexttwentyyears.
Doyouagree(d)Asurbanareascontinuetoexpandworldwide,willagriculturebeabletofeedthegrowingpopulationofcities(e)Giventhemedicaldangersofobesity,whatisthebestwayofreducingitsincidence1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221292.
5Denitions1231UsingexamplesGeneralisationsarecommonlyusedtointroduceatopic:Manyplantsandanimalsarethreatenedbyglobalwarming.
Butifthereaderisgivenanexampleforillustrationtheideabecomesmoreconcrete:Manyplantsandanimalsarethreatenedbyglobalwarming.
Polarbears,forexample,aresufferingfromthelackofArcticice.
Theexamplemayalsosupportthepointthewriterismaking:AparticipatorypublichasbeenadeningfeatureofAmericanpoliticsandhistoricallyastrengthofthepoliticalsystem.
CHAPTER2.
6ExamplesExamplesareusedinacademicwritingforsupportandillustration.
Suitableexamplescanstrengthentheargument,andtheycanalsohelpthereadertounderstandapoint.
Thisunitdemonstratesthedifferentwaysinwhichexamplescanbeintroduced,andpractisestheiruse.
AlexisdeTocqueville'sclassictreatiseon'DemocracyinAmerica'(1966)stressedtheparticipatorytendenciesofAmericansincontrasttoEuropeanpublics.
SeeUnit2.
7Generalisations2Phrasestointroduceexamples(a)forinstance,forexample(withcommas)Somecarmanufacturers,forinstanceHyundai,nowofferve-yearguarantees.
(b)suchas,e.
g.
ManysuccessfulbusinessmensuchasBillGateshavenoformalqualications.
(c)particularly,especially(togiveafocus)CertainMasterscourses,especiallyAmericanones,taketwoyears.
(d)acaseinpoint(forsingleexamples)Afewdiseaseshavebeensuccessfullyeradicated.
Acaseinpointissmallpox.
IAddasuitableexampletoeachsentenceandintroduceitwithoneofthephrasesabove.
Examples:Anumberofsportshavebecomeveryprotableduetothesaleoftelevisionrights.
Anumberofsports,forinstancemotorracing,havebecomeveryprotableduetothesaleoftelevisionrights.
(a)Sometwentieth-centuryinventionsaffectedthelivesofmostpeople.
(b)Latelymanycountrieshaveintroducedfeesforuniversitycourses.
(c)Variouscompanieshavebuilttheirreputationonthestrengthofoneproduct.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221312.
6Examples(d)Inrecentyearsmorewomenhavebecomepoliticalleaders.
(e)Certaincountriesarefrequentlyaffectedbyearthquakes.
(f)Manymusicalinstrumentsusestringstomakemusic.
(g)Agroupofrootcropsconstituteanimportantpartofourdiets.
(h)Politicianshavediscussedarangeofpossiblealternativepunishmentstoprison.
3PracticeAIStudythefollowingtextandaddexamplesfromtheboxwheresuitable,usingoneoftheintroductoryphrasesin(2)above.
132Part2ElementsofwritingfreedeliveryordiscountedpricesbookshopsclothingandfootwearbooksandmusicmanysupermarketsofferdeliveryservicesforonlinecustomersWidespreaduseoftheinternethasledtoamajorchangeinshoppinghabits.
Itisnolongernecessarytovisitshopstomakeroutinepurchases.
Withmorespecialiseditemsinternetretailerscanofferawiderrangeofproductsthanbricks-and-mortarshops.
Theycanalsoprovideextraincentivestocustomers,inadditiontotheconvenienceofnothavingtovisitarealshop.
Asaresultcertaintypesofstorearedisappearingfromthehighstreet.
Otherproductshowever,appeartorequirepersonalinspectionandapproval,andinadditionmanypeopleenjoytheactivityofshopping,soitseemsunlikelythattheinternetwillcompletelyreplacetheshoppingcentre.
3.
14PracticeBIReadthetextbelowandtheninsertsuitableexampleswhereneeded.
5RestatementAnothersmallgroupofphrasesisusedwhenthereisonlyone'example'.
(Bracketsmayalsobeusedforthispurpose.
)Thisisakindofrestatementtoclarifythemeaning:Theworld'sleadinggoldproducernamelySouthAfricahasbeenfacedwithanumberoftechnicaldifculties.
IAddasuitablephrasefromtheboxbelowtothefollowingsentences,tomakethemclearer.
(a)Thecompany'soverheadsdoubledlastyear.
(b)TheRomanempirewasaperiodofautocraticrule.
(c)TheIndiancapitalhasathrivingcommercialcentre.
(d)Survivalratesfromthemostcommontypeofcancerareimproving.
(e)Participationratesinmostdemocraciesareindecline.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221332.
6ExamplesthatistosayfewerpeoplearevotinginotherwordsthexedcostsnamelyNewDelhi(27BC–476AD)i.
e.
breastcancerinotherwordsnamelythatis(tosay)i.
e.
viz(veryformal)Studentswhogotostudyabroadoftenexperienceatypeofcultureshockwhentheyarriveinthenewcountry.
Customsthattheytookforgrantedintheirownsocietymaynotbefollowedinthehostcountry.
Eveneverydaypatternsoflifemaybedifferent.
Whentheseareaddedtotheinevitabledifferencesthatoccurineverycountrystudentsmayatrstfeelconfused.
Theymayexperiencerapidchangesofmood,orevenwanttoreturnhome.
However,mostsoonmakenewfriendsand,inarelativelyshortperiod,areabletoadjusttotheirnewenvironment.
Theymayevenndthattheyprefersomeaspectsoftheirnewsurroundings,andforgetthattheyarenotathomeforawhile!
4.
11Usinggeneralisations(a)Generalisationsareusedtogiveasimplepictureofatopic.
Compare:ThemajorityofsmokersinBritainarewomen.
andOfallsmokersintheUK,56.
2percentarewomenand43.
8percentaremen.
Althoughthesecondsentenceismoreaccurate,therstiseasiertounderstandandremember.
Thewritermustdecidewhenaccuracyisnecessary,andwhenageneralisationwillbeacceptable.
(b)Youmustavoidusinggeneralisationsthatcannotbesupportedbyevidenceorresearch,e.
g.
Studentstendtobelazy.
CHAPTER2.
7GeneralisationsGeneralisationsareoftenusedtointroduceatopic.
Theycanbepowerfulstatementsbecausetheyaresimpleandeasytounderstand.
Buttheymustbeusedwithcare,toavoidbeinginaccurateortoosimplistic.
Thisunitexplainshowtogeneraliseclearlyandeffectively.
IDecidewhichofthefollowingarevalidgeneralisations:(a)Catsaremoreintelligentthandogs.
(b)Earthquakesaredifculttopredict.
(c)Thereisalinkbetweenpovertyanddisease.
(d)Womenworkharderthanmen.
(e)Airtravelisfasterthantraintravel.
2StructureGeneralisationscanbemadeintwoways:(a)Mostcommonlyusingtheplural:Computershavetransformedthewaywelive.
(b)Usingthesingular+denitearticle(moreformal):Thecomputerhastransformedthewaywelive.
Avoidabsolutephrasesingeneralisationssuchas:Youngchildrenlearnsecondlanguageseasily.
Suchstatementsaredangerousbecausetheremaywellbeexceptions.
Instead,itisbettertousecautiousphrasessuchas:Youngchildrentendtolearnsecondlanguageseasily.
SeeUnit3.
4Caution1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221352.
7GeneralisationsIReadthefollowingtextandunderlinethegeneralisations.
3PracticeAIWritegeneralisationsonthefollowingtopics.
(a)freshfruit/healthEatingfreshfruitisimportantforhealth.
(b)regularrainfall/goodcropyields(c)honestjudges/respectforthelaw(d)adequatesleep/academicsuccess(e)industrialgrowth/pollution136Part2ElementsofwritingWhatwelookforinchoosingamateseemstovaryfromplacetoplace.
Arecentstudy(JonesandDeBruine,2010)explorestheideathatfemalepreferencesinamatemightvaryaccordingtothesocietyinwhichshelives.
Intheirresearchnearly5,000womenin30countrieswereshownthesamepicturesofmalefacesandaskedtostatewhichtheyfoundmoreattractive.
Incountrieswherediseaseiscommonwomenchosemenwithmoremasculinefeatures,whileincountriessuchasAmericawithmoreadvancedhealthcareandlowerlevelsofdisease,moreeffeminate-lookingmenwerepreferred.
Theresearchersconcludethatinhealthiersocietieswomenaremoreinterestedinmenwhomayformlong-termrelationshipsandhelpwithchild-rearing,whileinplaceswherechildmortalityratesarehightheychoosestrongly-featuredmenwhoseemmorelikelytoproducehealthychildren.
2.
1(f)coldweather/demandforgas(g)jobsatisfaction/interestingwork4PracticeBIStudythetableandwritevegeneralisationsusingtheinformation.
Resultsofacollegesurveyonwherestudentsprefertostudy.
(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221372.
7GeneralisationsUndergraduates(%)Graduates(%)MaleFemaleMaleFemaleLibrary20174732Ownroominsilence21272638Ownroomwithmusic25131214Ownroominbed1524610Outdoors6942Other1310545BuildingongeneralisationsMostessaysmovefromthegeneraltothespecic,asageneralisationhastobesupportedanddeveloped.
Forexample,anessaywiththetitle'TheimpactofglobalisationontheChineseeconomy'mightdevelopinthisway:IChooseatitlefromthelistbelow,orselectonefromyourownsubject,writeageneralisationanddevelopitinthesameway.
(a)Doestourismalwayshaveanegativeeffectonthehostcountry(b)Shouldgovernmentsusetaxationtopromotepublichealth(c)Isitmoreimportanttoprotectforestsortogrowfood(d)Isitbetterforthestatetospendmoneyonprimaryoruniversityeducation138Part2ElementsofwritingGeneralisationSupportDevelopment>SpecicSincethemid-twentiethcenturytherehasbeenaremarkableincreaseininternationaltrade.
ThereasonsforthisareacombinationofinternationalagreementssuchasGATT,bettertransportandimprovedcommunications.
Chinahasplayedasignicantpartinthisprocess,withitsinternationaltradegrowingby16timesinjust20years,whileitsGDPincreasedbynearly10percentperyear.
GeneralisationSupportDevelopment>Specic1ThelanguageofnumbersInintroductionsnumbersareoftenusedtogiveanaccurateaccountofasituation:Approximately1800childrenbetweentheagesofveand12yearswererandomlyselected.
.
.
Theearth'satmosphereappearstobegaining3.
3billionmetrictonsofcarbonannually.
.
.
.
.
.
butvewintersinthetwentiethcenturyweremorethan2.
4°CcolderthanaverageFiguresandnumbersarebothusedtotalkaboutstatisticaldatainageneralsense:Thegures/numbersinthereportneedtobereadcritically.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER2.
8NumbersMoststudentsarerequiredtowriteaboutstatisticaldataclearlyandaccurately.
Thisunitexplainsandpractisesthebasiclanguageofnumbersandpercentages,whilepresentingdatainchartsandtablesisdealtwithinUnit2.
11Visualinformation.
Butnumberisusedmorewidely:13isanunluckynumber.
Sheforgotherphonenumber.
Digitsareindividualnumbers.
4,539–afourdigitnumber.
Bothfractions(1/2)anddecimals(0.
975)maybeused.
Thereisnonal's'onhundred/thousand/millionusedwithwholenumbers:Sixmillionpeoplelivethere.
but:Thousandsofpeoplewereforcedtomovefromthearea.
Whenwritingaboutcurrencieswrite$440m.
(440milliondollars).
Ratesarenormallyexpressedaspercentages(e.
g.
theliteracyrateroseto75%)butmayalsobeperthousand(e.
g.
theAustrianbirthrateis8.
7).
Itisnormaltowritewholenumbersaswordsfromonetotenandasdigitsaboveten:Fivepeoplenormallyworkinthecafé,butatpeaktimesthiscanriseto14.
2PercentagesThesearecommonlyusedforexpressingdegreesofchange:Since2008thenumberofprisonershasrisenby22percent.
ICompletethefollowingsentencesusingthedatainthetableopposite.
(a)Between2007and2008,thenumberofoverseasstudentsincreasedbypercent.
(b)Thenumberincreasedbypercentthefollowingyear.
(c)Between2007and2010therewasapercentincrease.
140Part2Elementsofwriting3SimplicationAlthoughtheaccurateuseofnumbersisvital,toomanystatisticscanmaketextsdifculttoread.
Iftheactualnumberisnotimportant,wordssuchasvarious,dozensorscoresmaybeusedinstead:Thesnowstormclosed47schools.
Thesnowstormcloseddozensofschools.
IRewritethefollowingsentencesusingoneofthewordsorphrasesinthetableabove.
(a)Onlythreepeopleattendedthemeeting.
Fewpeopleattendedthemeeting.
(b)77studentsappliedforthescholarship.
(c)Here-wrotetheessaythreetimes.
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8Numbers20072008200920102003006001000fewlessthanexpectedafewapproximately3–6dependingoncontextseveralapproximately3–4variousapproximately4–6dozensofapproximately30–60scoresofapproximately60–100Overseasstudentsintheuniversity2007–2010(d)Lastyear38bookswerepublishedonbiogenetics.
(e)Fivenamesweresuggestedbutrejectedforthenewchocolatebar.
(f)Thestudentsthoughtoffourgoodtopicsfortheirproject.
4FurthernumericalphrasesTheexpressionslistedbelowcanalsobeusedtopresentandsimplifystatisticalinformation.
Forexample:Thecoursefeesrosefrom$1,200to$2,500intwoyears.
couldbewritten:Thecoursefeesdoubledintwoyears.
Ifappropriate,roughly/approximatelycanbeadded:Thecoursefeesroughlydoubledintwoyears.
142Part2ElementsofwritingoneinthreeoneinthreeengineeringstudentsisfromChinatwice/threetimesasmanytwiceasmanywomenasmenstudybusinesslawave/tenfoldincreasetherewasavefoldincreaseinthepriceofoiltodouble/halvetherateofinfectionhalvedafter2001thehighest/lowestthelowestrateofhomeownershipwasinGermanyaquarter/fthafthofallemployeesleaveeveryyearthemajority/minoritythemajorityofbirthsareinhospitalonaverage,theaverageonaverage,eachjudgehearstwocasesperdayasmall/largeproportionthewebsitegeneratesalargeproportionoftheirsalesNB.
5–20percent=atiny/smallminority21–39percent=aminority40–49percent=asubstantial/signicantminority51–55percent=asmallmajority56–79percent=amajority80percent+=alargemajorityIRe-writeeachsentenceinasimplerway,usingasuitableexpressionfromthelistabove.
(a)In1975alitreofpetrolcost12p,whilethepriceisnow1.
20.
(b)Outof18studentsinthegroup12werewomen.
(c)Thenewhigh-speedtrainreducedthejourneytimetoMadridfromsevenhourstothreehours20minutes.
(d)ThenumberofstudentsapplyingforthePsychologycoursehasrisenfrom350lastyearto525thisyear.
(e)Visitornumberstothethemeparkshowasteadyincrease.
In2007therewere40,000admissions,in200882,000and171,000in2009.
(f)Morethan80percentofBritishstudentscompletetheirrstdegreecourse;inItalythegureisjust35percent.
(g)Tapwatercosts0.
07pperlitrewhilebottledwatercosts,onaverage,50pperlitre.
(h)Therateofunemploymentrangesfrom18percentinSpainto3percentinNorway.
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8Numbers(i)Sevenoutofevery100computersproducedhadsomekindoffault.
(j)57percentofthememberssupportedthesuggestion,but83percentofthesehadsomedoubts.
5PracticeIThefollowingdatawascollectedaboutagroupof15internationalstudents.
Writesentencesaboutthegroupusingthedata.
(a)AsmallmajorityhaveChineseastheirmothertongue.
(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)144Part2ElementsofwritingMothertongueFuturecourseAgeFavouritesportArabic2Architecture1211climbing2Chinese8Economics3223cycling1French1Education2239dancing3Japanese1Maths624–football3Korean2Physics225–swimming5Spanish1Psychology1261tennis11StructureIStudytheorganisationofthefollowingparagraph:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER2.
9ProblemsandsolutionsWritingtasksfrequentlyaskstudentstoexamineaproblemandevaluatearangeofsolutions.
Thisunitexplainswaysinwhichthiskindoftextcanbeorganised.
NotethatsomeofthelanguageissimilartothatpractisedinUnit2.
1Argumentanddiscussion.
HOWCANROADCONGESTIONBEREDUCEDCurrently,roadsareoftencongested,whichisexpensiveintermsofdelaystothemovementofpeopleandfreight.
Itiscommonlysuggestedthatbuildingmoreroads,orwideningexistingones,wouldeasethetrafcjams.
Butnotonlyisthecostofsuchworkhigh,buttheconstructionprocessaddstothecongestion,whiletheresultingextraroadspacemayencourageextratrafc.
Thereforeconstructingmoreroadsisunlikelytosolvetheproblem,andotherremedies,suchasroadpricingorgreateruseofpublictransport,shouldbeexamined.
1.
12AlternativestructureThesameideascouldbere-orderedtoarriveatadifferentconclusion:146Part2Elementsofwriting(a)ProblemCurrently,roadsareoftencongested,whichis.
.
.
(b)SolutionAItiscommonlysuggestedthatbuildingmoreroads,orwidening.
.
.
(c)ArgumentsagainstsolutionAButnotonlyisthecostofsuchworkhigh,but.
.
.
(d)SolutionsBandC.
.
.
otherremedies,suchasroadpricingorgreateruse.
.
.
ProblemCurrently,roadsareoftencongested,whichis.
.
.
SolutionAItiscommonlysuggestedthatbuildingmoreroads,orwidening.
.
.
ArgumentsagainstsolutionAThisremedyiscriticisedforbeingexpensive.
.
.
SolutionsBandCandargumentsagainstRoadpricinghasmanypracticaldifculties,whilepeopleare.
.
.
ConclusioninfavourofsolutionAThereislittlealternativetoaroadbuildingprogramme.
.
.
HOWCANROADCONGESTIONBEREDUCEDCurrently,roadsareoftencongested,whichisexpensiveintermsofdelaystothemovementofpeopleandfreight.
Itiscommonlysuggestedthatbuildingmoreroads,orwideningexistingones,wouldeasethetrafcjams.
Thisremedyiscriticisedforbeingexpensiveandliabletoleadtomoreroaduse,whichmaybepartlytrue,yetthealternativesareequallyproblematic.
Roadpricinghasmanypracticaldifculties,whilepeoplearereluctanttousepublictransport.
Thereislittlealternativetoaroadbuildingprogrammeexceptincreasingroadchaos.
2.
13PracticeAIAnalysethefollowingparagraphinasimilarway:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221472.
9ProblemsandsolutionsProblemSolutionAArgumentagainstsolutionASolutionBConclusioninfavourofBMANAGINGTOURISMGROWTHManydevelopingcountrieshavefoundthatthedevelopmentofatourismindustrycanbringsocialandenvironmentaldrawbacks.
Growingvisitornumberscancausepollutionandputpressureonscarceresourcessuchaswater.
Onepossiblesolutionistotargetwealthierholidaymakers,inordertogetthemaximumprotfromminimumnumbers.
However,thereisalimitednumberofsuchvisitors,andthismarketrequiresconsiderableinvestmentininfrastructureandtraining.
Anotherremedyistorigorouslycontroltheenvironmentalstandardsofanydevelopment,inordertominimisetheimpactoftheconstruction.
Thisrequireseffectivegovernmentagencies,butislikelytoensurethebestoutcomeforbothtouristsandlocals.
3.
14VocabularyThefollowingwordscanbeusedassynonymsforproblemandsolution.
5PracticeBIUsethefollowingpointstobuildanargumentinoneparagraph,usingtheboxbelow.
Topic:UniversityexpansionProblem:Demandforuniversityplacesisgrowing,leadingtoovercrowdinginlecturesandseminarsSolutionA:IncreasefeestoreducedemandArgumentagainstA:UnfairtopoorerstudentsSolutionB:GovernmentpaystoexpanduniversitiesArgumentagainstB:UnfairtoaveragetaxpayerwhowouldbesubsidisingtheeducationofaminoritywhowillearnhighsalariesConclusion:Governmentshouldsubsidisepoorerstudents148Part2Elementsofwritingthreemaindifcultieshavearisen.
.
.
themainchallengefacedbynurses.
.
.
oneoftheconcernsduringtherecession.
.
.
thenewprocesscreatedtwoquestions.
.
.
theteamfacedsixissues.
.
.
ourprincipalworry/dilemmawas.
.
.
thebestremedyforthismaybe.
.
.
twoanswershavebeenputforward.
.
.
anothersuggestionis.
.
.
Matheson'sproposalwasnallyaccepted.
thiswasnallyrectiedby.
.
.
6PracticeCIThinkofasimilarprobleminyoursubjectarea.
Completethetableandwriteaparagraphthatleadstoaconclusion.
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9ProblemsandsolutionsUniversityexpansionCurrentlythereisincreasingdemand.
.
.
TopicProblemSolutionAArgumentagainstASolutionBArgumentfor/againstB(SolutionC)Conclusion1ComponentsofacademicstyleIStudythisparagraphandunderlineanyexamplesofpoorstyle.
CHAPTER2.
10StyleThereisnoonecorrectstyleofacademicwriting,andstudentsshouldaimtodeveloptheirown'voice'.
Ingeneral,itshouldattempttobeaccurate,impersonalandobjective.
Forexample,personalpronounslike'I'andidioms(i.
e.
informallanguage)areusedlessoftenthaninotherwriting.
Thisunitgivessomeguidelinesforanappropriatestyle,butseealsoUnits3.
2Academicvocabulary,3.
4Cautionand3.
13Verbs–passives.
Howtomakepeopleworkharderisatopicthatlotsofpeoplehavewrittenaboutinthelastfewyears.
TherearelotsofdifferenttheoriesetcandIthinksomeofthemareok.
WhenwethinkaboutthisweshouldremembertheoldChineseproverb,thatyoucanleadahorsetowaterbutyoucan'tmakeitdrink.
SohowdoweincreaseproductionIt'squiteacomplexsubjectbutI'lljusttalkaboutacoupleofideas.
1.
1Someoftheproblemswiththestyleofthisparagraphcanbeanalysedasfollows:Theparagraphcouldbere-written:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221512.
10StyleMotivationhasbeenthesubjectofnumerousstudiesduringrecentdecades,butthisessaywillfocusonMaslow'shierarchyofneedstheory(1943)andHerzberg'stwo-factortheory(1966).
Theircontemporaryrelevancetotheneedtomotivateemployeeseffectivelywillbeexaminedcritically,giventhatthiscanbeconsideredcrucialtoarm'ssurvivalinthecurrenteconomicclimate.
1.
2Howtomakepeopleworkharder.
.
.
Imprecisevocabulary–use'motivation'.
.
.
lotsofpeople.
.
.
Vague–givenames.
.
.
thelastfewyears.
Vague–givedateslotsofdifferent.
.
.
Avoid'lotsof'.
.
.
etc.
.
.
Avoidusing'etc'and'andsoon'.
.
.
Ithink.
.
.
Toopersonal.
.
.
areok.
TooinformalWhenwethinkaboutthis.
.
.
Toopersonal.
.
.
theoldChineseproverb.
.
.
DonotquoteproverbsorsimilarexpressionsSohowdoweincreaseproductionAvoidrhetoricalquestionsIt'squitea.
.
.
Avoidcontractions.
.
.
I'lljusttalkaboutacouple.
.
.
Toopersonalandinformal2GuidelinesTherearenorulesforacademicstylethatapplytoallsituations.
Thefollowingareguidelinesthatshouldhelpyoudevelopastyleofyourown.
(a)Donotuseidiomaticorcolloquialvocabulary:kids,boss.
InsteadusestandardEnglish:children,manager.
(b)Usevocabularyaccurately.
Thereisadifferencebetweenruleandlaw,orweatherandclimate,whichyouareexpectedtoknowifyoustudythesesubjects.
(c)Beaspreciseaspossiblewhendealingwithfactsorgures.
Avoidphrasessuchasaboutahundredorhundredsofyearsago.
Ifitisnecessarytoestimatenumbersuseapproximatelyratherthanabout.
(d)Conclusionsshouldusetentativelanguage.
Avoidabsolutestatementssuchasunemploymentcausescrime.
Insteadusecautiousphrases:unemploymentmaycausecrimeortendstocausecrime.
SeeUnit3.
4Caution(e)Avoidadverbsthatshowyourpersonalattitude:luckily,remarkably,surprisingly.
(f)Donotcontractverbforms:don't,can't.
Usethefullform:Donot,cannot.
(g)AlthoughacademicEnglishtendstousethepassivemorethanstandardEnglish,itshouldnotbeover-used.
Bothareneeded.
Compare:GalileodiscoveredthemoonsofJupiter.
ThemoonsofJupiterwerediscoveredbyGalileo.
Intherstcase,thefocusisonGalileo,inthesecond(passive)onthemoons.
SeeUnit3.
13Verbs–passives(h)Avoidthefollowing:likeforintroducingexamples.
Usesuchasorforinstance.
thingandcombinationsnothingorsomething.
Usefactor,issueortopic.
lotsof.
Useasignicant/considerablenumber.
little/big.
Usesmall/large.
152Part2Elementsofwriting'get'phrasessuchasgetbetter/worse.
Useimproveanddeteriorate.
good/badaresimplistic.
Usepositive/negative,e.
g.
thechangeshadseveralpositiveaspects.
(i)DonotusequestionformssuchasWhydidwarbreakoutin1914Insteadusestatements:Therewerethreereasonsfortheoutbreakofwar.
.
.
(j)Avoidnumberingsectionsofyourtext,exceptinreportsandlongessays.
Useconjunctionsandsignpostingexpressionstointroducenewsections(Turningtothequestionofdetectingcancer.
.
.
).
(k)Whenwritinglists,avoidusingetcorandsoon.
Insertandbeforethelastitem:Themainproductswerepharmaceuticals,electronicgoodsandconfectionery.
(l)Avoidusingtwo-wordverbssuchasgoonorbringupifthereisasuitablesynonym.
Usecontinueorraise.
SeeUnit3.
2Academicvocabulary3PracticeIInthefollowingsentences,underlineexamplesofbadstyleandre-writetheminamoresuitableway.
(a)Anotherthingtothinkaboutisthechanceofcrimegettingworse.
(b)Regrettablythesedayslotsofpeopledon'thavejobs.
(c)Sometimesoontheywillndavaccineformalaria.
(d)AfewyearsagothepriceofpropertyinJapanwentdownalot.
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10Style(e)Youcan'talwaystrustthenumbersinthatreport.
(f)Sadly,thehighinationledtopoverty,socialunrestandsoon.
(g)Hewasoverthemoonwhenhewontheprize.
(h)Ithinkweshouldpaystudentstostudy.
(i)Afewyearsagotheyallowedwomentovote.
(j)WhatwerethemaincausesoftheRussianrevolution4AvoidingrepetitionandredundancyRepetitionmeansrepeatingawordinsteadofusingasynonymtoprovidevariety,whichmakesthetextmoreinteresting.
Soinsteadof:Mostfamilybusinessesemploylessthantenpeople.
Thesebusinesses.
.
.
Use:Mostfamilybusinessesemploylessthantenpeople.
Theserms.
.
.
SeeUnit3.
11SynonymsRedundancy,i.
e.
repeatinganideaorincludinganirrelevantpoint,suggeststhatthewriterisnotfullyincontrolofthematerial.
Itgivestheimpressionthateitherhedoesnotproperlyunderstandthelanguageoristryingto'pad'theessaybyrepeatingthesamepoint.
Avoidphrasessuchas:Homelessnessisaglobalprobleminthewholeworld.
Goodwritingaimsforeconomyandprecision:Homelessnessisaglobalproblem.
154Part2ElementsofwritingIInthefollowingtext,removeallrepetitionandredundancy,re-writingwherenecessary.
5VaryingsentencelengthShortsentencesareclearandeasytoread:Carscrappageschemeshavebeenintroducedinmanycountries.
Buttoomanyshortsentencesaremonotonous:Carscrappageschemeshavebeenintroducedinmanycountries.
Theyofferasubsidytobuyersofnewcars.
Thebuyersmustscrapanoldvehicle.
Theschemesaredesignedtostimulatetheeconomy.
Theyalsoincreasefuelefciency.
Longsentencesaremoreinterestingbutcanbedifculttoconstructandread:Carscrappageschemes,whichofferasubsidytobuyersofnewcars,whomustscrapanoldvehicle,havebeenintroducedinmanycountries;theschemesaredesignedtostimulatetheeconomyandalsoincreasefuelefciency.
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10StyleFASTFOODCurrentlythesedays,fastfoodisgrowinginpopularity.
Fastfoodisakindoffoodthatpeoplecanbuyreadytoeatorcookquickly.
Thisessayexaminestheadvantagesoffastfoodandthedrawbacksoffastfood.
Firstaboveall,fastfoodisveryconvenient.
Mostofthepeoplewhoworkinofcesareverybusy,sothattheydonothavetimetogototheirhomesforlunch.
ButthepeoplewhoworkinofcescaneatinrestaurantssuchasMcDonalds,whicharefranchisedinhundredsofcountries.
Inaddition,thesecondbenetoffastfoodisitscheapness.
Asitisproducedinlargequantities,thishighvolumemeansthatthecompaniescankeepcostsdown.
Asaresultfastfoodisusuallylessexpensivethanamealinaconventionalrestaurant.
4.
1Effectivewritingnormallyusesamixtureoflongandshortsentences,oftenusingashortsentencetointroducethetopic:Carscrappageschemeshavebeenintroducedinmanycountries.
Theyofferasubsidytobuyersofnewcars,whomustscrapanoldvehicle.
Theschemesaredesignedtostimulatetheeconomyandalsoincreasefuelefciency.
IRe-writethefollowingparagraphsothatinsteadofsixshortsentencestherearetwolongandtwoshortsentences.
IThefollowingsentenceistoolong.
Divideitintoshorterones.
156Part2ElementsofwritingChinaisonedevelopingcountry(butnottheonlyone)whichhasimposedfeesonstudentssince1997,buttheresultshavebeensurprising:enrolments,especiallyinthemostexpensiveuniversities,havecontinuedtorisesteeply,growing200percentoverallbetween1997and2001;itseemsinthiscasethathigherfeesattractratherthandiscouragestudents,whoseethemasasignofagoodeducation,andcompetemoreercelyforplaces,leadingtotheresultthataplaceatagoodcollegecancost$5000peryearforfeesandmaintenance.
5.
2Worldwide,enrolmentsinhighereducationareincreasing.
Indevelopedcountriesoverhalfofallyoungpeopleentercollege.
SimilartrendsareseeninChinaandSouthAmerica.
Thisgrowthhasputnancialstrainonstateuniversitysystems.
Manycountriesareaskingstudentsandparentstocontribute.
Thisleadstoadebateaboutwhetherstudentsorsocietybenetfromtertiaryeducation.
5.
1Untilyoufeelcondentinyourwriting,itisbettertouseshorterratherthanlongersentences.
Thisshouldmakeyourmeaningasclearaspossible.
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10Style1Thelanguageofchange(pasttensesinbrackets)CHAPTER2.
11VisualinformationInmanyassignmentsitisessentialtosupportyourargumentswithstatistics.
Visualdevicessuchasgraphsandtablesareaconvenientwayofdisplayinglargequantitiesofinformationinaformthatiseasytounderstand.
Thisunitexplainsandpractisesthelanguageconnectedwiththesedevices.
VerbAdverbVerbAdjective+noungrow(grew)slightlydrop(dropped)aslightdroprise(rose)graduallyfall(fell)agradualfallincrease(increased)steadilydecrease(decreased)asharpdecreaseclimb(climbed)sharplydecline(declined)asteadydeclinealso:apeak,topeak,aplateau,toleveloff,atroughAveragetemperaturesrosesteadilyuntil2006andthendroppedslightly.
Therewasasharpdecreaseinsalesduringthesummerandthenagradualrise.
IStudythegraphbelowandcompletethedescriptionwithphrasesfromthetableopposite.
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11VisualinformationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSep654321InflationJanuary–SeptemberInflation%0Thegraphshowsthatination(a)slightlybetweenJanuaryandFebruaryandthen(b)untilApril.
Itsubsequentlyclimbed(c)toJuly,whenit(d)atjustover5percent.
FromJulytoSeptemberination(e)steeply.
2TypesofvisualsIOnpp.
160–161areexamplesofsomeofthemaintypesofvisualsusedinacademictexts.
Completethetabletoshowtheuse(a–f)andtheexample(A–F)ofeachtype.
Uses:(a)location(b)comparison(c)proportion(d)function(e)changesintime(f)statisticaldisplay160Part2Elementsofwriting50040030020010002000200120022003200420052006200720082009Cinematicketsales($m)2000–2009TYPESUSESEXAMPLE1diagram2table3map4piechart5barchart6linegraph(A)Cinematicketsales(B)Averagelifeexpectancy(inyears)Japan81.
6France79.
0UnitedStates77.
1SouthKorea75.
5Ghana57.
9SouthAfrica47.
7Kenya44.
6Zimbabwe33.
11EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221612.
11Visualinformation9080706050403020100ChinaElectricityoutput%fromcoalAustraliaIndiaUnitedStatesGermanyFarEastN.
AmericaEuropeOtherAfricaDirectorDeputyDirectorManagerTechnicalStaffSecretarialStaffResearchStaffSportscentreScienceroadMainlibraryEntrance(C)Electricityoutputfromcoal(D)Originsofinternationalstudents(E)Structureoftheresearchunit(F)Positionofthemainlibrary3DescribingvisualsAlthoughvisualsdolargelyspeakforthemselves,itiscommontohelpthereaderinterpretthembybrieycommentingontheirmainfeatures.
I(a)Readthefollowingdescriptionsofthechartbelow.
Whichisbetter,andwhy(i)Thechartshowsthequantityofteaconsumedbytheworld'sleadingteaconsumingnations.
IndiaandChinatogetherconsumemorethanhalftheworld'steaproduction,withIndiaaloneconsumingaboutonethird.
OthersignicantteaconsumersareTurkey,RussiaandBritain.
'Others'includestheUnitedStates,IranandEgypt.
(ii)Thechartshowsthat31percentoftheworld'steaisconsumedbyIndia,23percentbyChina,and8percentbyTurkey.
ThefourthlargestconsumersareRussia,JapanandBritain,with7percenteach,whilePakistanconsumes5percent.
Othercountriesaccountfortheremaining12percent.
162Part2ElementsofwritingThegraphmapdiagramshowsillustratesdisplaysthechangesinthepriceofoilsince1990themainsourcesofcopperinAfricatheorganisationofbothcompaniesOthers12%India31%China23%Pakistan5%Britain7%Russia7%Turkey8%Japan7%Figure1Worldteaconsumption(Source:TheTeaCouncil)I(b)Completethedescriptionofthechartbelow.
Thebarchartshowspopulation(a)inavarietyofcountriesaroundtheworld.
It(b)theextremecontrast(c)crowdednationssuchasSouthKorea(475peoplepersq.
km.
)andmuch(d)countriessuchasCanada(3peoplepersq.
km.
).
Clearly,climateplaysamajor(e)indeterminingpopulationdensity,(f)theleastcrowdednations(g)tohaveextremeclimates(e.
g.
coldinRussiaordryinAlgeria).
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221632.
11Visualinformation0100200300400500CanadaRussiaAlgeriaBrazilChinaBritainJapanS.
KoreaFigure2Populationdensity(peoplepersquarekilometre)(Source:OECD)4LabellingWhenreferringtovisualinformationinthetext,theword'gure'isusedforalmosteverything(suchasmaps,chartsandgraphs)excepttables(seeexamplesabove).
Figuresandtablesshouldbenumberedandgivenatitle.
Titlesoftablesarewrittenabove,whiletitlesofguresarewrittenbelowthedata.
Aswithotherdata,sourcesmustbegivenforallvisualinformation.
Ifyouarewritingalengthyworksuchasadissertationyouwillneedtoprovidelistsoftablesandgures,showingnumbers,titlesandpagenumbersafterthecontentspage.
5PracticeAICompletethefollowingdescriptionofthetablebelow(onewordpergap).
ProjectedpopulationchangesinvariousEuropeancountries2010–2050(millions).
(Source:UN)Thetable(a)theprojectedpopulationchangesin(b)Europeancountries(c)2010and2050.
Itcanbeseenthatina(d)thepopulationisexpectedtofall,insomecases(i.
e.
GermanyandRussia)quite(e)However,thepopulationofFrance,(f)andtheUKispredictedtoincrease,inthecaseofthelasttwobymore(g)5percent.
164Part2ElementsofwritingCountryPopulation2010Projectedpopulation2050ChangeFrance6267+5Germany8271–11Italy6057–3Poland3832–6Portugal10.
710–0.
7Russia140116–24Spain4551+6UK6172+106PracticeBIWriteaparagraphcommentingonthedatainthetablebelow.
Studentsurveyoflibraryfacilities:percentageofstudentsratingfacilitiesasgood.
(Source:Author)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221652.
11VisualinformationLibraryfacilitiesUndergraduatesPostgraduatesOpeninghours7263Staffhelpfulness9481Easeofusingelectroniccatalogue6587Availabilityofworkingspace8076Caféarea9195Availabilityofshortloanstock4335Qualityofmainbookstock69541WhyworkingroupsIReadthefollowingtextonp.
167.
Workinginpairs,andwithoutlookingbackatthetext,decideifthefollowingaretrueorfalse.
(a)Allstudentsreactpositivelytotheideaofgroupwork.
(b)Eachgroupmemberalwaysreceivesthesamemark.
(c)Studentsingroupscannormallychoosewhotheyworkwith.
(d)Therearetwomainreasonsforsettinggroupwork.
(e)Mostemployerslookforeffectiveteammembers.
(f)Groupworkatuniversityhasnoconnectiontoteamworkincompanies.
CHAPTER2.
12WorkingingroupsSomeuniversitycoursesexpectstudentstocompletewrittenassignmentsaspartofagroupoffourtoeightstudents.
Thisunitexplainsthereasonsforthis,andsuggeststhebestwaytoapproachgroupworkinordertoachievethemaximumbenetfromtheprocess.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221672.
12WorkingingroupsTHEIMPORTANCEOFGROUPWORKStudentsstudyinginEnglish-mediuminstitutions,especiallythosefromothercultures,maybesurprisedtondtheyareexpectedtoworkingroupstocompletesomeacademicassignments.
Forthosewhohavealwaysworkedontheirownthismaycauseakindofcultureshock,especiallyasallthestudentsinthegroupwillnormallybegiventhesamemarkforthegroup'swork.
Inaddition,studentsarenormallytoldwhotheywillworkwith,althoughthegroupmaybeabletochooseitsowntopicwithsomekindsofproject.
However,thereareimportantreasonsforthisemphasisongroupworkonmanycourses.
Firstofall,employersaregenerallylookingforpeoplewhocanworkinateam.
Mostmanagersseektoemploypeoplewhoarecomfortableworkinginamixedgroupwithdifferentskillsandbackgrounds.
Soabilitytoteamworkhasbecomeanessentialqualicationformanyjobs,andthistaskprovidesstudentswithanopportunitytostrengthentheirexperienceofworkingingroups.
Furthermore,workingingroupsallowsindividualstoachievemorethantheycouldbyworkingontheirown.
Agroupcantacklemuchlargerprojects,andthisappliestomostresearchprojectsatuniversity,aswellasbusinessdevelopmentincompanies.
Finally,bytakingpartintheseactivitiesstudentsareabletoprovideevidenceontheirportfolioandCVthattheyhavesucceededinthiscriticalarea.
1.
12MakinggroupworksuccessfulIBelowisalistofsuggestionsformakingyourgroupworksuccessful.
Thecorrectorder(1–7)hasbeenmixedup.
Workingwithapartner,putthemintothemostlogicalsequence,usingtheboxbelow.
AnalysethetaskGeteveryonetodiscusstheassignmentandagreeonthebestmethodstocompleteit.
Atthisstageitisimportanttohavefullagreementontheobjectives.
Divideuptheworkfairly,accordingtotheabilitiesofthemembersYourgroupmayincludeacomputerexpertoradesigngenius,somakesurethattheirtalentsareusedforthebenetofthetask.
Itismostimportanttomakesurethateveryonefeelstheyhavebeengivenafairshareofthework.
MakeeveryonefeelincludedNobodyshouldfeelanoutsider,somakespecialeffortsifthereisonlyonemalestudent,oronenon-nativespeaker,forinstance.
Makealistofallmembers'phonenumbersandemailaddressesandgiveeveryoneacopy.
FinishtheassignmentontimeThisisthemostimportanttestofyourgroup'sperformance.
Whenyouhavenishedandhandedinyourwork,itmaybehelpfultohaveanalmeetingtodiscusswhatyouhavealllearnedfromthetask.
GettoknowtheothermembersNormallyyoucannotchoosewhoyouworkwith,soitiscrucialtointroduceyourselvesbeforestartingwork.
Meetinformallyinacaféorsimilar(butbecarefulnottochooseameetingplacethatmaymakesomemembersuncomfortable,suchasabar).
Selectaco-ordinator/editorSomeoneneedstotakenotesaboutwhatwasagreedatmeetingsandsendthesetoallmembersasareminder.
Thesamepersoncouldalsoactaseditor,tomakesurethatalltheindividualsectionsconformtothesamelayoutandformat.
However,youshouldeachberesponsibleforproof-readingyourownwork.
168Part2ElementsofwritingPlanthejobandtheresponsibilitiesBreakdownthetaskweekbyweekandallocatespecicrolestoeachmember.
Agreeontimesforregularmeetings–althoughyoumaybeabletoavoidsomemeetingsbyusinggroupemails.
Youmaywanttobookasuitableroom,forexampleinthelibrary,toholdyourmeetings.
3DealingwithproblemsIWorkingingroupsofthree,discussthebestresponsetothefollowingsituations.
Youmaychooseanalternativestrategytotheonesprovided.
(a)Inagroupofsix,youndthattwostudentsarenotdoinganywork.
Notonlydotheynotcometomeetings,theyhavenotdonethetaskstheyweregivenatthebeginning.
Shouldyou.
.
.
(i)Decidethatit'ssimplesttodotheworkofthemissingstudentsyourself(ii)Findthestudentsandexplainthattheirbehaviourisgoingtodamagethechancesofallsixmembers(iii)Tellyourlecturerabouttheproblem1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221692.
12Workingingroups12345Divideuptheworkfairly,accordingtotheabilitiesofthemembers67(b)Youaretheonlynon-nativespeakerinthegroup.
Althoughyoucanunderstandnormalspeech,theotherstudentsspeaksofastandidiomaticallythatyouhavedifcultytakingpartinthediscussions.
Shouldyou.
.
.
(i)Tellyourlecturerabouttheproblem(ii)Keepquietandaskanotherstudentinthegrouptoexplaindecisionslater(iii)Explainyourproblemtothegroupandaskthemtospeakmoreslowly(c)Onememberofthegroupisverydominant.
He/sheattemptstocontrolthegroupandisintolerantoftheopinionsofothers.
Shouldyou.
.
.
(i)Explaintothatperson,inagroupmeeting,thattheirbehaviourishavinganegativeeffectonthegroup'stask(ii)Tellyourlecturerabouttheproblem(iii)Letthemdoallthework,becausethat'swhattheyseemtowant4PointstorememberWorkingingroupsisanidealopportunitytomakenewfriends–makethemostofit.
Youmaylearnalotbylisteningtootherpeople'sideas.
Negotiationisimportantinagroup–nobodyisrightallthetime.
Respectthevaluesandattitudesofothers,especiallypeoplefromdifferentcultures–youmaybesurprisedwhatyoulearn.
Keeparecordofyourgroupworkexperienceforinclusioninyourportfolioofpersonaldevelopment(PPD)–toshowtopotentialemployers.
170Part2Elementsofwriting5PracticeIYourteacherwillputyouingroupsof3–4.
Togetheryouhaveoneweektoresearchthehistoryanddevelopmentofthetownorcitywhereyouarestudying,usingtheinternet,andwritea1,000wordreport.
Remembertofollowthestepslistedin(2)above.
Yourteacherwillassessthereportusingthefollowingcriteria:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221712.
12WorkingingroupsVerygoodGoodSatisfactoryPoorContent:howwellthedifferentstagesofdevelopmentareexplainedandorganisedAccuracyandclarityoflanguageandsuitabilityofstyleIntegrationofindividualcontributionsinoverallreportAccuracyinwriting1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222PART31TypesofabbreviationAbbreviationstaketheformofshortenedwords,acronymsorotherabbreviations,asshownbelow.
(a)Shortenedwordsareoftenusedwithoutthewriterbeingawareoftheoriginalform.
'Bus'comesfrom'omnibus',whichishardlyusedinmodernEnglish.
However,'refrigerator'isstillbetterinwrittenEnglishthantheinformal'fridge'.
'Publichouse'isnowveryformal('pub'isacceptable),but'television'or'TV'shouldbeusedinsteadoftheidiomatic'telly'.
(b)Acronymsaremadeupoftheinitiallettersofanameorphrase(e.
g.
AIDS=AcquiredImmuneDeciencySyndrome).
Theyarepronouncedaswords.
(c)Otherabbreviationsarereadassetsofindividualletters.
Theyincludenamesofcountries,organisationsandcompanies(USA/BBC/IBM),andalsoabbreviationsthatareonlyfoundinwrittenEnglish(e.
g.
PTO1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER3.
1AbbreviationsAbbreviationsareanimportantandexpandingfeatureofcontemporaryEnglish,widelyusedforconvenienceandspace-saving.
Studentsneedtobefamiliarwithgeneralandacademicabbreviations.
means'pleaseturnover').
Notethatinmanycasesabbreviationsarewidelyusedwithoutmostusersknowingwhattheindividuallettersstandfor(e.
g.
DNA,DVD).
2SomecommonabbreviationsAGMannualgeneralmeetingBABachelorofArtsBScBachelorofSciencesCVcurriculumvitaeDIYdo-it-yourselfEUEuropeanUnionFEfurthereducation(non-universitystudyabove18)GMgeneticallymodiedGNPgrossnationalproductHEhighereducation(universitystudyabove18)HRMhumanresourcemanagementICTinformationandcommunicationstechnologyIMFInternationalMonetaryFundLLBBachelorofLawsMAMasterofArtsMScMasterofSciencePGPostgraduatePGCEPostgraduateCerticateofEducationPhDDoctorofPhilosophyPLCpubliclimitedcompanyPRpublicrelationsUCASUniversitiesandCollegesAdmissionsServiceUGundergraduateUNUnitedNationsURLuniformresourcelocator(websiteaddress)VCVice-ChancellorWTOWorldTradeOrganisationHowever,writersalsoemploymorespecialisedabbreviationsintexts,whichareexplainedinbracketsonrstuse:Startingfromtheresource-basedview(RBV)oftherm,itisarguedthat.
.
.
TheTechnologyReadinessIndex(TRI)wasintroducedbyParasuraman(2000).
176Part3Accuracyinwriting3PunctuationTherearemanystandardabbreviationsthathaveafullstopafterthemtoshowthatitisashortenedform(lt.
=litre).
Otherexamplesaregovt.
(government),co.
(company)andOct.
(October).
Withacronymsandotherabbreviationsthereisnostandardpatternforusingfullstops,sobothBBCandB.
B.
C.
areused.
Thereis,however,atendencytousefullstopsless.
Theimportantthingistoemployaconsistentstyleinyourwork.
4DuplicateabbreviationsAbbreviationscanbeconfusing.
PC,forexample,maystandfor'personalcomputer'butalso'politicallycorrect'or'PoliceConstable'.
Itisusefultobeawareofthesepotentialconfusions.
Agooddictionaryshouldbeusedtounderstandmoreunusualabbreviations.
5AbbreviationsinwritingCertainabbreviationsarefoundinalltypesofacademicwriting.
Theyinclude:anon.
anonymous(noauthor)asapassoonaspossiblecf.
compareed.
editor/editione.
g.
forexampleetal.
andothers(usedforgivingnamesofmultipleauthors)Fig.
gure(forlabellingchartsandgraphs)ibid.
inthesameplace(torefertosourcementionedimmediatelybefore)i.
e.
thatisKthousandNB.
takecarefulnotend.
nodate(i.
e.
anundatedsource)op.
cit.
inthesourcementionedpreviouslyp.
a.
yearly(perannum)pp.
pagesPSpostscriptre.
withreferenceto1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221773.
1Abbreviations6PracticeIExplaintheabbreviationsinthefollowingsentences.
(a)ThefailurerateamongICTprojectsinHEreaches40percent(Smithetal.
,2008).
(b)GMtechnologyisleadingtoadvancesinmanyeldse.
g.
forestry.
(c)Theworld'smostpopulouscountry(i.
e.
China)joinedtheWTOin2001.
(d)NB.
CVsmustbesubmittedtoHRby30June.
(e)SeetheOECD'srecentreportontheUAE.
(f)TheEUhopestoachieveastandardrateofVAT.
(g)HerPhDexaminedthethreatofTBinSEAsia.
(h)Fig.
4.
Tradepatternsonthewww(2003–2008).
(i)TheVCismeetingthePGCEstudents.
(j)DirectorofPRrequired–salaryapprox.
$75K.
(k)Re.
theAGMnextmonth:thereportisneededasap.
(l)Prof.
WrenclaimedthatthequalityofMScandMAresearchwasfalling.
178Part3Accuracyinwriting1Adjectives,nounsandverbsThetableonthenextpageshowsexamplesofsomeofthemorecommonitems.
IUseadictionarytocheckthatyouunderstandthemall.
2PracticeAIChoosethemostsuitablewordendingineachcase.
(a)Inthe1950snuclearpowerwaspred_tobecheapandclean.
(b)Asignif_numberofstudentshavechosentodothatproject.
(c)Therateofincreasevar_between5percentand8percentduringthe1990s.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER3.
2AcademicvocabularyToreadandwriteacademictextseffectivelystudentsneedtobefamiliarwiththeratherformalvocabularywidelyusedinthisarea.
Thisunitgivessomeexamples,andprovidespracticeintheiruse.
SeealsoUnit3.
6Nounsandadjectives.
(d)Therstcomputerwascreat_duringthesecondworldwar.
(e)Researchersfrequentlyneedtoaskhypoth_questions.
(f)Sheinvest_allhercapitalinthebusiness.
(g)Thecompanyputsemph_onthereliab_ofitsproducts.
(h)Theessayswereevaluat_intermsofcontentandaccuracy.
(i)Nylonwasoneoftherstsyn_fabricsincommonuse.
(j)Gandhimadeasignicantcont_toIndianhistory.
180Part3AccuracyinwritingAdjectiveNounVerbachievableacquiredanalyticalcontributorycreativedenitivederiveddistributiveemphaticevaluativehypotheticalindicativeinterpretativeinvestedpredictivereliableresponsivesignicantsyntheticvariableachievementacquisitionanalysiscontribution/contributorcreationdenitionderivationdistribution/distributoremphasisevaluationhypothesisindication/indicatorinterpretationinvestmentprediction/predictorreliabilityresponsesignicancesynthesisvariation/variableachieveacquireanalysecontributecreatedenederivedistributeemphasiseevaluatehypothesiseindicateinterpretinvestpredictrelyrespondsignifysynthesisevary3PracticeBICompleteeachsentencewithasuitablewordfromthetableonp.
180.
(a)Theexperiment'sresultswereconfusing;eachresearcherhadherown(b)Theword'algebra'isfromArabic.
(c)TheyreceivedtheNobelPrizefortheirindevelopinganewvaccine.
(d)DrWagnerpublishedtheworkonSouthAsiansnakeslastyear.
(e)Over3,500questionnaireswereintermsofsocialclass.
(f)Threeneedtobeconsideredwhenforecastinganeconomicupturn.
4AcademicadjectivesThefollowingadjectivesarebestunderstoodandlearntasopposites:Inationisanabstractconcept.
Themetaphoricaluseoftheword'key'isprobablymorecommonthanitsliteralone.
Thestudyofengineeringisveryrelevanttoarchitecture.
Herstudyofwomenineducationwascriticisedforbeingtoosubjective.
InEurope,empiricalresearchbeganinthesixteenthcentury.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221813.
2Academicvocabularyabsoluteabstractlogicalmetaphoricalpreciserationalrelevantsubjectivetheoreticalrelativeconcreteillogicalliteralvagueorapproximateorroughirrationalirrelevantobjectivepracticalorempiricalorpragmatic5PracticeCICompleteeachsentencewithasuitableadjectivefromthetablein(4).
(a)Theteachercomplainedthatthequotesweretothetitle.
(b)Hisapproachledhimtoignoresomeinconvenientfacts.
(c)examplesareneededtomaketheargumentclear.
(d)Itissufcienttogiveguresfornationalpopulations.
(e)Povertyisusuallyregardedasaconcept.
(f)Theyapproachedthetaskinawaybyrstanalysingthetitle.
(g)Thestudentspreferredexaminingcasestudiestodiscussion.
SeeUnit3.
6Nounsandadjectives6FormalityinverbsAcademicwritingtendstouseratherformalverbstoexpressthewriter'smeaningaccurately:Inthelastdecadethepaceofchangeaccelerated.
CouldDarwinhaveenvisagedthecontroversyhisworkhascausedInspokenEnglishwearemorelikelytouse'speedup'and'imagined'.
IStudythelistbelowandndasynonymineachcase.
(Someoftheseverbse.
g.
'hold'areusedinacademicwritingwithaspecialmeaning.
)182Part3AccuracyinwritingStudentswishingtodeveloptheiracademicvocabularyshouldstudytheAcademicWordList(AWL).
Thisisalistof570itemscommonlyfoundinacademictextsacrossvariousdisciplines,createdbyAverilCoxhead.
SeeSandraHaywood'swebsiteforinformationabouttheAWL,withfurtherpracticeexercises:http://nottingham.
ac.
uk/~alzsh3/acvocab/@Academicvocabulary>1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221833.
2AcademicvocabularyVerbExampleofusetoadapttoarisetoconducttocharacterisetoclarifytoconcentrateontobeconcernedwithtodemonstratetodeterminetodiscriminatetoestablishtoexhibittofocusontogeneratetoholdtoidentifytoimplytointeracttointerprettomanifesttoovercometoproposetoprovetorecognisetorelatetotosupplementtoundergotoyieldthehealthsystemhasbeenadaptedfromFranceasimilarsituationariseswhenwelookatyoungerchildrenthelargeststudywasconductedinFinlanddevelopingcountriesarecharacterisedby.
.
.
theprojectwasdesignedtoclarifythesecontradictionsthatstudyconcentratedonolderchildrentheprogrammeisconcernedprimarilywith.
.
.
furtherresearchhasdemonstratedthatfewfactors.
.
.
thewatercontentwasexperimentallydeterminedafailuretodiscriminatebetweenthetwospeciesthenorthernboundarywasestablishedrsthalfofthepatientsexhibitedsignsofimprovementherworkfocusedonfemalemanagersaquestionwhichhasgeneratedarangeofresponsesNewton'ssecondLaw,F=ma,holdseverywherethreemainareashavebeenidentiedhisabsenceimpliesalackofinterestunderstandhowthetwosystemsinteracttheresultcanbeinterpretedasalimitedsuccessasmanifestedinanti-socialbehaviourbothdifcultieswereovercomeintherstweektheyproposethatsocialclassisthemainfactortheuseofsolarpowerisprovingsuccessfulheisnowrecognisedasaleadingexpertthepatternwasrelatedtobothsocialandphysicalfactorsthedietwassupplementedwithcalciumandiodinethesystemunderwentmajorchangesinthe1980sbothsurveysyieldedmixedresults1UseofarticlesUnlesstheyareuncountable,allnounsneedanarticlewhenusedinthesingular.
Thearticlecanbeeithera/anorthe.
Compare:(a)Researchisanimportantactivityinuniversities.
(b)TheresearchbegunbyDrMathewswascontinuedbyProfessorBrankovic.
(c)Aninterestingpieceofresearchwasconductedamong200patientsintheclinic.
In(a)research,whichisusuallyuncountable,isbeingusedinageneralsense.
In(b)aspecicpieceofresearchisidentied.
In(c)theresearchisbeingmentionedforthersttime,andtheword'piece'isusedto'count'theresearch.
CHAPTER3.
3ArticlesStudentsoftenndtherulesforusingarticles('a','an'and'the')confusing.
Thisunitfocusesonthedenitearticle,'the',andprovidesexamplesandpractice.
2UsingdenitearticlesIi)Decidewhytheisused,ornotused,inthefollowingexamples.
(a)Theworld'sfastestanimalisthecheetah.
(b)TheUSAwasfoundedintheeighteenthcentury.
(c)Thegovernmentincreasedtaxationinthe1970s.
(d)TheFrenchRevolutionwaspartlycausedbybadharvests.
(e)TheNewScientistispublishedeveryweek.
(f)Thesouthischaracterisedbypovertyandemigration.
(g)PabloPicasso,theSpanishartist,wasborninMalaga.
(h)TheRiverSeinerunsthroughthemiddleofParis.
(i)TheUnitedNationswasfoundedin1945.
(j)Theeurowasintroducedin2002.
ii)Ingeneral,theisusedwith:(a)superlatives(fastest)(b)timeperiods(eighteenthcentury/1970s)(c)uniquethings(government,world)(d)speciedthings(FrenchRevolution)(e)regularpublications(NewScientist)(f)regionsandrivers(south/RiverSeine)(g)verywell-knownpeopleandthings(Spanishartist)(h)institutionsandbodies(UnitedNations)(i)positions(middle)(j)currencies(euro)Itisnotusedwith:(k)thingsingeneral(badharvests)(l)namesofcountries,exceptfortheUK,theUSAandafewothers1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221853.
3Articles(m)abstractnounse.
g.
poverty(n)companies/thingsnamedafterpeople/placese.
g.
Sainsbury's,HeathrowairportNotethealternateforms:ThedesertsofAustraliaareexpanding.
Australiandeserts/Australia'sdesertsareexpanding.
3PracticeAIInthefollowingsentences,decideifthewordsandphrasesunderlinedarespecicornot,andwhether'the'shouldbeadded.
Example:inationwasthegreatestproblemforBraziliangovernment.
InationwasthegreatestproblemfortheBraziliangovernment.
(a)engineeringisthemainindustryinnorthernregion.
(b)insurancermshavemaderecordprotsinlastdecade.
(c)globalwarmingispartlycausedbyfossilfuels.
(d)mayorhasbeenarrestedonsuspicionofcorruption.
(e)moonsofJupiterwerediscoveredineighteenthcentury.
(f)tourismisworld'sbiggestindustry.
(g)forestsofScandinaviaproducemostofBritain'spaper.
(h)Thaicurrencyisbaht.
186Part3Accuracyinwriting(i)computercrimehasgrownby200%inlastdecade.
(j)maincausesofindustrialrevolutionarestilldebated.
(k)Already3percentofworkingpopulationareemployedincallcentres.
(l)latestforecastpredictswarmerwintersinnextveyears.
(m)ResearchonenergysavingisbeingconductedinPhysicsFaculty.
(n)bestdenitionisoftensimplest.
4PracticeBICompletethefollowingtextbyinsertinga/an/the(ornothing)ineachgap.
(Notethatinsomecasesmorethanoneanswerispossible).
THEORIGINSOF@GiorioStabile,(a)professorof(b)historyatLaSapienzaUniversityinRome,hasdemonstratedthat(c)sign,nowusedinemailaddresses,wasactuallyinvented500yearsago.
ProfessorStabilehasshownthat(d)now(e)symbolof(f)internet,wasrstusedby(g)Italianmerchantsduring(h)sixteenthcentury.
Heclaimsthatitoriginallyrepresented(i)unitofvolume,basedon(j)largejarsusedtocarryliquidsin(k)ancientMediterraneanworld.
Hehasfound(l)rstexampleofitsusein(m)letterwrittenin1546by(n)merchantfromFlorence.
(o)letter,whichwassenttoRome,announces(p)arrivalinSpainof(q)shipscarryinggoldfrom(r)SouthAmerica.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221873.
3Articles1TheuseofcautionAcautiousstyleisnecessaryinmanyareasofacademicwritingtoavoidmakingstatementsthatcanbecontradicted:Demandforhealthcareusuallyexceedssupply.
Moststudentsndwritingexamessaysdifcult.
Fertilityratestendtofallassocietiesgetricher.
Areaswherecautionisparticularlyimportantinclude:(a)outliningahypothesisthatneedstobetested(e.
g.
inanintroduction)(b)discussingtheresultsofastudy,whichmaynotbeconclusive(c)commentingontheworkofotherwriters(d)makingpredictions(normallywithmayormight)CHAPTER3.
4CautionTheneedtoavoidabsolutestatementswasmentionedinUnit2.
10Style.
Thisunitpresentsmoreexamplesoftentativeorcautiouslanguage,usingmodalverbs,adverbsandverbs,andpractisesitsuse.
2ThelanguageofcautionCautionisalsoneededtoavoidmakingstatementsthataretoosimplistic:Crimeislinkedtopooreducation.
Suchstatementsarerarelycompletelytrue.
Thereisusuallyanexceptionthatneedstobeconsidered.
Cautioncanbeshowninseveralways:Crimemaybelinkedtopooreducation.
(modalverb)Crimeisfrequentlylinkedtopooreducation.
(adverb)Crimetendstobelinkedtopooreducation.
(verb)ICompletethetablebelowwithmoreexamplesofeach.
SeeUnit2.
7Generalisations3UsingmodiersAnotherwaytoexpresscautionistousequite,ratherorfairlybeforeanadjective.
afairlyaccuratesummaryaratherinconvenientlocationquiteasignicantdiscoveryNB.
quiteisoftenusedbeforethearticle.
Itisgenerallyusedpositively,whilerathertendstobeusednegatively.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221893.
4CautionModalsAdverbsVerb/phrasecancommonlytendstoIInsertquite/rather/fairlyinthefollowingtoemphasisecaution.
(a)Thecompany'seffortstosaveenergyweresuccessful.
(b)Thesurveywasacomprehensivestudyofstudentopinion.
(c)Hissecondbookhadahostilereception.
(d)Therstyearstudentswerefascinatedbyherlectures.
(e)Thelatesttypeofarthritisdrugisexpensive.
4PracticeAIRewritethefollowingsentencesinamorecautiousway.
(a)Privatecompaniesaremoreefcientthanstate-ownedbusinesses.
(b)Exploringspaceisawasteofvaluableresources.
(c)Olderstudentsperformbetteratuniversitythanyoungerones.
(d)Word-of-mouthisthebestkindofadvertising.
(e)Englishpronunciationisconfusing.
(f)Somecancersarecausedbypsychologicalfactors.
(g)Globalwarmingwillcausethesealeveltorise.
(h)Mostshoppingwillbedoneontheinternetintenyears'time.
5CautioninverbsWhenreferringtosources,theverbusedindicatesthedegreeofcautionappropriate.
Compare:Tilic(2004)statesthatthecostofliving.
.
.
(positive)Lee(2007)suggeststhatmoreresearchisneeded.
.
.
(cautious)Otherverbswhichimplytentativeorcautiousndingsare:think/consider/hypothesise/believe/claim/presumeSeeUnit3.
14Verbsofreference190Part3Accuracyinwriting1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221913.
4CautionAteamofAmericanscientistshavefoundawaytoreversetheageingprocess.
Theyfeddietsupplements,foundinhealthfoodshops,toelderlyrats,whichwerethentestedformemoryandstamina.
Theanimalsdisplayedmoreactivebehaviouraftertakingthesupplements,andtheirmemoryimproved.
Inaddition,theirappearancebecamemoreyouthfulandtheirappetiteincreased.
Theresearcherssaythatthisexperimentisaclearindicationofhowtheproblemsofoldagecanbeovercome.
Theystatethatinafewyears'timeeveryonewillbeabletolookforwardtoalongandactiveretirement.
6.
16PracticeBIRe-writethefollowingtextinamorecautiousstyle.
1TypesofconjunctionsIStudythewayconjunctionsworkinthefollowing:Demandforfoodisincreasingbecausethepopulationisgrowing.
(reason)Mechanisationhasincreasedcropyields,yetproductionisstillinadequate.
(opposition)IUnderlinetheconjunctionsinthefollowingsentences.
(a)Afewinventions,forinstancetelevision,havehadamajorimpactoneverydaylife.
(b)Furthermore,manypatientsweretreatedinclinicsandsurgeries.
(c)Thedenitionof'specialneeds'isimportantsinceitisthecauseofsomedisagreement.
CHAPTER3.
5ConjunctionsConjunctionsarewordsorphraseswhichjoinpartsofasentencetogether,orlinkasentencetothenextone.
Effectivereadingandwritingrequiresclarityabouttheirmeaning.
Thisunitdescribesthedifferentfunctionsofconjunctionsandpractisestheiruse.
OtherwaysoflinkingsectionsoftextareexplainedinUnit2.
3Cohesion.
(d)Thetechnologyallowsconsumersachoice,thusincreasingtheirsenseofsatisfaction.
(e)Fourhundredpeoplewereinterviewedforthesurvey,thentheresultswereanalysed.
(f)However,anotherbodyofopinionassociatesglobalisationwithunfavourableoutcomes.
ITherearesixmaintypesofconjunction.
Matcheachofthetypesbelowtooneofthesentencesabove.
(i)Addition(b)(ii)Result()(iii)Reason()(iv)Opposition()(v)Example()(vi)Time()2PracticeAWhenreadingatext,conjunctionsareakindofsignposttohelpthereaderfollowtheideas.
IReadtheparagraphbelowandunderlinetheconjunctions,thendecidewhattheirfunctionsare(i.
e.
typesi–viabove).
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221933.
5ConjunctionsBIOFUELSNewlypublishedresearchexaminessomeimportantquestionsaboutthegrowinguseofbiofuels,suchasethanolmadefrommaize.
Theproductionofthesehasincreasedsharplyrecently,butthereplacementoffoodcropswithfuelcropshasbeenheavilycriticised.
Althoughinitiallyseenasamoreenvironmentally-friendlytypeoffuel,theresearchshowsthatproducingsomebiofuels,forinstancebiodieselpalmoil,ismorepollutingthanusingconventionaloil.
Theethanolproducedfromsugarcane,however,canhavenegativeemissions,inotherwordstakingcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereinsteadofaddingit.
Consequently,itcanbeseenthatthesituationisratherconfused,andthatbiofuelsareneitheramagicsolutiontotheenergyproblem,noraretheytheenvironmentaldisastersometimessuggested.
2.
13CommonconjunctionsICompletethetablewithasmanyexamplesofconjunctionsaspossible.
194Part3AccuracyinwritingConjunctionTypeConjunctionType(a)suchasexample(f)(b)(g)(c)(h)(d)(i)(e)(j)AdditionResultReasonOppositionExampleTimesuchas4PracticeBIInsertasuitableconjunctionintoeachgap.
(a)checkingtheequipmenttheexperimentwasrepeated.
(b)mostpeopleusethetrain,aminoritywalkorcycle.
(c)Brickisathermallyefcientbuildingmaterial.
Itis,cheap.
(d)Demandhasincreasedforsummercourses,extraonesareofferedthisyear.
(e)Manywriters,Chekhov,havebeendoctors.
(f)theincreaseinresidencefeesmorestudentsaremovingout.
(g)Mustafawasinthelecturehiscarwasbeingrepaired.
(h)hewasstudyingItalianhespentasemesterinBologna.
5PracticeCIInsertasuitableconjunctionintoeachgap.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221953.
5ConjunctionsGEOENGINEERINGGeoengineersbelievethatitmaybepossibletocounteracttheeffectsofglobalwarmingbylargescaleengineeringprojects,(a)the'solarumbrella'designedtoreectsunlightbackintospace.
(b)nomajorschemeshaveyetbeenattempted,thereisalreadycontroversyabouttherisksinvolved.
Twodifferentapproachesaresuggested:(c)toblockincomingsunlight,(d)alternativelytotakecarbondioxideoutoftheatmosphere.
Oneproposal,(e)consistsofputtingironintotheseainordertoencouragethegrowthofthetinyseacreaturesthatabsorbcarbondioxide.
(f)thissecondapproachisunlikelytocreatemajorproblems,blockingsunlightispotentiallydangerous,(g)theriskofaffectingrainfallpatterns(h)evenoceancurrents.
(i)bioengineersareanxioustoestablishclearguidelinesbeforeanylarge-scaleexperimentsarecarriedout.
5.
16ConjunctionsofoppositionNotethepositionoftheconjunctionsinthefollowingexamples:Theeconomyisstrong,but/yettherearefrequentstrikes.
Although/whiletherearefrequentstrikestheeconomyisstrong.
Inspiteof/despitethefrequentstrikestheeconomyisstrong.
Therearefrequentstrikes.
However/nevertheless,theeconomyisstrong.
IWritetwosentencesineachcase.
Example:Theequipmentwasexpensive/unreliable.
(i)Theequipmentwasexpensivebutunreliable.
(ii)Althoughtheequipmentwasexpensiveitwasunreliable.
(a)Thegovernmentclaimedthatinationwasfalling.
Theoppositionsaiditwasrising.
(i)(ii)(b)Thisdepartmentmustreduceexpenditure.
Itneedstoinstallnewcomputers.
(i)(ii)(c)Salesofthenewcarwerepoor.
Itwasheavilyadvertised.
(i)(ii)196Part3Accuracyinwriting7PracticeDIFinishthesentencesinasuitableway.
(a)IncontrasttoAmerica,wheregunownershipiscommon,(b)Despiteleavingschoolattheageof14(c)Themajoritydisplayedapositiveattitudetotheproposal,but(d)Whilethetutorinsistedthattheessaywaseasy,(e)Althoughthespringwascoldanddry1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221973.
5Conjunctions1UsingnounsandadjectivesIComparethesesentences:Theefciencyofthemachinedependsontheprecisionofitsconstruction.
Preciseconstructionresultsinanefcientmachine.
Therstsentenceusesthenouns'efciency'and'precision'.
Thesecondusesadjectives:'precise'and'efcient'.
Althoughthemeaningissimilartherstsentenceismoreformal.
Effectiveacademicwritingrequiresaccurateuseofbothnounsandadjectives.
CHAPTER3.
6NounsandadjectivesItiseasytoconfusethenounandadjectiveformofwordssuchas'possibility'and'possible'.
Thisunitgivesexamplesofsomeofthemostcommonpairs,andprovidespracticewiththeiruse.
SeealsoUnit3.
2Academicvocabulary.
2PracticeAICompletethegapsinthetablebelow.
*Comparethethreenouns:Economicsisademandingundergraduatedegreecourse.
(academicsubject)TheGreekeconomyisheavilyindebt.
(nationaleconomy,countable)Economyisneededtoreducethedecit.
(savingmoney,uncountable)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362221993.
6NounsandadjectivesNounAdjectiveNounAdjectiveapproximationapproximateparticularsuperiorityreasonstrategicsyntheticpoliticseconomics/ecomony*industrialculturalexterioraveragehighreliableheatstrengthcondenttruewidthprobabilitynecessarylongdangerrelevance3PracticeBIInsertasuitablenounoradjectivefromthetableineachsentence.
(a)Thestudentsweretheirprojectwouldbesuccessful.
(b)OneofTokyo'sisitsexcellenttransportsystem.
(c)Thereisastrongthatfeeswillrisenextyear.
(d)Thestudentscomplainedthatthelecturewasnottotheircourse.
(e)Theresultsaresosurprisingitwillbetorepeattheexperiment.
(f)ThehouseholdsizeinTurkeyis4.
1.
(g)Regularlybackingupcomputerlesreducestheoflosingvitalwork.
(h)Revisingforexamsisatedious(i)Thesedataappeartobeandshouldnotbetrusted.
(j)ThedateofthefoundingofRomeis750BC.
(k)Theconsequencesofthewarwereinationandunemployment.
(l)Theyattemptedtomakeaofallthedifferentproposals.
4PracticeCIUnderlinetheadjectiveineachsentenceandwritetherelatednouninbrackets.
Example:Severalsteelproducersarelikelytoshutdownnextyear.
(likelihood)200Part3Accuracyinwriting(a)TheHRteamhavejustcompletedastrategicreviewofpay.
(b)DrLeeadoptedananalyticalapproachtotheinquiry.
(c)Nylonwasoneoftheearliestsyntheticbres.
(d)Hermajorcontributiontotheresearchwasherstudyofante-natalcare.
(e)Alladvertisingmustrespectculturaldifferences.
(f)Someprogresswasmadeinthetheoreticalarea.
(g)Afrequentcomplaintisthattoomuchreadingisexpected.
(h)Wetookamorecriticalapproachtomarketingtheory.
(i)TheDepartmentofSocialPolicyisofferingthreecoursesthisyear.
(j)Finally,thepracticalimplicationsofmyndingswillbeexamined.
5AbstractnounsArangeofnounsisusedtoexpresscommonideasinacademicwriting:Politicalgeographyisaninterestingeld.
Theconceptofclasswasrstdiscussedintheeighteenthcentury.
Druckerdevelopedanewapproachinhissecondbook.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222013.
6NounsandadjectivesIReadthefollowingandndasynonymforeachwordinboldfromtheboxbelow(therearemorewordsthansentences).
(a)Thesecondfactorintherecessionwasthelossofcondence.
(b)Smith'sconceptofthedivisionoflabourwasrstpresentedin1776.
(c)SnowisararephenomenoninRome.
(d)ThePresident'sresignationgaveanewaspecttothenationalcrisis.
(e)Abarcodescannerisadeviceusedatsupermarketcheckouts.
(f)Hereldisintegratingcontentandlanguagelearning.
(g)TheWorldBankisabodycreatedtosupportdevelopingcountries.
(h)Mendel'sworkongeneticsprovidednewperspectivesforagronomists.
(i)Theirmainconcernistopreventafurtherincreaseincrime.
(j)Thenewsystemallowserrorstobedetectedin12seconds.
(k)Thesurveyidentiedthreecategoriesofvoluntaryworkers.
(l)Themostseriousissueraisedatthemeetingwasstudentaccommodation.
202Part3Accuracyinwritingprocessorganisationmachinetheoryeventtypesworryanswerareaviewscausefeatureproblem1Howprexesandsufxeswork'Unsustainable'isanexampleofawordcontainingaprexandsufx.
Wordslikethisaremucheasiertounderstandifyouknowhowprexesandsufxesaffectwordmeaning.
Prexeschangeorgivethemeaning.
Sufxesshowthemeaningorthewordclass(e.
g.
noun,verb).
Therateofgrowthwasunsustainable.
(i.
e.
couldnotbecontinued)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER3.
7PrexesandsufxesPrexesandsufxesaretherstandlastpartsofcertainwords.
Understandingthemeaningofprexesandsufxescanhelpyouworkoutthemeaningofaword,andisparticularlyusefulwhenyoumeetspecialistnewvocabulary.
PrexMeaningSTEMSufxWordclass/Meaningun-negativesustain-ableadjective/ability2Prexes(a)Negativeprexes:UN-,IN-,MIS-andDIS-oftengiveadjectivesandverbsanegativemeaning:unclear,incapable,mishear,disagree(b)Awidevarietyofprexesdenemeaninge.
g.
PRE-usuallymeans'before',henceprefer,prehistoryand,ofcourse,prex!
CommonprexesofmeaningIFindthemeaning(s)ofeachprex(NB.
someprexeshavemorethanonemeaning).
3PracticeAPrexesallownewwordstobecreated.
ISuggestpossiblemeaningsfortherecentlydevelopedwordsinbold.
204Part3AccuracyinwritingPrexExampleExamplesentenceautoautomaticallyOver-18sautomaticallyhavetherighttovote.
coco-ordinatorTheco-ordinatorinvitedthemtoameeting.
exex-presidentTheex-presidentgavealectureonclimatechange.
exexclusiveItisdifculttojoinsuchanexclusiveclub.
macromacroeconomicsKeynesfocusedonmacroeconomics.
micromicroscopeSheexaminedthetinyanimalswithamicroscope.
multimultinationalFordisamultinationalmotorcompany.
overoversleepHemissedthelectureasheoverslept.
postpostponeThemeetingispostponeduntilnextMonday.
reretrainThermretrainedthestafftousethenewsoftware.
subsubtitleChineselmsoftenhavesubtitlesintheWest.
underundergraduateMostundergraduatecourseslastthreeyears.
underundercookEatingundercookedmeatcanbedangerous.
(a)Criminalactivityseemstobeverycommonamongtheunderclass.
(b)Thepassengersfoundtheplanewasoverbookedandhadtowaitforthenextight.
(c)Themicroclimateinthisdistrictallowsearlyvegetablestobegrown.
(d)Itisclaimedthatcomputershavecreatedapost-industrialeconomy.
(f)Mostlmstarshaveex-directoryphonenumbers.
(g)Theclasswasunderwhelmedbythequalityofthelecture.
4Sufxes(a)Somesufxeslike–ION,-IVEor–LYhelpthereaderndthewordclasse.
g.
noun,verboradjective.
(b)Othersufxesaddtomeaning,e.
g.
–FULor–LESSafteranadjectivehaveapositiveornegativeeffect(thoughtful/careless).
5Wordclasssufxes1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222053.
7PrexesandSufxesNouns-ERoftenindicatesaperson:teacher,gardener-EEcanshowapersonwhoisthesubject:employee,trainee-ISMand–ISTareoftenusedwithbeliefsystemsandtheirsupporters:socialism/socialist-NESSconvertsanadjectiveintoanoun:sad/sadness-IONchangesaverbtoanoun:convert/conversionAdjectives-IVEeffective,constructive-ALcommercial,agricultural-IOUSprecious,seriousVerbs-ISE/-IZEtoformverbsfromadjectives:private/privatiseNB.
IntheUSAonly–izespellingisused,butbothformsareacceptedintheUKAdverbs-LYmost(butnotall)adverbshavethissufx:happily6MeaningsufxesAfewsufxescontributetothemeaningoftheword:-ABLEhasthemeaningof'ability':awatchablelm,changeableweather-WARDSmeans'inthedirectionof':theshipsailednorthwards-FULand-LESS:hopefulnews,aleaderlessteam7PracticeBIGivethewordclassandsuggestpossiblemeaningsfor:(a)cancellation(f)unpredictable(b)coincidental(g)saleable(c)unco-operatively(h)interviewee(d)evolutionary(i)consumerism(e)protester(j)symbolically8PracticeCIStudyeachsentenceandndthemeaningofthewordsunderlined.
(a)ThelmisaFrench-Italianco-productionmadebyasubsidiarycompany.
(b)Whenthecarcrashedshescreamedinvoluntarilybutwasunharmed.
(c)Usingrechargeablebatterieshasundoubtedbenetsfortheenvironment.
(d)Theunavailabilityoftheproductisduetotheexceptionalweather.
(e)Thereisatheoreticalpossibilityofthemachinedisintegrating.
SeeUnit3.
2Academicvocabulary206Part3Accuracyinwriting1UsingprepositionsIUnderlinetheprepositionsinthefollowingtext(ignoringto+innitives).
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER3.
8PrepositionsPrepositionsaregenerallyshortwordssuchas'by'or'at'whichareoftenlinkedtonouns,verbsandadjectives.
Theirusemayseemconfusing,butthisunitexplainshowtheycanbeunderstood.
StudentsshouldconsultastandardEnglishgrammarforafulllistofprepositionalcombinations.
ThepurposeofthispaperistoexaminethedevelopmentofthetextileindustryinCataloniaovertheperiod1780–1880.
Thisclearlycontributedtotheregion'sindustrialisation,andwasvaluableforstimulatingexports.
Inconclusion,thepapersetsouttodemonstratetherelationshipbetweenthedeclineinagriculturalemploymentandthesupplyofcheaplabourinthefactorycontext.
1.
1IThetableliststhemainwaysofusingprepositions.
Findoneexampleofeachinthetext1.
1.
Notethedifferencebetweenphrasalverbsandverbswithprepositions:ThecarsaremadeinKorea.
(verb+preposition=easytounderstand)Theresearchermadeupsomeofhisdata.
(phrasalverb=hardtounderstand)2PracticeAIStudythesefurtherexamplesofprepositionuseanddecideontheirtype.
(a)Thereareanumberoflimitationstobeconsidered.
.
.
(noun+)(b)Theresultswouldbeapplicabletoallchildren.
.
.
(c).
.
.
thedatawasgatheredfromaquestionnaire.
(d)Alltheitemswereplacedwithintheircategories.
208Part3AccuracyinwritingNoun+prepositionpurposeofVerb+prepositionAdjective+prepositionPhrasalverbPrepositionofplacePrepositionoftimePhrase(e)Theresultsoftheinvestigationarestillpertinent.
.
.
(f)Therespondentshadspentonaverage4.
9years.
.
.
(g).
.
.
mostcountriesinsub-SaharanAfrica.
.
.
(h).
.
.
withinashortspelloffouryears.
3PrepositionsandnounsIInsertasuitableprepositionbeforeorafterthenounsinthesentencesbelow.
(a)Evidenceispresentedinsupportthevalueofwomen'swork.
(b)Asmallchangewinddirectioncanleadtolargetemperaturechanges.
(c)Manyexamplestaxevasionwerefound.
(d)Theanswertheproblemwas0.
585.
(e)Globalisation,apoliticalsense,involvesalossofnationalauthority.
(f)Thesecondpointistheirimpactdevelopingcountries.
4PrepositionsinphrasesICompletethefollowingphraseswiththecorrectpreposition.
(a)thewhole(e)insupport(b)pointview(f)theotherhand(c)inrespectg)orderto(d)spiteof(h)standardliving1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222093.
8Prepositions5PrepositionsofplaceandtimeNotethedifferencebetween'among'and'between':Among14studentsintheclass,onlytwowerefromAfrica.
(largegroup)HedividedhistimebetweentheofcesinBarcelonaandMadrid.
(limitednumber)ICompletethefollowingsentenceswithsuitableprepositionsofplaceortime.
(a)therespondents,fewhadanyexperienceofworkingabroad.
(b)Theilliteracyratedeclinedgradually19761985.
(c)MostworkerstheEuropeanUnionretirebeforetheage60.
(d)LeonardodaVinciwasbornFlorence1452.
(e)ChocolatesalesfallsummerandpeakChristmas.
(f)thesurface,thereisnodifferencemaleandfemaleresponses.
6PracticeBICompletethefollowingtextwithsuitableprepositions.
Thisstudysets(a)toanswerthecontroversialquestion(b)whetherincreasedfoodsupply(c)acountrymakesasignicantcontribution(d)reducingmalnutrition(e)children.
Itusesdatacollected(f)75countries(g)1969and1987.
Thendingsarethattherewasaconsiderableimprovement(h)themajority(i)countries,despiteincreasesinpopulation210Part3Accuracyinwriting(j)theperiod.
However,acleardistinctionwasfound(k)thepoorestcountries(e.
g.
(l)SouthAsia),wheretheimprovementwasgreatest,andthewealthierstatessuchasthose(m)NorthAfrica.
Otherfactors,notablytheeducationallevel(n)women,werealsofoundtobecritical(o)improvingchildhoodnutrition.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222113.
8Prepositions1CapitalsItisdifculttogivepreciserulesabouttheuseofcapitallettersinmodernEnglish.
However,theyshouldbeusedinthefollowingcases:(a)TherstwordinasentenceInthebeginning.
.
.
(b)NamesoforganisationsShefeldHallamUniversity(c)DaysandmonthsFriday21July(d)NationalitywordsFranceandtheFrench(e)Namesofpeople/placesDrMartinLeefromSydney(f)Booktitles(mainwordsonly)PowerandtheStateCHAPTER3.
9PunctuationAccuratepunctuationanduseofcapitalshelpthereadertounderstandexactlywhatthewritermeant.
Whilesomeaspectsofpunctuation,suchastheuseofcommas,canbeamatterofindividualstyle,correctpunctuationinareassuchasquotationisimportant.
2Apostrophes(')TheseareoneofthemostmisusedfeaturesofEnglishpunctuation.
Theyaremainlyusedintwosituations:(a)toshowcontractionsHe'stheleadingauthority(NB.
contractionsarenotcommoninacademicEnglish)(b)withpossessivesTheprofessor'ssecretary(singular)Students'marks(plural)3Semi-colons(;)Theyareusedtoshowthelinkbetweentwoconnectedphrases,whenacommawouldbetooweakandafullstoptoostrong.
20peoplewereinterviewedfortherststudy;33forthesecond.
Semi-colonsarealsousedtodivideupitemsinalistwhentheyhaveacomplexstructure,asinamultiplecitation:(Maitland,2006;Rosenor,1997;NewScientist,2006b;UniversityofMichigan,2000).
NB.
semi-colonsarequiterareinmanytypesofwriting.
4Colons(:)(a)tointroduceexplanationsThemeetingwaspostponed:theDeanwasill.
(b)tostartalistThreeaspectswereidentied:nancial,socialand.
.
.
(c)tointroduceaquotationAstheDuchessofWindsorsaid:'Youcanneverbetoorichortoothin'.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222133.
9Punctuation5CommasThereissomeexibilityintheuseofcommas,andoverusecanslowdownthereader.
Someexamplesofnecessarycommausageare:However,morecasesshouldbeconsideredbeforereachingaconclusion.
Certaincrops,forinstancewheat,aresusceptibletodiseases.
Threehundredpeoplewereinterviewed,butonlyhalftheresponsescouldbeused.
6Quotationsmarks/invertedcommas(a)Singlequotationmarksareusedtoemphasiseaword:Theword'factory'wasrstusedintheseventeenthcentury.
togivequotationsfromotherwriters:Goodwin's(1977)analysisofhabitindicatesthat,ingeneral,'itwillbemoredifculttoreverseatrendthantoaccentuateit'.
toshowdirectspeech:'Cananyonendtheanswer'askedthelecturer.
NB.
Longerquotationsareusuallyindented(i.
e.
haveawidermargin)and/oraresetinsmallertype.
(AmericanEnglishusesdoublequotationmarkstoshowquotations).
(b)Doublequotationmarksareusedtoshowquotationsinsidequotations(nestedquotations):AsKauffmanremarked:'hisconceptof"internalspace"requirescloseanalysis.
'(c)Inreferences,quotationmarksareusedforthenamesofarticlesandchapters,butbookorjournaltitlesnormallyuseitalics:Russell,T.
(1995)'Afutureforcoffee'JournalofAppliedMarketing6,14–17.
SeeUnit1.
8Referencesandquotations214Part3Accuracyinwriting7OthersHyphens(–)areusedwithcertainwordsandstructures:well-engineered/co-operative/three-year-oldExclamationmarks(!
)andquestionmarks()'Well!
'heshouted,'Whowouldbelieveit'Bracketsorparentheses()canbeusedtogiveadditionaldetail:Relativelyfewpeople(10–15percent)wereliterateinsixteenth-centuryRussia.
8PracticeAIPunctuatethefollowingsentences.
(a)thestudywascarriedoutbychristinezhen-weiqiangofthenationaluniversityofsingapore(b)professorrowansnewbooktheendofprivacyispublishedinnewyork(c)askeynessaiditsbettertoberoughlyrightthanpreciselywrong(d)threedepartmentslawbusinessandeconomicshavehadtheirfundingcut(e)ascammack1994pointsoutlatinamericaiscreatinganewphenomenondemocracywithoutcitizens(f)thousandsofnewwordssuchasappentertheenglishlanguageeachyear(g)thebbcsworldserviceisbroadcastin33languagesincludingsomaliandvietnamese(h)shescored56percentonthemaincoursetheprevioussemestershehadachieved67percent1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222153.
9Punctuation9PracticeBIPunctuatethefollowingtext.
216Part3Accuracyinwritingtheschoolofbiomedicalsciencesatborchesteruniversityisofferingtwoundergraduatedegreecoursesinneurosciencethisyearstudentscanstudyeitherneurosciencewithpharmacologyorneurosciencewithbiochemistrythereisalsoamasterscoursewhichrunsforfouryearsandinvolvesaperiodofstudyabroadduringnovemberanddecemberprofessorandreasscheriscourseleaderforneuroscienceandenquiriesshouldbesenttohimviathewebsite9.
11FiveareasofdifcultyThemainproblemareasforinternationalstudentsareshownbelow.
(a)Nounsshouldagreewithverbs,andpronounswithnouns:Thoseproblemsareunique.
Therearemanyargumentsinfavour.
(b)Uncountablenounsandirregularpluralsusuallyhavenonal's':Moststudentsreceivefreetuition.
Themainexportistropicalfruit.
(c)Generalstatementsnormallyusetheplural:Stateuniversitieshavelowerfees.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER3.
10SingularorpluralThechoiceofsingularorpluralcanbeconfusinginvarioussituations,suchasintheuseofcountableanduncountablenouns.
Thisunitillustratesthemainareasofdifcultyandprovidespracticewiththese.
(d)'Each/every'arefollowedbysingularnounandverbforms:Everystudentgetsnancialsupport.
(e)Twolinkednounsshouldagree:Boththesimilaritiesanddifferencesareimportant.
IFindthemistakeineachofthefollowingsentencesanddecidewhattype(a–eabove)itis.
(a)Theproposalhasbothadvantagesanddisadvantage.
(b)AmajorityofchildreninThailandisvaccinatedagainstmeasles.
(c)Therearefewyoungpeopleinruralarea.
(d)Manyplacesareexperiencinganincreaseincrimes.
(e)Eachcompanieshavetheirownpolicies.
2GroupphrasesIStudythefollowing'group'phrases.
Notethatifaverbhasmorethanonesubjectitmustbeplural,eveniftheprecedingnounissingular:Scoresofstudents,someteachersandthepresidentareatthemeeting.
218Part3Accuracyinwritingsingular+pluralplural+singularplural+uncountablehalftheuniversitiesarangeofbusinessesoneoftheelementstwotypesofinstitutionvariouskindsofcoursemanyvarietiesofresponsethreeareasofenquiryseveraleldsofresearchratesofprogressTheirvaluablesuggestionsandhardworkwerevital.
Certain'group'nouns,e.
g.
team/army/governmentcanbefollowedbyeitherasingularorpluralverb:Theteamwasdefeatedthreetimeslastmonth.
(collectively)Theteamweretravellingbytrainandbus.
(separately)3Uncountablenouns(a)MostnounsinEnglisharecountable,butthefollowingaregenerallyuncountable,i.
e.
theyarenotusuallyusedwithnumbersortheplural's'.
accommodationinformationsceneryadviceknowledgestaffbehaviourmoneytrafccommercenewstraveldatapermissiontroubleeducationprogressvocabularyequipmentresearchweatherfurniturerubbishworkManyofthesecanbe'counted'byusinganextranoun:Apieceofadvice.
Threepatternsofbehaviour.
Anitemofequipment.
Sixmembersofstaff.
(b)Anothergroupofuncountablenounsisusedformaterials:wood/rubber/iron/coffee/paper/water/oil/stoneLittlewoodisusedintheconstructionofmotorvehicles.
Hugeamountsofpaperareneededtoproducethesemagazines.
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10SingularorpluralManyofthesenounscanbeusedascountablenounswitharatherdifferentmeaning:Over20dailypapersarepublishedinDelhi.
Mostwoodsarehometoawidevarietyofbirds.
(c)Themostdifcultgroupcanbeusedeitherascountableoruncountablenouns,oftenwithquitedifferentmeanings(furtherexamples:business/capital/experience):Shedevelopedaninterestingenetics.
(countable)Thebankispaying4percentinterest.
(uncountable)Othernounswithasimilarpatternareusedforgeneralconcepts(love/fear/hope):Mostpeoplefeelthatlifeistooshort(ingeneral)Nearly20liveswerelostintheminingaccident(inparticular)4PracticeAIInthefollowingsentences,choosethecorrectalternative.
(a)Little/fewnewsabouttheaccidentwasreleased.
(b)Heestablishedthreesuccessfulbusinesses/businessin2008.
(c)Substantialexperiences/experienceofreportwritingare/isrequired.
(d)Itisoftenclaimedthattravelbroadens/travelsbroadenthemind.
(e)Paperwas/paperswereveryexpensiveinthetwelfthcentury.
(f)Howmuchadvice/manyadvicesweretheygivenbeforecomingtoAustralia(g)Shehadlittleinterest/fewinterestsoutsideherwork.
(h)Theinsurancepolicyexcludestheeffectsofcivilwar/wars.
(i)Ironswere/ironwasrstpoweredbyelectricityinthetwentiethcentury.
(j)Theystudiedthework/worksofthreegroupsofemployeesovertwoyears.
220Part3Accuracyinwriting5PracticeBIReadthetextandchoosethecorrectalternative.
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10SingularorpluralAlargenumberofcompany/companieshas/havedevelopedwebsite/websitesinthelastfewyears.
Tradingusingtheinternetiscallede-commerce/e-commerces,andthis/theseis/aredividedintotwomainkinds:B2BandB2C.
Theformerinvolvestradingbetweenbusiness/businesses,butmanycompany/companieswanttousetheinternettoselldirectlytoits/theircustomers(B2C).
However,largenumbershaveexperiencedtrouble/troubleswithsecurity/securitiesandotherpracticalissues.
Inaddition,thehighstart-upcostsandtheexpense/expensesofadvertisingmeans/meanthatthis/thesecompany/companiesoftenstruggletomakeaprot.
5.
11HowsynonymsworkIUnderlinethesynonymsinthefollowingtextandcompletethetable.
CHAPTER3.
11SynonymsSynonymsaredifferentwordswithasimilarmeaning.
Agoodwriterusesthemtoavoidrepetitionandthusprovidemoreinterestforthereader.
Synonymsshouldalsobeusedwhenparaphrasingornote-makingtoavoidplagiarism.
word/phrasesynonymlargestgiantoilcompanyintheworldpeopleRoyalDutchShellisthelargestoilcompanyintheworldbyrevenue,withasignicantshareoftheglobalhydrocarbonmarket.
Thegiantrmemploysover100,000peopleinternationally,includingover8,000employeesinBritain.
1.
1(a)Synonymsarenotalwaysexactlythesameinmeaning,butitisimportantnottochangetheregister.
'Firm'isagoodsynonymfor'company',but'boss'istooinformaltousefor'manager'.
(b)Manycommonwordse.
g.
culture,economyorindustryhavenoeffectivesynonyms.
2CommonsynonymsinacademicwritingIMatchtheacademicsynonymsineachlist.
SeeUnit3.
2Academicvocabulary1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222233.
11SynonymsNounsVerbsareaauthoritybehaviourbeliefsbenetcategorycomponentconceptcontroversydrawbackexpansionfeelingframeworkgoalhypothesisinterpretationissuemethodoptionquotationresultsstatisticsstudytrendoutputadvantagepartargumentdisadvantagetendencyeldsourceemotiontargetexplanationconducttopicpossibilityethicsproductionresearchtheoryincreaseideacitationgurestypestructuresystemndingsaccelerateachievealteranalyseassistattachchallengeclaimclarifyconcentrateonconnedevelopeliminateevaluatefoundmaintainpredictprohibitquoteraisereducerespondretainshowstrengthenchangehelpquestionsuggestexplainevolveexamineestablishinsistspeeduptakeapartjoinreachdecreasedemonstrateincreasecitereinforceremovefocusonforecastbanlimitkeepreply3PracticeAIFindsynonymsforthewordsandphrasesunderlined,re-writingthesentencewherenecessary.
(a)ProfessorHicksquestionedthendingsoftheresearch.
(b)Thestatisticsshowasteadyexpansioninapplications.
(c)Theinstitute'spredictionhascausedamajorcontroversy.
(d)Costseemstobetheleadingdrawbacktothatsystem.
(e)Theywillconcentrateontherstoption.
(f)Afterthelectureshetriedtoclarifyherconcept.
(g)Threeissuesneedtobeexamined.
(h)Theframeworkcanberetainedbutthegoalneedstobealtered.
(i)OPEC,theoilproducers'cartel,istocutproductiontoraiseglobalprices.
(j)Thetrendtosmallerfamilieshasspeededupinthelastdecade.
224Part3Accuracyinwriting4PracticeBIIdentifythesynonymsinthistextbyunderliningthemandlinkingthemtothewordtheyaresubstitutingfor.
Example:agency–organisation5PracticeCIInthefollowingtext,replaceallthewordsorphrasesinboldtypewithsuitablesynonyms.
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11SynonymsThechairmanoftheUK'sfoodstandardsagencyhassaidthatanationaladvertisingcampaignisnecessarytoraiselowlevelsofpersonalhygiene.
Theorganisationisplanninga3mpublicityprogrammetoimproveBritisheatinghabits.
Asurveyhasshownthathalfthepopulationdonotwashbeforeeating,andoneinvefailtowashbeforepreparingfood.
Thereareoversixmillioncasesoffoodpoisoninginthiscountryeveryyear,andtheadvertisingblitzaimstocutthisby20percent.
Thisreduction,thefoodbodybelieves,couldbeachievedbyregularhandwashingpriortomeals.
4.
1Manymotormanufacturersarecurrentlyplanningtostartmakingelectriccars.
Theirplanistomakecarsthatarecheaperandlesspolluting.
Butthemotormanufacturersfaceseveralkeydifculties.
Onekeydifcultyisthelimitedrangeofthebattery,whileanotherdifcultyisitscostandweight.
Butthemotormanufacturerspredictthatthesedifcultieswillsoonbeovercomeandpredictthat10percentofcarswillbepoweredbyelectricityinveyears'time.
5.
11HowtimewordsareusedIStudytheuseofthefollowing:Shewentonatrainingcourse(withnumbers,withoutforsixweeks.
startdate)Thereportmustbenished(onorbefore)by12June.
Hehasbeenpresident(withpresentperfect,since2007.
mustspecifystartdate)TheyarestudyinginBristol(endofaperiod)untilMarch.
Thelibrarywasopenedtwo(usuallywithpast)yearsago.
Thehotelisclosedduring(withnouns)thewinter.
CHAPTER3.
12TimewordsTimewordssuchas'during'and'since'areoftenusedinintroductionsorgeneralstatements.
Theuseofsomeofthesewordsisrestrictedtoparticulartenses.
SeealsoUnit3.
15Verbs–tenses.
Beforewritinghestudiedover(oftenfollowedby–ing100sources.
form;alsoafter)HeappliedinMayandwas(oftenusedwithnumbers;acceptedtwomonthslater.
alsoearlier)2TimewordsandtensesIComparethetensesusedwiththefollowingtimewordsandphrases:Lastyeartherewasanelection(past)inSpain.
Inthelastyeartherehasbeen(presentperfect)adeclineinination.
Recently,therehasbeena(presentperfect)sharpriseininternetuse.
Currently,thereiswidespread(present)concernaboutplagiarism.
3PracticeAIChoosethebestalternativeineachcase.
(a)Currently/recentlyshehasbeenresearchingthelifecycleofaBrazilianwasp.
(b)Heworkedthereuntil/duringheretired.
(c)DrHoffmanhaslivedinMelbournesince/forsixteenyears.
(d)Lastmonth/inthelastmonthanewbookwaspublishedoncapitalpunishment.
(e)Applicationsmustbereceivedby/on25November.
(f)Since/duringherarrivallastMayshehasreorganisedthedepartment.
(g)During/forthewintermostfarmersintheregionndworkinthetowns.
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12Timewords4PracticeBIStudythescheduleforProfessorWang'srecenttripandcompletethesentencesbelowwithasuitableword.
Itisnow16April.
(a)monthProfessorWangmadealengthytrip.
(b)hertripshevisitedthreecountries.
(c)18Marchshehadtravelled11,000kilometres.
(d)Shewasawayfromhomeninedaysaltogether.
(e)AmonthshewasinParis.
(f)TwodaysshewasinShanghai.
(g)ShestayedinShanghai20March.
(h)sheiswritingareportonhertrip.
228Part3AccuracyinwritingMarch12FlyLondon–BarcelonaMarch13–14ConferenceinBarcelonaMarch15TrainBarcelona–ParisMarch16LecturevisittoSorbonneMarch17FlyParis–ShanghaiMarch18–19MeetingwithcolleaguesMarch20FlyShanghai–London5PracticeCICompleteeachgapinthefollowingtextwithasuitableword.
6PracticeDIStudythedetailsofNapoleon'slife,andcompletethebiographybelow(onewordpergap).
1769BorninCorsica1784EnteredmilitaryschoolinParis1789Frenchrevolutionstarted1793Promotedtobrigadiergeneral1796AppointedtocommandarmyofItaly;marriedJosephine1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222293.
12TimewordsEATINGOUT(a)thelastfewdecadestherehasbeenasignicantchangeineatinghabitsintheUK.
(b)theearly1980seatingoutinrestaurantsandcafeshasincreasedsteadily.
Thereareseveralreasonsforthistrend.
50years(c)mostwomenwerehousewives,andcookedfortheirfamilieseveryday.
But(d)withmorewomenworkingoutsidethehome,lesstimehasbeenavailableforfoodpreparation.
(e)71percentofwomenaged20–45areatwork,and(f)2020itisestimatedthatthiswillriseto85percent.
Anotherfactoristhegrowthindisposableincome,whichhasrisensignicantly(g)thelate1970s.
Withmoremoneyintheirpocketspeoplearemorelikelytosavethetroubleofshoppingandcookingbyvisitingtheirlocalrestaurant.
5.
11799ReturnedfromEgyptandbecameFirstConsulofFrance1807FrancecontrolledmostofcontinentalEurope1810DivorcedJosephineandmarriedMarie-Louise,daughterofAustrianemperor1812ForcedtoretreatfromRussia1814ExiledtoislandofElba1815DefeatedatbattleofWaterlooandexiledtoislandofStHelena1821Diedinexile230Part3AccuracyinwritingNAPOLEONNapoleonenteredmilitaryschoolattheageof15,veyears(a)thestartoftheFrenchrevolution.
Hequicklygainedpromotion,becomingbrigadiergeneralat24andcommanderoftheItalianarmythreeyears(b)Attheageof30hewaseffectivelytheFrenchdictator,andduetohismilitarygeniusFrancecontrolledmostofEurope(c)1807.
Whenhedivorcedhisrstwife,Josephine,in1810,theyhadbeenmarried(d)14years.
(e)thedivorcehemarriedMarie-Louise,anAustrianprincess.
Hiscampaignsweresuccessful(f)1812,butinthatyearthedisastrousretreatfromMoscowmarkedthestartofhisdecline.
However,(g)hisyearsofabsolutepowerhehadmadesignicantchangestoEuropeanlawandgovernment.
Althoughhediednearly200years(h)Napoleon'sinuenceisstillfeltthroughouttheEuropeancontinent.
6.
11ActiveandpassiveThepassiveisusedwhenthewriterwantstofocusontheresult,notonthecause:Thecollegewasfoundedin1925byWalterTrimble.
(passive)WalterTrimblefoundedthecollegein1925.
(active)Intherstsentence,theemphasisisonthecollege,inthesecondonTrimble.
SothepassiveisoftenusedinwrittenEnglishwhenthecause(apersonorthing)islessimportantorunknown.
Aluminiumwasrstproducedinthenineteenthcentury.
(bysomeone)Thecolonywasabandonedinthe1630s.
(duetosomething)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER3.
13Verbs–passivesThepassiveformisafeatureofmuchacademicwriting,makingitmoreimpersonalandformal,butthepassiveshouldnotbeusedexclusively.
Thisunitprovidespracticeindevelopingabalancedstyle.
Thecauseoftheactioncanbeshownbyadding'by.
.
.
':Thecitywasoodedbyaseverehurricane.
Thepassiveisalsousedinwrittenworktoprovideamoreimpersonalstyle:Thendingswereevaluated.
(not'Ievaluatedthendings')SeeUnit2.
10Style2StructureAllpassivestructureshavetwoparts:IChangethefollowingintothepassive.
(a)Wecollectedthedataandcomparedthetwogroups.
(b)Iinterviewed120peopleinthreesocialclasses.
(c)Theycheckedtheresultsandfoundseveralerrors.
(d)Wewillmakeananalysisofthendings.
(e)Heaskedfourdoctorstogivetheiropinions.
(f)Shewrotethereportanddistributedtencopies.
3UsingadverbsAnadverbcanbeinsertedinapassiveformtoaddinformation:Thisprocessiscommonlycalled'networking'.
232Part3AccuracyinwritingFormoftheverbtobePastparticipleisconstructedwasdevelopedwillbere-organisedIChangethefollowingsentencesfromactivetopassiveandinsertasuitableadverbfromtheboxbelow(morewordsthansentences).
Decideifitisnecessarytoshowacause.
Example:Therecessionforcedhalfthecompaniestogooutofbusiness.
Halfthecompanieswereeventuallyforcedtogooutofbusinessbytherecession.
(a)TheConnorsfamilyranthecompanyuntil1981.
(b)DrWeberhaspredictedthatprisonswillbeunnecessaryinthefuture.
(c)Theyprovidedpencilsforallstudentsintheexam.
(d)Theresearcherscalculatedthepercentagestothreedecimalplaces.
(e)ThestudentshandedintheessaysonTuesdaymorning.
(f)Sheresearchedthelifecycleofover15typesofmice.
4PracticeAInmosttextstheactiveandthepassivearemixed.
IReadthefollowingtextandunderlinethepassiveforms.
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13Verbs–passivesoptimisticallyhelpfullypunctuallyaccuratelyeventuallyvividlycarefullyprotablyBOOTSWhenJohnBootdiedat45,hewaswornoutbytheeffortofestablishinghisherbalmedicinebusiness.
Hehadspenthisearlyyearsasafarmlabourerbuthadworkedhiswayuptobetheownerofasubstantialbusiness.
Hewasbornin1815,becameamemberofaMethodistchapelinNottingham,andlatermovedtothecity.
Johnwasconcernedbythesituationofthepoor,whocouldnotafforda4.
1continued.
.
.
5PracticeBIListthepassivesinthetablebelow.
Decideiftheactivecouldbeusedinstead,andre-writeitifso.
234Part3Accuracyinwritingdoctor,andin1849heopenedaherbalmedicineshopwhichwascalledtheBritishandAmericanBotanicEstablishment.
IntheearlystagesJohnwashelpednanciallybyhisfather-in-law,whilehismotherprovidedherbalknowledge.
Onhisdeathin1860thebusinesswastakenoverbyhiswife,andshewassoonassistedbytheir10-year-oldson,Jesse.
Hequicklyshowedthebusinessabilitywhichtransformedhisfather'sshopintoanationalbusiness.
Jesseopenedmoreshopsinpoordistrictsofthecityandpioneeredadvertisingmethods.
Healsoinsistedondoingbusinessincash,ratherthanofferinghiscustomerscredit.
cont.
PassiveActivepossibleActiveHewaswornoutYesTheeffort.
.
.
hadwornhimoutIWhatwouldbetheeffectofusingthepassivethroughoutthetext6PracticeCThepassiveisusedmoreinwrittenthaninspokenEnglish,butshouldnotbeoverused,asitcangiveaveryformaltone.
IInthefollowingtext,whichcontinuesthehistoryoftheBootscompany,passivesareusedthroughout.
Changesomeofthemintotheactive.
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13Verbs–passivesIn1889hewasintroducedtoFlorenceRowe,thedaughterofabookseller,whileonholiday.
Aftertheyweremarriedthebusinesswasaffectedbyherideas:theproductrangewasenlargedtoincludestationeryandbooks.
TheBootssubscriptionlibraryandin-storecafeswerealsointroducedduetoFlorence'sinuence.
DuringtherstworldwartheBootsfactorieswereusedtomakeavarietyofproducts,fromsteriliserstogasmasks.
ButafterthewarJessewasattackedbyarthritisand,worriedbytheeconomicprospects,thecompanywassoldtoanAmericanrivalfor2m.
This,however,wasmadebankruptduringtheDepressionandBootswasthenboughtbyaBritishgroupfor6m,andJesse'sson,John,wasmadechairman.
ThefamousNo.
7cosmeticsrangewaslaunchedinthe1930sandinthesecondworldwarbothsaccharinandpenicillinwereproducedinthefactories.
However,recentlythecompanyhasbeenthreatenedbyintensecompetitionfromsupermarketsinitscorepharmaceuticalbusiness.
6.
11UsingverbsofreferenceReferringverbsareusedtosummariseanotherwriter'sideas:Previnarguedthatglobalwarmingwasmainlycausedbythesolarcycle.
Bakewell(1992)foundthatmostmanagerstendedtousetraditionalterms.
.
.
Theymayalsobeusedtointroduceaquotation.
.
.
.
asScottobserved:'Commentisfreebutfactsaresacred'.
CHAPTER3.
14VerbsofreferenceWhenintroducingquotationsorsummariesofotherwriters'ideasitisnecessarytouseverbsofreferencesuchas'claims'or'states'.
Theseverbsindicatethepositionofthewriterwhoseideasarebeingsummarised.
Thisunitgivesexamplesofcommonverbsofreferenceandpractisestheiruse.
SeealsoUnit1.
8Referencesandquotations.
2CommonreferringverbsMostoftheseverbsarefollowedbyanounclausebeginningwith'that'.
(a)Thefollowingmeanthatthewriterispresentingacase:argueclaimconsiderhypothesisesuggestbelievethinkstateMelville(1997)suggestedthateatingraweggscouldbeharmful.
(b)Asecondgroupdescribeareactiontoapreviouslystatedposition:acceptadmitagreedenydoubtHandlesmithdoubtsMelville'ssuggestionthateatingraweggs.
.
.
(c)Othersinclude:assumeconcludediscoverexplainimplyindicatemaintainpresumerevealshowPatel(2003)assumesthatinationwillremainlow.
3PracticeAIWriteasentencereferringtowhatthefollowingwriterssaid(morethanoneverbmaybesuitable).
Usethepasttense.
Example:Z:'Myresearchshowsthatbiofuelsareenvironmentallyneutral'.
Zclaimed/arguedthatbiofuelswereenvironmentallyneutral.
(a)A:'Imayhavemadeamistakeinmycalculationsonenergyloss'.
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14Verbsofreference(b)B:'Ididnotsaythatwomenmakebetterdoctorsthanmen'.
(c)C:'Smallrmsaremoredynamicthanlargeones'.
(d)D:'IsupportC'sviewsonsmallrms'.
(e)E:'I'mnotsure,butmostpeopleprobablyworktoearnmoney'.
(f)F:'Aftermuchresearch,I'vefoundthatallergiesarebecomingmorecommon'.
(g)G:'Ithinkitunlikelythatelectriccarswillreplaceconventionalones'.
(h)H:'Somebodyshouldinvestigatethereasonsfortheincreaseinwinterstorms'.
(i)I:'Theremaybealinkbetweencrimeandsunspotactivity'.
238Part3Accuracyinwriting4FurtherreferringverbsAsmallgroupofverbsisfollowedbythepattern(somebody/thing+for+noun/gerund):Lee(1998)blamedthemediaforcreatinguncertainty.
blamecensurecommendcondemncriticiseNB.
Allexcept'commend'haveanegativemeaning.
Anothergroupisfollowedby(somebody/thing+as+noun/gerund):TerryinterpretsrisingoilpricesasaresultoftheAsianrecovery.
assesscharacteriseclassifydenedescribeevaluateidentifyinterpretportraypresent5PracticeBIRewritethefollowingstatementsusingverbsfromthelistsin(4).
Example:K:'Guttman'sworkisresponsibleformanyofthecurrentsocialproblems.
'KblamedGuttman'sworkformanyofthecurrentsocialproblems.
(a)L:'Shewasverycarelessaboutherresearchmethods'.
(b)M:'Therearefourmaintypesofchildrenincare'.
(c)N:'Thatcompanyhasanexcellentrecordforworkplacesafety'.
(d)O:'Thenoiseswhalesmakemustbeexpressionsofhappiness'.
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14Verbsofreference(e)P:'Windpowerandbiomasswillbetheleadinggreenenergysources'.
(f)Q:'Darwinwasthemostinuentialnaturalistofthenineteenthcentury'.
(g)R:'Aninsectisasix-leggedarthropod'.
(h)S:'Lawstudentsarehard-workingbutopen-minded'.
240Part3Accuracyinwriting1UsingtensesIDecidewhichtensesareusedinthefollowingexamples(verbsinbold)andcompletethetableoverleaftoexplainwhy.
(a)AccordingtoHoffman(1996)smallrmsrespondmorerapidlytochange.
.
.
(b)Currently,studentnumbersarefallingbutclasssizesarerising.
(c)Sincethesummerhousepriceshaveincreasedsteadily.
(d)Inthelastthreeyearsmorestudentshavebeenworkingpart-time.
(e)Twoyearsagotheislandopeneditsthirdairport.
(f)DuringthewintershewasstudyingJapanesehistory.
(g)ThereportwaspublishedinJune.
Itshowedthatin2009protshadincreasedby55percent.
(h)Theforecastconcludesthatinfectionrateswillpeaknextmonth.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER3.
15Verbs–tensesThisunitfocusesonthemaintensesusedinacademicwritingandexplainsthewaytheiruseiscontrolledbytimewords,whichwereexaminedinUnit3.
12.
2PracticeAICompletethefollowingsentencesbyusingthemostsuitabletensefortheverbinbrackets.
(a)Homeownershiprise)steadilysince1950.
(b)DIYstandfor)doityourself.
(c)Lastyeartheysell)nearlyvemillionbooks.
242Part3AccuracyinwritingTenseReasonforuseaPresentsimpleGeneralrulebcdefgh(d)Bythetimehediedin1987he(takeout)over50patents.
(e)Intenyearsmostpeopleintheworldhave)amobilephone.
(f)Atthemomenttheclasswork)onanengineeringproject.
(g)Theprofessorgive)alecturewhentheearthquakehappened.
(h)Lee(1965)dispute)Sakamoto'stheory.
(i)Inthelastsixyearsinationfall)sharplyinEurope.
3Simpleorcontinuous(a)Ingeneral,thecontinuousisusedtofocusontheactivityitselfortostressitstemporarynature.
Comparethefollowing:Shehasbeenwritingthatreportforsixdays.
(toshowdurationoftemporaryactivity)Heiswritinganarticleonprobabilitytheory.
(toshowtemporarynatureofactivity)Shewritesstoriesforteenagegirls.
(todemonstratehernormalwork)(b)Alsonotethatcertainverbsarerarelyusedinthecontinuous.
Theyarestateverbssuchasprefer,ownandbelieve.
Anothersimilargroupisknownasperformativeverbs(assume,deny,promise,refuse,suggest).
ISelecteithersimpleorcontinuousineachcase:(a)ThisyeartheteamatYalework)onastudyofricefarminginIndonesia.
(b)Hebelieve)hewillnishthebookearlynextyear.
(c)Thismagazinelookfor)awriteronbusinesslaw.
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15Verbs–tenses(d)Twoyearsagoshewasmanagingabranchbutnowsherun)theheadofce.
(e)TheaverageageofmarriageinItalyrise)bysixyearsbetween1970and1990.
(f)Thecompanyown)factoriesin12countries.
(g)Mostpeopleinthecitylive)withintwokilometresoftheirwork.
(h)DrMcPhersonattend)aconferenceinSouthAmericathisweek.
4UsingtimephrasesWhenwritingparagraphs,itisimportanttobeclearaboutwhichtimephrasescontrolthetensesofverbs.
IStudythefollowingparagraph:ThetimephraseRecentlycontrolsthetenseofthersttwosentences(presentperfect).
Thenexttwosentencesareinthesimplepastbecauseofthedates1980,1999,1960and2000,whichshownishedperiods:244Part3AccuracyinwritingTHEAMERICANFAMILYRecently,theconditionofthefamilyhasproducedsomeofthestrongestdebateheardinAmerica.
Thestatisticsofcollapsehaveappearedsimpleandclear.
Theproportionofchildrenbornoutsidemarriagerosefrom18percentin1980to33percentin1999.
Theshareofhouseholdsmadeupoftwoparentsandtheirchildrenfellfrom45percentin1960toonly23percentin2000.
4.
15PracticeBIReadthetextbelowandselectthemostsuitabletenseforeachverbinbrackets,consideringthetimephrasesinbold.
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15Verbs–tensesTimephraseVerbscontrolledRecentlyhasproducedhaveappeared1980199919602000rosefellTHEBOLOGNAPROCESSTherstuniversityinEuropewasfoundedinBologna,Italy,in1088.
In1999,911yearslater,Europeaneducationministers(a)meet)theretoplanacommonframeworkforuniversitiesinEurope.
Theaim(b)be)tostandardisethesystemofstudyingfordegreestopermitstudentstostudyindifferentcountries.
After11yearsofpreparation,in2010,ameetingof46ministersinLeuven,Belgium,(c)(agree)thecreationofaEuropeanhighereducationarea.
This(d)allow)studentstotakethecreditstheyhavegainedinonecountryandtransferthemtoadegreeprogrammeinanother.
Itseemsthatmanygovernmentscurrently(e)support)theprocessasamethodofreformingtheiruniversities,which(f)(face)strongcompetitionfromAmerica.
Theinternationalleaguetablescontinuetobedominatedbythe'IvyLeague'universities,which(g)(have)muchhigherincomesthanmostEuropeaninstitutions.
TheUSA(h)spend)twiceasmuchofitsGDPonhighereducationastheEuropeanaverage.
ButinfuturetheBolognaprocess(i)(give)universitiesmorefreedomtoemployandpromotestaff,which(j)make)themmorecompetitivewiththeirtransatlanticcounterparts.
By2020itishopedthatuniversitiesinEurope(k)be)betterfundedandmoreindependent.
5.
1Writingmodels1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222PART41LettersYouhaveappliedforaplaceonanMSccourseataBritishuniversity.
Readtheletteronp.
250youhavereceivedinreply.
ILabelthefollowingfeaturesofformalletterswiththeletters(a-l)fromtheleftmargin.
(d)Date()Addressofrecipient()Ending()Addressofsender()Requestforresponse()Reasonforwriting()Greeting()Sender'sreference()Furtherdetails()Signature()Subjectheadline()Writer'snameandjobtitle1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER4.
1FormallettersandemailsAlthoughlesscommonthanbeforeelectroniccommunicationbecameavailable,lettersarestillimportantforformalmatters,orwhenanemailaddressisunknown.
Theyarealsoconsideredtobemorereliablethanemails.
However,duetoitsconvenienceemailisincreasinglyusedforsemi-formalaswellasinformalcommunication.
Itiswidelyseenasawayofhavingapermanentrecordofanarrangementordiscussion.
250Part4Writingmodels(a)CentralAdmissionsOfceWyeHouseParkCampusUniversityofMerciaBorchesterBR35HTUnitedKingdom(b)MsPTan54SydneyRoadRowboroughRB16FD(c)Ref:MB/373(d)3May2010(e)DearMsTan,(f)ApplicationforMScSustainableBuildingTechnology(g)Furthertoyourrecentapplication,IwouldliketoinviteyoutotheuniversityforaninformalinterviewonTuesday21stMayat11am.
Youwillbeabletomeetthecoursesupervisor,DrSchmidt,andlookroundtheSchooloftheBuiltEnvironment.
(h)Amapofthecampusandinstructionsforndingtheuniversityareenclosed.
(i)Pleaseletmeknowifyouwillbeabletoattendonthedategiven.
(j)Yourssincerely,(k)M.
Bramble(l)MickBrambleAdministrativeAssistantCentralAdmissionsOfceEnc.
Notethefollowingpoints:(a)Theexampleaboveisaddressedtoaknownindividualandtheendingis'Yourssincerely'.
However,whenwritingtosomebodywhosenameyoudonotknow,e.
g.
TheManager,useDearSirandYoursfaithfully.
(b)Aformallettergenerallyusesthefamilynameinthegreeting(DearMsTan).
Certainorganisationsmay,however,usearstnamewithafamilynameorevenarstnamealone(DearJaneTan,DearJane).
(c)Ifthesenderincludesareferenceitishelpfultoquoteitinyourreply.
2PracticeAIWriteareplytoMrBramblemakingthefollowingpoints:(a)Youwillattendtheinterviewonthedategiven.
(b)Youwouldliketohavetheinterviewonehourlater,duetotraintimes.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222514.
1Formallettersandemails54SydneyRoadRowboroughRB16FD3EmailsStartingandnishingThefollowingformsareacceptablewaystobeginanemailifyouknowtherecipient:HiSophie,DearSophie,HelloSophieIfyouhavenotmettherecipientitmaybesafertouse:DearSophieGratton,DearMsGratton,DearDrGrattonIfyouneedtosendanemailtoalargegroup(e.
g.
colleagues)youmayuse:Hieveryone,HelloallInallcasestoclosethemessageyoucanuse:Regards,Bestwishes,BestregardsYoumayalsoaddastandardformulabeforethis:Lookforwardtomeetingnextweek/Letmeknowifyouneedfurtherinformation.
ThemaintextHereyoucanusecommoncontractions(I've,don't)andidiomaticlanguage,butthenormalrulesforpunctuationshouldbefollowedtoavoidconfusion.
Spellingmistakesarejustaslikelytocausemisunder-standinginemailsaselsewhere.
Alwayscheckforspellingandgrammarproblemsbeforepressingthe'send'key.
Notethatemailstendtobeshort,althoughlongerdocumentsmaybeaddedasattachments.
252Part4Writingmodels4PracticeBIReadthefollowinganddecidewhothesenderandrecipientmightbe.
WouldRachelexpectareply5PracticeCIWritesuitableemailsforthefollowingsituations:(a)YouarewritingtoMark,acolleagueatwork,toaskhimtosuggestatimetomeetyoutomorrow.
(b)Writetoyourteacher,TriciaJames,toaskhertorecommendanotherbookforyourcurrentessay.
(c)Writetoagroupofclassmatesaskingthemhowtheywanttocelebratetheendofthecourse.
(d)Writeanemailinresponsetotheonebelow.
Youhaveneverhadthisbook.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222534.
1FormallettersandemailsHelloDrHoffman,I'mafraidIcan'tattendyourAccountingMethodsclassthisweek,asIhavetogoforajobinterviewthen.
However,IwillbetherenextTuesday,whenIamgivingmypaper(attached,asrequested).
Seeyouthen,RachelAccordingtoourrecords,thecopyofSpecialNeedsinEducationyouborrowedfromthelibraryon12Octoberisnowoverdue.
Yourneiscurrently2.
15.
Pleasearrangetoreturnthisbookassoonaspossible.
Bestwishes,TimCareyLibraryservices1ThecontentsofaCVACVisapersonalstatementoverwhichyouhavecompletecontrol.
WhenyouapplyforajobyourCVwillprobablybeoneofdozensseenbytherm'sHRdepartment,soinordertoimpressitshouldbeasclear,accurateandwell-presentedaspossible.
Evenifthewritersarehighlyqualied,CVsthatcontainirrelevantmaterial,arebadlyorganisedandincludespellingmistakesmaywellcausethesendertoberejected.
Notethefollowing:Thereisnoneedtogiveyourgender,dateofbirthormaritalstatus.
Twosidesisthemaximumthatmostemployerswanttoread.
Detailsshouldberelevanttotheparticularjobyouareapplyingfor.
Avoidclichédclaimssuchas'teamworker'or'selfstarter'.
Informationsuchaseducationdetailsisnormallypresentedinreversechronologicalorder(i.
e.
themostrecentcomesrst).
Detailsofyourearlyeducationorhobbiesareprobablyirrelevanttothepost.
CHAPTER4.
2WritingCVsACV(USresumé)isasummaryofyoureducationandworkexperienceusedwhenapplyingforajob.
Thisunitillustratesthemostcommonformatandexplainsthemainpointstoconsiderwhenpreparingorupdatingyourown.
2PracticeAIStudytheexampleCVbelow.
Howcoulditbeimproved1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222554.
2WritingCVsCharlesMoreno31CavendishAvenueLondonSW35GT07356–723837cmoreno@swiftserve.
netPROFILEIamarecentmarketinggraduatewithabackgroundinpsychologyandsomevaluableexperienceofrunningmixed-mediacampaigns,lookingforarewardingpositionthatwillallowmetobuildonmyknowledgeandqualications.
EDUCATIONOct2009–Sep2010MerciaBusinessSchool,BorchesterMScMarketing(modulesincludedMarketingStudies;OperationalMarketing;MarketingContexts)Sep2005–Jun2008WestLondonUniversity,LondonBScPsychology(2.
1)(Researchprojectingroupbehaviour)Sep2003–Jun2005TrentValleyCollege,NewarkA-LevelsinPsychology,EnglishandGermanEMPLOYMENTAug2008–Jul2009Voluntarypostwith'HelptheHomeless'organisingfund-raisingcampaign.
Experiencewithdesigningleaetsandposters,contactingpressandpreparingviralmarketingstrategy.
Jan2006–May2007Part-timepostasofceassistantwithAdvantageMarketResearch,HollandPark,London.
Generalofcedutiesandinterviewing.
SKILLSandQUALIFICATIONSuentGermanspeakerfamiliarwithmostcommonsoftware,e.
g.
Excel,MSOfcecleandrivinglicence3PracticeBIWriteaCVforyourself.
Whenyouaresatisedwiththeformat,storeitelectronicallysoitcanbeupdatedwhennecessary.
256Part4Writingmodels1WritingreportsWhileessaysareoftenconcernedwithabstractortheoreticalsubjects,areportisadescriptionofasituationorsomethingthathashappened.
Inacademictermsitmightdescribe:(a)anexperimentyouhaveconducted(b)asurveyyouhavecarriedout(c)acomparisonofalternativeproposalstodealwithasituationClearlythereisabigdifferencebetweendescribingascienticlaboratoryexperimentandreportingonstudents'politicalopinions.
Insomeareas,e.
g.
laboratorywork,yourteacherswillmakeitclearwhatformatyoushouldfollow.
However,mostreportsshouldincludethefollowingfeatures:1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER4.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviewsAlthoughessaysarethemostcommonassignmentsinmanyacademicdisciplines,studentsofscienceandbusinessareoftenaskedtowritereports.
Bothessaysandreportsmayincludesectionslookingatoneexampleindetail(casestudies)orevaluatingotherpublishedresearchonthetopic(literaturereviews).
Thisunitexaminestheorganisationofthesetypesoftextandprovidesexamples.
IntroductionbackgroundtothesubjectreasonsforcarryingouttheworkreviewofotherresearchintheareaMethodshowyoudidyourresearchdescriptionofthetools/materialsusedResultswhatyoudiscoveredcommentsonlikelyaccuracyofresultsDiscussionofyourmainndingscommentsontheeffectivenessofyourresearchConclusionsummaryofyourworksuggestionsforfurtherresearch2EssaysandreportsIncomparisonwithessays,reportsarelikelyto(a)bebasedonprimaryaswellassecondaryresearch(b)usenumbering(1.
1,1.
2)andsub-headingsfordifferentsections(c)bemorespecicanddetailedInmostotherrespects,reportsaresimilartoessays,sinceboth:(a)haveaclearandlogicalformat(b)useobjectiveandaccurateacademicstyle(c)includecitationsandreferences(d)makeuseofvisualinformationintheformofgraphsandtables(e)includeappendiceswherenecessaryIDecidewhetherthefollowingtopicsaremorelikelytobewrittenasreportsoressays.
258Part4WritingmodelsForanexampleofreportwritingseeUnit4.
4Designingandreportingsurveys3CasestudiesAcasestudyisadetailedexample.
Itmaybethemainsubjectofanessay,orpartofalongerreport.
Ineithercaseitisintendedtoshowexactlywhathappenedinaparticularsituation.
Forexample,ifyouarediscussingmethodsofghtingmalariainruralareas,acasestudymightfollowthereal-lifeeffortsofamedicalteaminaspecicdistrictofIndonesiaoveraperiodofmonths.
WhataretheadvantagesofincludingcasestudiesWhatarethedisadvantages1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222594.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviewsTopicReportEssay1ThedevelopmentoftradeunionsinSouthAfrica2Twoalternativeplansforimprovingthesportscentre3Astudyyouconductedtocomparemaleandfemaleattitudestoeating4Anoverviewofrecentresearchonthehumangenome5TheargumentsforandagainstcapitalpunishmentIMatchthetopicsontheleftwiththecasestudiesontheright.
4ExamplecasestudyIReadthefollowingexampleandanswerthequestionsbelow.
Topic:AdaptinginternationalbrandstolocalmarketsCasestudy:TheexperienceofIKEAinChina260Part4WritingmodelsTopicsCasestudiesMethodsofteachingdyslexicchildrenImprovingcropyieldsinsemi-desertsReducinginfantmortalityBuildingearthquake-resistantbridgesDealingwithre-offendingamongprisonersImprovingrecyclingratesinlargecitiesAprogrammetocutsmokingamongpregnantwomeninaGreekclinicWorkandlearning–howaBrazilianschemeencouragedconvictstostayoutofjailTheBerlinexperiment:increasingpublicparticipationincollectingandsortingwasteUsingsolarpowertooperateirrigationpumpsinEthiopiaThelessonsfromChile–howthreestructureswithstoodthe2010quakeAnexperimentalapproachtoreadingdifcultieswithunder-8sinSingapore1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222614.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviewsIntroductionTheChineseeconomyhasexpandedatanannualrateofover8percentforthepast30years.
Paralleltothis,theChinesefurnitureindustryhasgrownvigorously,withannualsalesrecentlyrisingbyover20percentayear.
Legislationtoprivatisehomeownershipandrapidlyrisingincomelevelshavecreatedunprecedentedgrowthinthehomeimprovementmarket.
AccordingtoestimatesfromtheCreditSuissegroup,Chinawillbetheworld'ssecondlargestfurnituremarketby2014.
Thisdemandhasboosteddomesticproductionandalsopromptedinternationalfurnituremanufacturerstoenterthislucrativemarket.
IKEA,aSwedishfurniturecompany,wasoneoftheinternationalcompaniestomoveintoChina.
Itisamajorfurnitureretaileroperatinginover40countriesaroundtheworldandhasannualsalesofover21billioneuros(IKEAwebsite).
ItenteredtheChinesemarketin1998withitsrststoreinBeijing,andseesgreatpotentialinthecountry,havingalreadyexpandedtotenstoresandvedistributioncentres.
Despitethissuccessfulgrowth,IKEAhasfounditselffacinganumberofchallengesintermsoflocaldifferencesincultureandbusinesspractices.
MarketingIKEAinChinaMarketingmanagementneedstobelargelytailoredtolocalcontexts.
IKEAhaskeptthisnotioninmindwhendesigningmarketingstrategiesandtryingtoappealtolocalcustomerswhilemaintainingprotability.
Thecompanyattemptstondthebestpossiblecompromisebetweenstandardisationandadaptationtothelocalmarkets.
ItsproductpolicypayscarefulattentiontoChinesestyleandintegratesthesetofproductattributeseffectively(ArmstrongandKotler,2006).
ThestorelayoutsreecttheoorplanofmanyChineseapartments,andsincemanyofthesehavebalconies,thestoresincludeabalconysection.
IncontrastwithtraditionalChinesefurniture,whichisdarkwithmuchcarving,IKEAintroducesalighterandsimplerstyle.
However,effortshavebeenmadetoadaptitsproductstoChinesetaste.
Forinstance,ithasreleasedaseriesofproductsjustbeforeeachChineseNewYear.
In2008,theyearoftherat,theseries'Fabler'wasdesigned,usingthecolourred,whichisassociatedwithgoodluck.
Changeswerealsomadetosomeproductranges.
InSweden,peopleareusedtosleepinginsinglebeds,ortoputtingtwosinglebedstogethertoformadoublebed.
4.
1continued.
.
.
262Part4WritingmodelsHowever,thisideawasnotverywellreceivedbyChinesecouples,duetothefactthatsleepinginseparatebedssymbolisesapoorrelationshipandisbelievedtobringbadluck.
Inaddition,Chinesebrandnamesshouldhavepositiveconnotations.
TheChinesenameofIKEA(YiJia)means'comfortablehome',whichgivesthecompanyausefuladvantageinthemarket.
Animportantfeatureofaretaileristheservicesitoffers.
TheShanghaistore,forinstance,hasachildren'splaygroundandalargerestaurant,whichmakeitdistinctive.
However,Chineseconsumersexpectfreedeliveryandinstallation,andalthoughIKEAhasreduceditschargesforthese,itstillcomparesunfavourablywithitscompetitors.
PriceWhenthecompanyrstenteredChinaitstargetmarketwascoupleswithanincomeof5–8,000Rmbpermonth.
Followingsteadypricereductionsthishasnowbeenloweredtofamilieswithjustover3,000Rmb.
Variousstrategieshavebeenadoptedtoachievethesereductions;themosteffectivebeingtosourcelocally.
70percentofitsproductssoldinChinaarenowmadeinthecountry(Song,2005).
Furthermore,IKEAreplaceditsthick,annualcataloguewiththinnerbrochureswhichnowappearvetimesayear.
Thesenotonlycutprintingcostsbutalsogivegreaterexibilitytoadjustprices.
AccessibilityisalsoanimportantissuefortheChinesemarket.
InmostcountriesIKEAstoresaresitednearmainroads,butasonly20percentoflikelycustomersowncarsinChina,easyaccesstopublictransportisvital(Miller,2004).
Advertisingplaysanimportantroleinthetotalpromotionalmix.
IKEAusesadvertisingeffectively,withadvertsinthelocalnewspaperstokeepcustomersinformedofspecialoffers.
AllTVcommercialsareproducedlocallywithChinesecharacters.
Publicrelationsisalsovitaltobuildingagoodcorporateimage.
InChina,IKEAco-operateswiththeWorldwideFundforNature(WWF)onforestprojects.
Thecompanyinsistsonusingenvironmentallyfriendlyandrecyclablematerialsforthepackagingoftheirproducts,aspartoftheireffortstobuildagoodcorporateimage.
DiscussionandconclusionIKEA'sproductpolicyinChinahasbeentosuccessfullystandardiseproductsasmuchaspossible,butalsocustomiseasmuchasneeded.
Butithaslearnedthatcont.
continued.
.
.
(a)WhathasIKEAdonetoadapttotheChinesemarket(b)Giveexamplesofproblemsthecompanyhasfacedinthismarket.
(c)Whatcouldbedonetoimprovethecasestudy1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222634.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviewsserviceisalsovital:freedeliveryandinstallationaretheperceivedrulesinthelocalmarketwhichitneedstofollow.
Ithasfurtherfoundthatitisbettertolocateinadowntownarea,easilyaccessiblewithpublictransport,whenfreedeliveryisnotprovided.
InternationalcompanieswhichoperateinChina,suchasIKEA,facemorecomplicatedmarketingdecisionsthanlocalcompanies.
Theymustbecomeculture-consciousandthoroughlyresearchlocalrequirementsratherthansimplyintroduceastandardmodelofbusiness.
cont.
5LiteraturereviewsInmostpapersasummaryofrelevantandrecentauthoritiesonthesubjectisincludedintheintroduction.
Onlyaminorityhaveaseparatesectionheaded'TheLiterature'or'LiteratureReview',althoughthisisstandardindissertations.
Inallcasesitisusuallynecessarytoshowthatyouarefamiliarwiththemainsources,sothatyourwritingcanbuildonthese.
Occasionallythewholefocusofanessaymaybealengthyliteraturereview,butinmoststudentwritingitwillonlyformarelativelyshortsectionofthepaper.
Aliteraturereviewisnotsimplyalistofsourcesthatyouhavestudied.
Itcanbeusedtoshowthatthereisagapintheresearchthatyourworkattemptstoll:Thisarticlehasadifferentstandpointfromotherstudies,becauseitbelievesthattheinuenceofthestateonthemarkethasstructurallyincreasedsincetheneo-liberalera.
Thisarticlefocusesoninformationproduction,notinformationaccessibility.
Thatisthedifferencebetweenthisresearchandpreviousstudies.
.
.
Itisalsocommontousetheliteraturesectiontoclarifythevaryingpositionsheldbyotherresearchers:Thepoliticalcompetitionliteraturecomprisestwomainstrands–votermonitoringandpoliticalsurvival.
Writersmayalsoshowhowchangesinthoughthaveappearedatdifferenttimes:Oflate,anumberofpapers(Besleyetal.
,2006;BesleyandPreston,2007;PerssonandTabellini,2000)havecollatedthevariousarguments.
.
.
SeeUnit1.
9Combiningsources6ExampleliteraturereviewIStudythefollowingexample,fromastudentessayonmotivationtheory.
Answerthequestionswhichfollow.
264Part4Writingmodels1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222654.
3Reports,casestudiesandliteraturereviewsCONTENTANDPROCESSTHEORIESThevarioustheoriesofmotivationareusuallydividedintocontenttheoriesandprocesstheories.
Theformerattemptto'developanunderstandingoffundamentalhumanneeds'(Cooperetal.
,1992:20).
AmongthemostsignicantareMaslow'shierarchyofneedstheory,McClellan'sachievementtheoryandHerzberg'stwo-factortheory.
Theprocesstheoriesdealwiththeactualmethodsofmotivatingworkers,andincludetheworkofVroom,LockeandAdams.
ContenttheoriesMaslow'shierarchyofneedstheorywasrstpublishedin1943andenvisagesapyramidofneedsonvelevels,eachofwhichhastobesatisedbeforemovinguptothenextlevel.
Therstlevelisphysiologicalneedssuchasfoodanddrink,followedbysecurity,love,esteemandself-fulllment(Rollinson,2005:195–6).
ThistheorywaslaterrevisedbyAlderfer,whoreducedtheneedstothree:existence,relatednessandgrowth,andre-namedittheERGtheory.
Inaddition,hesuggestedthatallthreeneedsshouldbeaddressedsimultaneously(Steersetal.
,2004:381).
McClellandhadaslightlydifferentemphasiswhenhearguedthatindividualswereprimarilymotivatedbythreeprincipalneeds:forachievement,afliationandpower(Mullins,2006:199).
Incontrast,Herzbergsuggested,onthebasisofmultipleinterviewswithengineersandaccountantsduringthe1950s,atwo-factortheory:thatjobsatisfactionanddissatisfactionhaddifferingroots.
Heclaimedthatso-calledhygienefactorssuchasconditionsandpaywerelikelytocausenegativeattitudesifinadequate,whilepositiveattitudescamefromthenatureofthejobitself.
Inotherwords,workersweresatisediftheyfoundtheirworkintrinsicallyinteresting,butwouldnotbemotivatedtoworkhardermerelybygoodsalariesorholidayallowances.
Insteadworkersneededtobegivenmoreresponsibility,moreauthorityormorechallengingtaskstoperform(VroomandDeci,1992:252).
Herzberg'sworkhasprobablybeenthemostinuentialofallthetheoriesinthiseld,andisstillwidelyusedtoday,despitebeingthesubjectofsomecriticism,whichwillbeconsideredlater.
ProcesstheoriesVroom'sexpectancytheoryhypothesisesalinkbetweeneffort,performanceandmotivation.
Itisbasedontheideathatanemployeebelievesthatincreasedeffort6.
1continued.
.
.
(a)Howmanytypesofmotivationtheoryaredescribed(b)Howmanydifferenttheoristsarementioned(c)Howmanysourcesarecited(d)Whyhasthewriternotreferredtotheworkofthetheoristsdirectlybutusedsecondarysourcesinstead@Reports,CasestudiesandLiteraturereviews>266Part4Writingmodelswillresultinimprovedperformance.
Thisrequiresabeliefthattheindividualwillbesupportedbytheorganisationintermsoftrainingandresources(Mullins,2006).
Incontrast,Lockeemphasisedtheimportanceofsettingcleartargetstoimproveworkerperformanceinhisgoaltheory.
Settingchallengingbutrealisticgoalsisnecessaryforincreasingemployeemotivation:'goalspecicity,goaldifcultyandgoalcommitmenteachservedtoenhancetaskperformance'(Steersetal.
,2004:382).
Thistheoryhasimplicationsforthedesignandconductofstaffappraisalsystemsandformanagementbyobjectivemethodsfocusingontheachievementofagreedperformancetargets.
AnotherapproachwasdevelopedbyAdamsinhistheoryofequity,basedontheconceptthatpeoplevaluefairness.
Hearguedthatemployeesappreciatebeingtreatedinatransparentlyequitablemannerincomparisonwithotherworkersdoingsimilarfunctions,andrespondpositivelyifthisismadeapparent(Mullins,2006).
Thisapproachtakesawiderviewoftheworkplacesituationthansomeothertheories,andstressesthebalanceeachworkercalculatesbetween'inputs'i.
e.
theeffortmade,and'outputs',whicharetherewardsobtained.
cont.
1ConductingsurveysIWhatarethereasonsforcarryingoutsurveysListyourideasbelow.
(a)Toreplicateotherresearch(b)(c)(d)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER4.
4DesigningandreportingsurveysSurveys,inwhichpeopleareaskedquestionsabouttheirbehaviouroropinions,areacommonfeatureofacademicwork.
Thisunitdealswiththedesignofeffectivequestionnairesforsurveys,andpresentsasuitablestructureforreportingtheresults.
2Questionnairedesign(a)Whichisthebetterquestion(i)Howoldareyou(ii)Areyou(a)under20(b)between21–30(c)over30(b)Whatisthemaindifferencebetweenthetwoquestionsbelow(i)Whatdoyouthinkofuniversitystudents(ii)Doyouthinkuniversitystudentsare(a)lazy(b)hardworking(c)average(c)HowmanyquestionsshouldyourquestionnairecontainWhendesigningyourquestionnaire:(a)Limitthenumberofquestionssotherespondentcananswertheminaminuteortwo.
Longandcomplicatedquestionnaireswillnotreceiveaccuratereplies.
(b)Keepquestionsclearandsimple,andnottoopersonal.
(c)Closedquestions(bii)areeasiertoprocess,butopenquestions(bi)willcollectawiderrangeofresponses.
(d)Youshouldtryputtingthequestionstoaclassmatebeforebeginningthefullsurvey,andbereadytomodifyanythatwerenotclear.
3SurveylanguageIStudythereportofasurveycarriedoutonauniversitycampus.
Completethereportbyinsertingsuitablewordsfromtheboxbelowintothegaps(morewordsthangaps).
268Part4Writingmodelssampleconductedmethodrespondentsrandomquestionsmajorityquestionedmentionedintervieweescommonquestionnaireunusualgenerallyminorityslightly1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222694.
4DesigningandreportingsurveysSTUDENTEXPERIENCEOFPART-TIMEWORKIntroductionWiththeintroductionofcoursefeesandtherelatedincreaseinstudentdebt,morestudentsarendingitnecessarytoworkpart-time.
Thesurveywas(a)tondouthowthisworkaffectsstudentlifeandstudy.
MethodTheresearchwasdonebyaskingstudentsselectedat(b)onthecampustocompletea(c)seeAppendix1).
50studentswere(d)onSaturday23April,withapproximatelyequalnumbersofmaleandfemalestudents.
FindingsOfthe(e)30percentcurrentlyhadpart-timejobs,20percenthadhadpart-timejobs,buthalfhadneverdoneanyworkduringuniversitysemesters(seeTable1).
(f)whowereworkingorwhohadworkedwerenextaskedabouttheirreasonsfortakingthejobs.
Themostcommonreasonwaslackofmoney(56percent),butmanystudentssaidthattheyfoundthe3.
1MenWomenTotal%Havejobnow871530Hadjobbefore461020Neverhadjob14112550Table1Doyouhaveorhaveyouhadapart-timejobcontinued.
.
.
270Part4Writingmodelsworkusefulexperience(32percent)andothers(g)socialbenets(12percent).
The25studentswithworkexperiencewerenextaskedabouttheeffectsoftheworkontheirstudies.
Asignicant(h)64percent)claimedthattherewerenonegativeeffectsatall.
However,24percentsaidthattheiracademicworksuffered(i)whileasmall(j)12percent)reportedseriousadverseresults,suchastirednessinlecturesandfallingmarks.
Further(k)examinedthenatureoftheworkthatthestudentsdid.
Thevarietyofjobswassurprising,fromvandrivertobusker,butthemost(l)areaswerecateringandbarwork(44percent)andsecretarialwork(32percent).
Moststudentsworkedbetween10and15hoursperweek,thoughtwo(8percent)workedover25hours.
Ratesofpaywere(m)nearthenationalminimumwage,andaveraged6.
20perhour.
Thenalquestioninvitedstudentstocommentontheirexperienceofpart-timework.
Many(44percent)madethepointthatstudentsshouldbegivenlargergrantssothattheycouldconcentrateontheirstudiesfull-time,butothersfeltthattheygainedsomethingfromtheexperience,suchasmeetingnewpeopleandgettinginsightsintovariousworkenvironments.
Onestudentsaidthatshehadmethercurrentboyfriendwhileworkinginacitycentrerestaurant.
ConclusionsItisclearthatpart-timeworkisnowacommonaspectofstudentlife.
Manystudentsndjobsatsomepointintheirstudies,butanoverwhelmingmajority(88percent)ofthosedenythatithasadamagingeffectontheirstudies.
Moststudentsworkforonly2–3hoursperdayonaverage,andasignicantnumberclaimsomepositiveresultsfromtheiremployment.
Obviously,oursurveywaslimitedtoarelativelysmall(n)bytimeconstraints,andafullerstudymightmodifyourndingsinvariousways.
cont.
4QuestionformsQuestion1isgivenaboveTable1.
WhatweretheotherquestionsinthissurveyIUsingthereport,writepossiblequestionsbelow.
2345675TensesWhatisthemaintensein(a)Findings(b)ConclusionIExplainthereasonsforthedifference.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222714.
4Designingandreportingsurveys6PracticeIYouarepreparingasurveyononeofthefollowingsubjects.
Writeaquestionnaireofnomorethansixquestionstocollectthemostusefuldata.
(a)Patternsofstudentspending(b)Studentsatisfactionwithteachingmethods(c)Customerattitudestotaxicompanies272Part4Writingmodels1PlanningyourworkLongerassignmentsarenormallysetmanyweeksbeforetheirdeadline,whichmeansthatstudentsshouldhaveplentyoftimetoorganisetheirwriting.
However,itisworthrememberingthatattheendofasemesteryoumayhavetocompleteseveralwritingtasks,soitmaybeagoodideatonishoneearlier.
Youshouldalsocheckthesubmissionrequirementsofyourdepartment.
Theseincludestyleofreferencing,methodofsubmission(i.
e.
electronic,hardcopyorboth)andplaceandtimeofsubmission.
Beingclearaboutthesewillavoidlast-minutepanic.
(a)Therstthingistoprepareascheduleforyourwork.
Aneight-weekschedulemightlookliketheexampleonp.
274.
(b)Howyouactuallyplanyourscheduleisuptoyou,buttheimportantthingistoorganiseyourtimeeffectively.
Leavingthewritingstageuntilthelastminutewillnotleadtoagoodmark,howevermuch1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222CHAPTER4.
5WritinglongeressaysLongessaysof2,500–5,000wordsmayberequiredaspartofamoduleassessment.
Theserequiremoreresearchandorganisationthanshortessays,andthisunitprovidesaguidetohowsuchanassignmentmaybetackled.
researchyouhavedone.
Althoughyoumaybetemptedtopostponewriting,thesooneryoustartthesooneryouwillbeabletobeginreningyourideas.
Rememberthatlatesubmissionofcourseworkisusuallypenalised.
274Part4WritingmodelsWeekStagesofworkRelevantunitsinAcademicWriting1Studytitleandmakerstoutline.
Lookforandevaluatesuitablesources.
1.
42Readingandnote-making.
Keeprecordofallsourcesused.
1.
2A,1.
2B,1.
5,1.
83Reading,note-making,paraphrasingandsummarising.
Modifyoutline.
1.
2A,1.
2B,1.
5,1.
7,1.
84Writedraftofmainbody.
1.
105Writedraftintroductionandconclusion.
1.
116Re-writeintroduction,mainbodyandconclusion,checkingforlogicaldevelopmentofideasandrelevancetotitle.
1.
127Organiselistofreferences,contents,listofguresandappendicesifrequired.
Checkallin-textcitations.
1.
8,3.
148Proofreadthewholeessaybeforehandingitin.
Makesurethattheoverallpresentationisclearandaccurate.
1.
122ExampleessayIReadthefollowingessayonthetopicofnuclearenergy.
Inpairsorgroups,discussthefollowingpoints:(a)Whatisthewriter'spositiononthisissue(b)Howdoesthewritermakehis/herpositionclear1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222754.
5WritinglongeressaysTitlepageApartfromthetitle,thisusuallyshowsthestudent'snameandmoduletitleandnumber.
ContentspageThisshouldshowthereaderthebasicorganisationoftheessay,withpagenumbers.
ListoftablesorguresIftheessayincludesvisualfeaturessuchasgraphs,theseneedtobelistedbytitleandpagenumber.
IntroductionMainbodyIfanumberingsystemisused,thechiefsectionsofthemainbodyarenormallynumbered1,2,3andthensubdivided1.
1,1.
2etc.
ConclusionListofreferencesThisisacompletelistofallthesourcescitedinthetext.
Writersoccasionallyalsoincludeabibliography,whichisalistofsourcesreadbutnotcited.
Appendices(Singular–appendix)Thesesectionsarefordatarelatedtothetopic,whichthereadermaywanttoreferto.
Eachappendixshouldhaveatitleandbementionedinthemainbody.
(c)Longerpapersmayincludethefollowingfeatures,inthisorder:276Part4WritingmodelsEVALUATETHERISKSOFUSINGNUCLEARENERGYASANALTERNATIVETOFOSSILFUELSIntroductionThesearchforsourcesofenergybeganwhenhumansrststartedtoburnwoodorotherformsofbiomasstogenerateheatforcookingandsmelting.
Thiswasfollowedbyusinghydropowerfromriversandharnessingwindenergywithwindmills.
Latertheexploitationofchemicalenergybeganwiththeburningofcoal,oilandnaturalgas.
Then,inthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,nuclearenergyappearedforthersttime,withthehopethatitwouldallowtheefcientproductionofcheap,cleanenergy(Bodansky,2004).
Nuclearenergyhas,however,becomethesubjectofconsiderabledebate,withitsproponentsclaimingthatitisbenecialfortheenvironment,sinceitsproductiondoesnotcreatecarbondioxide(CO2)whichcanleadtoglobalwarming.
However,itsopponentsarguethatitcandamagetheenvironmentbycreatingradioactivewaste.
Itisalsolinkedtodiseasesinhumans,andthereistheadditionalfearthatitmaybeabusedbyterroristsinfuture.
Thesecriticsfurtherarguethatotherenergysources,suchassolarpower,couldconstitutesaferalternativestofossilfuelswithoutposinganenvironmentalthreat.
Thisessayattemptstoassesstherisksofusingnuclearpower,incomparisonwithothersourcesofenergy.
Themainargumentsforemployingnuclearenergyarerstconsidered,followedbyanexaminationofthesafetyissuesaroundthissourceofpower,includingthesafetyandsecurityconcernsconnectedwithnuclearwaste.
1Reasonsforusingnuclearenergy1.
1AnalternativesourceofenergyTherationalebehindusingnuclearenergystemsfromtheneedtondalternativeenergysourcestofossilfuels,i.
e.
oil,gasandcoal,whicharenite.
Thisisagrowingconcern,duetotheincreaseintheglobalpopulation,whichisaccompaniedbyanincreaseinenergydemand.
Mathew(2006)indicatesthattheannualenergyconsumptionratepercapitaindevelopedcountriesisbetween4,000and9,000kgsofoil,whiletherateinlessdevelopedcountriesisaround500kgs.
Asaresult,thedemandfortotalprimaryenergy,whichwillaccompany2.
1continued.
.
.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222774.
5Writinglongeressayscontinued.
.
.
thepopulationgrowth,isprojectedtoincreasefrom12.
1Mtoe(milliontonsofoilequivalent)to16.
1Mtoein2030.
Ifthisincreaseoccursthetotalglobalstockofoilandgaswouldonlybeadequatefor250years,thusrequiringtheurgentdevelopmentofotherenergysources,whichwouldnotdepletethestockofnaturalresourcesavailableforfuturegenerations.
1.
2LimitationsofotherenergysourcesWindenergyandsolarpowerarefrequentlypresentedasalternativeenergysourcestofossilfuels.
BotharefreelyavailableinmanypartsoftheworldandtheiruseinvolvesnoCO2emissions.
Sterrett(1994)claimsthatsufcientwindenergyexiststodisplaceapproximatelyeightbillionbarrelsofoil.
However,windenergyisunreliable,aswindturbinesdonotfunctionifthewindspeedistoohighorlow.
Similarly,solarpowerisonlyeffectiveduringtheday,andisuneconomicincoolandcloudyclimates.
Neitherofthesesourcescurrentlyoffersanefcientandreliablealternativetoenergycreatedfromfossilfuels.
1.
3ReducingcarbondioxideemissionsAnimportantreasonforusingnuclearenergyistoreducetheemissionsofCO2,whichareproducedbyburningfossilfuels.
Bodansky(2004)pointsoutthatthistypeoffuelisthemainsourceoftheincreaseinatmosphericcarbondioxide.
TheamountofCO2producedbyeachsourcediffersduetothedifferencesintheirhydrogencontent.
Forexample,naturalgascontainsonecarbonatomandfourhydrogenatoms,whichcombinewithoxygentoproduceCO2.
TheproportionofCO2islowerthanwiththeothersources,becausetheemissiondependsonthemassofcarboninsidethechemicalcompounds.
Althoughnaturalgasisthuscleanerthanthealternatives,burningallthreefuelscontributestothegreenhouseeffect,whichiscausingtheearthtoheatup.
Nuclearenergy,however,emitsnocarbondioxide,sulphurdioxide(SO2)ornitrousoxide(NOx).
Itisestimatedthatin2003,intheUSA,nuclearenergypreventedthereleaseof680milliontonsofCO2,3.
4millionstonsofSO2and1.
3milliontonsofNOx.
Ifreleasedfromcoalburningplants,thesegaseswouldhavecausedthedeathsof40,000peopleannually(Olahetal.
,2006:127).
AccordingtoRichard(2008:273)theuseofnuclearenergyinFrancebetween1980and1987reducedCO2emissionsby34percent.
cont.
278Part4Writingmodels1.
4CostefciencyNuclearenergycouldpotentiallygeneratemoreelectricitythanothercurrentsources.
AsMurray(2000:73)explains,atypicalreactor,whichconsumes4kg/dayofuraniumU235,generates3,000MWofenergyaday,whileothersourcessuchasnaturalgas,coaloroilrequiremanytimestheequivalentofthatamountofuraniumtogeneratethesameenergy.
Thereforenuclearenergyisrelativelycostefcientasitusesacheaprawmaterial.
Inrecentyearsthepriceofoilandnaturalgashasrisensharply,andthistrendseemslikelytocontinueinfuture.
Lillington(2004)suggeststhatthecostofpurchasingfuelfornuclearenergyislikelytoremainlowcomparedtootherenergysources,soitseemslikelythatthiscostadvantagewillbecomeasignicantfactorinthecomparisonbetweennuclearandotherenergysources.
2Healthandsafetyconcerns2.
1TheimpactofradiationonthehumanbodyEspeciallysincetheChernobylaccidentin1986therehasbeenpersistentconcernaboutthedangerstohumanhealthfromnuclearpowerandnuclearwaste.
However,itmustbeunderstoodthatnuclearenergyisnottheonlysourceofradiation,andthattherearenaturalsourcesintheenvironmentthatmaybemoresignicant.
AccordingtoBodansky(2004:74)thereisfarmoreexposuretoradiationfromnaturalsourcessuchasradonandcosmicraysthanfromallhumansources,forexampleX-raysandnuclearmedicine.
Someresearchersarguethatradonisoneofthemaincausesofcancerdiseasesamonguraniumminers.
However,radonmaybefoundinalltypesofsoilthatcontainuraniumandradium.
Bodansky(2004)pointsoutthattheconcentrationofradoninthesoildependsonthetypeofsoil.
Hencepeople'sexposuretoradondependsontheirsurroundings,sothatpeoplelivinginhousesmadefromlimestoneorwoodareexposedtolessradonthanthoselivinginhousesbuiltwithgranite.
Soitseemsthatitisnotonlyuraniumminerswhoareexposedtoradiation,butalsopeopleincertaingeologicaldistricts.
AccordingtoUSlawthemaximumpermissibleexposureforthoselivingclosetonuclearplantsis1/200rem.
However,accordingtoHoyle(1979)thisamountisjust1/20thoftheradiationthatcanbeexperiencedfromnaturalbackgroundradiation.
cont.
continued.
.
.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222794.
5WritinglongeressaysIthasbeenestimatedthatnuclearenergyisresponsibleforjust20deathsperyearworldwide,althoughtheseguresaredisputedbyanti-nuclearcampaignerswhoclaimthatthetruegureisashighas600deaths.
Hoyle(ibid.
)claimsthattheaverageAmerican'slife-spanisreducedby1.
2hoursasaresultofnuclearaccidents,andcontraststhatwiththeriskfromsmoking,whichisalossofeightyearsifonepacketadayissmoked.
Consequently,itcanbeseenthattherisktohumanhealthfromtheuseofnuclearpowerisextremelylow.
Withregardtomedicaltreatment,whichisthenextlargestsourceofexposuretoradiation,X-rayswillexposeapatienttoradiationamountsfrom0.
4to1rad(radiationabsorbeddose).
Abrokenwrist,forinstance,islikelytorequire4X-rayswithatotalexposureofupto4rads.
Theunitofmeasurementforradiationexposureistherem,andoneremisequaltothedamagecausedbyoneradofX-rays;themaximumamountallowedforworkersinnuclearplantsisveremperyear:thesameasthequantityreceivedinthecourseofaroutinemedicalcheck-up.
2.
2TheimpactofradioactivewasteontheenvironmentNuclearenergyisnotaloneinproducingdangerouswaste.
Lillington(2004)estimatesthatnuclearenergy,inthecourseofproducing1000megawatts(MWe)ofelectricityproducesannuallyabout30tonsofhighlyradioactivewasteandabout800tonsofintermediateandlow-levelwaste.
Incontrast,acoal-burningplantproducingthesamequantityofelectricitywouldgenerateabout320,000tonsofcoalash,ofwhichnearly400tonswouldbehazardouswastesuchasmercuryandvanadium,andatleast44,000tonsofsulphurdioxide.
Soitcanbeseenthatnuclearenergyonlyproducesafractionofthedangerouswastesemittedfromcoal-redpowerstations,andinadditiondoesnotproducegreenhousegases.
2.
3RisksofterrorismTherehasbeenwidespreadconcernthatterroristsmightstealplutoniumtoproducenuclearweapons.
Ingeneralnuclearfacilitiesaretightlycontrolled,andinpractice,itwouldbeverydifcultforterroriststousesuchstolenmaterialeffectively.
Therearealternativematerialssuchastoxicgasthatcouldproduceequallylethalterroristweapons.
However,theseconcernscouldbesolvedbycont.
continued.
.
.
280Part4WritingmodelskeepingU233mixedwithU238,whichwouldpreventterroristgroupsextractingtheplutoniumandfabricatingabomb.
ConclusionTherisksofnuclearenergyintermsofbothhumanhealthandtheenvironmenthavebeenthesubjectofwidespreaddebateandcontroversy.
Thisessayhasattemptedtoexaminetheserisksbothintermsofhumanhealthandenvironmentaldamage.
Itappearsthatmanyoftheseconcernsareexaggerated,andthatnuclearenergycanbeseenasasafe,reliableandcosteffectivealternativetousingfossilfuels.
Whileallenergysourceshavedrawbacks,nuclearshouldbeviewedasausefulandrelativelysafecomponentinamixofsourcesthatcanincluderenewablessuchashydroandwindenergyandnon-renewablessuchasnaturalgas.
Thesteadydepletionofreservesofoilandthesubsequentriseinpricesisliabletoemphasisethisposition.
Clearlymorecouldbedonetomakenuclearplantssaferandmoreefcientinfuture,butuntiltheirvalueisrecognisedandmoreworkisdoneontheirdesignandconstructiontheirfullpotentialisunlikelytoberealised.
ReferencesBodansky,D.
(2004)NuclearEnergy:Principles,PracticesandProspects.
NewYork:Springer.
Hoyle,F.
(1979)EnergyorExtinctionLondon:Heinemann.
Lillington,J.
N.
(2004)TheFutureofNuclearPower.
Oxford:Elsevier.
Mathew,S.
(2006)WindEnergy:Fundamentals,ResourceAnalysisandEconomics.
Berlin:Springer.
Murray,L.
R.
(2009)NuclearEnergy.
AnIntroductiontotheConcepts,SystemandApplicationoftheNuclearProcess.
Oxford:Butterworth.
Olah,A.
G.
,Goeppert,A.
,Parakash,S.
(2006)BeyondOilandGas:TheMethanolEconomy.
Wienheim:Wiley.
Sterrett,T.
(1994)TheEnergyDilemma.
London:Multivox.
cont.
3RevisionILookbackatthetextandndexamplesofthefollowingfeatures:(a)Backgroundinformation(b)Apurposestatement(c)Anoutline(d)Adenition(e)Ageneralisation(f)Theuseofbracketstogiveextradetail(g)Apassivestructure(h)Aphraseshowingcauseandeffect(i)Asynonymfor'energy'(j)Anexampleoftentativeorcautiouslanguage(k)Anexampletosupportthewriter'sargument(l)Acounter-argument(m)Acitation(n)Asynopsis1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE6789301234567894012362222814.
5WritinglongeressaysNB.
FormattingofwrittenassignmentsSomedepartmentsmayexpectessaystobewritteninthestyleillustratedabove,withnumberedsectionsandheadings,whileothersmayrequireessaystobewrittenwithoutthese.
Itisimportanttocheckwithyourteacherswhatthepreferredstyleis.
1Describingaprocess:writinganessayIStudytheowchartopposite,whichexplainstheprocessofwritinganessay.
Thencompletethedescriptionoftheprocessbyaddingonewordtoeachgapinthetextbelow.
Therst(a)ofessaywritingistoreadandunderstand(b)title,andthentoprepareascheduleofwork(c)theavailabletime.
(d)thetopicshouldbebrainstormed(e)adraftoutlineprepared.
Next,possiblesourceshavetobeevaluated(f)andthemostrelevantselected,after(g)youcanSelf-assessmentexercisesTheseexercisesareincludedtoallowstudentstoassesstheirprogressinacademicwriting.
Therst,Describingaprocess,isatestofaccuracy,thesecond,Summarisingareport,testssummarywriting,whilethethird,Problemsandsolutions,teststheabilitytowriteaproblem-solutionparagraph.
startmakingnotes,usingparaphrasingandsummarising(h)Whenyouhavecollectedenoughmaterialto(i)thequestiontherstdraftofthemainbodycan(j)writtenfromthenotes,(k)caretoavoidanyplagiarism.
Subsequently(l)canwritetherstdraftoftheintroductionandconclusion,(m)thatalogicalapproachtothetitleisdeveloped.
(n)thisthewholedraftmustbecriticallyre-readandrevisedfor(o)clarityandaccuracy.
Thepenultimatestageis(p)prepareanallistofreferences,appendicesandotheritemssuchas(q)Finallythewholetext(r)bethoroughlyproofreadbeforehandingintheassignmentontime.
1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222283Self-assessmentexercisesUnderstandtitleandpreparescheduleofworkBrainstormtopicandmakedraftoutlineEvaluatepossiblesourcesandselectmostrelevantRe-readfirstdraftandrevisewherenecessaryFinaliselistofreferences,appendicesandotheradditionalitemsProofreadentiretextandhandinontimeWritefirstdraftofintroductionandconclusionWritefirstdraftofmainbodyfromnotes.
AvoidanyplagiarismMakenotesonkeypointsusingparaphrasingandsummarising2SummarisingareportIReadthefollowingreportandwriteasummaryinabout80words,usingthegridbelow(onewordperspace).
284Self-assessmentexercisesCLEVERCROWSAgroupofscientistsworkingatOxfordUniversityhavebeenresearchingthebehaviourofcrows.
Theirwork,recentlyreportedinthejournalScience,showsthatthebirdsappeartobeabletomakesimpletools,askillwhichwasthoughttobeuniquetomanandotherprimates.
Intheexperimentapieceofmeatwasplacedinaglasstubethatwastoolongforthecrowtoreachwithitsbeak.
Thebirdwasgivenalengthofgardenwire,ninecmslongand0.
8mmthick,toextractthemeat,butitsoondiscoveredthatthiswasnotpossibleifthewirewasstraight.
Thebirdthenheldoneendofthewirewithitsfeetwhileituseditsbeaktobendtheotherend,makingakindofhook.
Thiscouldthenbeusedforpullingthemeatoutofthetube,whichinmostcaseswasdonewithintwominutes.
Ithasbeenknownforsometimethatchimpanzeesusesimpletoolslikestickstoreachfood,butitwasneverthoughtthatcrowscouldshowsimilarlevelsofintelligence.
Eightyearsago,however,biologistsintheforestsofNewCaledoniawatchedcrowsusingstickstoreachinsectsinsidetrees.
TheOxfordexperimentwasdesignedtoseeifthesamekindofbirdcouldmodifythisabilitytomakeatooloutofamaterialnotfoundintheirnativeforests,i.
e.
wire.
AccordingtoProfessorKacelnik,oneofthescientistsinvolved,theresearchdemonstratesthatcrowshaveanunderstandingofthephysicalpropertiesofmaterialsandtheabilitytoadaptthemfortheirownuses.
2.
1SeeUnit1.
7Summarising1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222285Self-assessmentexercises3ProblemsandsolutionsYouhavetodiscusstheissueofwhetheritisbettertoassessstudentsbycourseworkorexamination.
IStudythepointsbelow,showingtheadvantagesanddrawbacksofeachalternative.
Thencombinethemintooneparagraphusingtheframeworkgiven,providingyourownconclusion.
SeeUnit2.
9ProblemsandsolutionsAdvantagesDisadvantagesACourseworkallstudentworkduringsemesterisassessedencouragesstudentstoworkconsistentlyduringthecoursestudentshavesomechoiceoftopicsworkcanbeplagiarisedrequirestime-managementskillsmoredifcultforteacherstoassessallworkfairlyBExaminationsallstudentscompeteonequaltermsencouragesstudentstorevisealltheirworkreducesriskofplagiarismsomestudentsbecomenervousonlylimitednumberoftopicsareassessedtimelimitsareunfairtonon-nativespeakersProblemBenetsofADrawbacksofABenetsofBDrawbacksofBConclusion286Self-assessmentexercisesAbbreviationTheshortformofawordorphrase(See3.
1)AbstractAshortsummaryoftheaimsandscopeofajournalarticle(see1.
2B)AcknowledgementsAlistofpeopletheauthorwishestothankfortheirassistance,foundinbooksandarticlesAppendix(plural–appendices)AsectionattheendofabookorarticlewhichcontainssupplementaryinformationAssignmentAtaskgiventostudents,normallyforassessmentAuthorityAwell-knownexpertonasubjectBackissueApreviousissueofajournalormagazineBiasAsubjectivepreferenceforonepointofviewBibliographyAlistofsourcesanauthorhasreadbutnotspecicallycitedBrainstormAprocessofcollectingideasonatopicatrandom(see1.
4)CasestudyAsectionofanessaythatexaminesoneexampleindetail(see4.
3)CitationAnin-textreferenceprovidingalinktothesource(see1.
3and1.
8)1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222GlossaryoftermsusedtodiscussacademicwritingCohesionLinkingideasinatexttogetherbyuseofreferencewords(See2.
3)ConclusionThenalsectionofanessayorreport(see1.
11)ContractionAshortenedformofpronounandverbe.
g.
she's,I'dCourseworkAssessedassignmentsgiventostudentstocompleteduringacourseCriteria(singular–criterion)TheprinciplesonwhichsomethingisjudgedorbasedDeadlineThenaldateforcompletingapieceofworkDraftTherstattemptatapieceofwritingEditedbookAbookwithcontributionsfromanumberofwriters,controlledbyaneditorExtractApieceoftexttakenfromalongerworkFormalityInwrittenwork,theuseofanon-idiomaticstyleandvocabularyFormatThestandardpatternoflayoutforatextHeadingThetitleofasectionoftextHigherdegreeAMaster'sdegreeorDoctorateHypothesisAtheorythataresearcherisattemptingtoexplore/testIntroductionTherstpartofanessayorarticle(see1.
11)JournalAnacademicpublicationinaspecialisedarea,usuallypublishedquarterly(see1.
2A)288GlossaryLiteraturereviewAsectionofanarticledescribingotherresearchonthetopicinquestion(see4.
3)MainbodyTheprincipalpartofanessay,aftertheintroductionandbeforetheconclusionMarginThestripofwhitespaceonapagearoundthetextModuleMostacademiccoursesaredividedintomodules,whichexamineaspeciedtopicOutlineApreparatoryplanforapieceofwriting(see1.
4)ParaphraseAre-writingofatextwithsubstantiallydifferentwordingandorganisationbutsimilarideasPeer-reviewTheprocessofcollectingcommentfromacademicauthoritiesonanarticlebeforepublicationinajournal.
Thissystemgivesincreasedvaliditytothepublication.
PhraseAfewwordsthatarecommonlycombined(see1.
1)PlagiarismUsinganotherwriter'sworkwithoutacknowledgementinanacceptablemanner(see1.
3)PrimaryresearchOriginalresearch,e.
g.
alaboratoryexperimentorasociologicalenquiryQuotationUseoftheexactwordsofanotherwritertoillustrateyourwriting(see1.
8)RedundancyTheunnecessaryrepetitionofideasorinformation(See2.
10)ReferencesAlistofallthesourcesyouhavecitedinyourwork(see1.
8)RegisterThelevelofformalityinlanguage1EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222289GlossaryRestatementRepeatingapointinordertoexplainitmoreclearlyScanAmethodofreadinginwhichtheeyesmovequicklyoverthepagetondaspecicitemSkimArelatedreadingtechniquetoquicklyndoutthemainideasofatextSourceTheoriginaltextyouhaveusedtoobtainanideaorpieceofinformationSummaryAshorterversionofsomething(see1.
7)SynonymAwordorphrasewithasimilarmeaningtoanother(see3.
11)SynopsisAsummaryofanarticleorbookTermWordorphraseusedtoexpressaspecialconceptWordclassAgrammaticalcategory,e.
g.
noun,adjective290Glossaryabbreviationsincitations69abbreviations,common76abbreviations,types175abstractnouns201abstracts,reading22academicadjectives181academicvocabulary179academicwriting,format5academicwriting,types4adjectives,academic181apostrophes213argument101argument,organisationof102articles184articles,denite185assessinginternetsourcescritically24brainstorming38capitalletters212casestudies259causeandeffect109caution188change,languageof158citationandquotation31citationandsummary31citationsandreferences63citations,abbreviationsin69cohesion115colons213combiningsources72commas214comparisonstructures119comparisons119conclusions88confusingpairs96conjunctions192conjunctionsofopposition196counter-arguments106criticalthinking27CVs254denitions126denitions,complex128denitions,simple126describingvisuals162discussion101discussionlanguage105discussionorganisation102discussion,vocabularyof101dissertations5electronicresources,searching17emails2521EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222Indexessaylength39essaytitles37evidence,providing106examples130factandopinion23formalletters249formatofacademicwriting5generalisations134generalisations,structure135groups,workingin166groupwork,problems169groupwork,successful168Internetresources,assessingcritically24introductioncontents83introductionstructure84introductions83keypoints,nding43,45labellingvisuals163languageofchange158languageofdiscussion105letters,formal249librarycatalogues15linkingparagraphs81listofreferences69literaturereviews264longeressays273mentioningsources72mindmaps41modiers189note-making43note-makingmethods44nounsandadjectives198nouns,abstract201nouns,uncountable219numbers139numbers,simplication141numericalphrases142openingsentences86organisationofargument102organisingparagraphs77outlines40paragraphstructure77paragraphs9paragraphs,linking81paragraphs,organising77paraphrasing50paraphrasingtechniques52passives231percentages140plagiarism30plagiarism,degreesof32planningprocess36prexes203prepositions207problemsandsolutions,structure145problemsandsolutions,vocabulary148projects4proof-reading93providingevidence106punctuation177,212questionnairedesign268quotationmarks214quotations62,65readingacademictexts11readinglists14readingmethods19readingtexts,typesof14referencesystems64referenceverbs236referencewords115references62references,listof69292Indexrelevantpoints,nding46repetitionandredundancy,avoiding154reports257restatement133re-writing90searchingelectronicresources17semi-colons213sentencelength,varying155sentences,opening86sentences,simpleandcomplex8singularorplural217sources,acknowledging31sources,combining72sources,mentioning72style150styleguidelines152sufxes205summarising56summarising,stages57superlatives122surveys,designingandreporting267synonyms222tenses227,241tenses,simpleorcontinuous243textfeatures6,7timephrases244timewords226titlesandtextfeatures21titles,essay37titles,understanding36typesofacademicwriting4typesofreadingtexts14uncountablenouns219varyingsentencelength155verbsofreference236verbs,formalityin182verbs,passives231verbs,tenses241visualinformation158visuals,describing162visuals,labelling163vocabulary,academic179workingingroups1661EEE234567891012EEE3456222278292012345EEE678930123456789401236222293Index