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GWLawFacultyPublications&OtherWorksFacultyScholarship2008TheGayPanicDefenseTheGayPanicDefenseCynthiaLeeGeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool,cylee@law.
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471TheGayPanicDefenseCynthiaLee*InthisArticle,ProfessorLeeexaminestheuseofgaypanicdefensestrategiesinthecriminalcourtroom.
"Gaypanic"referstothesituationwhenaheterosexualmanchargedwithmurderingagaymanclaimshepanickedandkilledbecausethegaymanmadeanunwantedsexualadvanceuponhim.
ProfessorLeearguesthatgaypanicargumentsareproblematicbecausetheyreinforceandpromotenegativestereotypesaboutgaymenassexualdeviantsandsexualpredators.
Gaypanicargumentsarealsotroublingbecausetheyseektocapitalizeonunconsciousbiasinfavorofheterosexuality,whichisprevalentintoday'sheterocentricsociety.
Inlightofsuchconcerns,mostcriticsofthe"gaypanicdefense"haveproposedthatjudgesorlegislaturesbargaypanicargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroom.
ProfessorLeetakesacontrarypositionandarguesthatbanninggaypanicargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroomisnotthebestwaytounderminethedamagingeffectsofsucharguments,andmayhavetheunintendedconsequenceofbolsteringtheir*ProfessorofLaw,TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchool.
AbigthankstoHolningLau,RebeccaStotzer,I.
BennettCapers,JoséGabilondo,FredLawrence,andLu-inWangforreadingandcommentingonearlierdraftsofthisArticle.
Ialsothankmycolleagues,MichaelAbramowitz,PaulButler,NaomiCahn,AlexaFreeman,PhyllisGoldfarb,OrinKerr,SarahLawsky,JoshuaSchwartz,andJonathanSiegelforhelpfulfeedbackonthispaperwhenIpresentedittotheGeorgeWashingtonUniversityLawSchoolfacultyonMay16,2008.
IthankNancyEhrenreich,RashmiGoel,CamilleNelson,MarcPoirier,L.
SongRichardson,TomRomero,andCynthiaRoseberryforfeedbackonthisArticlewhenIpresenteditasawork-in-progressattheLatCritConferenceinMiami,FloridaonOctober6,2007.
IalsoreceivedhelpfulfeedbackfromFabioArcila,AlafairBurke,MargaretBurnham,I.
BennettCapers,ElaineChiu,LeightonJackson,PaulaJohnson,andAdeleMorrisonwhenIpresentedamuchearlierversionofthisArticleatNEPOConJuly6,2006.
IalsowanttothankTamaraLawson,CatherineSmith,FrankValdes,RobertWesley,AdeleMorrison,RussPowell,GarrettEpps,PenelopePether,MichaelSelmi,DavidSklansky,TomDienes,CathyLawtonAbrazos,andNuraMaznaviforhelpfulcommentsonthispaper.
IalsothankEvanDeichert,PeterFeldman,MatthewKorn,Hans-ChristianLatta,andLaurenSchmidtforexcellentresearchassistance.
PartsofthisArticleareadaptedwithpermissionfromCYNTHIALEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN:PASSIONANDFEARINTHECRIMINALCOURTROOM(NYUPress2003).
472UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471corrosivepotential.
Ratherthanprecludingdefendantsfrommakinggaypanicarguments,ProfessorLeearguesthatthecriminalcourtroomistheplacewheresuchargumentscanandshouldbeairedandbattled.
TABLEOFCONTENTSINTRODUCTION473I.
HISTORICALORIGINSOFTHECONCEPTOFGAYPANIC.
482II.
GAYPANICINTHECRIMINALCOURTROOM489A.
ExcuseorJustification489B.
Insanity491C.
DiminishedCapacity494D.
Provocation499E.
"TransPanic"513F.
Self-Defense.
517III.
WHYGAYPANICDEFENSESTRATEGIESSHOULDNOTBECATEGORICALLYBARRED.
521A.
LessonsfromtheMatthewShepardTrial.
523B.
FirstAmendmentTheory532C.
SocialScienceResearchonImplicitBias.
536D.
InstitutionalCompetency.
549IV.
SUGGESTIONSFORREFORM557A.
ProvidingGuidancetoTrialCourts.
557B.
QuestionstoAskDuringJurySelection.
559C.
MakingSexualOrientationSalientThroughGenderandSexualOrientationSwitching564CONCLUSION.
5662008]TheGayPanicDefense473OnFebruary12th,anopenlygay15-year-oldboynamedLarrywhowasaneighth-graderinOxnard,Californiawasmurderedbyafelloweighth-gradernamedBrandon.
Larrywaskilledbecausehe.
.
.
wasgay.
Daysbeforehewasmurdered,LarryaskedhiskillertobehisValentine.
.
.
.
AndsomewherealongthelinethekillerBrandongotthemessagethatit'ssothreateningandsoawfulandsohorrificthatLarrywouldwanttobehisValentinethatkillingLarryseemedtobetherightthingtodo.
Andwhenthemessageoutthereis[thatitis]sohorrible.
.
.
tobegayyoucanbekilledforit,weneedtochangethemessage.
EllenDeGeneres(Feb.
29,2008)1INTRODUCTIONAmericanstodayhavemixedfeelingsabouthomosexuality.
2A2007Gallup/USApollfoundthatwhile48%ofthosepolledfelthomosexualitywasanacceptablealternativelifestyle,46%felttheoppositeway.
3Another2007pollfoundthat51%ofthosepolledthoughthomosexualbehaviorismorallywrong,andonly35%felthomosexualbehaviorisacceptable.
4Americansarealsodeeplydividedoverwhethergaysandlesbiansshouldbeallowedtomarry.
51DeGeneresspokeaboutthekillingofLawrenceKingontheEllenDeGeneresshowduringanopeningsegmentonFebruary29,2008.
ForfootageofthisclipseeTheEllenDeGeneresShow,ATragedyThatShouldNeverHaveHappened,http://ellen.
warnerbros.
com/2008/07/a_tragedy_that_should_never_ha.
php(lastvisitedOct.
16,2008).
2ToniLester,AdamandStevev.
AdamandEve:WilltheNewSupremeCourtGrantGaystheRighttoMarry,14AM.
U.
J.
GENDERSOC.
POL'Y&L.
253,254(2006)(notingthat"[w]hilestudiesindicatethatmostAmericanssupporttheadoptionoflawsthatgrantgaysthemostbasicofcivilrights,liketherighttothekindofprivacyinthebedroomthatLawrence[v.
Texas]envisioned,manyalsobelievethathomosexualityisimmoral").
3Gallup&USAToday,iPOLLDatabank,Gallup/USATodayPoll(Sept.
7-8,2007),availableathttp://www.
ropercenter.
uconn.
edu/ipoll.
html(basingpollontelephoneinterviewswithnationaladultsampleof1,028individuals).
4QuinnipiacUniv.
PollingInst.
,PollingtheNations,QuinnipiacUniversityPoll(Aug.
8,2007),availableathttp://poll.
orspub.
com(reflectingviewsofFloridavoters).
ThesamepollfoundsimilarresultsinPennsylvaniaandOhio.
Id.
(finding53%ofPennsylvaniavotersfelthomosexualbehaviormorallywrongversus34%whofounditacceptable,and55%ofOhiovotersfelthomosexualbehaviormorallywrongversus30%whofounditacceptable).
5Accordingtoa2007surveybythePewForumonReligionandPublicLife,55%ofAmericansopposesame-sexmarriagewhile36%percentsupportit.
PressRelease,474UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Whilethereismoreacceptanceoflesbiansandgaystodaycomparedtojustafewyearsago,6gaysandlesbiansstillexperienceasignificantamountofprejudiceanddiscrimination.
7Approximatelythree-quartersofgaysandlesbianshavebeenthetargetofverbalabuseandapproximatelyone-thirdhavebeenthetargetofphysicalviolencebasedontheirsexualorientation.
8ViolenceagainstgaysandlesbiansPewResearchCtr.
forthePeople&thePress&PewForumonReligion&PublicLife,ClintonandGiulianiSeenasNotHighlyReligious;Romney'sReligionRaisesConcerns15(Sept.
6,2007),availableathttp://people-press.
org/reports/pdf/353.
pdf.
In2004,afterMassachusettsbecamethefirststatetolegalizesame-sexmarriage,seePamBelluck,Same-SexMarriage:TheOverview;HundredsofSame-SexCouplesWedinMassachusetts,N.
Y.
TIMES,May18,2004,atA1,availableathttp://www.
nytimes.
com/2004/05/18/national/18MARR.
htmlpagewanted=1&ei=5070&en=727bcbb424713e7a&ex=1225339200(lastvisitedOct.
16,2008);MovetoBanGayMarriageIsKilledinMassachusetts,WASH.
POST,June15,2007,atA12,11statespassedconstitutionalreferendumsbanningsame-sexmarriage.
JonathanRauch,SayingNoto'IDo,'THEWALLST.
J.
,Dec.
27,2004,atA8("OnNov.
2,11outof11statespassedconstitutionalreferendumsbanningsame-sexmarriage").
InMayof2008,theCaliforniaSupremeCourtbecamethesecondstateinthenationbesidesMassachusettstolegalizesame-sexmarriage.
SeeInreMarriageCases,183P.
3d384,453(Cal.
2008);MauraDolan,CaliforniaSupremeCourtOverturnsGayMarriageBan,L.
A.
TIMES,May16,2008,at1,availableathttp://www.
latimes.
com/news/local/la-me-gaymarriage16-2008may16.
0,6182317.
story.
Almostimmediately,opponentsofsame-sexmarriagebegancollectingsignaturestoplaceaninitiativeamendingtheCaliforniaConstitutiontooutlawsame-sexmarriageontheNovemberballot.
SeeJustinEwers,CaliforniaCourtLegalizesSame-SexMarriage,U.
S.
NEWS&WORLDREP.
,May15,2008,http://www.
usnews.
com/articles/news/national/2008/05/15/california-court-legalizes-same-sex-marriage.
html;Rauch,supranote5,atA8.
OnNovember4,2008,amajorityofCaliforniavoterspassedProposition8,amendingtheCaliforniaConstitutiontobansame-sexmarriageinCalifornia.
RandalC.
Archibold&AbbyGoodnough,CaliforniaVotersBanGayMarriage,N.
Y.
TIMES,Nov.
6,2008,availableathttp://www.
nytimes.
com/2008/11/06/us/politics/06ballot.
htmlpartner+rssnyt&emc+rss(lastvisitedNov.
19,2008).
OnOctober10,2008,theConnecticutSupremeCourtreversedalegislativebanonsame-sexmarriage.
WilliamBranigan,Conn.
BanonGayMarriageReversed,WASH.
POST,Oct.
11,2008,atA2.
AsofthewritingofthisArticle,MassachusettsandConnecticutaretheonlytwostatesinthenationthatallowsame-sexmarriage.
6SeeJeniLoftus,America'sLiberalizationofAttitudesTowardHomosexuality,1973to1998,66AM.
SOC.
REV.
762,765(2001).
7SeeHENRYJ.
KAISERFAMILYFOUND.
,PUBL'N.
NO.
3194,INSIDE-OUT:AREPORTONTHEEXPERIENCESOFLESBIANS,GAYSANDBISEXUALSINAMERICAANDTHEPUBLIC'SVIEWSONISSUESANDPOLICIESRELATEDTOSEXUALORIENTATION19(2001),availableathttp://www.
kff.
org/kaiserpolls/upload/New-Surveys-on-Experiences-of-Lesbians-Gays-and-Bisexuals-and-the-Public-s-Views-Related-to-Sexual-Orientation-Report.
pdf.
8Id.
;seealsoDominicJ.
Parrott&AmosZeichner,EffectsofSexualPrejudiceandAngeronPhysicalAggressionTowardGayandHeterosexualMen,6PSYCHOL.
OFMEN&MASCULINITY3,3(2005)("Alarmingly,overonethirdofgaymenandlesbianshavebeenvictimsofinterpersonalviolence,andupto94%reportsometypeofvictimizationrelatedtotheirsexualorientation.
").
In2006,1,415ofthe9,080hate2008]TheGayPanicDefense475isaproblemevenincitieswithsizablegayandlesbianpopulations.
InasurveyofyoungadultsintheSanFranciscoBayArea,"almost1in5menadmittedtophysicallyassaultingorthreateningpeoplewhomtheybelievedwerehomosexual.
"9Whenaheterosexualmankillsagaymanandfacesamurdercharge,acommondefensestrategyistousetheconceptof"gaypanic"toexplainthekilling.
10Thereisnoofficiallyrecognized"gaypanic"defense,butmanyusethetermtorefertodefensestrategiesthatrelyonthenotionthatacriminaldefendantshouldbeexcusedorjustifiedifhisviolentactionswereinresponsetoa(homo)sexualadvance.
11Suchstrategiesincludeusinggaypanictobolsterclaimsofinsanity,diminishedcapacity,provocation,andself-defense.
Inthispaper,Iusetheterm"gaypanicdefense"asshorthandforthesestrategies.
Initially,theterm"homosexualpanic"wasusedtopromote"theideathatalatenthomosexual—andmanifest'homophobe'—canbecrimesreportedtotheFBIwerebasedonthevictim'ssexualorientation.
FED.
BUREAUOFINVESTIGATION,U.
S.
DEP'TOFJUSTICE,2006HATECRIMESTATISTICS1(2007),availableathttp://www.
fbi.
gov/ucr/hc2006/table1.
html(lastvisitedJune17,2008).
In2007,thenumberofreportedbiasincidentsnationwidefell1.
3percent.
HateCrimes:Goodnewsonbiasincidentsbasedonraceandreligion.
Badnewsonthosebasedonsexualorientation,WASH.
POST,Nov.
5,2008,atA22.
Thisdecreasewasdrivenbya4.
2percentreductioninthenumberofreportedbiascrimesbasedonreligionanda3.
2reductioninthosebasedonrace.
Id.
Thesedecreaseswereaccompaniedbya5.
5percentincreaseinreportedhatecrimesbasedonthevictim'sperceivedsexualorientation.
Id.
9KarenFranklin&GregoryM.
Herek,Homosexuals,ViolenceToward,in2ENCYCLOPEDIAOFVIOLENCE,PEACE,CONFLICT139,144(LesterKurtz&JenniferTurpineds.
,1999).
10SeeDuncanOsborne,TheHomosexualPanicDefense:AreJuriesReallyBuyingIt,LGNYNEWS,Nov.
4,1999,at4;seealsoGaryDavidComstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,2LAW&SEXUALITY81,81-82(1992)[hereinafterComstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense];DevelopmentsintheLaw—SexualOrientationandtheLaw,102HARV.
L.
REV.
1519,1542-46(1989);JoshuaDressler,When"Heterosexual"MenKill"Homosexual"Men:ReflectionsOnProvocationLaw,SexualAdvances,andthe"ReasonableMan"Standard,85J.
CRIM.
L.
&CRIMINOLOGY726,726-32(1995)[hereinafterDressler,When"Heterosexual"MenKill"Homosexual"Men];RobertMison,HomophobiainManslaughter:TheHomosexualAdvanceAsInsufficientProvocation,80CAL.
L.
REV.
133,133-34(1992);MarthaC.
Nussbaum,"SecretSewersofVice":Disgust,Bodies,andtheLaw,inTHEPASSIONSOFLAW30,35-38(SusanBandesed.
,1999);ChristinaPei-LinChen,Note,Provocation'sPrivilegedDesire:TheProvocationDoctrine,"HomosexualPanic,"andtheNon-ViolentUnwantedSexualAdvanceDefense,10CORNELLJ.
L.
&PUB.
POL'Y195,201-03,210-13(2000);KaraS.
Suffredini,Note,PrideandPrejudice:TheHomosexualPanicDefense,21B.
C.
THIRDWORLDL.
J.
279,279,302(2001).
11GaypanicargumentshavebeencalledtheHomosexualAdvanceDefense,theHomosexualPanicDefense,andtheHomosexualRageDefense.
476UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471soupsetbyahomosexual'sadvancestohimthathebecomestemporarilyinsane,inwhichstatehemaykillthehomosexual.
"12Morerecently,theterm"gaypanic"hasbeendeployedtorefertotheallegedlossofself-controlprovokedinaheterosexualmanbyagayman'sunwantedsexualadvance.
InthisArticle,Iexaminetheuseofgaypanicdefensestrategiesinthecriminalcourtroom.
Iarguethatsuchstrategiesareproblematicbecausetheyreinforceandpromotenegativestereotypesaboutgaymenassexualdeviantsandsexualpredators.
13Gaypanicdefensestrategiesarealsotroublingbecausetheyseektocapitalizeonunconsciousbiasinfavorofheterosexualitythatisprevalentintoday'sheterocentricsociety.
14Mostcriticsofthegaypanicdefensehaveproposedthatjudgesorlegislaturesshouldbargaypanicargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroom.
15Itakeacontrarypositionandarguethatbanninggay12Parisiev.
Greer,705F.
2d882,893(7thCir.
1983).
13SeeGregoryM.
Herek,TheSocialContextofHateCrimes:NotesonCulturalHeterosexism,inHATECRIMES:CONFRONTINGVIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN96(1992)(notingthatgaysexualityisstereotypedas"pathological,predatory,andcompulsivelypromiscuous");MarcA.
Fajer,CanTwoRealMenEatQuicheTogetherStorytelling,Gender-RoleStereotypes,andLegalProtectionforLesbiansandGayMen,46U.
MIAMIL.
REV.
511,541-44(1992)(discussingportrayalsofgaypeopleaschildmolestersandpredatory,promiscuoussexaddicts);FranciscoValdes,Queers,Sissies,Dykes,andTomboys:DeconstructingtheConflationof"Sex,""Gender,"and"SexualOrientation"inEuro-AmericanLawandSociety,83CAL.
L.
REV.
1,66n.
170(1995)(discussingimagesofgaymenassexualpredatorswhoexploitchildren,lustafternon-gaymen,andareindiscriminatelypromiscuouswitheachother);Suffredini,PrideandPrejudice,supranote10,at312(notingthat"menwhoengageinhomosexualbehaviorarestereotypedassexualpredators");seealsoDarrenLenardHutchinson,"GayRights"for"GayWhites":Race,SexualIdentity,andEqualProtectionDiscourse,85CORNELLL.
REV.
1358,1382(2000)(discussing"gayaswhiteandprivileged"stereotype);DarrenLenardHutchinson,OutyetUnseen:ARacialCritiqueofGayandLesbianTheoryandPoliticalDiscourse,29CONN.
L.
REV.
561,608-09(1997)(discussing"gayaspromiscuous"stereotypeand"gayaswhiteandwealthy"stereotype).
14SeeKathyMiriam,TowardaPhenomenologyofSex-Right:RevivingRadicalFeministTheoryofCompulsoryHeterosexuality,22HYPATIA210,211(2007)(notingthat"mostpeoplecleavetotheideathatheterosexualityisnatural");Mison,supranote10,at147("Americansocietyisheterocentricinthatitisdominatedbyandcentersaroundaheterosexualviewpoint.
");seealsoDEREKMCGHEE,HOMOSEXUALITY,LAWANDRESISTANCE3(2001)("[H]eteronormativityis.
.
.
thetermusedtospecifythetendencyinthecontemporaryWesternsex-gendersystemtoviewheterosexualrelationsasthenorm,andallotherformsofsexualbehaviourasdeviationsfromthisnorm.
")(citationomitted);TiinaRosenberg,OutOftheNationalCloset:ShowMeLove,inSEX,BREATH,ANDFORCE:SEXUALDIFFERENCEINAPOST-FEMINISTERA111(EllenMortensened.
,2006)("Heteronormativityisthesuppositionthateveryoneisheterosexual,andthatthenaturalwayoflifeisheterosexual.
").
15SeeMison,supranote10,at176-77(arguingthatjudgesshouldruleasmatter2008]TheGayPanicDefense477panicargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroomisabadidea.
Whengaypanicargumentsareforcedtotakeacovertturn—whentheyarenotexplicitoroutintheopen—theymayactuallybemoreeffectivethantheywouldbeifoutintheopen.
Socialscienceresearchonimplicitbiassuggeststhatmakingracesalientcandiminishtheotherwiseautomaticeffectofracialstereotypesonperceptionandbeliefs.
16Conversely,pretendingthatraceisirrelevantallowsunconsciousracismtooperatewithoutanyconstraints.
17Itappearsthesameistrueofothertypesofbias,includingsexualorientationbias.
18Ratherthanprecludingdefendantsfrommakinggaypanicarguments,Iarguethatthecriminalcourtroomistheplacewheresuchargumentscan,andshould,beairedandbattled.
ThisArticleproceedsinfourparts.
InPartI,Ireviewthehistoricaloriginsoftheconceptofgaypanic.
Gaypanic—theideathatanon-violenthomosexualadvancebyagaymancancauseaheterosexualmantopanicandrespondwithfatalviolence—hasrootsintheoriesaboutlatenthomosexualityasamentaldisorder.
Theterm"homosexualpanic"wascoinedin1920byapsychiatristwhosawapatterninmanyofhispatientswhoself-identifiedasheterosexualbutwereattractedtoindividualsofthesamesex.
19Thesepatientsexperiencedaheightenedsenseofanxietyinsame-sexenvironmentsbetweentheirfeelingsofattractiontoothersofthesamesexandwhattheyfeltwerethesociallyacceptablefeelingstheyweresupposedtohave.
20Inthe1960s,criminaldefenseattorneysrepresentingmaledefendantschargedwithmurderingmalevictimsbeganusingtheideaofgaypanictoexplainwhydecisionmakersshouldfindtheirclientsnotguilty.
21Theyarguedthattheirclientspanickedandkilledonlyoflawthatnon-violenthomosexualadvancesdonotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocation);VictoriaL.
Steinberg,BookNote,AHeatofPassionOffense:EmotionsandBiasin"TransPanic"MitigationClaims,25B.
C.
THIRDWORDL.
J.
499,523-24(2005)(reviewingMARTHAC.
NUSSBAUM,HIDINGFROMHUMANITY(2004))(arguingthatjudgesshouldnotallowgayortranspanicarguments);Suffredini,supranote10,at309-13(arguingthatuseofHomosexualPanicDefenseshouldeitherbelimitedbyapplicationofnewevidentiaryrulesoreliminatedaltogether).
Butcf.
Dressler,When"Heterosexual"MenKill"Homosexual"Men,supranote10,at726-29(arguingagainstMison'sproposal).
16Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes378-419.
17Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes378-419.
18Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes425-37.
19EDWARDJ.
KEMPF,PSYCHOPATHOLOGY477(1921).
20Id.
at479.
21JoshuaHammer,The'GayPanic'Defense,NEWSWEEK,Nov.
8,1999,at40,availableathttp://www.
newsweek.
com/id/90113/page/2(lastvisitedOct.
16,2008)(notingthatgaypanicdefense"oftenresultedinacquittalsorreducedchargesinthe478UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471afterthevictimmadeahomosexualadvance.
22IexplainwhyimportingtheconceptofHomosexualPanicDisorderintothecriminalarenatoexcuseorjustifythekillingofagaymanisproblematic.
InPartII,Ifirstexaminethedoctrinalunderpinningsofthegaypanicdefense.
Initially,heterosexualmaledefendantschargedwithmurderinggaymenlinkedclaimsofgaypanictocriminallawdefensesbasedonmentaldeficiency,suchastemporaryinsanityordiminishedcapacity.
Morerecently,suchdefendantshaveusedgaypanictobolsterclaimsofprovocationandself-defense.
Ialsoexaminethe"transpanic"defense,23afairlyrecentmodificationofthegaypanicdefenseunderwhichamalemurderdefendantchargedwithmurderingamale-to-femaletransgenderindividualclaimsthathepanickeduponlearningthathissexualpartnerwasbiologicallymale,notfemale.
Justasthedefendantclaiminggaypanictriestoblamethegaymalevictimforhisowndeath("ifhehadn'tmadeapassatme,Iwouldn'thavekilledhim"),thedefendantclaimingtranspanictriestoblamethetransgendervictimbyclaimingthevictim'sdeceitprovokedhim("ifhehadn'tliedaboutbeingawoman,Iwouldn'thavekilledhim").
24Gaypanicargumentslinkedtoclaimsofmentaldefecthavelargelybeenunsuccessful,25whereasgaypanicargumentslinkedtoclaimsofprovocationhavebeenrelativelysuccessful.
26Next,Itheorizeaboutwhygaypanicprovocationargumentshaveenjoyedrelativesuccessinthecriminalcourtroom.
First,lenientverdictsingaypanicprovocationcasesmayreflectthejury'sviewthatitisreasonableforaheterosexualmantoreactviolentlytoanon-violenthomosexualadvance.
Giventhatreasonablenessinthecontextofprovocationdoctrineisusuallyunderstoodtomeantypicality,ifthejurybelievesthattheaveragemanwouldhavebeenprovokedbyanon-violenthomosexualadvance,thenthejurymightconcludethatthedefendantwasreasonablyprovoked.
Iquestionwhetherthecurrentunderstandingofreasonablenessasthatwhichistypicalmakessense.
Relatedtotheaboveargument,lenientverdictsingaypanicprovocationcasesmaybeareflectionofdominantnormsofmurdersofhomosexualsduringthe1960sand1970s").
22Suffredini,supranote10,at292(notingthatfirstreportedjudicialmentionofhomosexualpanicdisordercamein1967caseofPeoplev.
Rodriguez,64Cal.
Rptr.
253,255(Cal.
Ct.
App.
1967)).
23SeeSteinberg,supranote15,at501(arguingthatjudgesshoulddeclinetoinstructjuriesonmanslaughterwhentranspanicisclaimedbecausetranspanicdoesnotfulfillrequirementsofheatofpassion).
24Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes211-34.
25Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes118-32.
26Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes140-210.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense479masculinitythatlegitimizetheuseofphysicalviolenceinresponsetonon-violenthomosexualadvances.
Meninthissocietyaresupposedtobeattractedtowomen,notothermen.
Meninthissocietyaresupposedtobethesexualaggressors,nottheonesaggressedupon.
Whenaheterosexualmanistheobjectofahomosexualadvance,thetablesareturned.
Theheterosexualman'smasculinityiscalledintoquestion.
Heisnotthesexualaggressorinthissituation;instead,heisthetarget.
Inrejectingthehomosexualadvanceinaphysicallyviolentmanner,theheterosexualmanattemptstoreclaimhismasculinityinasociallyacceptableway.
Additionally,lenientverdictsingaypaniccasesmayreflecttheinfluenceofnegativestereotypesaboutgaymenassexualdeviantsandsexualpredators.
Despitepositiveadvancementsintherecognitionofcivilrightsforgaysandlesbians,negativestereotypesabouthomosexualsstillpersist.
Ingaypaniccases,thedefendantseekstousesuchstereotypestohisadvantage.
InPartIII,Istrikeadifferentpathfromthatofothercriticsofthegaypanicdefense.
Othercriticshaveproposedessentiallythesameremedy:barringdefendantsfromarguinggaypanic.
Incontrast,Iarguethatjudgesshouldasageneralruleallowsuchargumentsaslongassomeevidencesupportsthetraditionalcriminallawdefensethatthedefendantisassertingthroughthegaypaniclens.
Thisisthesamestandardmanyjurisdictionscurrentlyusetodecidewhetheratrialcourtmustallowaproffereddefense.
27Tobolsterthispotentiallyunpopularposition,Istartwithamicro-argument:attemptstobangaypanicfromthecriminalcourtroomwillnotworkbecausegaypanicargumentscanandwillbemadesubrosa.
IusetheMatthewShepardcasetoshowhowdefendantscanstillpromotegaypanicargumentsevenwhenajudgeformallybansagaypanicdefense.
IntheShepardcase,thejudgeruledagainstthedefensepresentinga"homosexualrage"defense.
28Nonetheless,thedefensepromotedagaypanicargumentbycallingtwowitnessestothestandwhotestifiedthatShepardmadesexualadvancesuponthem,whichmadethemuncomfortable.
29ThedefensealsoincludedreferencetoShepard'sallegedhomosexualadvanceupondefendantAaronMcKinneyinclosingarguments.
30Ithenturntoseveralmacro-argumentstosupportmytheorythatbanninggaypanicdefensestrategiesfromthecriminalcourtroomisa27Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes470-80.
28Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes285-88.
29Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes289-305.
30Seeinfratextaccompanyingnote307.
480UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471badidea.
Threebroaderframeworkssupportmyposition:(1)FirstAmendmenttheory;(2)recentsocialscienceresearchonimplicitbias;and(3)institutionalcompetencyarguments.
FirstAmendmentscholarsoftenarguethatbanningoffensivespeechisnotgoodpolicybecausethismerelyallowsbadideastofesterbelowthesurface.
31Opendiscussionofperniciousideasisabetterwaytodealwithsuchideasthanbanningsuchdiscussionoutright.
Alongthesamelines,banninggaypanicargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroomisnotagoodideabecausethissimplyallowsbiasagainsthomosexualitytofesterinthesubconsciousrealm.
Opendiscussionaboutwhetheritisreasonableforaheterosexualmantorespondtoanon-violenthomosexualadvancewithfatalphysicalviolenceisabetterwaytoensurethatsuchbiasismediatedbycognitiveprocesses.
Recentsocialscienceresearchindicatesthatdespiteamarkeddeclineoverthelastseveraldecadesinself-reportedexpressionsofracialbias,implicitbiasisstillveryprevalenttoday.
32Evenindividualswhoself-identifyasegalitariantendtorespondmorenegativelytowardBlacksthanWhiteswhenracialstereotypesareactivatedandthereislittleornotimetoconsciouslyrecognizethatsuchstereotypeshavebeenactivated.
33Severalstudies,however,havefoundthatwhenraceismadesalient,mostindividualsareabletoconsciouslymediatetheirresponsesand,insteadofinvokingautomaticstereotype-congruentresponses,respondinegalitarianways.
34Isuggestthatifmakingracesalient—bringingracetothesurfaceandmakingpeopleconsciousoftheracialaspectsofthesituation—helpsindividualstoactinlessbiasedways,thesamemayalsobetruewhensexualorientationismadesalient.
35Onerecentstudy,whichmeasuredtheeffectofmakingnon-prejudicednormsaboutsexualorientationsalient,providessupportforthisposition.
36Thisstudyfoundthathearinganotherpersonpubliclyexpresspositiveopinionsaboutgay-relatedissuesinfluencedsubjectstoexpresspositive31Seeinfratextaccompanyingnote337.
32Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes351-78.
33Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes351-78.
34Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes378-419.
35Here,Iamnotmakingtheclaimthatgaysandlesbiansarethe"sameas"Blacksandotherracialminorities.
SeeCatherineSmith,QueerasBlackFolk,2007WIS.
L.
REV.
379,382(2007)(critiquingmainstreamlesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgenderorLGBTpoliticaladvocacythatinvokes"sameas"mantrabycomparingLGBTrightstoBlackcivilrights).
Rather,Iammerelysuggestingthatinsightsfromsocialcognitionresearchonraceandimplicitbiasmaysuggesthelpfulwaystodealwithsexualorientationbiasagainstgays.
36Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes426-37.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense481opinionsaboutgay-relatedissuesthemselves,evenwhencompletingaquestionnaireforminprivate.
Finally,Iconsiderwhichinstitutionalactor—thelegislature,thejudge,orthejury—isbestsuitedtodeterminewhethertograntleniencytothecriminaldefendantwhoclaimsgaypanic.
Iarguethatthelegislatureistheleastcompetenttomakethisdeterminationbecauseitcannotimagineallpossiblefactualscenariosinadvance.
Thelegislaturecanonlyenactone-size-fits-allrules,whichareparticularlyillsuitedforcriminalmatterswherefactualcontextiscriticaltoafairadjudicationofthedefendant'sguiltorinnocence.
Asbetweenjudgeandjury,Iarguethatajuryoftwelveindividualsisbettersuitedtoweightheissueswhenaheterosexualmanchargedwithmurderingagaymanclaimsgaypanic.
Atleastwithatwelve-personjury,chosenaftereachsidehashadachancetostrikejurorsoneitherextreme,thereisagoodchancethatsomejurorswillhaveapositiveattitudeabouthomosexualityandexpressthatattitude,makingnon-prejudicednormsaboutsexualorientationsalient.
Itisalsobettertolettwelveindividualsdeliberatethemeritsofsuchclaimsthantoleavethispowerinthehandsofonelonejudge.
Thisisbecausequestionssuchaswhetheritisreasonableforaheterosexualmantobeprovokedintoaheatofpassionbyagayman'snon-violentsexualadvance,orwhetheritislikelythatanon-violentsexualadvancecausedthedefendanttogotemporarilyinsane,arethekindsofmattersaboutwhichreasonablemindsmaydisagree.
Intheend,oursocietywillbebetteroffifjuriesrepresentingtheconscienceofthecommunitydecidethesevolatileissues.
Ifwewanttoridsocietyoftheculturalnormsthatmakegaypanicargumentspersuasive,weneedtoopenlybattletheassumptionsthatunderliesuchclaims.
Thebestwaytoengageinthisbattleistoallowdefendantstoraisesucharguments,makesureprosecutorsexposetheflawsinsucharguments,andencouragejurorstodeliberateconsciouslyontheseargumentsandtheirunderlyingassumptions.
InPartIV,Ioffersometentativesuggestionsforreform.
Toencouragejurorstoleavestereotypesandprejudiceoutsidethejuryroom,Isuggestthatprosecutorsadoptatwo-prongedstrategy.
Onthefrontend,duringjuryselection,theprosecutorshouldrequestspecificquestionsaimedatbothremindingegalitarianjurorsoftheircommitmenttofairnessandequalityandferretingoutclosethomophobes.
Duringopeningstatements,theprosecutorshouldmakesexualorientationsalientbywarningjurorsthatthedefensemaytrytoappealtostereotypesaboutgaymenassexualdeviantsandsexualpredators.
Theprosecutorshouldaskjurorstoguardagainst482UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471anyunconsciousbiastheymighthaveagainstthevictimonthebasisofsexualorientation.
Onthebackend,afterthejuryhasheardalltheevidenceandbeforeitretirestodeliberate,prosecutorsshouldsuggestduringclosingargumentsthatjurorsengageinsexualorientationandgenderswitchingbyimaginingthesamefactsbutwiththevictimafemalemakingasexualadvanceuponagaymanwhorespondsbykillingher.
Theprosecutorshouldalsoaskthetrialcourttogivearole-reversaljuryinstruction.
Thisjuryinstructionwouldwarnjurorsagainstallowingsexualorientationbiastoinfluencetheirdecision-makingandencouragejurorstoimaginethefactsofthecasewiththedefendantasagayman(ratherthanaheterosexualman)whokillsaheterosexualwoman(ratherthanagayman)aftershemakesanon-violentsexualadvanceuponhim.
Thejudgecouldalsoinstructjurorstoimaginethesamefactsbutwiththedefendantasaheterosexualwomanwhokillsaheterosexualmanafterhemakesanon-violentsexualadvanceuponher.
Thejudgewouldtelljurorsthatiftheycometoadifferentconclusionabouttheculpabilityofthedefendantineitheroftheserole-reversalexercises,theyshouldgobacktothecasetomakesuretheyhavenotallowedsexualorientationbiastoinfluencetheirdecision-making.
I.
HISTORICALORIGINSOFTHECONCEPTOFGAYPANICTheuseofgaypanicinmurdercaseshasitsrootsintheoriesaboutlatenthomosexualityasamentaldisorder.
Theterm"homosexualpanic"wascoinedbyDr.
EdwardKempf,aclinicalpsychiatrist,in1920.
37Aftertreatingmanypatientswhoexhibitedsimilarcharacteristics,Kempfcametotheconclusionthatcertaintroubledindividualswhothoughtofthemselvesasheterosexualswereactuallylatenthomosexuals.
38Theseindividualssufferedfromaninternalconflictbetweentheirfeelingsofattractiontoindividualsofthesamesexandsocietalviewsofsuchfeelingsasperverse.
39Theyalsoexperiencedaheightenedsenseofanxietyinsame-sexenvironments,causedbythistensionbetweentheirtruefeelingsofattractiontomembersofthesamesexandwhattheyperceivedasthesocially37KEMPF,supranote19,at477;seealsoComstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at82(citingKEMPF,supranote19,at477).
38KEMPF,supranote19,at477-515.
39Id.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense483acceptablefeelingstheyweresupposedtohave—attractiontomembersoftheoppositesex.
40AccordingtoKempf,themalepatientafflictedwithhomosexualpanicwouldbeattractedtosame-sexassociationsandhorrifiedbytheamorousfemale.
41Afterheterosexualfailure,thepatientwouldbecomeanxious,depressed,andsometimessuicidal.
42Interestingly,separationfromanindividualofthesamesextowhomthepatientwasattracted,ratherthanahomosexualadvance,wouldprecipitateapanicstate.
43TheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders,theofficiallistofpsychiatricdisorderspublishedbytheAmericanPsychiatricAssociation,listed"HomosexualPanicDisorder"inits1952edition,butthetermhasnotappearedinthatManualsincethen.
44Evenin1952,manyofthestandardpsychiatricandpsychologicaldictionariesdidnotrecognizeHomosexualPanicDisorderasapsychiatricdisorder.
45WhileKempf'soriginaltheoryhasbeenstretchedalmostbeyondrecognitioninitsuseasadefenseinthecriminalcourtroomtoday,modernsupportdoesexistfortheideathatmenwhoself-identifyasheterosexualandexpresshostilitytowardgaysmayactuallybelatenthomosexuals.
In1996,HenryAdamsconductedastudytofindoutwhetherheterosexualmenwhoexhibitedstronganti-gaysentimentswouldbearousedbyhomosexualerotica.
46Adamsstartedbymeasuringsixty-fourCaucasianmaleparticipants'feelingstowardgays.
47Allparticipantsself-identifiedasheterosexual.
48Afterevaluatingtheirresponses,Adamsdividedtheparticipantsintotwogroupswhichhelabeled"homophobic"(thosewhoseemedhostiletowardgays)and"nothomophobic"(thosewhowerenothostiletowardgays).
Hethenplacedasensoronthepenisesofalltheparticipants,andmeasuredpenileresponsetoeroticvideotapesinvolvingheterosexuals,lesbians,andgaymenengaginginsexualactivity.
OnlythemeninAdams'shomophobic40Id.
41Id.
at511.
42Id.
43Comstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at87-88(citingLELANDE.
HINSIE&ROBERTJ.
CAMPBELL,PSYCHIATRICDICTIONARY348-49(1970)).
44Id.
at83(citationomitted).
45Id.
46HenryE.
Adamsetal.
,IsHomophobiaAssociatedWithHomosexualArousal,105J.
ABNORMALPSYCHOL.
440,440(1996);seealsoMichaelSegell,HomophobiaDoesn'tLie,ESQUIRE,Feb.
1,1997,at35.
47Adams,supranote46,at441.
48Id.
484UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471categoryshowedanincreaseinpenileerectioninresponsetomalehomosexualeroticstimuli.
49Evenifsomeself-identifiedstraightmenwhoexpressstronglynegativefeelingsabouthomosexualityareactuallylatenthomosexualsrepressingtheirownhomoeroticdesires,theideathatgaypanicshouldexcusethekillingofagaymanisproblematicforseveralreasons.
First,treatinggaypanicasamentaldisordersuggeststhathomophobia50linkedtolatenthomosexualityisamentalillness.
5149Id.
at442-43.
Incontrast,heterosexualwomendonotappeartodisplaythesamekindofphysiologicalbiasagainstgaymenasheterosexualmen.
AmandaL.
Mahaffeyetal.
,SexDifferencesinAffectiveResponsestoHomoeroticStimuliEvidenceforanUnconsciousBiasAmongHeterosexualMenbutNotHeterosexualWomen,34ARCHIVESOFSEXUALBEHAV.
537,543-44(2005).
Inanotherstudy,JeffreyBernatmeasuredphysicalaggressiontowardgayandstraightindividualsafterself-identifiedheterosexualcollegemalesviewedahomoeroticvideotape.
JeffreyA.
Bernat,HomophobiaandPhysicalAggressionTowardHomosexualandHeterosexualIndividuals,110J.
ABNORMALPSYCHOL.
179,179(2001).
Bernatfoundthatafterwatchingthevideo,thehomophobicmalesweresignificantlymoreaggressivetowardgaymaleopponentsthanthenon-homophobicmen.
Id.
at185.
Itisnotclearwhetherthesemenwereactuallyunabletocontroltheiraggressivebehaviororwhethertheysimplychosenottodoso.
50Criticsoftheterm"homophobia"notethatattachingtheprefix"homo"totheword"phobia"suggeststhatindividualswithnegativeattitudesabouthomosexualityarefearfulofhomosexualswhenanti-homosexualsentimentsareoftendrivenmorebyprejudicethanfear.
SeegenerallyColleenR.
Logan,HomophobiaNo,Homoprejudice,31J.
HOMOSEXUALITY31(1996)(investigatingnatureofanti-homosexualresponsesinmaleandfemaleundergraduateuniversitystudents).
ColleenLoganwarnsthat"thecontinueduseofhomophobiaasadescriptorforanti-homosexualresponsesmaybeseenbysocietyasimplicitpermissiontocontinuetheoppressionofhomosexuals,excusedbyitsbeingtheresultofinescapablefear.
"Id.
at32.
Similarly,GregoryHerekremarks,"Characterizinghostilitytowardhomosexualpersonsintermsofaphobiaimpliesthatthoseattitudesarebaseduponanirrationalfear,similartothefearsomepeopleexperiencewhenconfrontedwithsnakes,spiders,oropenspaces.
"GregoryM.
Herek,Beyond"Homophobia":ASocialPsychologicalPerspectiveonAttitudesTowardLesbiansandGayMen,10J.
HOMOSEXUALITY1,2(1984).
StephanieShieldsandRobertHarrimannote:Thegreatdifferencebetweentheunreasonablefearofspiders(ormutilation,snakes,etc.
)andfearofhomosexualityliesintheassignmentofresponsibilityforsuchacquiredpathologies.
Whereasspiderphobicstypicallyacceptresponsibilityfortheirfearandevenseektreatment,homophobicsdonot.
Tothehomophobicitishomosexualmenwhoare"sick.
"StephanieA.
Shields&RobertE.
Harriman,FearofMaleHomosexuality:CardiacResponsesofLowandHighHomonegativeMales,10J.
HOMOSEXUALITY53,66(1984);seealsoDarrenLenardHutchinson,DissectingAxesofSubordination:TheNeedforaStructuralAnalysis,11AM.
U.
J.
GENDERSOC.
POL'Y&L.
13,15-16(2002)[hereinafterHutchinson,DissectingAxesofSubordination](differentiating"homophobia"which2008]TheGayPanicDefense485Studies,however,indicatethatnegativeattitudesabouthomosexualitytendtocomefromtwosources:sexualconservatismandprejudice.
52Althoughsomementalhealthpractitionersmightfeelotherwise,53sexuallyconservativeindividualsandprejudicedindividualsarenotnecessarilymentallyill.
Theideathathomosexuality,latentorotherwise,isamentalillnesshaslongbeendiscredited.
InDecember1973,afterareviewofthescientificliteratureandconsultationwithexpertsinthefield,theBoardofTrusteesfortheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationdeletedhomosexualityfromthesecondeditionoftheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders.
54TheBoardrecognizedthat"[a]significantproportionofhomosexualsareapparentlysatisfiedwiththeirsexualorientation,shownosignificantsignsofmanifestpsychopathology.
.
.
andareabletofunctionquiteeffectively.
"55TheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationfollowedsuitinJanuary1975,adoptingthefollowingresolution:"Homosexualityperseimpliesnoimpairmentinjudgement[sic],stability,reliability,orgeneralsocialandvocationalcapabilities;Further,theAmericanPsychologicalAssociationurgesallmentalhealthprofessionalstotaketheleadinremovingthestigmaofmentalillnessthathaslongbeenassociatedwithhomosexualorientations.
"56EventhoughmorethanthirtyyearshavepassedsinceboththeAmericanPsychiatricAssociationandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationrejectedthecharacterizationofhomosexualityasamentalillness,theideathatitmightbenormalforsomeonetobesexuallyattractedtoanotherpersonofthesamesexisnotyetaccepteduniversally.
Forexample,theBoyScoutsofAmerica,whichboastsnearly2.
9millionyouthmembersandmorethan1.
1millionadultinvolves"pronouncedemotionalanimus"and"heterosexism"whichinvolves"institutionalizeddominationofgay,lesbian,bisexual,andtransgenderindividuals").
51SeeSEXUALORIENTATIONANDTHELAW34(HarvardLawRevieweds.
,1990).
52SeeThomasJ.
Ficarrotto,Racism,Sexism,andErotophobia:AttitudesofHeterosexualsTowardsHomosexuals,19J.
HOMOSEXUALITY111,115(1990).
53In2005,somementalhealthpractitionersbeganarguingthatextremeformsofracism,homophobia,andotherprejudiceoughttoberecognizedbytheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationasmentaldisorders.
ShankarVedantam,PsychiatryPondersWhetherExtremeBiasCanBeanIllness,WASH.
POST,Dec.
10,2005,atAl.
54Am.
PsychiatricAss'n,HomosexualityandSexualOrientationDisturbance:ProposedChangeinDSM-II,6thPrinting,page44,PositionStatement(Retired),APADocumentReferenceNo.
730008,at2(1973),availableathttp://www.
psychiatryonline.
com/DSMPDF/DSM-II_Homosexuality_Revision.
pdf(lastvisitedOct.
21,2008).
55Id.
56APAOnline,APAPolicyStatement:DiscriminationAgainstHomosexuals,http://www.
apa.
org/pi/lgbc/policy/discrimination.
html(lastvisitedOct.
28,2008).
486UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471members,57openlyprohibitsgaymalesfrommembershipintheorganizationbecauseitbelieves"homosexualconductisinconsistentwiththetraditionalvaluesespousedintheScoutOathandLaw.
"58AccordingtotheBoyScoutsofAmerica:"homosexualconductisinconsistentwiththerequirementintheScoutoaththataScoutbemorallystraightandintheScoutLawthataScoutbecleaninwordanddeed.
"59Apparently,theDepartmentofDefensealsoconsidershomosexualityamentalabnormality.
InJune2006,athinktankattheUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbaradiscovereda1996DepartmentofDefenseInstructionthatclassifiedhomosexualityasamentaldisorder,alongwithmentalretardation,impulsecontroldisorders,andpersonalitydisorders.
60BoththeAmericanPsychiatricAssociationandtheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationwrotetotheDepartmentofDefense,pointingoutthathomosexualityisnolongerregardedasamentaldisorderandrequestingthattheInstructionbecorrected.
61TheDepartmentofDefensesubsequentlyreleaseda57BoyScoutsofAm.
,BSAataGlance,http://www.
scouting.
org/Media/FactSheets/02-501.
aspx(lastvisitedOct.
15,2008).
58PressRelease,BoyScoutsofAm.
,BoyScoutsofAmericaResolution(Feb.
6,2002),availableathttp://www.
scouting.
org/Media/PressReleases/2002/resolution.
aspx(lastvisitedMay19,2008).
59BoyScoutsofAm.
v.
Dale,530U.
S.
640,652(2000).
JamesDaleunsuccessfullyattemptedtochallengetheconstitutionalityoftheBoyScoutsofAmerica'santi-gaypolicy.
DalejoinedtheBoyScoutswhenhewaseightyearsoldandremainedaBoyScoutuntilheturned18.
Id.
at644.
DalewasanexemplaryScoutandachievedtherankofEagleScout,oneoftheBoyScouts'highesthonors,in1988.
Id.
In1989,DaleappliedforadultmembershipintheBoyScoutsandapositionasanassistantscoutmaster.
TheBoyScoutsapprovedDale'sapplicationforadultmembershipandmadehimanassistantscoutmaster.
Aboutthistime,DalelefthometoattendRutgersUniversitywherehecameoutofthecloset.
HeeventuallybecameVicePresidentoftheRutgersUniversityLesbian/GayAlliance.
WhentheBoyScoutsofAmericafoundoutthatDalewasgay,theyrevokedhisadultmembership.
DalesuedtheBoyScouts,arguingthattheyhadviolatedNewJerseylawprohibitingdiscriminationonthebasisofsexualorientationinplacesofpublicaccommodation.
WhiletheNewJerseySupremeCourtagreedwithDale,theUnitedStatesSupremeCourtdidnot.
Inacloselydivided5-4opinion,theCourtin2000heldthatapplyingNewJersey'spublicaccommodationlawtorequiretheBoyScoutstoreadmitDalewouldviolatetheBoyScouts'FirstAmendmentrightofexpressiveassociation.
Id.
60PressRelease,Ctr.
fortheStudyofSexualMinoritiesintheMilitary,LawmakersDisputePentagonDocumentCallingGaysMentallyIll(June20,2006),availableathttp://www.
palmcenter.
org/press/dadt/releases/lawmakers_dispute_pentagon_document;seealsoDEP'TOFDEFENSE,INSTRUCTIONNO.
1332.
38(Nov.
14,1996).
61BeyondHomophobia:AWeblogAboutSexualOrientation,Prejudice,Science,andPolicybyGregoryHerek,http://www.
beyondhomophobia.
com/blog/2006/11/19/military-psychology/(Nov.
19,2006,13:49PST).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense487revisedInstruction,whichremovedhomosexualityfromthecategoryofmentaldisorders.
62Nonetheless,theInstructionstilllistshomosexualityasa"defect"alongwithdyslexia,motionsickness,enuresis(bed-wetting),andrepeatedvenerealdiseaseinfections.
63AnotherproblemwithusingKempf'sHomosexualPanicDisordertheorytosupportamentaldefectdefenseinamurdercaseisthatnotoneofKempf'spatientswasaggressivetowardanotherbecauseofasexualadvance.
64Indeed,separationfromanindividualofthesamesextowhomthepatientwasattractedwouldoftencausetheonsetof"homosexualpanic"andleadtoincreasedpassivityandaninabilitytofunction.
65Moreover,ifphysicalatall,Kempf'spatientstendedtoinflictpunishmentuponthemselves,notothers.
66AdrianHoweobserves:[T]herewasaconsiderablediscrepancybetweencasesreportedinthepsychiatricliteratureandthecasesinvolvingimmediatereactionorsuddenpanicsdescribedinthelegaldefences.
Patientsdiagnosedwithacutehomosexualpanicdemonstratedahelplessness,passivity,andinabilitytobeaggressivefarremovedfromthepictureoftheexplosivelyviolentmanconstructedbylawyersdeployingaHPD[HomosexualPanicDisorder]defence.
Thelegalargumentthatthisdisorderwaslikelytoresultinextremeviolencethereforehadnopsychiatricbasis.
67Similarly,GaryComstocknotes:Asapsychologicaldisorderinwhichneithersexualadvancetothepatientbyanotherpersonnorviolentattackbythepatientofanotherpersonarecausalorsymptomatic,acutehomosexualpanicwouldseemtobeinappropriateasthebasisofalegaldefenseformenwhoclaimtohavekilledanothermantowardoffhissexualadvance.
6862Id.
63Id.
64SeeComstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at84.
65Seeid.
at87-88(citingLELANDE.
HINSIE&ROBERTJ.
CAMPBELL,PSYCHIATRICDICTIONARY348-49(1970)).
66Id.
at87.
67AdrianHowe,MoreFolkProvokeTheirOwnDemise(HomophobicViolenceandSexedExcuses–RejoiningtheProvocationLawDebate,CourtesyoftheHomosexualAdvanceDefence),19SYDNEYL.
REV.
336,342(1997).
68Comstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at86.
488UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471AfinaldiscrepancybetweenKempf'stheoryandtheuseofgaypanicinthecriminalcourtroomisthatthemurderdefendantswhoclaimgaypanicmadethemkillhavebeenalmostexclusivelymale,69whereasKempf'spatientswerebothmaleandfemale.
70Comstockquestionswhyweshouldacceptclaimsofgaypanicmadebymenwhokillinresponsetogaymalesexualadvanceswhenwomenapparentlydonotkillinresponsetolesbiansexualadvances:[I]fthehomosexualpanicdefenseispremisedonthedisorder'scausingmurderousbehaviorinthoseitafflicts,whyhavefemalepatientsnotbeendriventokill.
.
.
Tobeusedconvincinglyasacauseforkilling,thedisorderwouldhavetobedocumentedwithevidencethatbothmaleandfemalepatientshavekilled.
71Whileitisnotinconceivablethatawomanmightpanicandrespondviolentlytoalesbiansexualadvance,homicidecasesinvolvingclaimsoflesbianpanicarerarelyseen.
Inoneunusualcase,awomannamedMelissaBurchHartonarguedthatshekilledherfriendNatashaBacchusinself-defenseafterBacchustoldHartonthatshewasinlovewithHartonandwantedtokissher.
72ThejuryrejectedHarton'sclaimofself-defense,butshowedleniencybyfindingherguiltyofinvoluntarymanslaughter,ratherthanmurder.
73WhileitiscertainlypossiblethatHomosexualPanicDisorder,ifitexistsatall,manifestsdifferentlyinmenandwomen,74thedearthoflesbianpaniccasessuggeststhatgaypanicisnottheproductofamentaldiseaseordefect.
Instead,gaypanicseemstostemfromaspecificconstructionofmasculinity,onethatvaluesheterosexismandviolenceastraitsofthemasculineandimplicitlyrejectshomoeroticdesire.
69Seeid.
at89.
70KEMPF,supranote19,at506-11.
71Comstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at89-90.
72AmitR.
Paley,MurderJuryWillHearAClaimofObsession,WASH.
POST,Jan.
31,2006,atB5.
73AmitR.
Paley,Md.
WomanConvictedofKillingFemaleFriend,WASH.
POST,Feb.
11,2006,atB4.
74Itisundisputedthatmenareresponsibleformostviolentcrime.
SeeUNIFORMCRIMEREPORTS,CRIMEINTHEUNITEDSTATES:ARRESTSBYSEX(2006),availableathttp://www.
fbi.
gov/ucr/cius2006/data/table_42.
html(reportingthatof10,472,432personsarrestedin2006,7,985,505weremaleandonly2,486,927werefemale).
SeegenerallyRichardB.
Freeman,WhyDoSoManyYoungAmericanMenCommitCrimesandWhatMightWeDoAboutIt,10J.
ECON.
PERSP.
25,26(1996)(notingthatin1993,onemanoutofevery50meninworkforcewasincarcerated).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense489II.
GAYPANICINTHECRIMINALCOURTROOMBorrowingfromKempf'sHomosexualPanicDisordertheory,maledefendantschargedwithmurderinggaymenhavesoughtmitigationorexonerationbyclaiminggaypanic,eitherasamanifestationofmentaldiseaseordefectorassupportforaclaimofprovocationorself-defense.
Inthispart,Ifirstconsiderwhethergaypanic,ifallowedasadefense,shouldberecognizedasanexcuseorajustification.
Next,Iunpackthedoctrinalunderpinningsofgaypanicdefensearguments.
Finally,Itheorizeaboutwhygaypanicprovocationclaimshaveenjoyedrelativesuccesscomparedtogaypanicargumentslinkedtomentalincapacitydefenses.
A.
ExcuseorJustificationApreliminaryquestioniswhethergaypanic,ifallowedasadefenseargument,shouldberecognizedasanexcuseorajustification.
Anexcusedefenseisoneinwhichtheactor'sconductisviewedaswrongful,buttheactorhimselfisnotseenasmorallyblameworthy.
75Ajustificationdefense,incontrast,focusesontheactor'sconductmorethantheindividualcharacteristicsoftheactor.
76Ajustificationdefensesaystheactor'sconductwasappropriateunderthecircumstances.
77Examplesofexcusedefensesincludeinsanity,duress,andintoxication.
Necessity,self-defense,anddefenseofothersareusuallyconsideredjustificationdefenses.
Itisdifficulttoarguethatgaypanicshouldbecalledeitherajustificationoranexcuse.
Justificationsuggeststhedefendantdidtherightthingortookthecourseofactionthatsocietywouldhavewantedhimtotake.
Amanwhokillsagaymanjustbecausethatmanmadeapassathimdoesnotactthewayacivilizedsocietyshouldwantitsmentoact.
78Gaypanicshouldnotberecognizedasajustificationdefense.
75Dressler,When"Heterosexual"MenKill"Homosexual"Men,supranote10,at763n.
17("[A]nexcuseisinthenatureofaclaimthatalthoughtheactorhasharmedsociety,sheshouldnotbeblamed.
.
.
forcausingthatharmA]nexcusenegatesthemoralblameworthinessoftheactorforcausingtheharm.
").
76GEORGEFLETCHER,RETHINKINGCRIMINALLAW759(1978)("AjustificationspeakstotherightnessoftheactJoshuaDressler,NewThoughtsAbouttheConceptofJustificationintheCriminalLaw:ACritiqueofFletcher'sThinkingandRethinking,32UCLAL.
REV.
61,66,68n.
37(1984)(discussingdistinctionbetweenjustificationsandexcuses).
77FLETCHER,supranote76,at759("Ajustificationspeakstotherightnessoftheact.
").
78Ifthevictimdoesmorethanjustmakeapass—if,forexample,thevictimtriestoforciblyrapethedefendant,thenordinaryself-defenseprincipleswouldallowthe490UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Anexcusedefensesuggeststhatthedefendantisnotasmorallyblameworthyasonewhodoesthesameactionwithouttheexcusingcondition.
Itisdifficulttosaythatthemanwhokillsagaymaninresponsetoanon-violenthomosexualadvanceisnotasmorallyblameworthyassomeonewhokillsforanyotherreason.
Inanyevent,answeringthejustification-excusequestionisunnecessarybecausegaypanicisnotaseparate,freestandingdefense,79andIdonotarguethatcourtsshouldrecognizeitassuch.
Gaypanicismerelyanargumentusedtobolsteratraditionalcriminallawdefensesuchasinsanity,diminishedcapacity,provocation,orself-defense.
Therefore,whetheragaypanicargumentwilloperateasanexcuseorajustificationwilldependonwhichtraditionaldefenseitisusedtosupport.
Whileonecandebatewhetherthedoctrineofprovocationisappropriatelycharacterizedasapartialexcuse(asIhavedoneinpreviouswork),80thegeneralconsensusisthatprovocationisapartialexcusedefense,self-defenseisajustificationdefense,andinsanityanddiminishedcapacityareexcusedefenses.
defendanttoprotecthimselffromtheimminentthreatofgrievousbodilyinjury.
79Therearenumerousexamplesofotherdefenses,which,likethegaypanicdefense,arenotofficiallyrecognizeddefensesbutareknowninthepopularculture.
See,e.
g.
,PAULHARRIS,BLACKRAGECONFRONTSTHELAW2(1997)("Theblackragedefenseisalegalstrategyusedincriminalcases.
");ALISONDUNDESRENTELN,THECULTURALDEFENSE5(2004)("Thisstudyanalyzestheculturaldefense,which,wereittobeestablished,wouldrequirejudgestoconsidertheculturalbackgroundoflitigantsinthedispositionofcasesbeforethem.
")(emphasisadded);AnneM.
Coughlin,ExcusingWomen,82CAL.
L.
REV.
1,7-8(1994)(discussing"batteredwomansyndromedefense"eventhoughnotafreestanding,officially-recognized,defense);seealsoPeterMargulies,IdentityonTrial:Subordination,SocialScienceEvidence,andCriminalDefense,51RUTGERSL.
REV.
45,62-65,72-73(1999)(evaluatingwhenidentityimpactevidence,suchasculturaldefenseevidence,evidenceofblackrage,andbatteredwomansyndromeevidence,shouldbeadmissible).
80SeeCYNTHIALEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN:PASSIONANDFEARINTHECRIMINALCOURTROOM227-30(2003)[hereinafterLEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN](arguingthatdoctrineofprovocationcontainselementsofbothjustificationandexcuse);seealsoA.
J.
Ashworth,TheDoctrineofProvocation,35CAMBRIDGEL.
J.
292,307(1976)(arguingthatprovocationhaselementsofbothjustificationandexcuse);JoshuaDressler,Provocation:PartialJustificationorPartialExcuse,51MOD.
L.
REV.
467,469(1987)(arguingthatprovocationisgenerallyviewedaspartialexcuse);JoshuaDressler,WhyKeeptheProvocationDefenseSomeReflectionsonaDifficultSubject,86MINN.
L.
REV.
959,971(2002)(arguingthatprovocationshouldnotbeunderstoodinjustficatoryterms);ReidGriffithFontaine,Adequate(Non)ProvocationandHeatofPassionasExcusenotJustification,42MICH.
J.
L.
REFORM(forthcoming2009)(onfilewithauthor)(arguingthatprovocationisexcuse,notjustification);FinbarrMcAuley,AnticipatingthePast:TheDefenceofProvocationinIrishLaw,50MOD.
L.
REV.
133,133(1987)(arguingthatprovocationoughttobeviewedaspartialjustification).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense491B.
InsanityBeginningin1967,maledefendantschargedwithmurderinggaymenbegantoutilizetheconceptofhomosexualpanictosupportmentaldefectdefensessuchasinsanityanddiminishedcapacity.
81Insanity,acompletedefensewhichresultsinanotguiltybyreasonofinsanity("NGI")verdict,isdefineddifferentlydependingonwhetherthejurisdictionfollowstheM'NaghtentestortheAmericanLawInstitute's("ALI")test,alsoknownastheModelPenalCode("MPC")test.
UndertheM'Naghtentest,theaccusedcanbefoundnotguiltybyreasonofinsanityif,atthetimeoftheact,theaccused"waslaboringundersuchadefectofreason,fromdiseaseofthemindasnottoknowthenatureandqualityoftheacthewasdoing,or,ifhedidknowit,thathedidnotknowhewasdoingwhatwaswrong.
"82TheALItest,foundinSection4.
01oftheMPC,providesadefensewhen,asaresultofmentaldiseaseordefect,theactor"lackssubstantialcapacity.
.
.
toappreciatethecriminality[wrongfulness]ofhisconduct.
"83Heterosexualmenchargedwithkillinggaymenhavearguedthatthevictim's(homo)sexualadvancetriggeredinthemaviolentpsychoticreaction,causingthemtolosecontrolovertheirmentalabilities.
84Thereareseveralproblemswithdefenseattemptstoclaiminsanitylinkedtogaypanic.
First,tobefoundnotguiltybyreasonofinsanity,adefendantmustnothaveunderstoodthenatureandqualityofhisactorappreciatedthatwhathewasdoingwaswrong.
Inotherwords,eitherhedidnotknowthathewasstabbing,choking,orkickingthevictim,orhedidnotknowthatitwaswrongtodoso.
Themaledefendantclaimingthatahomosexualadvancemadehimlosehisself-controloftencannotclaimconvincinglythathedidnotknowthathewaskicking,beating,orpunchingthevictimorthathedidnotunderstandwhathewasdoingwasillegalorimmoral.
81See,e.
g.
,Peoplev.
Rodriguez,64Cal.
Rptr.
253,255(Cal.
Ct.
App.
1967)(describinghowpsychiatristtestifiedfordefensethatdefendantdidnotknownatureandqualityofhisactattimeofattackandwasactingasresultofacutehomosexualpanicbroughtonbyfearthatvictimwassexuallymolestinghim);Peoplev.
Parisie,287N.
E.
2d310,313(Ill.
App.
Ct.
1972)(notingproffereddefensewas"insanitybasedon'homosexualpanic'");Statev.
Thornton,532S.
W.
2d37,44(Mo.
1975)(notingthatpsychiatricevidenceofferedbydefensesuggesteddefendantwasinstateof"homosexualpanic"attimeofstabbing).
82UnitedStatesv.
Freeman,357F.
2d606,608(2dCir.
1966).
SeventeenstatesandthefederalgovernmenthaveadoptedaversionoftheM'Naghtentest.
Clarkv.
Arizona,548U.
S.
735,749-50(2006).
83MODELPENALCODE§4.
01(2001).
FourteenstateshaveadoptedtestsforinsanityinspiredbytheMPC.
Clark,548U.
S.
at751-52.
84Osborne,supranote10,at4.
492UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Second,tobefoundnotguiltybyreasonofinsanity,thedefendantmusthavebeensufferingfromamentaldiseaseordefectatthetimeofhisact.
ThemaledefendantclaimingthatahomosexualadvancemadehimcrazyoftencannotprovehewassufferingfromamentaldiseaseordefectatthetimeofhisactbecausetheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationdoesnotrecognizeHomosexualPanicDisorderasamentaldisease.
85Additionally,theAmericanPsychiatricAssociationnolongerconsidershomosexualityamentaldisorder.
86Thismakesitdifficultforadefendanttoclaimlatenthomosexualityasamentaldiseaseordefect.
Mostclaimsofinsanitybasedonhomosexualpanichavenotbeensuccessful.
87InPeoplev.
Parisie,88forexample,thedefendant,JohnParisie,waschargedwithmurderandarguedheshouldbefoundnotguiltybyreasonofinsanitybasedon"homosexualpanic.
"89Parisietestifiedthathewaswalkingdowntheroadwhenthevictim,whomhehadmetsometimeearlieratanautomobiledealership,offeredhimalift.
AccordingtoParisie,afterhegotinthecar,thevictimdroveawhilebeforeturningdownagravelroad.
Hethenparked,turnedoffthelights,slidtheseatback,andmadeanunspecifiedsexualadvance,tellingParisiethatifherefused,hewouldhavetowalk.
90Parisieclaimedhewentcrazyandvaguelyrememberedstrugglingwiththevictimandhearinganoisethatsoundedlikegunshots.
91Attrial,thedefensecalledaclinicalpsychologistwhotestifiedthatParisiewasahighlylatenthomosexualwithstrongfeelingsofinferiority.
Thedefensealsocalledapsychiatristwhotestifiedthat"'homosexualpanic'isseverepanicorfearreactionthatisprovokedbyextremeanxietyorpsychologicaltrauma,andthisoftentakestheformofastateofamnesia,inwhichthepersonsetsasideorforgetsunconsciouslysomethingthathisconsciousmindcannottolerate.
"9285Comstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at83.
86Am.
PsychiatricAss'n,supranote54,at1-3.
87RobertG.
Bagnalletal.
,Comment,BurdensonGayLitigantsandBiasintheCourtSystem:HomosexualPanic,ChildCustody,andAnonymousParties,19HARV.
C.
R.
-C.
L.
L.
REV.
497,501(1984)(assertingthat"[c]asesinvolvingthedefenseofhomosexualpanicwhichhavereachedtheappellatelevelhaveneverresultedinadefendant'sacquittalbyreasonofinsanity").
88287N.
E.
2d310,312(Ill.
App.
Ct.
1972).
89Id.
at313.
90Id.
at313-14.
91Id.
92Id.
at314.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense493ThejuryrejectedParisie'sclaimofinsanity,93findinghimguiltyofmurder,andParisie'sconvictionwasaffirmedonappeal.
AmorerecentexampleofafailedattempttolinkgaypanictoaninsanitydefenseisreflectedinthekillingofBillyJackGaither.
Inthesummerof1998,CharlesButlerandhisfriend,StevenMullins,beatanopenlygaymannamedBillyJackGaithertodeathandsethisbodyonfireatopapyreoftires.
ThemenclaimedtheykilledGaitherbecausehepropositionedthem.
94Athisarraignmentoncapitalmurdercharges,Butlerplednotguiltybyreasonofmentaldiseaseordefect.
95Beforetrial,however,Butlerwithdrewhismentaldefectdefense,96arguinginsteadthatitwasMullinswhoactuallykilledBillyJackGaither.
EventhoughButlerformallywithdrewhismentaldefectdefense,gaypanicwasprominentlyfeaturedathistrial.
ButlerclaimedhehitGaitheronlyafterGaithertoldhimhewasinterestedinasexualthreesomewithButlerandMullins.
MullinstooassertedthatthereasonhekilledGaitherwasbecauseGaitherhadpropositionedhimtwoweeksearlier.
Gaither'sfriends,however,saiditwashighlyunlikelythatGaitherwouldpropositioneitherman.
Accordingtoonefriend:"[BillyJack]didn'twalkaroundacting,looking,ortalkinggay.
Ifanybodywasaskingforsex,itwasn'thim—itwasthem.
We'vegotalotofrednecksinhere.
Youdon'tmakeadvanceswiththemaround.
"97MarianHammonds,ownerofTheTavern,astraightbarwhichGaitherfrequented,describedGaitherasalikeablemanwho,whileneverdenyinghewasgay,"madeapointofneverdoingthegaythingwhenhewasatourplace.
.
.
Myhusband,Larrydidn'tevenknowhewas93Id.
at315.
94SeeTrialofManAccusedofGayHateCrimeSlayingBeginswithDefendantBlamingHisCohort,COURTTVONLINE,Aug.
4,1999,http://www.
courttv.
com/trials/butler/080499_ctv.
html;seealsoPhillipRawls,ManConvictedofCapitalMurderinSlayingofHomosexual,ASSOCIATEDPRESSNEWSWIRES,Aug.
5,1999;PhillipRawls,SkinheadDescribesBeatingDeathofGayMan,ASSOCIATEDPRESSNEWSWIRES,Aug.
4,1999;PhillipRawls,WitnessDescribesDefendantinGayMurderasJokingAfterwards,ASSOCIATEDPRESSNEWSWIRES,Aug.
6,1999;JayReeves,ProsecutortoRecommendLifeWithoutParoleinKillingofGayMan,ASSOCIATEDPRESSNEWSWIRES,June25,1999[hereinafterJayReeves,ProsecutortoRecommendLifeWithoutParoleinKillingofGayMan].
95ValWalton,TwoPleadNotGuiltyinKillingofGayMan,BIRMINGHAMNEWS,May21,1999,atA1(notingthat"Gaither'ssistergaspedwhenButler'sattorney,WilliamR.
HillJr.
,toldCircuitCourtJudgeJohnRochesterthathisclientpleadednotguiltyandnotguiltybyreasonofmentaldefect").
96JayReeves,ProsecutortoRecommendLifeWithoutParoleinKillingofGayMan,supranote94.
97DanielPedersen,AQuietMan'sTragicRendezvouswithHate,NEWSWEEK,Mar.
15,1990,at65.
494UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471gayuntilaboutayearago,andIhadtotellhim.
"98Hammondsfurtherremarked,"He[Gaither]didn'teverputanybodyin[anawkward]position.
"99Mullins'sclaimthathekilledGaitherbecauseGaitherpropositionedhimissuspectforanotherreason.
FriendsofGaitherassertedthatMullinsandGaitherhadhadasexualrelationshipwhichMullinsdidnotwantanyonetoknowabout,andthatMullinswantedGaitherdeadtoensurethatheneverwouldtellanyoneabouttheirhomosexualaffair.
AtButler'strial,MullinsadamantlydeniedhavingsexwithGaitheroranyotherman.
Butler'sattorneys,however,presentedseveralwitnesseswhotestifiedthatMullinshadasecretgaysexlife.
Oneman,JimmyLynnDean,testifiedthatheandMullinshadhadoralsexaboutfourmonthsbeforeBillyJackGaitherwaskilled.
100InButler'scase,neithergaypanicnorthe"itwasn'tme"argumentworked.
ThejuryconvictedButlerofcapitalmurder.
Gaither'sfamily,however,requestedthatButlerbesparedthedeathpenalty.
101Accordingly,thejudgesentencedButlertolifeinprisonwithoutthepossibilityofparole.
102C.
DiminishedCapacityAnotherdoctrinalhookfordefendantschargedwithmurderingagaymanisthediminishedcapacitydefense.
Diminishedcapacity,apartialdefensetomurder,generallyrequiresproofthatthedefendantwasactingundertheinfluenceofamentaldiseaseordefectwhichaffectedhiscapacitytopremeditateanddeliberateorformtherequisiteintenttokill.
Therearetwovariantsofthediminishedcapacitydefense.
Underthemensreavariant,"evidencethat[thedefendant]sufferedfromamentaldiseaseordefectatthetimeofhisconductisadmissiblewheneveritisrelevanttoprovethathelackedamentalstatethatisanelementofthechargedoffense.
"103Underthepartialresponsibilityvariant,thechargeisreducedfrommurderto98SueAnnePressley,2AccusedofKilling,BurningGayMan,WASH.
POST,Mar.
5,1999,atA1.
99Cops:MenPlottedGayMan'sGrislySlaying,PHILA.
DAILYNEWS,Mar.
5,1999,at26.
100Frontline,AssaultonGayAmerica:TheLifeandDeathofBillyJackGaither,SteveMullins'HomosexualBehavior,Aug.
5,1999,http://www.
pbs.
org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/billyjack/mullet.
html.
101KillerofGayManinAlabamaGetsLifeinPrisonWithoutParole,N.
Y.
TIMES,Aug.
17,1999,atA14.
102Id.
103JOSHUADRESSLER,UNDERSTANDINGCRIMINALLAW§26.
02[B][2],at320(3ded.
2001)[hereinafterDRESSLER,UNDERSTANDINGCRIMINALLAW].
2008]TheGayPanicDefense495manslaughterbecausethedefendantisseenas"lessblameworthyandthereforelessdeservingofpunishment,thanakillerwhoactswithanormalstateofmind.
"104AdiminishedcapacitydefensewassuccessfullyusedintheJennyJonesmurdercaseinwhichaheterosexualmannamedJonathanSchmitzkilledhisgayfriendScottAmedureafteranappearanceontheJennyJonesShowin1995.
105Schmitzhadbeeninvitedtoappearontheshowandknewtheshow'sthemethatdaywasSecretAdmirers.
Schmitzthoughtanex-girlfriendwasgoingtoberevealedashissecretadmirer.
Infact,Schmitz'smalefriendScottAmedureappearedontheshowashissecretadmirer.
106Eventhoughhewassurprisedandapparentlyembarrassedtofindthathissecretadmirerwasaman,SchmitzhuggedAmedureontheairandevenlaughedwhenAmedurerecountedafantasythatinvolvedSchmitz,whippedcream,strawberries,andchampagne.
107SchmitzevenofferedtogiveAmedureandDonnaRiley,Schmitz'sneighborwhohadarrangedSchmitzandAmedure'sappearanceontheJennyJonesShow,aridehome.
108BeforetheylefttheDetroitMetropolitanAirport,AmeduresnatchedaflashingconstructionlightandstasheditinSchmitz'scar.
109OnMarch9,1995,threedaysafterappearingontheshow,Schmitzcamehomefromworkandfoundtheflashingconstructionlightandanunsignednoteinfrontofhisapartmentthatread,"John.
Ifyouwantit'off'you'llhavetoaskme.
P.
S.
Ittakesaspecialtool.
GuessWho.
"110Believingthenotetobeacrudesexualcome-onfrom104Id.
§26.
03[A][2],at325-28.
105SeePeoplev.
Schmitz,586N.
W.
2d766,767(Mich.
Ct.
App.
1998)(notingSchmitzwasinitiallychargedwithfirst-degreemurder,argueddiminishedcapacity,andwasfoundguiltyofsecond-degreemurder);CourtTVOnline,CourtTVVerdicts:Michiganv.
Schmitz(Aug.
25,1999),http://www.
courttv.
com/archive/verdicts/schmitz.
html(lastvisitedOct.
21,2008)(notingthatjuryonNovember12,1996optedagainstfindingSchmitzguiltyoffirst-degreemurder,insteadfindinghimguiltyofsecond-degreemurderandillegalpossessionofafirearminthecommissionofafelony).
106SeeKeithBradsher,Talk-ShowGuestisGuiltyofSecond-DegreeMurder,N.
Y.
TIMES,Nov.
13,1999,atA14.
107SeeCourtTVOnline,CourtTVVerdicts:Michiganv.
Schmitz(Aug.
25,1999),http://www.
courttv.
com/archive/verdicts/schmitz.
html(lastvisitedOct.
21,2008).
108SeeMichelleGreen,TV'sFatalAttraction:ASurpriseMeetingon'JennyJones'EndsinaShockingShotgunMurder,PEOPLE,Mar.
27,1995,at40,availableathttp://www.
people.
com/people/archive/article/0,,20105369,00.
html(lastvisitedOct.
15,2008).
109Seeid.
110AldinaVazaoKennedy&BryanRobinson,SchmitzFoundGuiltyofSecond-DegreeMurder,COURTTVONLINE,Aug.
26,1999,http://www.
courttv.
com/archive/trials/schmitz/082699_verdict_ctv.
html(lastvisitedOct.
21,2008);seealso496UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Amedure,Schmitzdrovetohisbank,withdrewmoneyfromhissavingsaccount,thenpurchasedatwelve-gaugepumpactionshotgunandsomeammunition.
111HedrovetoAmedure'shouse,andafterAmedureadmittedtowritingthenote,SchmitzshotAmeduretwiceinthechest,killinghim.
112Schmitzwaschargedwithfirst-degreemurder.
Attrial,Schmitz'sattorneyarguedSchmitzwassufferingfromdiminishedcapacitywhenheshotandkilledScottAmedure,stemmingfromhisembarrassmentontheJennyJonesShowwhenAmedureappearedashissecretadmirer.
113Atthattime,diminishedcapacitywasallowedinMichiganasapartialdefensetofirst-degreemurder.
114Despitetheoverwhelmingevidenceofpremeditationanddeliberation,thejuryfoundSchmitz'sclaimofdiminishedcapacitystemmingfromhomosexualpaniccredibleandfoundhimguiltyofsecond-degreemurderratherthanfirst-degreemurder.
115KarenFranklinandGregoryHerekhaveopinedthattheverdictintheJennyJonescasereflected"[t]hesenseofculturalpermissiontoengageinantigayviolence.
"116OfferinganotherpossibleexplanationJennyJoneswithPatsiBaleCox,FatalAttraction,TORONTOSUN,Nov.
30,1997,at48.
111L.
L.
Brasier,JuryHearsTapeof911ConfessionSchmitzUpsetDuringCall,DispatcherSays,DET.
FREEPRESS,Oct.
16,1996,atB1;MeganGarvey,TheAftershockofShockTV,WASH.
POST,Mar.
25,1995,atD1;StephenSeplow,TalkTVonTrial:ATaping,aKilling,OneGuestKilledtheManWhoLikedHim.
TheJuryisStillOut.
,PHILA.
INQUIRER,Nov.
10,1996,atA1.
112FrazierMoore,CriticsBlame'JennyJones'ShowforMurder,BALT.
SUN,Mar.
11,1995,atD1;FrazierMoore,'RetailingofEmotionalConflict'BlamedinTVTalk-ShowTragedy,SEATTLETIMES,Mar.
11,1995,atA3;FrazierMoore,TalkShowIsBlamedAfterGuestShottoDeathCriticsChargethatProgramsPlaceSubjectsinUnexpected,UpsettingSituationsforLivelyTV,AKRONBEACONJ.
,Mar.
11,1995,atA1;PoliceSayTalkShowLedtoMurder,CHI.
TRIB.
,Mar.
11,1995,atN8.
113Peoplev.
Schmitz,586N.
W.
2d766,768(Mich.
Ct.
App.
1998);seealsoTeresaWiltz&DavidFarhi,DeathFollowsUglyScenePlayedouton'Springer,'WASH.
POST,July27,2000,atC1.
114Diminishedcapacityisnolongerrecognizedasadefensetofirst-degreemurderinMichigan.
Peoplev.
Carpenter,627N.
W.
2d276,283(Mich.
2001).
115Jonathanappealedhissecond-degreemurderconvictionandwasgrantedaretrialbecausethetrialcourthadnotallowedthedefensetoremoveajurortheyfoundproblematic.
Schmitz,586N.
W.
2dat769-72.
Onretrial,thedefensewasnotabletoarguediminishedcapacityagainbecausethatdefensewasonlyavailableagainstafirst-degreemurdercharge.
Peoplev.
Biggs,509N.
W.
2d803,805-06(Mich.
Ct.
App.
1993).
Instead,Jonathan'sattorneyarguedthatJonathanwasprovokedintoaheatofpassionbyAmedure'ssexualadvanceinanattempttoreducehisconvictiontovoluntarymanslaughter.
ThejuryrejectedJonathan'sprovocationdefenseandhewasagainfoundguiltyofsecond-degreemurder.
TalkShowGuestConvictedofMurderfora2ndTime:JuryRejectsKiller'sCrime-of-PassionDefense,CHI.
TRIBUNE,Aug.
27,1999,at6.
116Franklin&Herek,supranote9,at148.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense497forthesecond-degreemurderverdict,FranklinandHerekcomment,"[p]articularlyrevealinginthatcasewasthepopularperceptionthatthetelevisionshow'sproducershadhumiliatedtheheterosexualmanandthuswereresponsibleforthemurder.
"117Overtime,theuseofmentaldefectdefensesingayvictimhomicidecaseshasfallenoutoffavorforanumberofreasons,nottheleastofwhichisthedifficultyofsecuringafavorablejuryverdictwithamentaldefectdefense.
118Jurorsareoftenskepticalofdefenseclaimsofinsanity.
119Evenifthedefendantisabletoconvincejurorsthathewassufferingfromamentaldiseaseordefect,itisoftendifficulttoprovethatthedefendantdidnotknowthatwhathewasdoing(killingthevictim)waswrongorthatthedefendantcouldnotcontrolhisactions.
120Additionally,averdictofnotguiltybyreasonofinsanity(temporaryorotherwise)doesnotmeanthedefendantgoesfree.
Thedefendantwhoisfoundinsaneisusuallycommittedtoamentalinstitutionforanindefiniteperiodoftime.
Thisperiodofconfinementcanexceedthelengthoftheprisonsentencethedefendantwouldhavereceivedifhehadbeenconvicted.
121Manyindividualswouldratherserveadefiniteprisonsentencethanendurethestigmaanduncertaintyofanindefiniteperiodofcommitmentinamentalinstitution.
Moreover,assertingamentaldefectdefenseisoftenseenasanunacceptableadmissionofmentaldeficiencyintheeyesofthedefendant.
122Anotherpossiblereasonforthegradualshiftawayfromtheuseofgaypanictosupportamentaldefectdefensemaybetheunavailabilityofthosedefensesincertainjurisdictions.
Atleastthreestatesdonot117Id.
118LisaA.
Callahan,TheVolumeandCharacteristicsofInsanityDefensePleas:AnEight-StateStudy,19BULL.
AM.
ACAD.
PSYCH.
&L.
331,337(1991)("Althoughtherewasconsiderablevariationamongtheeightstatesintheacquittalrate(percentageofsuccessfulpleas),overall,justone-quarterof[defendants]whoraisedthe[insanity]defenseweresuccessful.
").
119JAMESP.
LEVINE,JURIESANDPOLITICS89(1992)(notingthat"[o]nestudyfoundthatoutofabouttwomillioncriminalcasesdealtwithinAmericancriminalcourtsinasingleyear,only1,625producedverdictsofnotguiltyonthebasisofinsanity").
120SeeSuffredini,supranote10,at295.
121SeeJonesv.
UnitedStates,463U.
S.
354,368(1983)(notingthatwhencriminaldefendantestablishesthatheisnotguiltyofcrimebyreasonofinsanity,governmentmaycommithimtomentalinstitutionuntilheregainshissanityorisnolongerdangertohimselforsocietyandthatthisperiodofcommitmentmayexceedtimehecouldhavebeenincarceratedhadhebeenconvicted).
122UnabomberTedKaczynski,forexample,refusedtopleadnotguiltybyreasonofinsanityeventhoughhisattorneystoldhimthiswasthebestdefensepossible.
WilliamGlaberson,LawyersDropMentalDefenseforKaczynski,N.
Y.
TIMES,Dec.
30,1997,atA1.
498UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471recognizethedefenseofinsanity.
123Anumberofstateshaveeitherabolishedthedefenseofdiminishedcapacityorsubstantiallyrestricteditsuse.
Forexample,California124andWyoming125donotrecognizethedefenseofdiminishedcapacity.
InMichigan,diminishedcapacitywasallowedasadefensetofirst-degreemurder126until2001whentheSupremeCourtofMichiganruledthat"evidenceofmentalincapacityshortofinsanitycannotbeusedtoavoidorreducecriminalresponsibilitybynegatingspecificintent.
"127TheUnitedStatesSupremeCourthasencouragedtheserestrictionsontheuseofmentaldefectordeficiencyevidence,rulingthatstatesarefreetofashiontheirownrulesregardingtheadmissibilityofevidenceofmentaldiseaseordefectandcanbaradefendant'suseofsuchevidencetonegatetherequisitemensreawithoutviolatingdueprocess.
128AfinalreasonwhytheremightbefewergaypanicclaimslinkedtoinsanityordiminishedcapacitytodaycomparedtothirtyyearsagocouldbebecausetheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationremovedhomosexualityfromitslistofmentaldisordersin1973,"thusstrippinghomosexualpanicofitsmedical-scientificlegitimacyasadefenseandasanillnesspremiseduponhomosexuallatency.
"129ChristinaPei-LinChenexplainsthat"[u]nderboththeinsanityanddiminishedcapacityvariantsofthehomosexualpanicdefense,thedefendant'sacutepsychoticreactionofhomicidalviolencewasexplainedbythemedical-scientificdiscourseasdirectlypremiseduponthelatenthomosexual'smentaldisorderofrepressedsexual123See,e.
g.
,IDAHOCODEANN.
§18-207(2004)(providingthat"mentalconditionshallnotbeadefensetoanychargeofcriminalconduct");KAN.
STAT.
ANN.
§22-3220(1995)(allowingdefendanttopresentevidenceofmentaldiseaseordefecttoprovehelackedmentalstaterequiredforcommissionofoffense,butotherwisementaldiseaseordefectnotadefense);MONT.
CODEANN.
§§46-14-102to-311(2005)(permittingmentaldiseaseordefectevidenceonlytoprovedefendantlackednecessarymensrea,orforconsiderationatsentencing);seealsoUTAHCODEANN.
§76-2-305(2003)(allowing"guiltybutmentallyill"verdict).
ButseeFingerv.
State,27P.
3d66,84(Nev.
2001)(holdingthatabolitionofinsanitydefenseviolatesdueprocess).
124CAL.
PENALCODE§28(b)(2003).
ButseeMiguelA.
Mendez,DiminishedCapacityinCalifornia:PrematureReportsofItsDemise,3STAN.
L.
&POL'YREV.
216,222(1991)(arguingthatwhilediminishedcapacityisnotavailableasdefense,verysimilardefenseofdiminishedactualityisstillpossible).
125Deanv.
State,668P.
2d639,643-45(Wyo.
1983).
126Peoplev.
Biggs,509N.
W.
2d803,805(Mich.
Ct.
App.
1993)(notingthat"diminishedcapacityisnotadefensetogeneralintentcrimessuchassecond-degreemurder").
127Peoplev.
Carpenter,627N.
W.
2d276,283(Mich.
2001).
128Clarkv.
Arizona,548U.
S.
735,779(2006).
129Chen,supranote10,at202.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense499perversion.
"130AccordingtoChen,oncethepsychiatriccommunitystoppedrecognizinghomosexualityasamentaldiseaseordefect,insanityanddiminishedcapacitystoppedbeingusefulvehiclestotransportthemessageofgaypanic.
131Becauseoftheabove-describeddifficulties,maledefendantschargedwithmurderinggayvictimstodaytendtoassertthedefenseofprovocationratherthaninsanityordiminishedcapacity,claimingthattheywereprovokedintoaheatofpassionbythevictim'shomosexualadvance.
132Someevenclaimtheyactedinself-defensetoprotectagainstaviolentsexualassault.
Bothprovocationandself-defenserequireashowingofreasonableness.
133Thedefendantwhoclaimsprovocationwillnotsucceedunlessthejuryfindsthatthedefendantwasreasonablyprovokedintoaheatofpassion.
Thedefendantwhoclaimsself-defensewillnotsucceedunlessthejuryfindsthatareasonablemaninthedefendant'sshoeswouldhavebelieveditnecessarytousedeadlyforceinself-defense.
Usingtheconceptofgaypanictosupportaclaimofprovocationorself-defenseisevenfurtherremovedthaninsanityordiminishedcapacityfromKempf'soriginalideaofHomosexualPanicDisorder,whichsuggestedthatsomemenhavesecrethomosexualdesirestheytrytorepress,causingpsychiatricdisorder.
Claimsofprovocationandself-defensesuggestthedefendantactedthewaymostmenwouldhaveacted.
Oneproblemwiththismoveisthatthereasonablenessrequirementinthedoctrinesofprovocationandself-defenseallowsmaledefendantsclaiminggaypanictorelyonsocialnormsthatfavorheterosexualityoverhomosexualitytobolstertheirclaimsofprovocationandself-defense.
134D.
ProvocationUndertheprovocationdoctrine,adefendantchargedwithmurdercanbeconvictedofthelesseroffenseofvoluntarymanslaughterifthejuryfindsthatthedefendantwasactuallyandreasonablyprovokedintoaheatofpassion.
Atearlycommonlaw,onlycertainactsconstitutedlegally130Id.
131Id.
132SeegenerallyDressler,When"Heterosexual"MenKill"Homosexual"Men,supranote10;Mison,supranote10(discussingprovocationdefenseinhomosexualadvanceprosecutions).
133LEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN,supranote80,at3.
134Seeid.
at67-95.
500UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471adequateprovocation.
135Oneofthecategoriesoflegallyadequateprovocationwasaseriouscrimecommittedagainstacloserelative.
136Perhapsforeshadowingtheuseofgaypanicinfutureprovocationcases,earlyEnglishcourtslimitedthiscategorytocasesinwhichafatherdiscoveredsomeonecommittingsodomyonhisson.
137Today,provocationisconsideredlegallyadequateifthereasonablepersoninthedefendant'sshoeswouldhavebeenprovokedintoaheatofpassion.
SomejurisdictionsfollowtheModelPenalCode'sextremeemotionaldisturbancetestforprovocation,underwhich"ahomicidewhichwouldotherwisebemurderis[mitigatedtomanslaughterif]committedundertheinfluenceofanextremementaloremotionaldisturbanceforwhichthereisareasonableexplanationorexcuse.
"138TheCodegoesontoexplainthat"[t]hereasonablenessofsuchexplanationorexcuseshallbedeterminedfromtheviewpointofapersonintheactor'ssituationunderthecircumstancesashebelievesthemtobe.
"139Inseveralcases,heterosexualmenwhohavekilledgaymeninresponsetoanunwantednon-violenthomosexualadvancehavesuccessfullyarguedeitherthatanon-violenthomosexualadvancereasonablyprovokedthemintoaheatofpassionorthattheyactedundertheinfluenceofextremementaloremotionaldisturbanceforwhichtherewasareasonableexplanationorexcuse—agayman'ssexualadvance.
Forexample,inSchickv.
Indiana,seventeen-year-oldTimothySchickmetthirty-eight-year-oldStephenLamiewhiletryingtohitchhike.
140SchickclimbedintoLamie'scar,andaskedifLamieknewwheretheycouldfindsomegirls.
141WhenLamiesaidhecouldnothelphimwiththis,SchickthenaskedLamieifheknewwherehecouldgetablowjob.
142LamietoldSchick,"No,butIwill,"143andthendrovetoalocalhighschoolbaseballfield.
144135DRESSLER,UNDERSTANDINGCRIMINALLAW,supranote103,§31.
07.
136Id.
§31.
07[8][2][a].
137Dir.
ofPub.
Prosecutionsv.
Camplin,[1978]A.
C.
705(H.
L.
)(appealtakenfromCrim.
App.
)(U.
K.
).
138MODELPENALCODE§210.
3(1)(b)(2001).
139Id.
140570N.
E.
2d918(Ind.
Ct.
App.
1991);seealsoFranJeffries,TeenConvictedinDugoutDeath,THECOURIER-JOURNAL(Louisville,Ky.
),Nov.
19,1988,at6A.
141Schick,570N.
E.
2dat921.
142Id.
143Id.
144Id.
at922.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense501AccordingtoSchick,asthetwomenwerewalkingtowardthefield,Lamiepulledoffhisshortsandpulledhisunderweardowntohisankles,grabbedSchickaroundthewaist,andtriedtotouchSchick'spenis.
145SchickrespondedbykneeingLamieinthestomachandhittingLamieintheface.
146Lamiefelltotheground,andSchickcontinuedtokickandbeatLamieuntilheheardgurglingsoundscomingfromLamie'schestandthroat.
147SchickthenremovedLamie'swatch,somecigarettesfromLamie'spocket,andtwenty-sixdollarsfromLamie'swallet.
148HeracedbacktoLamie'scarandwipedthedashboardandseattogetridofhisfingerprints,thenranaway.
149Atapproximately2:30a.
m.
,Schickknockedonthedoorofafriend'shouse.
150Hetoldhisfriendandhisfriend'sfatherthathehadmetamanwhilehitchhiking,askedthemanwherehecouldgetablowjob,andthemanofferedtoprovidetheservicerequested.
151Schicksaidtheywenttoalocalhighschoolbaseballfieldandhetriedtorunaway,butthemancaughtuptohimandastruggleensued.
152Thefriend'sfatherplacedananonymouscalltothepolice,reportingthattherewasadeadorinjuredpersonatthebaseballfield.
153PolicefoundLamie'sbodyatthefield.
154Schickwaschargedwithmurderandotheroffenses.
155Athis1991trial,SchickclaimedLamie'sunwantedsexualovertureprovokedhimintoaheatofpassionand,therefore,thejuryshouldconvicthimofmanslaughterratherthanmurder.
156ThejuryfoundthisargumentpersuasiveandfoundSchickguiltyofvoluntarymanslaughter.
157145Id.
146Id.
147Id.
148Id.
at921.
149Id.
(describingSchick'sstatementtopolice).
Inapost-trialstatement,Schickprovidedanotherversionoftheevents.
Inthisversion,Schickstatedthatinitially,Lamieknockedhimunconscious.
WhenSchickawoke,LamiewastryingtoforcehispenisintoSchick'smouth.
SchickhadtofightLamieofftoavoidthesexualattack.
SchickeventuallybrokefreeandwhileLamiewasstumblingtowardhimwithhisunderweararoundhisankles,SchickknockedLamiedown.
AsLamielayontheground,Schickbeatandkickedhimtodeath.
Id.
at927.
150Id.
at921.
151Id.
152Id.
153Id.
154Id.
155Id.
at922.
156Id.
at926.
157Id.
at922.
502UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Inanalyzingthejury'sverdict,itisimportanttoconsidertherelativeagesofthedefendantandvictim.
Morethan50%oftheperpetratorsofanti-gayandanti-lesbianviolenceareundertheageoftwenty-nineyears.
158Giventhestereotypeofthegaymanasaviolentsexualpredatorwhopreysonyoungboys,Lamie'sstatusasagaymanmorethantwiceSchick'sagemayhaveinfluencedthejurytoseeSchick'sviolentreactionasreasonable.
Additionally,Lamie'sexplicitsexualadvance(asdescribedbySchick)mayhaveconvincedthejurythatSchick'sviolentactswerenecessarytoprotecthimselffromasexualassault.
Ifanoldermanpulleddownhisunderwear,andgrabbedateenagegirlaroundthewaistinanattempttoengageinsexualrelations,wewouldprobablysympathizewiththegirlifsheusednon-lethalforce,perhapsakickorapunch,toescapetheolderman'ssexualadvance.
TheproblemisthatevenunderSchick'sversionofevents,SchickdidmorethansimplyuseviolencetoescapeLamie'sallegedsexualadvance.
AfterLamiewasdownonthegroundwithhisunderweararoundhisankles,Schickproceededtopunch,kick,andstompLamietodeath.
IfSchickhadbeenateenagegirl,itisdoubtfulthatajurywouldfindsucharesponseordinaryorreasonable.
Moreover,inlightofthefactthatSchickhadsufficientpresenceofmindtotakeLamie'swatch,cigarettes,andcash,andwipehisfingerprintsfromLamie'scarbeforefleeingthescene,onemightquestionSchick'sclaimthattheallegedhomosexualadvanceprovokedhimintosuchaheatofpassionthathecompletelylosthisself-control.
InMillsv.
Shepard,anotherseventeen-year-oldnamedDavidMillssuccessfullyarguedhewasprovokedintoaheatofpassionbyanolderman'sattempttohavesexwithhim.
159Millsmetforty-three-year-oldBillyFrancisBrinkleyatabar.
160AccordingtoMills,BrinkleyofferedtopayMillstwentydollarsifMillswould"commitahomosexualact"withBrinkley.
161Millsagreed,andthetwomendrovetoPawCreekCoveinBrinkley'scar.
162Oncethere,accordingtoMills,Brinkley158NAT'LCOALITIONOFANTI-VIOLENCEPROGRAMS,ANTI-LESBIAN,GAY,BISEXUAL,ANDTRANSGENDERVIOLENCEIN2004:AREPORTOFTHENATIONALCOALITIONOFANTI-VIOLENCEPROGRAMS33(2005),availableathttp://www.
ralliance.
org/files/2004NCAVPReport.
pdf(reportingthat20%ofanti-gayviolenceoffenderswere18yearsoryoungerand37%werebetweenagesof18to29yearsofage);seealsoGARYDAVIDCOMSTOCK,VIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN59-60(1991)[hereinafterCOMSTOCK,VIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN].
159445F.
Supp.
1231,1232(W.
D.
N.
C.
1978).
160Id.
at1234.
161Id.
162Id.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense503proceededtograbMills'sprivates.
163Millsdemandedhistwentydollars,butBrinkleysaidhedidnothavetwentydollarswithhim,soMillspushedBrinkleyoutofthecar,chasedhim,knockedhimdown,kickedhim,andpulledBrinkley'sclothesdowntohinderhisescape.
164MillsthentookBrinkley'sjewelryandfledinBrinkley'scar.
Brinkley'sbodywaslaterfoundinacoveinMecklenburgCounty,NorthCarolina.
165Brinkleyhaddiedfromheadinjuriesandamassivecrushinginjurytohischestconsistentwithhavingbeenkickedandthenthrownagainstrocks.
166AccordingtooneofMills'sroommates,Millscamehomearound1:00or2:00a.
m.
thatnightwithBrinkley'sautomobile,watch,ring,andbracelet.
167MillstoldhisroommatethathemetBrinkleyatabar,Brinkleyofferedhimtwentydollarstocommitahomosexualact,theydroveouttoPawCreekCoveinBrinkley'scar,Brinkleydidnothaveasmuchmoneyashehadpromised,Brinkleymadeapassathim,andhefoughtBrinkleyoff.
168Millswaschargedwithsecond-degreemurder.
169Attrial,Millsmaintainedtheolderman'sattempttohavesexwithhimprovokedhimintoaheatofpassion.
170DespitethefactthatMillshadagreedto"commitahomosexualact"withBrinkleyandbeatBrinkleyonlyafterBrinkleyrefusedtopayMillstheagreedupontwentydollars,thejuryfoundMills'sclaimcredibleandconvictedhimofvoluntarymanslaughter.
171Mills'svoluntarymanslaughterverdictistroublingforseveralreasons.
First,itsuggeststhatthejurybelieveditwasreasonableforMillstobecomeenragedatBrinkley'sconduct(grabbingMills'sprivatepartsandmakingapassathim),eventhoughMillshadpreviouslyagreedtoengageinsexualactivitywithBrinkley.
MillswillinglyaccompaniedBrinkleytoPawCreekCove,knowingthatthepurposeofthetripwassex.
Generallyspeaking,thecriminallawdoesnotexcuseadefendantwhocreatestheconditionsofhisowndefense.
172163Id.
164Id.
165Id.
at1233.
166Id.
167Id.
at1234.
168Id.
169Id.
at1232.
170Id.
at1234.
171Id.
at1232.
172PaulH.
Robinson,CausingtheConditionsofOne'sOwnDefense:AStudyoftheLimitsofTheoryinCriminalLawDoctrine,71VA.
L.
REV.
1,3-7,14-17(1985)(notingthatcriminallawdefensesareoftenwithheldorlimitedifactorsomehowcontributedtoneedforconduct).
504UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Second,theverdictsuggeststhejurybelievedMills'sclaimthathewasgenuinelyafraidofbeingsexuallyassaultedbyBrinkley,eventhoughMills'sbehavior—pushingBrinkleyoutofthecar,chasinghim,knockinghimdown,kickinghim,andpullinghispantsdowntohinderhisescape—seemsmoreconsistentwiththebehaviorofsomeonewhointendstokillorseriouslyinjurethanthebehaviorofonewhoisafraid.
IfMillshadtrulybeenafraidofBrinkley,hemighthavetriedtogetawaybydrivingoffinBrinkley'scarassoonashepushedBrinkleyoutofthecar.
Instead,MillschasedafterBrinkley,knockedhimdown,andkickedhimrepeatedly.
OnceBrinkleywasdown,henolongerposedanimmediatethreattoMills.
Nonetheless,MillsproceededtopulldownBrinkley'sclothestohinderhisescape.
HetheneitherpushedorthrewBrinkleyintotherocksinthecovewherehisbodywaslaterfound.
Finally,Mills'sclaimthattheallegedsexualadvancebyBrinkleysoprovokedhimthathelosthisabilitytocontrolhisactionsisbeliedbyhishavingthepresenceofmindtotakeseveralofBrinkley'spossessions,includinghiswatch,ring,bracelet,andcar.
Givenalloftheseinconsistencies,thejury'swillingnesstoacquitMillsofmurdersuggeststheinfluenceofdeeplyrootednegativefeelingsabouthomosexuality,whichenabledthejurytoempathizewiththedefendantratherthanwiththevictim.
Onepatternthatemergesfromgaypaniccasesisthattheperpetratorwhoclaimshewasprovokedintoaheatofpassionoftentakesmoneyorotheritemsofvaluefromthevictimafterkillinghim.
Stealingthevictim'sbelongingssuggestsaneconomicmotivationforthekilling,ratherthanpanicorfear.
TimothySchicktookStevenLamie'swatch,cigarettes,andmoney,thenwipedoffhisfingerprintsfromthedashboardofLamie'scarinanattempttoavoiddetectionandarrest.
DavidMillstookBillyFrancisBrinkley'swatch,ring,bracelet,andcar.
Asoneobserverofgaypanickillingshasnoted,"thenumberofcaseswhere[gay]murdershavebeenaccompaniedbyrobberysuggeststhatcriminalopportunismisafrequentmotiveforthesekillings.
"173Furtherunderminingclaimsofprovocationingayhomicidecasesisthatthedefendantoftenplaceshimselfinasituationinwhicha173SteveTomsen,Hatred,Murder&MaleHonour:GayHomicidesandthe"HomosexualPanicDefence,"6CRIMINOLOGYAUSTL.
2,4(1994).
Lu-inWangnotesthatgaymenareoftentargetedforrobberybecauseoftheperceptionthatgaysarewealthyand"wouldprefertopartwiththeirpropertythantofightbackorreportthecrimeandriskrevealingtheirsexualorientation.
"Lu-inWang,RecognizingOpportunisticBiasCrimes,80B.
U.
L.
REV.
1399,1416,1431-32(2000).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense505homosexualadvanceislikely.
TimothySchickhitchedaridefromStephenLamie,atotalstranger,andstayedinthecarevenafterLamiesuggestedhecouldhandleSchick'srequestforablowjob.
DavidMillsagreedtohavesexwithBillyFrancisBrinkleyinexchangefortwentydollars.
Yetincaseaftercase,jurorsoverlookfactsthatunderminethedefendant'sclaimthathewasactuallyandreasonablyprovoked.
WhymightgaypanicprovocationclaimsresonatewithjuriesFirst,lenientverdictsingaypanicprovocationcasesmayreflectthejury'sviewthatitisreasonableforaheterosexualmantoreactviolentlytoanon-violenthomosexualadvance.
Iftheaverageheterosexualmanwouldreactviolentlytoagayman'ssexualadvance,thenarguablysucharesponseisreasonable.
Giventhatreasonablenessinprovocationdoctrineisusuallyunderstoodtomeanthattheaverageortypicalpersoninthedefendant'sshoeswouldhavebeenprovokedintoaheatofpassion,174thisargumenthasmuchpersuasivevalue.
Onecanseehowajurormightthinkthattheaverageheterosexualmanmightbecomeincensedifanothermanweretomakeapassathim.
Equatingreasonablenesswithtypicality,however,isproblematicbecauseitenablesentrenchedsocialnormsthatmayembodymessagesofbiasbasedonrace,gender,orsexualorientationtogovernoutcomesinprovocationcases.
175AsIhavearguedelsewhere,Ibelievethecurrentlyemployedpositivistconceptionofreasonableness,whichequatesreasonablenesswithtypicality,shouldbesupplementedwithanormativeconceptionofreasonableness.
176Normativereasonablenessasksthe"should"question:shouldsocietycallwhatthedefendantdidreasonableIfthejuryaskswhetherthebeliefsandactsoftheheterosexualmanwhokillsagaymaninresponsetoanon-violentsexualadvancearenormativelyreasonable,theywilllikelyreachadifferentconclusionthaniftheyjustaskwhetherthedefendant'sactsarereasonableinanempiricalsense.
177Onemightquestionwhetheranormativeconceptionofreasonablenessisfairtotheindividualdefendant,invokingthe174Dressler,When"Heterosexual"MenKill"Homosexual"Men,supranote10,at753.
175SeegenerallyLEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN,supranote80(discussingproblemswithpositivistconceptionofreasonableness).
176Id.
at226-59.
177Thisisparticularlylikelytooccurifthejuryisgivenaninstructiondirectingthemtoconsiderthereasonableness(orunreasonableness)ofthedefendant'sactsifthedefendanthadbeenaheterosexualwomanwhorespondedwithfatalviolencetoaheterosexualman'sunwantednon-violentsexualadvanceoragaymanwhorespondedwithdeadlyforcetoaheterosexualwoman'sunwantednon-violentsexualadvance.
Seeinfratextaccompanyingnote498.
506UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471longstandingdebateoverwhetherthecriminallawshouldreflectcurrentsocietalmoresorpushindividualstobehavebetterthantheymightotherwisechoose.
178Whilereasonablenessstandardsreflecttheviewthatthecriminallawshouldbelenienttowardsthosewhoactthewayordinarypeopleintheirshoeswouldhaveacted,thecriminallawoftenholdsindividualstoahigherstandardthantheonethatordinarypersonsmightchoose.
Forexample,inthefamouscannibalismcase,Reginav.
Dudley&Stephens,thecourtrejectedthedefendants'necessitydefensewhileacknowledgingthatthedefendantshadactedthewayanyordinarymanintheirshoeswouldhaveacted.
179As178Introducinganormativeconceptionofreasonablenessraisesthequestionwhetherthecriminallawshouldreflectempirical(positive)realitiesorbemorenormative.
Insupportofpositivist(empirical)reasonableness,onemightarguethatcertainmen,suchasthehomophobicmenintheAdamsandBernatstudies,seegenerallyAdams,supranote46(studyingwhetherheterosexualmenwhoexhibitedstronganti-gaysentimentswouldbearousedbyhomosexualerotica);Bernat,supranote49(measuringphysicalaggressiontowardgayandstraightindividualsafterself-identifiedheterosexualcollegemalesviewedhomoeroticvideotape),mayinfactbesorepulsedbyanon-violenthomosexualadvancethattheyactuallywouldlosetheirself-control.
Onemightaskwhetheritisreallyfairtopunishsuchmenasmurdererswhentheprovocationdoctrineexiststomitigateincaseswherethedefendantsuccumbedtohumanweakness.
Ontheotherhand,ifwewantthecriminallawtobemorenormative,barringgaypanicargumentsmightbethebestwaytoexpresssociety'sdisapprovalofkillingsinresponsetonon-violent(homo)sexualadvances.
Myproposalcanbeviewedasacompromisebetweenthesetwoviews.
Inrecognitionoftheargumentthatsomemenmayinfactbesorepulsedbyanon-violenthomosexualadvancethattheymightlosetheirself-control,myproposalallowssuchdefendantstopresentagaypanic-provocationargumenttothejury.
Ontheotherhand,inrecognitionofthefactthatgaypanicargumentsrelyonmisguidedmasculinitynormsandnegativestereotypesaboutgaymen,myproposalincludesarole-reversaljuryinstructionthatseekstomakejurorsawareofthedouble-standardthatagaypanicargumentseekstoemploy.
Myproposaldoesnotdependontheadoptionofanormativeconceptionofreasonableness.
Inotherwords,evenifprovocationdoctrinecontinuestoutilizeapositivistconceptionofreasonableness,Istillbelieveitisbettertoallowdefendantstomakegaypanic-provocationargumentsthantobarsuchclaims.
179R.
v.
Dudley&Stephens,(1884)14Q.
B.
D.
273,287-88(U.
K.
).
InReginav.
Dudley&Stephens,twoseamen,ThomasDudleyandEdwinStephens,wereindictedforthemurderofRichardParker,a17-year-oldcrewmember.
Thedefendants,Parker,andNedBrooks,afourthcrewmember,werecastawayinastormonthehighseas,1,600milesfromtheCapeofGoodHope.
Theywereabletosurvivefor20daysonadinghywithnosupplyofwaterandnofoodexceptfortwoone-poundcansofturnipsandaturtlewhichtheycaught.
Onday12,theyfinishedeatingtheturtleandhadnothingtoeatforthenexteightdays.
Onday20,DudleyandStephenssuggestedthatsomeoneshouldbesacrificedtosavetherest.
Dudleyproposedthatlotsshouldbecasttodeterminewhichofthemwouldbesacrificed,butBrooksrefusedtoconsent.
Ultimately,DudleyandStephensdecideditwouldbebesttokillParkersincehewastheonlyonewithnofamilyandwasalreadyweakandsickenedfrom2008]TheGayPanicDefense507ChiefJusticeLordColeridgeexplained,"Weareoftencompelledtosetupstandardswecannotreachourselves,andtolaydownruleswhichwecouldnotourselvessatisfy.
.
.
.
"180Anotherproblemwiththisargumentisthatitisnotclearthattheaverageheterosexualmanwould,infact,respondtoanon-violenthomosexualadvancewithfatalviolence.
Theordinaryman'sreactiontoanon-violenthomosexualadvancemightwellstopshortofphysicalforce.
Icanthinkofmanyreasonablemenwhowouldsimplysay,"No,I'mnotinterested,"andwalkaway,ratherthanrespondtoanon-violenthomosexualadvancewithphysicalforce.
Lenientverdictsingaypaniccasesmightalsobeunderstoodtoreflectdominantnormsofmasculinity.
181Amale-on-malesexualadvancethreatensaheterosexualman'ssenseofidentityasamaninseveralways.
182First,meninthissocietyaresupposedtobeinterestedinwomen,notmen.
183Second,menaresupposedtobethesexualaggressors,nottheonesaggressedupon.
184Agaymanmakingasexualdrinkingseawater.
Dudley,withStephens'shelp,killedParker.
Dudley,Stephens,andBrooksateParker'sremainsforthenextfourdays.
FourdaysafterParker'sdemise,themenwererescuedbyapassingship.
Id.
at273-74.
"Ifthemenhadnotfeduponthebodyoftheboywhentheydid,theywouldhavediedoffaminewithinafewdays.
"PAULH.
ROBINSON,CRIMINALLAWCASESTUDIES15-19(3ded.
2007).
180Dudley,14Q.
B.
D.
at288.
181SeegenerallyFrankRudyCooper,"Who'stheMan":MasculinitiesandPoliceStops(Aug.
22,2008)(unpublishedmanuscript,onfilewithauthor)(applyinginsightsfromfieldofmasculinitystudiestoTerryv.
Ohio);seealsoJenniferDumin,Superstition-BasedInjusticeinAfricaandtheUnitedStates:TheUseofProvocationasaDefenseforKillingWitchesandHomosexuals,21WIS.
WOMEN'SL.
J.
145,174(2006)(notingthatstrongculturalandreligiousbeliefsexplainleniencyshowninSouthAfricatothosewhokillwitchesandinUnitedStatestomenwhokillgaymenandclaimhomosexualprovocation).
182Asothershavenoted,gaysandlesbians"threatenthedifferentiationbetweengendersandthesocialrolesassociatedwiththem.
"WilliamA.
Jellisonetal.
,ImplicitandExplicitMeasuresofSexualOrientationAttitude:IngroupPreferencesandRelatedBehaviorsandBeliefsAmongGayandStraightMen,30PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
BULL.
629,631(2004).
"Byderogatinggaymenwho.
.
.
donotconformto.
.
.
culturalstandardsofmasculinity,straightmencanaffirmtheirownbeliefsthattheseculturalexpectationsareappropriate.
"Id.
183MICHELLEMARYLELWICA,STARVINGFORSALVATION:THESPIRITUALDIMENSIONSOFEATINGPROBLEMSAMONGAMERICANGIRLSANDWOMEN25(2002)("[M]enaresupposedtobesexuallyattracted(towomen),womenaresupposedtobesexuallyattractive(tomen).
");AYALAMALAKH-PINES,FALLINGINLOVE:WHYWECHOOSETHELOVERSWECHOOSE114(1999)("Menaresupposedtobeattractedto'feminine'women,andwomenaresupposedtobeattractedto'masculine'men.
").
184SeeSARAL.
CRAWLEYETAL.
,GENDERINGBODIES102(2007)("Sothereisageneralsurveillanceforallmentobesexuallyaggressiveandforallwomentobesexuallypassiveorguarded.
");DeborahS.
David&RobertBrannon,TheMaleSex508UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471advanceuponaheterosexualmanviolatesbothoftheseconditions.
185Indoingso,thegaymanturnsthetablesontheheterosexualman,whofindshimselfactedupon,ratherthantheoneacting.
186Theheterosexualman'sfeelingsoffearandloathingarethusviewedasreasonableinthecontextofapervasivelyheterosexistsocialworld.
Masculinitynormsalsoworktobolstertheheterosexualmale'sclaimthathewasreasonablyoutragedbythenon-violenthomosexualadvance.
AngelaHarrisnotesthat"notbeinga'faggot'isasimportanttobeingamanasnotbeingawoman.
"187Meninthissocietyaresupposedtobe"fearfulanddisdainfulofhomosexuals,"and"arealsotaughttorejectanypersonalsame-gendersexualfeelings.
"188Manyheterosexualmenaresoterrifiedofbeingperceivedasgaythattheyavoidexpressingqualitiesthattheythinkseemfeminine,liketheenjoymentofbeautyoraloving,caring,gentleornurturingnature.
189Role:OurCulture'sBlueprintofManhoodandWhatIt'sDoneforUsLately,inTHEFORTY-NINEPERCENTMAJORITY:THEMALESEXROLE31(DeborahS.
David&RobertBrannoneds.
,1976)("Bothmenandwomengrowupinourculturethinkingofmaleaggressivenessasnaturalandnormal,andofmenasthesexualaggressorsCynthiaPetersen,EnvisioningaLesbianEqualityJurisprudence,inLEGALINVERSIONS:LESBIANS,GAYMEN,ANDTHEPOLITICSOFLAW118,120(DidiHerman&CarlFranklinStychineds.
,1995)("Heterosexualmenaresupposedtobesexuallyaggressive,andheterosexualwomenaresupposedtobeingratiatinglysubmissive.
").
185SeeCRAWLEY,supranote184,at102("[M]enareexpectedtobealwayssexuallyaggressive,butnottowardothermen.
")(citationomitted).
186PepperSchwartznotesthatinsomecultures,menwhohavesexwithbothwomenandmenarenotconsideredgayaslongastheyarethesexualaggressors.
PepperSchwartz,TheSocialConstructionofHeterosexuality,inTHESEXUALSELF:THECONSTRUCTIONOFSEXUALSCRIPTS80,86(MichaelKimmeled.
,2007)("IfyouareamanwhowantstohavesexwithmeninGreece,yetdonotwanttobethoughtofashomosexual,youcanaccomplishthisgoal,aslongasyoudonotblunderintothe'female'sexualrole.
").
AsoneGreekmanexplained,"Thequeersaretheoneswhogetfucked.
"Id.
187AngelaP.
Harris,GenderViolence,RaceandCriminalJustice,52STAN.
L.
REV.
777,786-87(2000);seealsoDavidWyattSeal&AnkeA.
Ehrhardt,MasculinityandUrbanMen:PerceivedScriptsforCourtship,Romantic,andSexualInteractionswithWomen,inCULTURE,SOCIETYANDSEXUALITY:AREADER375,393(RichardParker&PeterAggletoneds.
,2007)("Menalsohavetraditionallybeensocializedtoavoidevaluativedisclosuresoasnottoappearweakorhomosexual.
")(citationsomitted).
188RoyScrivner,GayMenandNonrelationalSex,inMENANDSEX:NEWPSYCHOLOGICALPERSPECTIVES229,233(RonaldL.
Levant&GaryR.
Brookseds.
,1997);seealsoJohnIbson,Don'tLookGay:WhyAmericanMenareAfraidofIntimacywithEachOther,AM.
SEXUALITYMAG.
,July4,2007,availableathttp://www.
alternet.
org/story/55816(notingthat"countlessAmericanboysandthementhattheybecomeareafraidofintimacywitheachother,fearfulofhowintimacymightbeconstrued—ofwhatothersandmaybeeventheythemselvesmightdecidethattheclosenesssuggests").
189SeeJamesHarrison,Roles,Identities,andSexualOrientation:Homosexuality,2008]TheGayPanicDefense509Whenagaymanmakesasexualadvanceuponaheterosexualman,theheterosexualmanmayfearthatotherswillthinkheisgayifhedoesnotdosomethingtoclearlyexpresshisheterosexuality.
Respondingwithviolence,intheheterosexualman'smind,isaclearandunambiguousrejectionofhomosexuality.
190Masculinitynormsalsohelplegitimizetheuseofphysicalviolenceinresponsetonon-violenthomosexualadvances.
Meninthissocietywhoarephysicallystrong,aggressive,andwillingtouseforcewhennecessaryaregenerallyadmired.
191Whenaheterosexualmanfindshismasculinitythreatenedbyahomosexualadvance,aggressionandviolenceareconsideredappropriatewaystorespond.
192Thefeelingofthreatinsuchcasesisanalogoustothethreattomaleidentityandhonorthatallegedlyariseswhenawifeisunfaithful.
193Heterosexuality,andBisexuality,inANEWPSYCHOLOGYOFMEN359,378-79(RonaldF.
Levant&WilliamS.
Pollackeds.
,1995)(citationomitted);seealsoSusanM.
Alexander,StylishHardBodies:BrandedMasculinityin"Men'sHealth"Magazine,46SOC.
PERSP.
535,538(2003)("Masculinity,then,stemsfromthefearofbeingseenassissy,feminine,oranythinglessthanaman.
");Cooper,supranote181,at19(citingMichaelS.
Kimmel,MacsulinityasHomophobia:Fear,Shame,andSilenceintheConstructionofGenderIdentity,inTHEGENDEROFDESIRE:ESSAYSONMALESEXUALITY25,30(2005))(notingthat"masculinity"isrepudiationof"femininity").
190SeeBARBARAPERRY,INTHENAMEOFHATE:UNDERSTANDINGHATECRIMES108(2001)(notingthat"violenceagainstgaysprovidesvisible,documentedproofofoffenders'unquestionablystraightsexuality");Cooper,supranote181,at19(notingthat"therepudiationofhomosexualmenispartandparcelofthehegemonicmasculinity").
AsJanaBufkinnotes,"theoffenderbecomeswhatthevictimisnotbyattackinghim/her.
"JanaL.
Bufkin,BiasCrimeasGenderedBehavior,26SOC.
JUST.
155,159(1999).
191SeePERRY,supranote190,at108(notingthatgay-basher"proves,byhisactions,thatheisunafraidtofight,asanyrealmanmustbe");Harrison,supranote189,at378;seealsoAlexander,supranote189,at538(notingthat"mentodaywearthemaskofthe'ToughGuise'.
.
.
aperformanceinwhichviolentmasculinityisthenorm.
");Seal&Ehrhardt,supranote187,at393("[M]anymenlearnbyaveryyoungagethatpartofbeingamanistocompeteandtoconquer,aswellastobe'strong'andtosuppressemotionalexpressionorfeelings.
")(citationsomitted).
Forahistoricalaccountofmaleidentitynorms,seeJohnM.
Kang,ManlinessandtheConstitution,32HARV.
J.
L.
&PUB.
POL'Y(forthcoming2008)(discussingimageofmanashypermasculinebruteconsumedbypropensityforatavism,violence,anddominationasreflectedinThomasHobbes'sLeviathan).
192SeeDEBORAHCAMERON&DONKULICK,LANGUAGEANDSEXUALITY39(2003)("Toaheterosexualman,suchanadvanceissaidtoconstituteakindofassault,andactsofviolencecommittedintheresultingstateofpanicmustthereforeberegardedasjustifiableself-defence.
");Franklin&Herek,supranote9,at148(notingthatassumptionunderlyingclaimsofgaypanicis"thatviolenceistheappropriateresponsetoanytypeofsexualadvancefromapersonofone'ssamesex");Tomsen,supranote173,at2,5.
193Schwartz,supranote186,at88(commentingthatDustinHoffmanwhoplays510UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Theperceivedthreattomaleidentitymaybeheightenediftheadvanceoccursinfrontofotherpeople,ratherthaninaprivatesetting.
WriterJoAnnWypijewskirecountsthefollowingconversationshehadwithayoungmanfromLaramie,Wyoming,thetownwhereMatthewShepardwaskilled:"Ifaguyatabarmadesomekindofoverturetoyou,whatwouldyoudo""Itdependsonwho'saround.
IfI'mwithagirl,I'dbeworriedaboutwhatshethinks,because,asIsaid,everythingamandoesisinsomewayconnectedtoawoman,whetherhewantstoadmititornot.
DoIlookqueerWillshetellothergirls""Ifmyfriendswerearoundandthey'dlaughandshit,Imighthavetothreatenhim.
""IfI'maloneandhejustwantstobuymeabeer,thenokay,I'mstraight,you'regay–hey,youcanbuymeabeer.
"194Theclaimofreasonablenesslinkedtoanti-gayviolenceistheproductofaculturethatprivilegesheterosexualmaleviolenceoverothertypesofviolence.
195Amanwhorespondstoa(homo)sexualadvancewithdeadlyviolenceclaimsheactedastheaverageheterosexualmanwouldhaveacted.
Awomanwhotriestomakeasimilarclaimwouldfinditextremelydifficulttosucceed.
Awomanwhorespondswithdeadlyforcetoamanwhokissesherorfondlesherbreastsisnotatalltypical.
Womeninthissocietyaresupposedtoacceptacertainamountofunwantedmaleattention,andwhiletheymightfrown,struggle,orprotest,theyarenotsupposedtouseviolencetodissuadeorthwartmenwhosuggestsexualinterest.
Moreover,womenaretaughttobelievethatamanwhoaggressivelyexpresseshissexualattractionforawomanismerelybehavingthewayamanissupposedtobehave.
196Thewomanwhoisthetargetofmaincharacterinfilm,StrawDogs,isperceivedasnotadequatelyheterosexualbecausehecannotcontrolhisflirtatiouswife).
194JoAnnWypijewski,ABoy'sLife:ForMatthewShepard'sKillers,WhatDoesitTaketoPassAsaMan,HARPER'SMAG.
,Sept.
1999,at61,74.
195SeeComstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at99.
196David&Brannon,supranote184,at31("Bothmenandwomengrowupinourculturethinkingofmaleaggressivenessasnaturalandnormal,andofmenasthesexualaggressorsLoisPineau,DateRape:AFeministAnalysis,inAPPLICATIONSOFFEMINISTLEGALTHEORYTOWOMEN'SLIVES:SEX,VIOLENCE,WORKANDREPRODUCTION484,486-87(D.
KellyWeisberged.
,1996)(discussingnormalaggressivenessofmalesexuality);seealsoComstock,DismantlingtheHomosexualPanicDefense,supranote10,at99-100(notingthat"approvalofviolenceagainstgay2008]TheGayPanicDefense511maleattentionissupposedtobeflattered.
Evenifthewomanisjustasoffendedbyanon-violentheterosexualadvanceasaheterosexualmalemightbebyanon-violenthomosexualadvance,sheisunlikelytoconvincetheaveragejurorthataviolentresponseisreasonablebecausewomenjustarenotexpectedtobeviolent.
DavidWertheimer,formerExecutiveDirectoroftheNewYorkCityGayandLesbianAnti-ViolenceProject,wrylypointsout,"Ifeveryheterosexualwomanwhohadasexualadvancemadetoherbyamalehadtherighttomurdertheman,thestreetsofthiscitywouldbelitteredwiththebodiesofheterosexualmen.
"197Theheterosexualman'sclaimofreasonablenessdoesmorethanprivilegemenoverwomen.
Itprivilegesheterosexualmenovergaymen.
Ifaheterosexualmanrespondsviolentlytoahomosexualadvance,heenjoysapresumptionofreasonableness.
Aheterosexualmanissupposedtobedisgustedandoutragedwhenanothermanattemptsasexualadvance.
198If,however,agaymanweretorespondviolentlytoaheterosexualfemale'ssexualadvance,hewouldhaveadifficulttimeconvincinganyonethathewasreasonablyprovokedintoaheatofpassion,evenifaheterosexualwoman'ssexualadvanceisjustasdisgustingtohimasagayman'ssexualadvancemightbetoaheterosexualman.
Meninthissocietyaresupposedtobehappyifawomanshowssheissexuallyattractedtohim.
Ifaman,however,showshissexualinterestinanothermanbyactinginasimilarmanner,hesupposedlyisaskingforaviolentresponse.
CharlesButler,themanconvictedofcapitalmurderforhispartintheslayingandburningofBillyJackGaitheronapyreoftires,admittedhewouldhavereacteddifferentlyhadGaitherbeenawoman.
199InaninterviewwithFrontline,ButleradmittedthatBillymencontrastssharplywiththefreedomandlackofvulnerabilitytoattackwithwhichheterosexualmenmakesexualadvancestowardwomen");FranciscoValdes,UnpackingHetero-Patriarchy:TracingtheConflationofSex,GenderandSexualOrientationtoItsOrigins,8YALEJ.
L.
&HUMAN.
161,179(1996).
197PeterJohnson,'MoreThanOrdinaryMenGoneWrong':CantheLawKnowtheGaySubject,20MELB.
U.
L.
REV.
1152,1178(1996)(quotingKendallThomas,BeyondthePrivacyPrinciple,92COLUM.
L.
REV.
1431,1466n.
188(1992)).
Tobeprecise,themaledefendantwhoclaimsthatanon-violenthomosexualadvanceconstituteslegallyadequateprovocationandisconvictedofmanslaughterratherthanmurderisnotjustifiedinhavingkilledanotherperson.
Provocationisgenerallyconsideredanexcusedefense,whichmeansthattheactisstillconsideredwrong.
198SeeSuffredini,supranote10,at284-85(arguingthatAmericanculturesuggeststhatviolenceisappropriateandnecessaryresponsetoanyhomosexualadvancebecauseheterosexualmenaresupposedtobeaggressorsinallsexualinteractions).
199InterviewwithCharlesButler,inKilbyPrison,Ala.
,PBSFrontline(Feb.
15,2000),availableathttp://www.
pbs.
org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/interviews/512UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Jackdidnotattempttograbhim.
200ItwasBillyJack'sverbalsuggestionofasexualthreesomethatmadeButlerfeeldisrespectedandledhimtobeatBillyJack.
Butleradmittedthathadawomanmadeasimilarsuggestion,hewouldnothaveviewedherremarksasdisrespectful.
201Becausetheverbalcome-oncamefromaman,Butlerfelthehadtoreactwithphysicalviolence.
Race,gender,andagealsoseemtoplayapartingayhomicidecases.
Theperpetratorsofanti-gayviolencetendtobeWhiteandmale.
202Themajorityareintheirteensortwenties.
203Inmanycases,thevictimismucholderthanthedefendant.
204TheseyoungWhitemalesareoftendescribedattheirmurdertrialsaswell-liked,normal,youngmen.
205JurorsmaybemoreinclinedtoviewtheclaimsoftheseyoungWhitemenasreasonablebecausetheyseemtorepresenttheordinaryall-Americanboynextdoor.
Afinalreasonwhygaypanicprovocationclaimsmayresonatewithjuriesistheprevalenceofnegativestereotypesaboutgaymenasbutler.
html.
200Id.
201Id.
202SeeCOMSTOCK,VIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN,supranote158,at59,61(reportingthat67%ofperpetratorsofanti-gayviolenceareWhiteand94%aremale);seealsoNAT'LCOAL.
OFANTI-VIOLENCEPROGRAMS,supranote158,at34-35(reportingthat47%ofanti-lesbian,gay,bisexualandtransgenderviolenceoffendersin2004wereWhiteand82%weremale).
AccordingtotheUniformCrimeReportpublishedbytheDepartmentofJustice,approximately44%oftheperpetratorsofanti-gayhatecrimesin2006wereWhite.
FED.
BUREAUOFINVESTIGATION,U.
S.
DEP'TOFJUSTICE,supranote8(notingthat620of1,415anti-gayoffensesin2006werecommittedbyWhiteoffenders).
203SeeCOMSTOCK,VIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN,supranote158,at59("[N]earlyonehalfofallperpetrators[ofanti-gay/lesbianviolence]aretwenty-oneyearsofageandyounger,withthegreatmajoritylessthantwenty-eightyearsold.
");seealsoNAT'LCOAL.
OFANTI-VIOLENCEPROGRAMS,supranote158,at33(reportingthat57%ofalloffenderswhoseagewasknownwereunderageof30:20%ofoffenderswere18yearsoryoungerand37%werebetweenagesof18and29).
204SeeCOMSTOCK,VIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN,supranote158,at78("Consistentwithfindingsreportedearlierinthischapter,theperpetratorsarefifteentotwenty-twoyearsofage;theyarepredominantlywhite;andtheirvictimsareolder.
").
205COMSTOCK,VIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN,supranote158,at82("Typicalofthedefensesformiddle-classperpetratorswastheuseofcharacterwitnessestoprovideanecdotalevidenceof'goodfamilybackgrounds,'exemplarybehaviorinschool,andparticipationinorganizedathletics.
");seealsoStephenTomsen,HateCrimesandMasculinity:NewCrimes,NewResponsesandSomeFamiliarPatterns,AUS.
INST.
OFCRIM.
,June2001,at1,5,availableathttp://www.
aic.
gov.
au/conferences/outlook4/Tomsen.
pdf(notingthat"[r]esearchindicatesthatmostactsofracistor'homophobic'harassmentandviolenceareperpetratedbypsychologicallynormaloffenders.
.
.
").
2008]TheGayPanicDefense513sexualdeviantsandsexualpredators.
206Eventhoughculturalrepresentationsofgaymenandlesbiansinthepopularpresshavechangeddramaticallyoverthepastfiftyyears,criminaldefensenarrativestodaycontinuetoinvokethe"specterofthepathological,predatory,sexuallyviolentdeviant"inanattempttoencouragejurorstofindthatayoungheterosexualmaledefendant'sviolentresponsetoanolderhomosexualmale'ssexualadvanceisreasonable.
207Theunderlyingthemeisthatgaymenaresexualdeviants208whopreyonyoungboysandcannotbetrustedtoworkinpositionsofsupervisoryauthority209—themessageofboththeReligiousRightandtheBoyScouts.
210Eventhoughtheconceptofreasonablenessisusuallyassociatedwithreasonandcalmdeliberation,theoppositeofviolencedrivenbyemotion,ayoungheterosexualmannonethelessisconsideredreasonableifherespondsviolentlytoanolderman'snon-violenthomosexualadvance.
E.
"TransPanic"Gaypanichasrecentlymorphedintoanotherdefensestrategycalledthe"transpanic"defense.
211Insuchcases,amaledefendantchargedwithmurderingamale-to-femaletransgenderpersonclaimshewasprovokedintoaheatofpassionupondiscoveringthatthepersonwithwhomhehadsexualrelationswasbiologicallymaleratherthanfemale.
MichaelMagidsonandJoséMerel,chargedwithfirst-degreemurderinthekillingofGwenAraujo(bornEdwardAraujo)usedsuchan206PERRY,supranote190,at110-11(notingthatcontemporarystereotypesresurrecthistoricalconstructionofhomosexualityassinfulanddeviantandgaysaspredatoryandmenacing).
207MichaelA.
Smyth,QueersandProvocateurs:Hegemony,Ideology,andthe"HomosexualAdvance"Defense,40L.
&SOC'YREV.
903,904(2006);seealsosupranote13(listingsourcesthatdiscusscommonstereotypesaboutgaymen).
208SeeEVEKOSOFSKYSEDGWICK,EPISTEMOLOGYOFTHECLOSET19,43(1990).
209SeePERRY,supranote190,at115(notingcommonrefrain,"Wedon'twant'them'teachingourchildren,sincetheymightseducethem").
210SeeBoyScoutsofAm.
v.
Dale,530U.
S.
640,656(2000)(holdingthatforcingBoyScoutstoreinstategayassistantscoutmasterwhowasexpelledafterhepubliclydeclaredhewasgaywouldviolateBoyScouts'FirstAmendmentrightofassociation).
211SeeSteinberg,supranote15,at500-01;seealsoBradfordBigler,Comment,SexuallyProvoked:RecognizingSexualMisrepresentationasAdequateProvocation,53UCLAL.
REV.
783,798(2006)(proposingthatsexualmisrepresentationbeconsideredlegallyadequateprovocationifdefendantengagesinsexualactwhilereasonablydeceivedregardingfactreasonablymaterialtoconsent,discoveryofwhichwouldcausereasonablepersonseverementaloremotionalcrisis).
514UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471argumentattheirmurdertrial.
212MagidsonandMerelmettheseventeen-year-oldAraujointhesummerof2002andengagedinintimaterelationswithher.
213Araujo,whowasbiologicallymale,livedasafemaleandhadassumedthenameofherfavoritesinger,GwenStefani.
214AtapartyinOctober2002,MerelandMagidsonbegantosuspectthatAraujowasnotbiologicallyfemale.
215MagidsontookAraujointothebathroomandtriedtohikeupherskirttocheckwhethershewasamanorawoman.
216WhenAraujotoldMagidsonnottotouchher,MagidsongotawomanfromthepartynamedNicoleBrowntocheck.
217BrownwentintothebathroomandfeltAraujo'sgenitals.
WhenshediscoveredAraujohadapenis,Brownscreamed212Initially,fourmen—MichaelMagidson,JoséMerel,JaronChaseNabors,andJasonCazares—werechargedwithmurderandahatecrimeenhancement.
SeeJulianGuthrie,WhyDiditTakeaMurderforthePeopleofNewarktoWakeuptotheHarassmentofOneofTheirOwn,S.
F.
CHRON.
,CHRON.
MAG.
,Dec.
22,2002,at12.
Naborspledguiltytovoluntarymanslaughterinexchangeforapromisetotestifyagainstthethreeothers,andwassentencedto11yearsinprisonforhisroleinthekillingofAraujo.
SeeHenryK.
Lee,11YearsforDefendantinAraujoKilling,S.
F.
CHRON.
,Aug.
26,2006,atB2.
Cazaresplednocontesttoalesserchargeandreceivedasix-yearsentence.
SeeHenryK.
Lee,Prisonfor3inTransgenderTeen'sSlaying,S.
F.
CHRON.
,Jan.
28,2006,atB1[hereinafterLee,Prisonfor3].
Afterasecondtrial,MagidsonandMerelwerefoundguiltyofsecond-degreemurderandsentencedto15yearstolife.
Id.
Thejuryrejectedthehatecrimeenhancementwhichcouldhaveaddedanotherfouryearstotheirsentence.
SeeHenryK.
Lee,ManslaughterRuledOut,AraujoJurorSays,S.
F.
CHRON.
,Sept.
14,2005,atB1[hereinafterLee,ManslaughterRuledOut]("ThejuryultimatelyrejectedhatecrimeenhancementsagainstMerelandMagidsonbecausesomepanelistsbelievedthatthedefendantskilledAraujonotnecessarilybecauseofhergenderorientation,butsimplyto'coverupasituationthathadgottenoutofcontrol.
'");KellySt.
John&HenryK.
Lee,SlainNewarkTeenBalancedBetweenTwoWorlds,S.
F.
CHRON.
,Oct.
19,2002,atA1(notingthathatecrimeenhancementcouldhaveaddedasmanyasfourmoreyearsinprison).
213MichelleLocke,JurorsDeliberateinSlayingofTransgenderTeen,HOUS.
CHRON.
,June4,2004,atA7,availableathttp://www.
chron.
com/CDA/archives/archive.
mplid=2004_3769144.
214SeeJohnM.
Glionna,MurderTrialNearsEnd:ClosingArgumentsBeginintheSlayingofaTransgenderTeenagerwiththeProsecutorLashingOutatOneoftheAllegedKillers,L.
A.
TIMES,Aug.
25,2005,atB4.
215SeeDaisyHernandez,YoungandOut:AnythingbutSafe,COLORLINES,Dec.
22,2004,at26.
ThequestionofwhetherMagisdsonkneworsuspectedAraujowastransgenderbeforetheattackwasakeypointinthecasebecauseprosecutorsarguedthekillingwasapremeditatedmurderwhilethedefenseargueditwasacrimeofpassion.
SeeKellySt.
John,HeavyDrinking,Outrage,ManTestifiesHe'sAccusedofKillingTransgenderTeenager,S.
F.
CHRON.
,Aug.
16,2005,atB3.
216SeeJohnM.
Glionna,KeepingFocusonVictiminRetrial:TransgenderAdvocatesPublicizetheDetailsoftheLatestProceedingAgainstThreeMenAccusedintheSlayingofTeenagerGwenAraujo,L.
A.
TIMES,July5,2005,atB1.
217Seeid.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense515andranfromthebathroom.
218Magidsonallegedlyflewintoarageandproceededtopunch,choke,andkickAraujo.
219Mereljoinedintheattack,beatingAraujowithafryingpanandsoupcan.
220Merel,Magidson,andtwootherscarriedAraujointothegaragewhereMagidsonstrangledAraujowitharopeandsomeoneelsestruckAraujowithashovel.
221Magidson'sattorney,MichaelThorman,toldthejurythatMagidson'sshockatdiscoveringthatAraujowastransgenderprovokedhimintoaheatofpassionandthereforethejuryshouldconvictMagidsonofmanslaughter,notmurder.
222AccordingtoThorman,Magidson'sdiscoverythathehadunknowinglyengagedinhomosexualsexincitedrevulsionandrageinhim.
223Thormanexplained,"Thiscrimedidn'toccurbecauseMike[Magidson]hadabias.
IthappenedbecauseofthediscoveryofwhatEddie[Araujo]haddone.
"224Hecontinued,"Thisisacasethattellsastoryabout.
.
.
thetragicresultswhenthatdeceptionandbetrayalwerediscovered.
"225Thejury,apanelofeightmenandfourwomen,deadlocked,andthejudgedeclaredamistrial.
226Theclaimthatatransgenderindividual'sdeceptionabouthisorherbiologicalsexshouldconstitutelegallyadequateprovocation,liketheclaimthatanon-violenthomosexualadvanceshouldconstitutelegallyadequateprovocation,restsupondominantnormsofhegemonic218Seeid.
219Seeid.
;IvanDelventhal,ProsecutorCross-ExaminesSuspectinAraujoMurderTrial,TRI-VALLEYHERALD(Pleasanton,Cal.
),May20,2004(notingthat"CazarestestifiedTuesdaythatheintervenedrepeatedlyasMagidson,MerelandNaborspunchedandkickedAraujointheMerelhomeonOct.
4,2002");TransgenderSlayingCaseEndsWithoutaVerdict,MARININDEP.
J.
(Marin,Cal.
),June23,2004(notingthat"NaborssaidMerelhitAraujowithacanandaskilletandMagidsonpunched,chokedandkickedher");YomiS.
Wronge,JudgeReaffirmsNo-BailRuling,S.
J.
MERCURYNEWS,July25,2003,atC1("AccordingtoNabors,itwasMagidsonwhorepeatedlychoked,hitandkickedAraujo.
").
220SeeMarisaLagos,MistrialDeclaredinTeen'sKilling:ProsecutorSaysHeWillMovetoRetryThreeMenAccusedofKillingtheTransgenderStudent,L.
A.
TIMES,June23,2004,atB1(notingthatMerelstruckAraujo'sheadsohardthathedentedsoupcan).
221Seeid.
222Seeid.
223SeeVickiHaddock,'GayPanic'DefenseinAraujoCase,S.
F.
CHRON.
,May16,2004,atE1.
224Id.
225Id.
226SeeJanineDeFao&KellySt.
John,RetrialinAraujoCasePresentsChallenges,S.
F.
CHRON.
,June28,2004,atB3;Lagos,supranote213,atB1.
516UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471masculinity.
227Magidson'sattorneywastryingtoappealtothemasculinitynormthatsuggestsrealmenpreferwomen,notothermen,whenheclaimedMagidsonwasdisgustedandenragedupondiscoveringthathehadunknowinglyengagedinhomosexualsex.
228Thereisgoodreasontorejecttheargumentthatatransgenderperson'sdeceptionabouthisorherbiologicalsexconstituteslegallyadequateprovocation.
Undercurrentrapelaw,amancanusedeceittogetawomantohavesexwithhim.
Evenifthewomanhadsexwiththemanonlybecauseofafalsepromiseofmarriageoralieabouttheman'strueidentity(hepretendedtoberichandfamouswhenhewasactuallyunemployed),thewoman'sconsenttointercourseisconsideredvalidunderthelaw.
Whenamanusesfraud-in-the-inducementtoachievesexualintercourse,theintercourseisnotconsideredrape.
229Thetranspanictheorysuggeststhatthevictim'sdeceptionabouthisorher"true"identityshouldbegroundstopartiallyexcuseamurdereventhoughusingdeceptiontogetsomeonetoconsenttosexisnotconsideredacrime.
230Attheirsecondtrial,MagidsonandMerelagainarguedtheywereprovokedintoaheatofpassionupondiscoveringthatAraujohadmalegenitaliaandthatAraujo'sdeceptionabouthertruesexualidentitywaswhatsparkedtheirrage.
Thistime,afterdeliberatingforsevendays,thejuryrejectedthedefendants'claimofprovocationand227SeePERRY,supranote190,at106(citingERVINGOFFMAN,STIGMA:NOTESONTHEMANAGEMENTOFSPOILEDIDENTITY128(1963))(explainingidealor"hegemonic"masculinityisreflectedin"ayoung,married,white,urban,northern,heterosexualProtestantfather,ofcollegeeducation,fullyemployed,ofgoodcomplexion,weightandheight,andarecentrecordinsports").
228SeeHaddock,supranote223,atE1.
229SeeBorov.
SuperiorCourt,210Cal.
Rptr.
122,125(Cal.
Ct.
App.
1985)(holdingthatfraud-in-the-inducementdoesnotinvalidateconsent).
230Courtsaredividedoverwhetherpretendingtobeawoman'shusbandinordertohavesexwithherconstitutesfraud-in-the-factumorfraud-in-the-inducement.
SeeLewisv.
State,30Ala.
54,54(1857)(findingthateventhoughwoman'sconsenttosexualintercoursewasprocuredbydefendant'sfraudulentimpersonationofwoman'shusband,actofintercoursedidnotconstituterape);Ledbetterv.
State,26S.
W.
725,725-26(Tex.
1894)(affirmingconvictionforrapewheredefendantfraudulentlyimpersonatedvictim'shusband).
Therationalefortreatingtheimpersonating-a-husbandcaseasfraud-in-the-inducement(andnotrape)isthatthewomanknewshewasengaginginsexualintercourse,andthereforeherconsentwasvalid.
Boro,210Cal.
Rptr.
at124(citingPERKINS&BOYCE,CRIMINALLAWch.
9,§3,1079(3ded.
1982)).
Othercourtshaveheldthathusbandimpersonationtoobtainconsenttosexualintercourseconstitutesfraud-in-the-factum(andthereforerape)onthetheorythat"thewoman'sconsentistoaninnocentactofmaritalintercoursewhilewhatisactuallyperpetrateduponherisanactofadultery.
"Id.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense517foundbothmenguiltyofsecond-degreemurder.
231MagidsonandMerelweresentencedtofifteenyearstolifeinprison.
232Thesecondjury'sverdictiscomforting.
Apparently,thejuryfeltitwasnotreasonableforthedefendantstohaveactedthewaytheydidupondiscoveringthatAraujowastransgender.
AccordingtoMaxStern,aSanFranciscolawyerwhoservedonthesecondjury,"Thiswasnotamanslaughter,becauseitisnotreasonabletoacceptthisbehaviorinresponsetothecircumstanceshere.
"233Sterncontinued,"Evenifthedefendantsbelievedtheyhadbeensexuallydeceived,thatwouldbe'nobasis,nojustificationforbeatingandmurder.
'"234F.
Self-DefenseGaypanicargumentslinkedtoclaimsofself-defense,althoughlesscommonthangay(ortrans)panicargumentslinkedtoclaimsofprovocation,arealsosometimessuccessful.
235Self-defenserequiresa231SeeJohnM.
Glionna,2GuiltyofKillingTransgenderTeen,L.
A.
TIMES,Sept.
13,2005,atB1.
232Lee,Prisonfor3,supranote212,atB1.
233Lee,ManslaughterRuledOut,supranote212,atB1.
234Id.
OnSeptember28,2006,theGwenAraujoJusticeforVictimsActwassignedintolaw.
Assemb.
B.
1160,2006Leg.
,Reg.
Sess.
(Cal.
2006).
AssemblyBill1160,introducedbyAssemblywomanSallyLieber(D-SanJose),addedanewsection1127htotheCaliforniaPenalCode,whichrequiresthejudgetogivethefollowingjuryinstructionuponrequestofeitherparty:"Donotletbias,sympathy,prejudice,orpublicopinioninfluenceyourdecision.
Biasincludesbiasagainstthevictimorvictims,witnesses,ordefendantbaseduponhisorherdisability,gender,nationality,raceorethnicity,religion,genderidentity,orsexualorientation.
"Id.
Recentsocialscienceresearchsuggeststhatmerelytellingjurorsnottobebiasedisinadequate.
ShariSeidman&NeilVidmar,JuryRoomRuminationsonForbiddenTopics,87VA.
L.
REV.
1857,1864(2001).
Jurorsneedtobegiventoolstheycanusetocounterhiddenbiases.
Onesuchtoolisarole-reversaljuryinstruction,whichIproposeinPartIVofthisArticle.
Seeinfratextaccompanyingnotes498-503.
235Inarecentcase,a21-year-oldmannamedStephenScarborougharguedhekilleda62-year-oldmannamedVictorManiousbyhittinghimwithabaseballbattowardoffahomosexualassault.
ScarboroughclaimedthatManiouswalkedintoScarborough'sfriend'sapartmentwhileScarboroughwastherealone,knockedhimout,andwhenScarboroughcameto,ManiouswasinhisunderwearontopofScarboroughsexuallyassaultinghim.
SeeBartonDieters,OpeningStatementsinStephenScarborough'sMurderTrialDescribedTwoScenariosinVictorManious'sDeath,GRANDRAPIDSPRESS,Mar.
26,2008,http://blog.
mlive.
com/grpress/2008/03/opening_statemets_in_steve_s.
html;BartonDieters,ScarboroughTestifiesinOwnDefense,SaysHeWasBeingSexuallyAssaultedbySlayingVictim,GRANDRAPIDSPRESS,Apr.
7,2008,http://blog.
mlive.
com/gpress/2008/04/scarborough_testifies_in_own_d.
html.
Scarboroughwaschargedwithfelonymurder,butwasfoundguiltyofvoluntarymanslaughteronApril10,2008.
SeeVerdictinStephenScarboroughCase:GuiltyofVoluntaryManslaughterofVictorManious,GRANDRAPIDSPRESS,Apr.
10,2008,http://blog.
mlive.
com/grpress/2008/04/verdict_518UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471showingthatthedefendanthonestlyandreasonablybelieveddeadlyforcewasnecessarytoprotectagainstanimminentthreatofdeathorseriousbodilyinjury.
236Justasintheprovocationcasesdiscussedabove,thedefendantclaimingself-defensedrawsuponmasculinitynorms,heterosexualitynorms,andstereotypesaboutgaymentobolsterhisclaimofreasonableness.
Forexample,thirty-year-oldStephenBrightarguedthathekilledfifty-eight-year-oldKennethBrewerinself-defenseafterBrewertriedtoforcehimtohavesex.
237BrightmetBreweratagaybaronSeptember30,1997.
238BrewerboughtBrightsomedrinksandthetwomenchatted.
239BrightaccompaniedBrewerbacktohisHawaiiKaicondominiumformoredrinks.
240AccordingtoBright,hewassittinginBrewer'sbedroomhavingaginvodkamixeddrinkwhenBrewerlefttheroomforashorttime.
241WhenBrewercamebackintothebedroom,hewascompletelynakedwithanerection,andsaidhewantedtof___Bright.
242Then,Brewergrabbedhisthroatandcrotch.
243BrightclaimedhegotupandstartedswingingtogetBreweroffofhim.
244BrightsaidhedidnotintendtokillBrewer;hejustdidnotwanttoberapedorhurt.
245Brightalsotestifiedthathewas"inain_steven_scarborough.
html.
ItisunclearwhetherthejurymitigatedthechargesbecausetheyfeltScarboroughwasreasonablyprovokedintoaheatofpassionorbecausetheycouldnotagreeonaverdictandsimplycompromised.
236SeeCynthiaK.
Y.
Lee,TheAct-BeliefDistinctioninSelf-DefenseDoctrine:ANewDualRequirementTheoryofJustification,2BUFF.
CRIM.
L.
REV.
191,198-99(1998)[hereinafterLee,TheAct-BeliefDistinctioninSelf-DefenseDoctrine].
237SusanKreifels,BloodinJeansEvidenceofMurder,SaysProsecutor,HONOLULUSTAR-BULL.
,Oct.
1,1998,availableathttp://archives.
starbulletin.
com/1998/10/01/news/briefs.
html(lastvisitedOct.
21,2008)[hereinafterKreifels,BloodinJeansEvidenceofMurder].
238Seeid.
239Seeid.
240Seeid.
241SeePartialTranscriptofProceedingsinStatev.
Bright,Cr.
No.
97-2720,at23-25(September28,1998)(directexaminationofdefendantStephenBrightbyJohnTonaki).
242Id.
at25-27.
243Id.
244Id.
at27-28,30("AllIrememberisjustswingingoutoffearofthisman.
").
245Id.
at31("Iwasjustthinkingofgettingthismanoffmeandleaving,gettingoutofthisroom.
Ididn'twanttogetrapedorhurt.
").
2008]TheGayPanicDefense519panicstate.
"246WhenBrightlaterheardthatBrewerhaddied,hesurrenderedtopolice.
247Brightwaschargedwithsecond-degreemurder.
248Attrial,Brightclaimedheactedinself-defense,beatingBrewertowardoffasexualassault.
249Self-defenseasadefensetomurderrequiresproofthatthedefendanthonestlyandreasonablybelieveditwasnecessarytousedeadlyforcetoprotectagainstanimminentthreatofdeathorseriousbodilyinjury.
250Ifthedefendantcouldhaveavoidedthethreatenedharmbytakinglessfatalaction,ordinarilythedefendantisnotexonerated.
251Self-defensedoctrinealsorequiresproportionality.
Anindividualcannotusedeadlyforcetocounternon-deadlyforce.
252Interestingly,Bright'sattorney,DeputyPublicDefenderJackTonaki,didnotarguethathisclient'sfearofsexualassaultwassomehowworsebecausehisattackerwasaman.
Instead,inasophisticatedappealtothewomenonthejury,Tonakiarguedthatfightingbackinself-defenseagainstthethreatofsexualassaultisthesamewhetherbyamanorawoman.
253Engaginginabitofgenderandsexualorientationswitching,254Tonakifurtherarguedthatit246Id.
at32("Iwasinsuchapanicstate.
").
247Id.
at34-35.
248SeeMurderSuspecttobeArraigned,HONOLULUSTAR-BULL.
,Nov.
6,1997,availableathttp://archives.
starbulletin.
com/1997/11/06/news/briefs.
html(lastvisitedOct.
21,2008)(notingthatStephenBrightwaschargedwithsecond-degreemurderinbeatingdeathofKennethBrewer).
249SeeSusanKriefels,BeatingDeathofHotelWorkerWasSelf-defense,DefendantSays,HONOLULUSTAR-BULL.
,Sept.
17,1998,availableathttp://archives.
starbulletin.
com/1998/09/17/news/story9.
html("StephenBrightattackedahomosexualmanbecauseofsexualadvances,killinghiminself-defense,hisdefenseattorneysays.
").
250SeeLee,TheAct-BeliefDistinctioninSelf-DefenseDoctrine,supranote236,at198-99.
251Id.
252Deadlyforceisgenerallydefinedasforceintendedorlikelytocausedeathorgrievousbodilyinjury.
DRESSLER,UNDERSTANDINGCRIMINALLAW,supranote103,at239(citingCommonwealthv.
Klein,363N.
E.
2d1313,1316(Mass.
1977)).
Manyjurisdictionsconsiderrapegrievousbodilyinjury,suchthatawomanwouldbeallowedtousedeadlyforcetowardoffanimpendingrape.
See,e.
g.
,Peoplev.
MariadeL.
A.
,61Cal.
188,189-90(1882)(opiningthat"[t]hedefendantwouldbejustifiedinusingadeadlyweapon,iftheprosecutingwitnesswasattemptingtocommitanyrapeseealsoBarkerv.
Yukins,199F.
3d867,876(6thCir.
1999)(holdingtrialcourterredinfailingtoinstructjurythatdefendantwouldhavebeenjustifiedinusingdeadlyforcetostopimminentrape).
253SusanKreifels,JuryTaintedbyHomophobia,HONOLULUSTAR-BULL.
,Oct.
7,1998,availableathttp://starbulletin.
com/98/10/07news/story2.
html.
254InMurderandtheReasonableMan,Iproposerace,gender,andsexualorientationswitchingasonewaytoreducebiasincasesinvolvingrace,genderandsexualorientation.
SeeLEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN,supranote80,at253.
520UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471makesnodifferencewhetherthesexualassailantisgayorstraight,becauseanindividualhasarighttofightoffanunwantedsexualattack.
255Inhisclosingargument,Tonakitoldthejury:Ifawomanwereinthesamepositionfacedwithamancomingatthemnaked,sayingthethingsKennethBrewersaid,andthatfemalepullsoutagunandshootstheguydead,we'dbegivingthatladyanawardforstoppingarape.
There'snodoublestandardsunderthelaw,ladiesandgentlemen.
.
.
.
Thiscaseisnotabouthomosexuality.
.
.
.
It'saboutadangerofbeingassaulted,sexuallyassaulted.
That'swhatit'sallabout.
256Thejury,encouragedtoimagineBrightasawomanbeingsexuallyattackedbyanolderman,wasprimedtosympathizewithBright.
Itistruethatawomanthreatenedwithimminentrapeorotherforciblesexualassaultwouldbejustifiedinusingdeadlyforceinself-defenseifnecessarytoavoidbeingkilledorseriouslyinjured.
257Useofdeadlyforcetoprotectagainstdeathorseriousbodilyinjuryisconsideredproportionateforce.
Itisdoubtful,however,thatStephenBrighthadtokillKennethBrewertoavoidtheallegedsexualadvance.
BrightwasyoungerbyalmostthirtyyearsandmuchstrongerthanBrewer.
AccordingtoWayneTashima,theprosecutorwhotriedthecase,Bright'sbodywasmuscularandstocky.
258Moreover,Bright'sjobasaconstructionworkerrequiredhimtoliftheavyobjects.
259Brewer,incontrast,wasoverweightandweak.
260Mostlikely,BrightdidnothavetobeatBrewertodeathtoavoidasexualassault.
FurtherunderminingBright'sclaimofself-defensewasthatpolicefoundBrewer'sbloodontheinsideofBright'sjeans,suggestingBrighthadhispantsoffduringthebeatingandmayhaveengagedinsomeformofconsensualsexualactivitybeforethekilling.
261Bright,however,deniedtakingoffhispantsduringtheevening.
Hisattorneysuggested255Kreifels,JuryTaintedbyHomophobia,supranote253.
256PartialTranscriptofProceedingsinStatev.
Bright,Cr.
No.
97-2720,at29(September30,1998)(DeputyPublicDefenderJohnTonaki'sClosingArgument).
257Seesupranote252.
258TelephoneInterviewwithWayneTashima,SeniorDeputyProsecutingAttorney,inHonolulu,Haw.
(Oct.
20,2007).
259Id.
260Id.
SeealsoPartialTranscriptofProceedingsinStatev.
Bright,Cr.
No.
97-2720,at13(September20,1998)(DeputyProsecutingAttorneyWayneTashima'sClosingArgument)(notingthatdefendantagreedduringhistestimonythatvictimwasoverweightandnotphysicallybuiltincomparisontodefendant).
261SeeKreifels,BloodinJeansEvidenceofMurder,supranote237.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense521Brewer'sbloodcouldhavegottenontheinsideofBright'sjeansafterhetookoffhisclothesandthrewthemtogetherinalaundrybasket.
262Accordingtotheprosecutor,however,Brightdidnotremovehisclothesuntilatleastfourhoursafterthekilling.
263Anybloodfromthebeatingprobablywouldhavedriedbythattime,andcouldnothavetransferredfromonepieceofclothingtoanother.
264Thejurydeliberatedforthree-and-a-halfdaysbeforeacquittingBrightofmurder,findinghimguiltyofonlythird-degreeassault,amisdemeanor.
265Themaximumpunishmentforthird-degreeassaultwasoneyearinjail.
266Brightwassentencedtotimeservedand400hoursofcommunityservice.
267BecauseBrighthadalreadybeeninjailforoneyearpendingtrial,hewasreleasedfromjailthesamedayhewasconvicted.
268III.
WHYGAYPANICDEFENSESTRATEGIESSHOULDNOTBECATEGORICALLYBARREDInlightofthetroublingstereotypesreinforcedbygaypanicnarrativesandtheobviousattemptbydefendantsassertinggaypanictotapintounconscioushomophobia,itistemptingtojoincallsforabolitionofgaypanicdefensestrategies.
In1992,RobertMisonissuedjustsuchacall.
Inhisarticle,HomophobiainManslaughter:TheHomosexualAdvanceAsInsufficientProvocation,Misonarguesthattheuseofgaypanictosupportaprovocationdefenseshouldbedisallowedbecausesuchanargumentappealstoirrationalfears,revulsion,andhatredagainstgaymen,whichareprevalentinourheterocentricsociety.
269AccordingtoMison,whenjudgesallow262TelephoneInterviewwithWayneTashima,supranote258.
263Id.
264Id.
ThebloodontheinsideofBright'sjeanssuggestsBrightmayhaveallowedBrewertoengageinsexualrelationswithhimbeforehebeatBrewertodeath.
Ifso,Bright'sclaimthathewasafraidofBrewerandonlybeathimtowardoffasexualattackissuspect.
ItseemsmoreplausiblethatBrightwentbacktoBrewer'shome,knowingthatBrewerexpectedsomekindofsexualactivityinexchangeforallthedrinkshehadpurchasedforBrightthatevening.
Thetwomayhavestartedtoengageinsexualactivity.
Brightmayhavestartedfeelingdisgustedwithhimself,thentookhisfeelingsofshameandguiltoutonBrewer.
265KillerGetsCommunityServiceHours,HONOLULUSTAR-BULL.
,July7,1999,availableathttp://archives.
starbulletin.
com/1999/07/07/news/briefs.
html.
266HAW.
REV.
STAT.
§706-663(2008);HAW.
REV.
STAT.
§707-712(2008).
267KillerGetsCommunityServiceHours,supranote265.
268Id.
269Mison,supranote10,at157-58(discussingcommonnegativestereotypesaboutgays,includingimageofloathsomeaddictwhospreadsAIDSandothervenereal522UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471defendantstomakesucharguments,theyreinforceandinstitutionalizeviolentprejudicesattheexpenseofnormsofself-control,tolerance,andcompassion,whichthelawshouldencourage.
270Therefore,Misonargues,judgesshouldruleasamatteroflawthatanon-violenthomosexualadvancedoesnotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocation.
271Inshort,Misonasksjudgestotakethequestionofwhetherareasonablemanwouldbeprovokedintoaheatofpassionbyanon-violenthomosexualadvanceawayfromthejuryanddisallowtheprovocationdefenseinsuchcases.
MostcriticsofgayandtranspanicargumentshaveechoedMison'scall,proposinglegislativeorjudicialactionbarringdefenseappealstogaypanic.
272WhileIagreethatclaimsofgaypanicareproblematicforallthereasonsoutlinedinPartsIandIIofthisArticle,Ibelievethecriminallawshouldnotcategoricallybargaypanicargumentslinkedtoclaimsofprovocation.
273InthisPart,Iprovideadefenseofthispotentiallyunpopularposition.
Istartwithamicro-argument:attemptstobantheargumentthatanon-violenthomosexualadvanceconstituteslegallyadequateprovocationfromthecriminalcourtroomwillnotworkbecausedefenseattorneyswillfindmoresubtlewaystogetthesameideaacrosstothejury.
Whenamessagethatreliesonnegativestereotypesisconveyedcovertly,itwilloftenhaveamorepowerfulimpactthanifthemessagehadbeenairedovertly.
Thisisbecauseanexplicitargumentallowsindividualstoconsciouslycorrectorcounterotherwiseautomaticstereotype-congruentresponses,whilemoresubtleinsertionsofbiasarehardertodefendagainst.
Ithenturntoseveralmacro-argumentstosupportmytheorythatitisbettertoallowdefendantstoassertclaimsofgaypanicthantodiseases).
270Seeid.
at176-77.
271Id.
ButseeDressler,When"Heterosexual"MenKill"Homosexual"Men,supranote10,at728-29(arguingagainstMison'sproposal).
272See,e.
g.
,Steinberg,BookNote,supranote15,at502(arguingthatjudgesshouldnotallowgayortranspanicarguments);Suffredini,supranote10,at279(arguingthatuseofHomosexualPanicDefenseshouldeitherbelimitedbyapplicationofnewevidentiaryrulesoreliminatedaltogether).
273Iamlessopposedtobarringgaypanicargumentslinkedtoclaimsofmentaldefectbecausethereisnoidentifiablementaldiseaseordefectthatcouldsupportsuchaclaim.
HomosexualPanicDisorderisnotarecognizedmentaldiseaseordefecttoday.
Therefore,Iwouldsupportacategoricalbanonclaimsofgaypaniclinkedtoinsanityordiminishedcapacity.
Withrespecttoself-defense,adefendantwhoclaimshereasonablybelievedhewasthreatenedwithimminentdeathorseriousbodilyinjuryhasanarguableclaimofself-defense.
Beingthreatenedwithrape,heterosexualorhomosexual,generallyisconsideredathreatofseriousbodilyinjury.
Therefore,Iwouldnotcategoricallybarallgaypanicself-defenseclaims.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense523precludesucharguments.
ThreebroadframeworksillustratewhyallowingdefendantstoarguegaypanicbetterservesthedualpurposesofensuringafairtrialtothedefendantandachievingtheendsofjusticethattheStateseeks:(1)FirstAmendmenttheory;(2)recentsocialscienceresearchonraceandimplicitbias;and(3)institutionalcompetencyargumentsinfavorofallowingjuriestodecidewhethertobelenienttowardsadefendantclaiminggaypanic.
A.
LessonsfromtheMatthewShepardTrialFormallybarringgaypanicprovocationargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroomisnotagoodideabecauseitwillnotkeepthejuryfromconsideringgaypanicarguments.
TheMatthewShepardcaseillustratesthispoint.
MatthewShepardwastheopenlygaystudentattheUniversityofWyomingwhosebloodiedandbeatenbodywasfoundtiedtoawoodenfenceaboutonemileoutsideLaramie,WyominginOctober1998.
Policerespondingtoa911callaboutafightbetweenAaronMcKinneyandtwoLatinoyouthsthesamenightfoundShepard'screditcard,oneofShepard'sshoes,andthebloodygunusedtobeatShepardinMcKinney'struck.
274PolicearrestedMcKinneyandhisfriendRussellHenderson.
McKinneyandHendersonwerechargedwithfirst-degreemurder,aggravatedrobbery,andkidnappingwithintenttoinflictbodilyinjuryorterrorizethevictim.
275Ratherthangototrial,Hendersonpledguiltytomurder.
276McKinneydecidedtotakehischanceswithajury.
OneofMcKinney'sattorneys,JasonTangeman,raisedthespecterofthegaymanasdeviantsexualpredatorduringhisopeningstatementbeforethejuryofsevenmenandfivewomen.
277TangemanarguedthatMatthewShepardmadeanunwantedsexualadvanceuponMcKinneywhentheywereinMcKinney'struck,allegedlygrabbing274BETHLOFFREDA,LOSINGMATTSHEPARD:LIFEANDPOLITICSINTHEAFTERMATHOFANTI-GAYMURDER152-54(2000).
275SeeRobertW.
Black,BrutalDeathofGayManStirsNation,STAR-LEDGER(Newark,N.
J.
),Oct.
14,1998,at3.
2762ndTrialStartsinGayMan'sDeath,STAR-LEDGER(Newark,N.
J.
),Oct.
10,1999,at18.
277SeePartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,No.
6381,at16-17(Oct.
11,1999)(defenseattorneyJasonTangeman'sopeningstatement)(onfilewithauthor)(allegingthat"Mr.
Shepardreachedoverandgrabbed[AaronMcKinney's]genitalsandlickedhisear"whichmadeMcKinneyveryupsetandcausedhimtobeatShepard);TomKenworthy,Wyo.
JurytoWeighMotivesinGayKilling,WASH.
POST,Nov.
3,1999,atA3(notingthatjuryconsistedofsevenmenandfivewomen).
524UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471McKinney'scrotchandlickingMcKinney'sear.
278TangemanarguedthatthissexualadvancewasparticularlyupsettingtoMcKinneybecauseofhishistorywithunpleasanthomosexualencounters.
AccordingtoTangeman,whenMcKinneywassevenyearsold,aneighborhoodbullyforcedhimtosuckhispenisandcommitsexualactswithanotherlittleboy.
279Attheageoftwenty,McKinneywastraumatizedwhenheaccidentallyenteredagayandlesbianchurchinFloridaandsawmenholdinghandsandkissing.
280TangemanconcludedthatShepard'sunwantedsexualadvance,McKinney'shistoryoftraumatichomosexualencounters,andMcKinney'suseofalcohol281andmethamphetaminescombinedtocauseMcKinneytolosehisself-control:282TheevidenceisgoingtoshowthatitistheadvanceofMr.
Shepard—thehomosexualadvanceofMr.
ShepardthatwassignificanttoAaronMcKinney.
Thathumiliatedhiminfrontofhisfriend,RussellHenderson.
Hispastbubbledupinhim.
Hewasfuelled[sic]bydrugs.
Hewasfuelled[sic]byalcohol.
Andinhisownwords,helefthisbody.
283Tangeman'sopeningstatementwasunexpected.
McKinney'sattorneyshadnotmentionedplanstouseagaypanicdefenseinanyofthepretrialhearings.
284JudgeBartonVoigtquicklycalledahearingtodecidewhethertoallowthedefensetointroduceevidenceofgaypanicinsupportofeitheraprovocationormentaldisorderdefense.
Afterhearingargumentsfrombothsides,thejudgedidwhatRobertMisonwouldlikealljudgestodo—heruledagainstthedefense.
285JudgeVoigtobservedthat,despitetheirproteststothecontrary,thedefense278PartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,supranote277,at16-17.
279Id.
at19.
280Id.
at20.
281JanaBufkinnotesthatalcoholicconsumption"ispracticallyuniversallyassociatedwithbeingamanorachievingmanhood.
"Bufkin,supranote190,at166(notingthat"malesequatedrinkingwithmasculinityand,perhapsmoreimportantly,thismalebondingexerciseisoftenlacedwithviolence").
282PartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,supranote277,at9-11(discussingMcKinney'saddictiontomethamphetamine),16-18(discussingShepard'sallegedhomosexualadvance),and19-20(discussingMcKinney'shistoryoftraumatichomosexualencounters).
283Id.
at22.
284SeeLOFFREDA,supranote274,at132.
285DecisionLetter,Statev.
McKinney,No.
6381(D.
Wyo.
Oct.
30,1999).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense525wasinfacttryingtoassertwhathecalleda"homosexualrage"defense.
Heexplained:DefensecounselhavetriedvaliantlytoconvincetheCourtthattheirdefenseisnotahomosexualragedefense.
Butwhattheyhopetodoistopresenttestimonythat,becauseofhomosexualexperiencesintheDefendant'spast,heflewintoarageandkilledMatthewShepard,withoutspecificintenttokill,butvoluntarilyinasuddenheatofpassion.
Thisisthehomosexualragedefense,nothingmore,nothingless.
ThefactthattheDefendantattemptstoraiseitthroughlaywitnesses,ratherthanthroughexperts,isinconsequential.
286Inbarringthedefensefromassertingaprovocationdefensebasedonagaypanicargument,thejudgeruledthatthejurycouldnotconsiderMcKinney'spriorhomosexualexperiencesontheissueofprovocation.
HeexplainedthatprovocationissupposedtobebaseduponanobjectivereasonablepersonstandardandMcKinney'spersonalexperiencesboreonlyuponhissubjectivestateofmind.
287ThejudgealsoruledthatWyominglawdidnotrecognizethedefensesoftemporaryinsanityanddiminishedcapacity,andaccordinglythosedefenseswereunavailabletothedefense.
288This,however,wasnottheendofthematter.
Despitethejudge'sruling,McKinney'sdefenseattorneyscalledtwowitnessesandusedtheirtestimonytoconveytheideathatMatthewShepardwassexuallyaggressive289anddeservedthebeatinghegot,playingonstereotypicalimagesofgaymenassexualdeviantsandsexualprovocateurs.
290Onewitness,MikeSt.
Clair,testifiedthathewasattheFiresideLoungeBarthenightShepardwaskilled.
AccordingtoSt.
Clair,Shepard286Id.
at4.
287Id.
288Id.
;seeMichaelJanofsky,Gay-PanicDefenseRuledOut,S.
F.
CHRON.
,Nov.
2,1999,atA3,availableathttp://www.
sfgate.
com/cgi-bin/article.
cgif=/c/a/1999/11/02/MN90537.
DTL&hw=nancy+gay&sn=064&sc=265(lastvisitedOct.
22,2008);WyomingJudgeBars'GayPanic'Defense,WASH.
POST,Nov.
2,1999,atA7.
289ItisinterestingthatShepard'ssupposedsexualaggressivenesswasusedtoconveytheideathathedeservedtodiewhensexualaggressivenessisusuallyacovetedmanlytrait.
Seesupranote184.
Apparently,sexualaggressivenessisviewedasapositivemanlytraitonlyinheterosexualinteractions.
290SeeKevinT.
Berril&GregoryM.
Herek,PrimaryandSecondaryVictimizationinAnti-GayHateCrimes:OfficialResponseandPublicPolicy,inHATECRIMES:CONFRONTINGVIOLENCEAGAINSTLESBIANSANDGAYMEN289,295(1992);LouChibbaro,Jr.
,'GayPanic'DefenseUsedDespiteBanbyJudge,SecondWitnessSaysShepardMadePass,WASH.
BLADE,Nov.
3,1999.
526UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471approachedhimandaskedifhecouldsitwithhim.
291AfterheagreedtoletShepardsitwithhim,St.
Clairtestifiedthathe"begantofeelreallyuncomfortable.
"292Ashorttimelater,RussellHendersonapproachedthetable,leaneddowntowardsShepard,andwhisperedsomethinginShepard'sear.
293Shepardthengathereduphisthings,stoodup,andsaidhewouldbeback.
294WhenSt.
Clairrespondedwith"what"Shepard"leaneddown"and"lickedhislipslike.
.
.
itwashimtryingtobesexy.
"295St.
Claircontinued,"Ibelieveitwashimshowinghewasinterestedinme,hittingonme.
"296St.
ClairconcludedthatShepard"wasblatantlygay,andhemadeadvancesonme.
"297Asecondwitness,ChrisHoogerhyde,testifiedthatShepardmadeahomosexualadvanceuponhimwhentheywentonamidnighttriptoalakewithothersonAugust21,1998.
298AccordingtoHoogerhyde,Shepardaskedhimtogoforawalkaroundthelake.
299Hoogerhydedeclined,butShepardpersistedandaskedhimwhynot.
300HoogerhydetoldShepardthathedidnotwanttogobecauseitwasabiglakeandtherewerebearsoutthere.
301Shepardtoldhim,"[Y]ou'rejustafraidI'mgoingtotrysomething.
"302Hoogerhydetestifiedthathetookthisasahomosexualadvance.
303AfterHoogerhydetoldShepard"no"again,Shepardgavehimalittletugonhisshirtandsaid,"Come291PartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,supranote277,at30(directexaminationofMikeSt.
Clair).
292Id.
at31;seealsoLOFFREDA,supranote274,at135.
LoffredanotesthatthiscommentsuggeststhewitnesswasmoreafraidofhisownhomosexualitythanofShepard.
Id.
;seealsoChibbaro,supranote290(reportingthatdefensewitnesswhotestifiedthatShepardmadesexualadvancetowardhimatFiresideLoungeminutesbeforeShepardmetMcKinneyandHendersonwas23-year-oldUniversityofWyomingstudentMikeSt.
Clair).
293PartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,supranote277,at32-34.
294Id.
at35.
295Id.
296Id.
;seealsoBryanRobinson,FinalRulingonSo-Called"GayPanic"TheoryHangsinBalanceasShepardMurderDefenseBegins,COURTTVONLINE,Oct.
29,1999,http://www.
courttv.
com/trials/mckinney/102999_pm_ctv.
html.
297PartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,supranote277,at38.
298Id.
at42-45(directexaminationofChrisHoogerhyde).
299Id.
at44.
300Id.
at45.
301Id.
302Id.
303Id.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense527on,"asifnagginghimtogowithhim.
304HoogerhyderespondedbyhittingShepardwithhisfisttwice,knockinghimout.
305ItappearsthatthedefensecalledthesetwowitnessesnotonlytogivecredibilitytoMcKinney'sclaimthatShepardhadmadeasexualadvanceuponhim—aclaimwhichMcKinneylateradmittedwasfalse306—butalsotosuggestitwasreasonableforMcKinneytobeoffendedbyShepard'sallegedhomosexualadvanceandtorespondtoitwithviolence.
Duringclosingargumentstothejury,DionCustis,McKinney'sotherattorney,repeatedlyarguedthatShepard'ssexualadvanceuponMcKinneytriggeredthesubsequentbeating.
307OnemightobjecttousingtheShepardcaseasanexampleofwhyattemptstobangaypanicdefensestrategieswillnotworkonthe304Id.
305Id.
at45-46.
306Inatelevisedinterviewfromprisonin2004,AaronMcKinneyadmittedtoElizabethVargasofABCNewsthathemadeupthestoryaboutgoingintoaragebecauseShepardmadeapassathim.
McKinneyandRussellHendersonclaimedShepard'sdeathwassimplyarobberygonebadbytwomenhighonmethamphetamine.
TheMatthewShepardStory:SecretsofaMurder(ABCtelevisionbroadcastNov.
26,2004).
McKinney'sadmissionthattherewasnohomosexualadvanceraisesthequestionwhetherMcKinney'sattorneysviolatedanyethicalrulesbypromotingwhatwenowknowwasafalsegaypanicdefense.
Rule3.
3oftheModelRulesofProfessionalConductprovidesthat"[a]lawyershallnotknowingly.
.
.
offerevidencethatthelawyerknowstobefalse.
"MODELRULESOFPROF'LCONDUCTR.
3.
3(2004),availableathttp://www.
abanet.
org/cpr/mrpc/rule_3_3.
html.
First,itisnotclearwhetherMcKinney'sattorneysknewatthetimeofMcKinney'strialthatShepardhadnotmadeasexualadvanceuponMcKinney.
IfMcKinneytoldhisattorneysthatShepardmadeasexualadvanceandtheattorneysdidnotknowthathewaslying,theattorneyswouldnotbeinviolationofRule3.
3becauseRule3.
3requiresknowledgeoffalsity.
Second,whileknowinglyelicitingperjuredtestimonywouldbeaviolationofRule3.
3,arguablyMcKinney'slawyersdidnotknowinglyelicitperjuredtestimonywhentheypresentedthetestimonyofthetwodefensewitnesses,whoweremerelydescribingtheirpreviousinteractionswithMatthewShepard.
AaronMcKinneydidnottestifyattrial.
Finally,asfarasthereferencestoShepard'sallegedsexualadvanceinthedefense'sopeningandclosingstatements,alawyer'sstatementsduringopeningandclosingargumentsarenotunderoathanddonotinandofthemselvesconstituteevidence.
AslawprofessorPeterMargulieshasnoted,imposingdisciplineuponlawyersforwhattheysayinopeningandclosingstatementscouldchilladvocacyinwaysthatwouldunderminetheSixthAmendment.
ConversationwithPeterMargulies,inSeattle,Wash.
(Oct.
5,2008);seealsoPeterMargulies,Lawyers'IndependenceandCollectiveIllegalityinGovernmentandCorporateMisconduct,Terrorism,andOrganizedCrime,58RUTGERSL.
REV.
939,955(2006)("[D]efensecounselhasno.
.
.
obligationto.
.
.
presentthetruth.
")(citingUnitedStatesv.
Wade,388U.
S.
218,256-58(1967)(White,J.
,concurringanddissenting)).
307PartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,supranote277,at68(defenseattorneyDionCustis'sclosingstatement);seealsoPatrickO'Driscoll,JuryBeginsDeliberationsinSlayingofGayStudent,USATODAY,Nov.
3,1999,at9A.
528UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471groundthattheprosecutorandjudgemayhavesimplybeenasleepattheswitch.
Presumably,aprosecutorwhowaspayingattentionwouldhavestrenuouslyobjectedtotheintroductionoftestimonydesignedtobolsteradefendant'sclaimofgaypanic,andajudgewhohadruledthatthedefensecouldnotarguegaypanicwouldsustainsuchanobjection.
Itisunclearwhythejudgepermittedthistestimonyinlightofhisearlierruling.
308However,evenifanalertprosecutorobjectsandthejudgesustainstheobjection,thedefenseattorneywillhavelargelyachievedhisgoal.
Thedefenseattorneywillhaveconveyedthemessagethatamale-on-malesexualadvanceissomethingthatwouldoffendanddisgusttheaverageheterosexualmanbysimplyaskingthemalewitness,"AndhowdidyoufeelwhenShepardsatdownbesideyouandlickedhislipssuggestively"Instrenuouslyobjecting,theprosecutorjusthelpsthedefensebyhighlightingthequestionandraisingitssignificanceintheeyesofthejury.
Evenifthejudgesustainstheobjectionandinstructsthejurytodisregardthequestion,thejudgecannotunringthebellthatthejuryhasjustheard.
309Thedefenseattorneymayaskleavetorephrasethequestion,whichsimplygiveshimanotheropportunitytohammerhomehispoint.
Whenhethenasksthewitness,"Tellme,inyourownwords,howyoufeltwhenthismancameuptoyou,"thedefenseattorneydoesnotneedananswerbecausethequestionhasconveyedthepointhewishestomake.
Iftheprosecutorobjectsagain,shejusthelpsthedefensebycallingattentiontothefactthatthewitness,anaveragemanjustlikethedefendant,feltuncomfortablehavinganothermanexpressingsexualinterestinhim.
308Theprosecutordidnotobjecttohavingthesewitnessestestify.
SeePartialTranscriptofTrialProceedingsinStatev.
McKinney,supranote277,at23-47(directexaminationofMikeSt.
ClairandChristopherHoogerhyde).
DuringMikeSt.
Clair'sdirectexamination,theprosecutorobjectedonlytwice,andneitheroftheseobjectionswentdirectlytoSt.
Clair'stestimonythathefeltShepardhadmadeahomosexualadvanceuponhim.
Seeid.
at31-32(objectingwhenMikeSt.
Clairstartedtosay,"[O]neofmyfriendstoldmeheapparentlyintroduced33(objectingtoquestion,"Yousaw[RussellHenderson]andyousaidhewasappearingtobedrunkandrunningaround"becauseleading).
DuringHoogerhyde'sdirectexamination,theprosecutordidobjecttoaquestionthatalludedtoShepardhavingmadeahomosexualadvance,butthiswasonlyafterthewitnesshadalreadytestifiedthathetookShepard'sinvitationtogoforawalkaroundthelakeasahomosexualadvance.
Id.
at46(objectingwhendefensestartedtoask,"Wasthatinresponsetowhatyouperceivedasahomosexual.
.
.
").
309AsShariDiamondandNeilVidmarnote,"[S]impleadmonitionsthatinstructthejurytodisregardpsychologicallycompellingbutinadmissibletestimony.
.
.
oftenfailtounringthebell.
"Seidman&Vidmar,supranote234,at1864.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense529OnemightalsoobjecttousingtheMatthewShepardcaseasevidencethatdefenseattorneyswilldisregardexplicitcourtordersnottousegaypaniconthegroundthatinmostcases,whenajudgerulesthatanattorneycannotmakeaparticularargument,theattorneywillfollowthejudge'sinstructions.
OnemightfurtherarguethatperhapsbecausetheMatthewShepardcasewasundersuchintensepublicscrutiny,itismoreofanoutlierthanatypicalcase.
Thefactthatthecasereceivedsomuchpublicattention,however,makesitallthemoreremarkablethatthedefenseopenlyfloutedthejudge'sorder.
Despiteallthemediaattention,thejudgenotonlyallowedthetwowitnessestotestify,butalsoallowedthedefensetorefertoShepard'salleged(homo)sexualadvanceagaininclosingarguments.
IfthiscouldhappeninacaseliketheMatthewShepardcase,wherealleyeswerewatching,itcouldhappeninanycase.
Recentbehavioralresearchonjuriessuggeststhatattemptstocontrolthemattersthatajuryconsidersbyprohibitingtheintroductionofspecifictopicsattrialsimplydonotwork.
Inoneoftheonlystudiestodatebasedonactualjurydeliberations,ShariDiamondandNeilVidmarreviewedvideotapedjurydeliberationsinfortycivilcases,inanattempttoexaminetheeffectivenessof"blindfolding"—thecommonlyemployedtechniqueofwithholdingcertaininformationfromthejury.
310Blindfoldingisfairlycommoninbothcivilandcriminalcasesandincludeswithholdingfromjuriesinformationaboutthepriorcriminalconvictionsofadefendantwhochoosesnottotestify,statementsmadebyeitherpartyduringpleabargainingorsettlementnegotiations,andsubsequentremedialmeasurestakenbyapartyafteranaccident.
311Onerationalebehindblindfoldingisthefearthatexposingjuriestotheprohibitedinformationmayimproperlybiasthem.
Thereasonjuriesarenottoldaboutanon-testifyingdefendant'spriorconvictionsisbecausewefeartheymightfindthedefendantguiltybasedonhispresumablybadcharacterratherthanontheevidencepresentedattrial.
312Blindfoldingmayalsoencouragecertainbehaviorswhichsocietyviewsasbeneficial.
313Forexample,statementsduringsettlementnegotiationsarenotadmissibleattrial,inparttoencouragethepartiestoengageinattemptstosettlethecase.
314Arulethatprecludesthe310Id.
at1858(notingcasesfilmedwithconsentofparties,judge,andjurorsaspartofArizonaJuryProject).
311Seeid.
at1863.
312Seeid.
313Seeid.
314Seeid.
530UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471admissionofevidenceofremedialmeasuresisdesignedtoencouragedefendantstotakeremedialmeasureswithouthavingtofearthatthoseactionswillbeusedagainstthem.
315Despiteevidentiaryrulesprohibitingtheadmissionofcertaintypesofevidence,DiamondandVidmarfoundthatprohibitedevidenceoftenfindsitswayintothedeliberationroom.
Sometimessuchevidenceisinadvertentlyintroducedwhenawitnessinnocentlymentionsaforbiddensubjectinresponsetoaquestion.
316Sometimesanattorneyisabletoconvincethejudgethatsheisintroducingtheevidenceforanallowablepurpose.
317Forexample,despitetheruleofevidencethatdisallowsevidenceofpriorbadacts,aprosecutormightarguethatsheisintroducingthepriorbadacttoshowmotive,anacceptablereason.
Finally,jurors,whobringtheirpriorexperiences,beliefsandattitudestothejuryroom,maythinkofaforbiddentopicontheirown.
318DiamondandVidmarfoundthatdespitethegeneralevidentiaryprohibitionreflectedinFederalRuleofEvidence411andnumerousstateevidencecodesprecludingtheintroductionofevidencethatapartycarriedliabilityinsurance,319conversationsamongstjurorsaboutinsuranceoccurredin85%ofthefortytortcasestheystudied.
320Inseveralofthecasesinwhichthejurydiscussedinsuranceduringdeliberations,thesubjectofinsurancecameupdirectlyorindirectlyattrial.
321Infour-fifthsoftheremainderofthecases,eventhoughtherewasnomentionofthesubjectofinsuranceattrial,thejurorsthemselvesspontaneouslyinitiateddiscussionsaboutit.
322DiamondandVidmaralsofoundthatdespiteanabsoluteprohibitiononmentioningattorneys'fees,thetopicofwhetherorhowmuchtheattorneyswouldbepaidcameupin83%ofthecasesobserved.
323DiamondandVidmar'sresearchsuggeststhatattemptstobangaypanicargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroomwillnotkeepjurorsfromconsideringgaypanicasareasonforthekilling.
Eitherthe315Seeid.
316Seeid.
at1864.
317Seeid.
318Seeid.
at1865-66.
319Id.
at1875.
320Id.
at1876.
321Id.
at1877-82.
322Id.
at1884.
323Id.
at1897-98.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense531subjectwillcomeupinadvertentlyorpurposefullyduringtrial,orthejurorsmaythinkoftheargumentontheirown.
324ItisunclearwhetherthegaypanicdefensestrategyusedintheMatthewShepardcaseinfluencedthejurywhichfoundMcKinneyguiltyoffelonymurder.
Ontheonehand,onecouldreadthisverdictasarepudiationofthedefense'sattempttopaintMcKinney'sactionsasareasonableresponsetoanunwantedhomosexualadvance.
Hadthejuryboughtthisargument,theyprobablywouldhavefoundMcKinneyguiltyofvoluntarymanslaughter.
Ontheotherhand,thejurydidnotgivethegovernmentthefirst-degreemurderconvictionitsought.
TheyinsteadfoundMcKinneyguiltyoffelonymurder,anoffensethatdoesnotrequireproofofpremeditationordeliberation.
Regardlessofwhichinterpretationiscorrect,theMatthewShepardcaseillustrateshoweasilyaclaimofgaypaniccanbemadesubrosaevenwhenthejudgetriestobarthedefense.
TheoutcomeintheMatthewShepardcasemayevensupportmyargumentthatmakingsexualorientationsalientcanhelpjurorscognitivelyprocessandrejectthestereotypicassumptionsaboutgaymenunderlyingclaimsofgaypanic.
Sexualorientationcanbemadesalientinvariousways,includingthroughpretrialpublicity,questionsaskedduringvoirdire,openingandclosingstatements,trialtestimony,andjuryinstructions.
325IntheMatthewShepardcase,gayandlesbiangroupsmadesexualorientationsalientwhentheydecriedthekillingasahatecrimebasedonthevictim'ssexualorientation.
Extensivepretrialpublicityandthedefense'spromotionofagaypanicdefensestrategyfurtherhelpedtomakesexualorientationsalient.
ThejuryrespondedbyrejectingMcKinney'sclaimofgaypanic.
InfindingMcKinneyguiltyoffelonymurderratherthanmanslaughter,itappearsthejurydidnotresorttostereotypicalthinkingaboutgaymenassexualdeviants,butinsteadsawShepardasahumanbeingwhohadsufferedaparticularlycruelandsenselessdeath.
324Id.
at1865-66(notingthatmostcommonsituationinwhichblindfoldingattemptfails"occurswhenthejurors'pretrialexperiences,attitudes,orbeliefsprovidethemwithafoundationofpotentiallyrelevantinformationthatmakestheforbiddentopiclikelytocometomind").
325SeegenerallySamuelR.
Sommers&PhoebeC.
Ellsworth,RaceintheCourtroom:PerceptionsofGuiltandDispositionalAttributions,26PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
BULL.
1367,1371(2000)[hereinafterSommers&Ellsworth,RaceintheCourtroom]("Duringthecourseofatrial,racialissuesmaybecomesalientinanynumberofways,including,forexample,pretrialpublicity,voirdirequestioningofpotentialjurors,openingandclosingarguments,thenatureofpolicetestimony,attorneys'demeanors,andsometimesthenatureofthecrimeitself,asinaKuKluxKlanconfrontation.
").
532UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471B.
FirstAmendmentTheoryThiscountryhasalonghistoryoftolerancefordissent.
Underthe"marketplaceofideas"theoryoffreespeech,326theexpressionofbothgoodandbadideasisencouragedonthegroundthatlivelydebateanddiscussioncanhelpboththoselisteningandthosearguingdeterminethetruth.
AsJusticeOliverWendellHolmesexplainedinhisdissentingopinioninAbramsv.
UnitedStates,327"[T]heultimategooddesiredisbetterreachedbyfreetradeinideas—.
.
.
thebesttestoftruthisthepowerofthethoughttogetitselfacceptedinthecompetitionofthemarket.
"328Anotherreasonforallowingindividualstoexpressevenspeechthoughttobedangeroustoafreesocietyistheideathatsuppressionofspeechbreedshate,and"hatemenacesstablegovernment.
"329Underthe"safetyvalve"theory,330thebestwaytodealwiththethreatofradicalactionistoallowindividualstoexpressradicalideasoutintheopenandtopermitotherstochallengeanddebatethoseideas.
AsJusticeBrandeisexplainedinhisconcurringopinioninWhitneyv.
California,"[T]hepathofsafetyliesintheopportunitytodiscussfreelysupposedgrievancesandproposedremediesT]hefittingremedyforevilcounselsisgoodones.
"331Inoneofthemosteloquentdefensesoftherighttofreedomofspeech,ThomasEmersonexplainsthatsuppressionofdiscussionallowsforcetoreplacereason.
332Theprocessofopendiscussion,ontheotherhand,promotesgreatercohesioninasocietybecausepeoplearemorereadytoacceptdecisionsthatgoagainstthemiftheyhaveapartinthedecision-makingprocess.
.
.
Freedomofexpressionthusprovidesaframeworkinwhichtheconflict326AnnaM.
Taruschio,TheFirstAmendment,TheRightNottoSpeakandtheProblemofGovernmentAccessStatutes,27FORDHAMURB.
L.
J.
1001,1009(2000)(noting"[t]heconceptofthemarketplaceofideasenteredAmericanjurisprudenceasaprincipleofFirstAmendmentlibertyinJusticeHolmes'dissentinAbramsv.
UnitedStates")(citationomitted).
327250U.
S.
616,630(1919)(Holmes,J.
,dissenting).
328Id.
at630(Holmes,J.
,dissenting).
329Whitneyv.
California,274U.
S.
357,375(1927)(Brandeis,J.
,concurring).
330SeegenerallyBradleyC.
Bobertz,TheBrandeisGambit:TheMakingofAmerica's"FirstFreedom,"1909-1931,40WM.
&MARYL.
REV.
557,609(1999).
331Whitney,274U.
S.
at375.
332THOMASI.
EMERSON,THESYSTEMOFFREEDOMOFEXPRESSION7(1970).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense533necessarytotheprogressofasocietycantakeplacewithoutdestroyingthesociety.
333Whenaheterosexualmalemurderdefendantarguesgaypanic,heseekstoappealtosocietalnormsthatvalueheterosexualityoverhomosexuality.
334Hefurtherseekstopromotetheideaofhomosexualityasdeviantandabnormal.
335Suchnormsareinconflictwithnormsthatrecognizethatgaysandlesbiansarehumanbeingsandthatrespondingtoanon-violentsexualadvance(whetherheterosexualorhomosexual)withfatalphysicalviolenceisinappropriate.
Thoughcriticsofthegaypanicdefensehavearguedthatgaypanicargumentsshouldbebarred,tryingtochangesocialnormsbysuppressingnormswithwhichonedisagreesisnotthebestwaytobringaboutlastingchange.
AsEmersonexplains:"Theprinciplethatthegovernmentcannotrestrictexpressioninordertocoerceconformitytosocialnormsmeansthatfreedomofexpressionmustreceivefullprotectioninthiscontext.
Nomatterhowdevianttheexpressionmaybe—howobnoxiousorintolerableitmayseem—theexpressioncannotbesuppressed.
"336Moreover,suppressingspeechtoenforceconformitytosocialnormscanfurtherentrenchtheexistingretrogradenorms.
Suppressingspeechis"likelytobottleupthefrustrations,hidetheunderlyinggrievances,andultimatelyendinexplosion.
"337Justasthesuppressionofobnoxiousideascangivethoseideasmorepowerbyforcingthemundergroundwheretheycanfesterandgainpersuasiveforce,banninggaypanicargumentsfromthecriminalcourtroomsimplyforcestheseargumentsbelowthesurfacewheretheymayactuallyhavemoreinfluence.
Asexplainedinthenextsection,recentsocialscienceresearchonraceandimplicitbiassuggeststhatracialstereotypescanautomaticallyinfluenceperception,thought,andactionwhenunmediatedbyanindividual'scognitiveprocesses.
Makingracesalient—thatis,callingmore,notless,attentiontorace—canencourageindividualstosuppresswhatwouldotherwisebeautomaticstereotype-congruentresponses.
Thesameislikelytruewhensexualorientationisatissue.
338Opendebateabout333Id.
334Seesupratextaccompanyingnote14.
335Seesupranote207.
336EMERSON,supranote332,at45.
337Id.
338MargoJ.
Monteithetal.
,TheEffectofSocialNormActivationontheExpressionofOpinionsConcerningGayMenandBlacks,18BASIC&APPLIEDSOC.
PSYCHOL.
267,277(1996)[hereinafterMonteithetal.
,TheEffectofSocialNormActivationonthe534UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471thedivergentperceptionsandfeelingsheterosexualmenhaveaboutsexualadvancesbygaymenisabetterwaytodealwithpotentialbiasagainstagaymalevictimthanpretendingsuchbiasdoesnotexist.
Opendiscussionalsoallowsjudgesandjurorstoconsciouslymediatetheirattitudesandbeliefsabouthomosexuality,sexualdeviance,andwhetherviolenceisanappropriateresponsetoanon-violenthomosexualadvance.
Addressing"theselectivereceptivityofthelawtothe'homosexualpanic'defense,"339DanKahanarguesthatwhendisgustsensibilitiesarepusheddownbelowthesurfaceofthelaw,disgust'sinfluenceishardertodetect.
340Ontheotherhand,"whenweforcedecisionmakers[sic]tobeopenaboutthenormativecommitmentsthatunderlietheirdisgustsensibilities,membersofthepublicarefullyappraised[sic]ofwhatthosecommitmentsare.
"341Ifdefendantsaredisgustedbynon-violenthomosexualadvances,itisbestthatthesedisgustsensibilitiesbeoutintheopen,sotheycanbecomethesourceofopeninterrogationandinquiry.
OneobjectiontomyFirstAmendmentargumentisthatadjudicativespeech,speechwhich"isbothintendedandreceivedasacontributionto[acourt's]deliberationaboutsomeissue,"342is"regularlyandsystematicallyconstrainedbyrulesofevidence,canonsofprofessionalethics,judicialgagorders,andsimilardevices.
"343Criminaldefendantshavenorighttoinsistonbeingfreetoarguewhatevertheylikeincourt.
Indeed,theSupremeCourthasmadeclearthattherighttoprofferadefenseisnotabsolute.
344AsFrederickSchauerexplains:Trials,ofcourse,arehighlystructuredaffairs,inwhichthereappearstobequitelittlefreespeech.
Thereareelaboraterulesaboutwhogoeswhen,aboutwhospeaks,andaboutwhodoesnotspeak.
Therearerulesabouthowtospeak,andtherearerulesaboutwhatnottosay.
AllofthatpartofthelawofExpressionofOpinionsConcerningGayMenandBlacks](findingthatwhennon-prejudicednormsweremadesalient,bothegalitarianandconservativeindividualsexpressedlessprejudicedopinionsaboutgaymen).
339DanM.
Kahan,TheAnatomyofDisgustinCriminalLaw,96MICH.
L.
REV.
1621,1654(1998).
340Id.
at1655.
341Id.
342ChristopherJ.
Peters,AdjudicativeSpeechandtheFirstAmendment,51UCLAL.
REV.
705,725n.
81(2004)(citingCASSSUNSTEIN,DEMOCRACYANDTHEPROBLEMOFFREESPEECH130(1993)).
343Id.
at705.
344Seeinfratextaccompanyingnote469.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense535evidencethatdealswithrelevanceandmaterialitycanbethoughtofasaprohibitiononspeech,aprohibitiononsayingwhat(ajudgebelieves)isirrelevanttotheparticularmatterathand.
Thosewhopersistinsayingirrelevantthingsafterarulingbythejudgeriskpunishmentforcontempt,andthusitisnoexaggerationtodescribeatrialasaplaceinwhichpeopleruntheriskofimprisonmentforsayingthingsthatagovernmentofficial,ajudge,believestobeunrelatedtothematterathand.
345Thisobjection,however,missesthepoint.
IamnotarguingthatcriminaldefendantshaveaFirstAmendmentrighttoassertgaypanicargumentsintheirdefense.
Rather,IamsimplyusingtraditionalFirstAmendmenttheoriestobolstermyclaimthat,apartfrompromotingreprehensiblemessages,allowingdefendantstoarguegaypaniccanservevaluablepurposes,includingdefeatingthegaypanicdefensestrategy.
Anotherpossibleobjectionisthatencouragingtheexpressionofobnoxiousviewsaboutgaymenwhoallegedlymakeunwantedsexualadvancesislikehatespeech,andcanbeextremelydamagingtothegaycommunityatlarge.
346Hatespeechhasbeendefinedas"speechthatdegradesanindividualorgroupongroundssuchasrace,gender,nationality,ethnicity,language,religion,orsexualorientation.
"347Agaypanicdefense,onecouldargue,isakintohatespeechbecauseinsuggestingthatgaymenaredeviantsexualpredatorstobefearedandloathed,itdegradesanddisparagesgaymenonthebasisoftheirsexualorientation.
Allowingsuchargumentsinthecriminalcourtroomlendsajudicialstampofapprovaltohatespeech.
Ihavetworesponsestothisargument.
First,evenifagaypanicdefenseisakintohatespeechinthewaysoutlinedabove,hatespeechisgenerallyconsideredprotectedspeech.
348Therefore,equatingagaypanicdefensewithhatespeechisnotapersuasivereasontobanit.
345FrederickSchauer,TheSpeechofLawandtheLawofSpeech,49ARK.
L.
REV.
687,689(1997).
346Hatespeech"arguablycause[s]harmsthatcannotberemediedbymorespeech"becauseitdisempowersthosewhoareitstargets.
JosephBlocher,InstitutionsintheMarketplaceofIdeas,57DUKEL.
J.
821,835(2008).
347JohnT.
Nockleby,HateSpeech,inENCYCLOPEDIAOFAMERICANCIVILLIBERTIES752(PaulFinkelmaned.
,2006).
348SeeR.
A.
V.
v.
CityofSt.
Paul,505U.
S.
377,391(1992)(strikingdownordinanceusedtoprosecuteindividualswhoburnedcrossonblackfamily'slawnonFirstAmendmentgrounds).
ButseeCassR.
Sunstein,Words,Conduct,Caste,60U.
CHI.
L.
REV.
795,822-33(1993)(critiquingreasoninginR.
A.
V.
andarguingthatsomehatespeechcanandshouldberegulatedwithoutviolatingFirstAmendment).
536UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Hatespeechordinarilycannotbebannedunlessitfallsintothecategoryoffightingwords.
349Second,useofagaypanicdefensecanbedistinguishedfromhatespeech.
Whenadefendantutilizesagaypanicdefensestrategy,thereareanumberofinstitutionalplayers,includingthejudge,theprosecutor,andeventhejurors,whoareinapositiontoeithercounterthegaypanicargumentorengageindialogueaboutitsmerits.
Incontrast,avictimofhatespeechmaybeinanisolatedsettingwhereitwouldbedangeroustorespondormayfeelsodemoralizedbythespeechthatheorshecannotrespond.
350Givenouradversarialsystemofjustice,aprosecutorinacaseinwhichgaypanicisassertedismorelikelytochallengeaclaimofgaypanicthananindividualonthestreetislikelytocounterhatespeechdirectedathim.
C.
SocialScienceResearchonImplicitBiasInthissection,Iborrowfromsocialscienceresearchonraceandimplicitbias.
Thisresearchsuggeststhatmakingracesalient(i.
e.
,callingattentiontorace)canhelpindividualstoovercomewhatwouldotherwisebeautomaticstereotype-congruentresponses.
Iarguethatifmakingracesalientmakesiteasierforindividualstobattleracialstereotypes,thenmakingsexualorientationsalientmaysimilarlymakeiteasierforindividualstobattlesexualorientationbias.
Disallowingdefendantsfromarguinggaypanicsimplyforcessuchargumentsundergroundandintothesubconsciouswherestereotypesaboutgaymenasdeviantsexualpredators,andnormsthatfavorheterosexualityoverhomosexuality,arelikelytohaveagreaterimpact.
Overthelastseveraldecades,self-reportedexpressionsofprejudicialattitudestowardminoritygroupshavedeclinedsubstantially.
351Itisextremelyraretofindanindividualwho349TheSupremeCourthasheldthatstatesmayprohibitfightingwords,wordswhichbytheirveryutteranceinflictinjuryortendtoinciteanimmediatebreachofthepeace.
Chaplinskyv.
NewHampshire,315U.
S.
568,571-72(1942).
Thisisbecausefightingwordsdonotcontributetotheexpressionofideasandhavenosocialvalueinthesearchforthetruth.
Id.
at572.
350SeegenerallyRichardDelgado,WordsThatWound:ATortActionforRacialInsults,Epithets,andName-Calling,17HARV.
C.
R.
-C.
L.
L.
REV.
133(1982)(examiningharmscausedbyhatespeechandarguingforrecognitionofindependenttortactionforracialinsults).
351HOWARDSCHUMANETAL.
,RACIALATTITUDESINAMERICA:TRENDSANDINTERPRETATIONS191(1997)("[T]herehasbeenastrongandgenerallysteadymovementofwhiteattitudesfromdenialtoaffirmationofequality–somuchsothatsomequestionshavebeendroppedbysurveyorganizationsbecauseanswerswereapproaching100percentaffirmation.
");MonicaBiernat&ChristianS.
Crandall,2008]TheGayPanicDefense537expressesracistbeliefs.
MostAmericanstodaypridethemselvesonbeingegalitarian-minded.
Itiscommontohearpeopleofallpoliticalpersuasionssayingthatracedoesnotmatter;wearealljustindividuals.
Despitethesepublicpronouncements,socialscienceresearchonraceandimplicitbiasindicatesthatAmericanstodayarenotinfactcolor-blind.
Racedoesmatter,althoughincreasinglyatthelevelofthesubconscious.
352SocialscientistshavedocumentedtheexistenceofimplicitbiasthroughnumerousexperimentsusingtheImplicitAssociationTest("IAT").
TheIATdocumentstheexistenceofimplicitbiasbymeasuringthedifferencebetweentheamountoftimeittakestoprocessinformationthatcorrespondstowell-establishedassociations,whichcanincludestereotypesbasedonrace,andinformationwhichiscontrarytothoseassociations.
353Researchershavefoundthatevenindividualswhoself-identifyasholdingegalitarianbeliefshaveahardertimeperformingasimplesortingtaskwhenawordthatcorrespondstoanegativestereotypeispairedwithapleasantwordthanwhenthatsamewordispairedwithanunpleasantword.
354Oneofthefirstimplicitbiasexperimentshadnothingtodowithrace.
Inthatexperiment,subjectsweregivenarandomlistofwordsrepresentingflowers,insects,pleasantwords,andunpleasantwords,andaskedtosortthesewordsintotheappropriatecategory.
355Iftheindividualsawtheword"tulip,"theindividualwouldhitthekeyRacialAttitudes,inMEASURESOFPOLITICALATTITUDES291,297(JohnP.
Robinson,PhillipR.
Shaver&LawrenceS.
Wrightsmaneds.
,1999)("Today,thereisundoubtedlysomecauseforoptimismaboutblack-whiterelations,assurveysreliablyshowthatstraightforwardantiblackantipathybywhiteshasbeenonthedecrease352CharlesLawrencenotesthat"[i]ncreasingly,asourculturehasrejectedracismasimmoralandunproductive,[unconsciousor]hiddenprejudicehasbecomethemoreprevalentformofracism.
"CharlesR.
Lawrence,III,TheId,theEgo,andEqualProtection:ReckoningwithUnconsciousRacism,39STAN.
L.
REV.
317,335(1987);seealsoLindaHamiltonKrieger,TheContentofOurCategories:ACognitiveApproachtoDiscriminationandEqualEmploymentOpportunity,47STAN.
L.
REV.
1161,1188(1995);JustinD.
Levinson,ForgottenRacialEquality:ImplicitBias,Decisionmaking,andMisremembering,57DUKEL.
J.
345,406(2007).
353SeeJerryKang&MazharinR.
Banaji,FairMeasures:ABehavioralRealistRevisionof"AffirmativeAction,"94CAL.
L.
REV.
1063,1071-72(2006);JerryKang,TrojanHorsesofRace,118HARV.
L.
REV.
1489,1509-10(2005);KristinA.
Laneetal.
,ImplicitSocialCognitionandLaw,3ANN.
REV.
L.
&SOC.
SCI.
427,431(2007).
354SeeShankarVedantam,SeeNoBias,WASH.
POSTMAG.
,Jan.
23,2005,atW12.
355AnthonyG.
Greenwaldetal.
,MeasuringIndividualDifferencesinImplicitCognition:TheImplicitAssociationTest,74J.
PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
1464,1464(1998).
Theexperimentalsousedmusicalinstrumentsandweaponsinlieuofflowersandinsects.
Id.
at1466.
538UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471correspondingwiththelabel"flower.
"Iftheindividualsawtheword"wasp,"theindividualwastohitthekeycorrespondingwiththelabel"insect.
"Iftheindividualsawtheword"love,"theindividualwastohitthekeycorrespondingwiththelabel"pleasantwords.
"Iftheindividualsawtheword"rotten,"theindividualwouldhitthekeycorrespondingwiththelabel"unpleasantwords.
"Inthenextstageoftheexperiment,subjectswereagaingivenarandomlistofwordsrepresentingflowers,insects,pleasantwords,andunpleasantwords.
Thistime,however,theyweretoldtohitonekeyontheleftsideofthecomputerifthewordonthescreencorrespondedwithoneoftwocategoriesandanotherkeyontherightsideofthecomputerifthewordonthescreencorrespondedwithoneoftwoothercategories.
Whentheindividualsweretoldtohitonekeyifthewordflashedonthescreenfellintothecategory"flower"or"pleasantword,"andtoldtohitanotherkeyifthewordflashedonthescreenfellintothecategory"insect"or"unpleasantword,"theindividualsdidfine.
When,however,theindividualsweretoldtohitonekeyifthewordflashedonthescreenfellintothecategory"flower"or"unpleasantword"andtohitanotherkeyifthewordflashedonthescreenfellintothecategory"insect"or"pleasantword,"responsetimesbecamenoticeablyslower.
356Understandably,subjectsfounditeasiertocorrelateinsectswithunpleasantwordsthantocorrelateinsectswithpleasantwordsbecauseofwell-establishedassociationsbetweeninsects,suchascockroaches,termites,andbedbugs,andunpleasantthings,suchasdirt,filth,disease,bites,anddecay.
Theresearchersthendecidedtoreplaceflowernameswithwhite-soundingnamessuchasKatieandMeredithandinsectnameswithblack-soundingnamessuchasLaTonyaandEbony.
Theyfoundthatwhenblack-soundingnameswerepairedwithpleasantwordsandwhite-soundingnameswerepairedwithunpleasantwords,subjectshadmuchmoredifficultysortingthewordsintotheappropriatecategoriesthanwhenblack-soundingnameswerepairedwithunpleasantwordsandwhite-soundingnameswerepairedwithpleasantwords.
357ImplicitbiasinfavorofWhitesandagainstBlacksmanifestedeveninsubjectswhoself-reportednon-prejudicedbeliefs.
358356Id.
at1468.
357Id.
at1474.
358Id.
at1475;seealsoJohnF.
Dovidioetal.
,OntheNatureofPrejudice:AutomaticandControlledProcesses,33J.
EXPERIMENTALSOC.
PSYCHOL.
510,534(1997)(findingthatsubjectsrespondedfastertopositivewordsfollowingWhitefacethanwhenthosewordsfollowedBlackfaceandthatsubjectsrespondedfastertonegativewordswhen2008]TheGayPanicDefense539AnthonyGreenwaldexplainsthetheorybehindtheIAT.
359Considerathoughtexperiment,hesuggests,inwhichasubjectisshownaseriesofmaleandfemalefacesandtoldtorespondasquicklyaspossible,saying"hello"ifthefaceisamalefaceand"goodbye"ifthefaceisafemaleface.
Inthenextstageoftheexperiment,thesubjectisshowneitheramalefaceornameorafemalefaceornameandinstructedtosay"hello"tomalefacesandmalenamesand"goodbye"tofemalefacesandfemalenames.
Thesubjectshouldhavenotroublerespondingquicklyineitheroftheseconditions.
Next,thesubjectistoldtosay"hello"ifheorsheseeseitheramalefaceorafemalenameandtosay"goodbye"ifheorsheseesafemalefaceormalename.
Tocompletethistasksuccessfully,thesubjectwilllikelyrespondmoreslowlythaninthefirstpartoftheexperiment.
This,Greenwaldtheorizes,"followsfromtheexistenceofstrongassociationsofmalenamestomalefacesandfemalenamestofemalefaces.
"360Attemptingtomapthesameresponse("hello"or"goodbye")whenconfrontedwithoppositeassociationsisunderstandablymoredifficultthanattemptingtomaptheresponsewithgivencorrelatingassociations.
Thedifferenceinthetimeittakestoperformthedifferentsortingtasks"measuresthestrengthofgender-basedassociationsbetweenthefaceandnamedomains.
"361MorethantwomillionpeoplehavetakentheIAT.
362Ninetypercentofthetest-takershavebeenAmerican.
363Eighty-eightpercentofWhiteswhohavetakentheIAThavemanifestedimplicitbiasinfavorofWhitesandagainstBlacks.
364Nearly83%ofheterosexualshavemanifestedimplicitbiasinfavorofstraightpeopleovergaysandlesbians.
365Morethantwo-thirdsofnon-Arab,non-Muslimtest-takersprimedwithBlackfacethanwhenprimedwithWhiteface).
359Greenwaldetal.
,supranote355,at1464.
360Id.
361Id.
362SeeVedantam,supranote354,atW15.
363Id.
364Id.
StudieshavefoundthatevenAfricanAmericansexhibitimplicitbiasinfavorofWhitesrelativetoBlacks.
See,e.
g.
,R.
W.
Livingston,TheRoleofPerceivedNegativityintheModerationofAfricanAmericans'ImplicitandExplicitRacialAttitudes,38J.
EXPERIMENTALSOC.
PSYCHOL.
405,411(2002)(findingthatwhileAfricanAmericansdemonstratedstrongevidenceofin-groupbiasonexplicitmeasures,theyshowedout-group,i.
e.
White,favoritismonimplicitmeasures);B.
A.
Noseketal.
,HarvestingImplicitGroupAttitudesandBeliefsfromaDemonstrationWebsite,6GROUPDYNAMICS101,105(2002)(notingthatwhileBlackrespondentsshowedstrongerpreferenceforBlackoverWhiteonexplicitmeasures,reversedpatternwasobservedonimplicitmeasureswithBlacksshowingweakpreferenceforWhiteoverBlack).
365Vedantam,supranote354,atW15.
Gaymen,however,manifestimplicitbias540UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471haveshownimplicitbiasagainstMuslims.
366Theseresultswereinsharpcontrasttothetest-takers'self-reportedattitudes.
367RecentadvancesinbrainimagingtechniqueshaveenabledresearcherstoconfirmscientificallytheimplicitbiassuggestedbyIATresearch.
Functionalmagneticresonanceimaging("fMRI")offersanon-invasivewaytoexaminethefunctionsofthebrain.
368ResearchersinterestedinmeasuringracialbiashaveusedfMRItomeasureactivityintheamygdala,a"small,almond-shapedstructureinthemedialtemporallobethatisprimarilyknownforitsroleinemotionallearningandmemory.
"369Brainimagingresearch"suggeststhatamygdalaactivityreflectsarousaltriggeredbyfastunconsciousassessmentofpotentialthreat.
"370Activityintheamygdalaindicates"relativelyautomaticsocialevaluation"withoutconsciousawarenessorintent.
371ResearchershavefoundthatexposingWhitesubjectstoBlackfacescanaffecttheirphysiologicalresponsesinanumberofways,includinghowmuchtheirskinsweats,howfasttheirheartspump,andwhethertheirfacialmusclestwitch.
372Brainimagingallowsresearcherstoexaminedifferencesinamygdalaactivitywhensubjectsareexposedtodifferentstimuli.
Inoneexperiment,ElizabethPhelpsusedfMRItorecordneuralactivityintheamydgalaofWhitesubjectswhiletheywerebeingexposedtoBlackandWhitefaces.
373AfterthefMRIscan,subjectstookanIAT.
TheythenansweredquestionsfromtheModernRacismScale,aself-reportscalethatmeasuresexplicitracialattitudes.
374PhelpsfoundthatsubjectswiththemostnegativeimplicitattitudestowardBlacksshowedthegreatestamygdalaactivationinfavorofhomosexualityrelativetoheterosexuality.
WilliamA.
Jellisonetal.
,supranote182,at629,634.
366Vedantam,supranote354,atW15.
367Id.
368SeegenerallyJenniferL.
Eberhardt,ImagingRace,60AM.
PSYCHOLOGIST181(2005)(notingthatfMRItechniques"offeranoninvasivemeansofexaminingthefunctioningofhealthybrains");seealsoStaceyA.
Tovino,FunctionalNeuroimagingInformation:ACaseforNeuroExceptionalism,34FLA.
ST.
U.
L.
REV.
415,424-26(2006)(discussingfMRIstudiesinvolvingracialevaluation).
369ElizabethA.
Phelpsetal.
,IntactPerformanceonanIndirectMeasureofRaceBiasFollowingAmygdalaDamage,41NEUROPSYCHOLOGIA203,203(2003).
370MaryE.
Wheeler&SusanT.
Fiske,ControllingRacialPrejudice:Social-CognitiveGoalsAffectAmygdalaandStereotypedActivation,16PSYCHOL.
SCI.
56,56(2005).
371Id.
at57.
372Eberhardt,supranote368,at182.
373ElizabethA.
Phelpsetal.
,PerformanceonIndirectMeasuresofRaceEvaluationPredictsAmygdalaActivation,12J.
COGNITIVENEUROSCI.
729,771(2000).
374Id.
at730.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense541responsestowardBlackfacesascomparedwithWhitefaces.
375Thesesamesubjectsself-reportedlittleornoprejudice,confirmingthatthereislittlecorrelationbetweenstatedattitudesandactualimplicitbias.
ThefactthatthesubjectswiththestrongestimplicitbiasscoresalsoshowedthegreatestamygdalaactivitysupportstheviewthattheIATisanaccuratemeasurementofimplicitbias.
376OtherfMRIexperimentshavefoundthatbothBlackandWhitesubjectsshowgreateramygdalaactivitywhenexposedtoBlackfacesthanwhenexposedtoWhitefaces.
377Thefactthatindividualsconsistentlyself-reportmoreegalitarianviewsthanarereflectedintheirIATscoresandfMRIscans"suggest[s]atleasttwomodesofevaluation:onethatinvolvesconsciousandcontrolledmodesofthinkingandanotherthatinvolvesrelativelyautomaticprocessesthatoperatewithoutdeliberatethoughtorsometimeswithoutconsciousawareness.
"378Whenaracialstereotypelikethe"Black-as-Criminal"stereotype379isactivatedbyexposuretoaBlackface,anindividualislikelytoexperienceanautomaticstereotype-congruentresponse,suchasfear.
If,however,theindividualhastimetothinkaboutwhetheritmakessensetoequateBlacknesswithcriminalityunderthegivencircumstances,theindividual'scognitiveprocessescanmediatebetweentheautomaticstereotype-congruent375Id.
at732.
376Interestingly,theseresultswerenotreplicatedwhensubjectswereshownpicturesoffamiliarandpositivelyregardedBlackandWhiteindividuals.
Id.
at733.
PhelpstheorizedthatthesefindingssuggestthatamygdalaresponsetoBlack-versus-Whitefaces"isafunctionofculturallyacquiredinformationaboutsocialgroups,modifiedbyindividualknowledgeandexperience.
"Id.
at734.
Itisalsopossiblethatgreaterfamiliaritywiththefaceallowedsubjectstoconsciouslymediateandcontrolwhatwouldotherwisehavebeenanautomaticstereotype-congruentreactiontotheBlackface.
377See,e.
g.
,MatthewD.
Liebermanetal.
,AnfMRIInvestigationofRaceRelatedAmygdalaActivityinAfrican-AmericanandCaucasian-AmericanIndividuals,8NATURENEUROSCI.
720(2005)(findingthatbothAfrican-AmericanandCaucasiansshowedgreateramygdalaactivitywhenexposedtoAfrican-AmericantargetsthanwhenexposedtoCaucasiantargets).
ButseeAllenJ.
Hartetal.
,DifferentialResponseintheHumanAmygdalatoRacialOutgroupvs.
IngroupFaceStimuli,11NEUROREP.
2351,2351(2000)(findingsignificantlygreateramygdalaresponseswhenWhitesubjectswereexposedtoBlackfacesthanwhentheywereshownWhitefacesandsimilarresultsforBlacksubjectswhoshowedgreateramygdalaactivationwhenexposedtoWhitefacesthanwhenexposedtoBlackfaces).
378WilliamA.
Cunninghametal.
,SeparableNeuralComponentsintheProcessingofBlackandWhiteFaces,15PSYCHOL.
SCI.
806,806(2004).
379SeeCynthiaKweiYungLee,RaceandSelf-Defense:TowardaNormativeConceptionofReasonableness,81MINN.
L.
REV.
367,463(1996)[hereinafterLee,RaceandSelf-Defense](discussingBlack-as-Criminalstereotype).
542UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471responseandtheindividual'snon-prejudicedbeliefs,andcontroltheotherwiseautomaticstereotype-congruentresponse.
Giventhesetwomodesofevaluation(consciousversusautomatic)andknowingthattheautomaticmodetendstodominatewhentheindividualdoesnothavetimetothink,WilliamCunninghamdecidedtotestwhethertheamountoffear-responsereflectedinactivationoftheamygdalawouldbedifferentdependingonhowlongsubjectswereexposedtoBlackandWhitefaces.
380CunninghamusedfMRItomeasureamygdalaactivationinsubjectswhowerepresentedwithBlackfacesforashortdurationoftime(30milliseconds(ms)orbarelyaflashonthescreen),Blackfacesforalongerdurationoftime(525ms),Whitefacesforashortdurationoftime(30ms),andWhitefacesforalongerdurationoftime(525ms).
381Aftertheexperiment,allofthesubjectstooktheraceIAT,whichtestedforimplicitbiasinfavoroforagainstWhitesandBlacks.
Next,theyansweredquestionsfromtheModernRacismScaleandtheMotivationtoRespondWithoutPrejudiceScale(anotherself-reportscalethatmeasuresmotivationtothinkandbehavewithoutprejudice).
382Theself-reportedmeasuresofprejudicedemonstratedlittleornoprejudice.
Allparticipantsdisagreedwithprejudicedstatementsandagreedwithnon-prejudicedstatements.
383Nonetheless,ontheIAT,subjects"showedautomaticnegativeassociationstowardBlackrelativetoWhitefaces.
.
.
.
"384ThefMRIresultswereconsistentwiththeIATresults.
ThemoreimplicitbiasthesubjectshowedontheIAT,thegreaterhisorheramygdalaactivityforBlackrelativetoWhitefacesinthe30-msorshort-durationcondition.
385WhensubjectswereshownBlackandWhitefacesforalongerperiodoftime,however,therewasnosignificantdifferenceinamydgalaactivity.
386TheseresultssuggestthatwhenindividualshavetheopportunitytoprocessthefactthattheyarebeingexposedtoaBlackface,theircognitiveprocessescanmediatetheirotherwiseautomaticstereotype-congruentresponses.
AsCunninghamexplains:GreaterBlack-Whitedifferenceinamygdalaactivationinthe30-msconditionthaninthe525-msconditionisconsistent380Cunningham,supranote378,at806.
381Id.
at807.
382Id.
at808.
383Id.
384Id.
385Id.
at809.
386Id.
at810.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense543withtheideathatunwantedprejudicialresponsesaremostlikelytooccurunderconditionsofdistractionorcognitiveoverload,whenreflectivecognitiveprocessesthatmightmodulateanautomaticallyactivatedevaluationareotherwiseengaged.
387Inanotherstudyonstereotypesandprejudice,PatriciaDevinefoundthatwhenracialstereotypesaboutBlacksweremadesalient,low-prejudiceindividualsseemedtoconsciouslymediatetheirthoughtsaboutBlacksandaligntheirthoughtswiththeiregalitarianbeliefs.
388WhenracialstereotypesaboutBlackswerenotmadesalient,bothhighandlow-prejudiceindividualsrespondedinstereotype-congruentways.
389ToactivateconsciousawarenessofthevariousstereotypesaboutBlacks,DevineaskedsubjectstolistasmanyalternatelabelsofwhichtheywereawareforthesocialgroupBlackAmericans.
390Subjectsweretoldthattheresearcherwasinterestedinhowpeoplethinkaboutandtalkinformallyaboutsocialgroups,andweregivenaminutetoperformthistask.
391Next,researchersaskedsubjectstolisttheirthoughtsinresponsetothesocialgroupBlackAmericansandvariouslabelsascribedtoBlacks.
392Subjectsreceivedtwopageswithtenboxes;differentlabelsassociatedwithBlackAmericanswereatthetopofeachbox,andsubjectsweretoldtoputonethoughtineachbox.
393Theyhadtenminutestocompletethistask.
394Finally,subjectswereaskedtocompletetheModernRacismScale.
395Devineassignedsubjectstoeitherahigh-prejudiceorlow-prejudicegroupbasedonthesubjects'scoresontheModernRacismScale.
396Devinefoundtherewasnodifferenceintheproportionofnegative387Id.
at811.
388PatriciaDevine,StereotypesandPrejudice:TheirAutomaticandControlledComponents,56J.
PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
5,14(1989).
389Id.
at12.
390Id.
at13.
391Id.
Negativelabelsgeneratedbythistaskincludedtheterms"niggers,""coons,""spades,""spear-chuckers,""junglebunnies,"and"jigs.
"Id.
at14.
Devinecharacterizedthelabel"coloredpeople"asnon-pejorative,butIwouldputthislabelinthepejorativeornegativecategory.
Moreneutrallabelsincludedtheterms"Blacks,""AfroAmericans,"and"Brothers.
"Id.
392Id.
at13.
393Id.
394Id.
395Id.
396Id.
544UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471labelsgeneratedbyeachgroupinthefirsttask.
397Theproportionofnegativeorpejorativelabelsgeneratedbyhigh-prejudicepersonswasaboutthesameastheproportiongeneratedbylow-prejudicepersons.
Thissuggestedthatbothhighandlow-prejudiceindividualsareequallyawareofthevariousnegativestereotypesaboutBlacks.
398Thetwogroups,however,revealedbigdifferencesintheirresponsestothethought-listingtask,whichtookplacerightafterthestereotype(label)-listingexercisehadmaderacialstereotypesaboutBlackssalienttotheparticipants.
High-prejudicesubjectslistedmorenegativethanpositivethoughtsaboutBlacksandlow-prejudicesubjectslistedmorepositivethannegativethoughtsaboutBlacks.
399Moreover,60%ofthehigh-prejudiceindividuals'responsestothethought-listingtaskreflectedthemesofhostility,aggressiveness,orviolence,whereasonly9%ofthelow-prejudiceindividuals'responsesreflectedsimilarthemes.
400Makingracialstereotypessalientencouragedtheegalitarianorlow-prejudicesubjectstoinhibitstereotype-congruentresponses.
Inastudypublishedin2000,SamuelSommersandPhoebeEllsworthtestedwhethermakingracesalientwouldmakeadifferenceinmockjurors'perceptionsofguiltandintheseverityoftheirsentencingrecommendations.
401Subjectsreadatrialsummaryinwhichtheraceofthedefendantandvictimwerevaried(WhitemaledefendantandBlackfemalevictimorBlackmaledefendantandWhitefemalevictim).
Thetrialsummaryrevealedthatthedefendantandagroupofhisfriendswereatabarcelebratinghisrecentpromotionwhenhisgirlfriendstoodupandstartedtomakefunofhisphysiqueandsexualperformance.
402Thedefendantyelledathisgirlfriend,forcedherintoherchair,andslappedheracrosstheface.
Theslapknockedthegirlfriendontothegroundandthegirlfriendinjuredherankleinthefall.
Intheracesalientversionofthetrial,thegirlfriendtestifiedthatthedefendantyelled,"YouknowbetterthantotalkaboutaWhite(orBlack)maninfrontofhisfriends"beforeheslappedher.
Inthenon-racesalientversionofthetrial,thegirlfriendtestifiedthat397Id.
at14.
398Id.
399Id.
Negativethoughtswerereflectedinstatementssuchas"Blacksarefreeloaders;""Blackscauseproblems(e.
g.
,muggings,fights);"and"Affirmativeactionsucks.
"Id.
Positivethoughtswerereflectedinstatementssuchas"BlacksandWhitesareequal;""Affirmativeactionwillrestorehistoricalinequities;""MyfathersaysallBlacksarelazy,Ithinkheiswrong;"and"It'sunfairtojudgepeoplebytheircolor–theyareindividuals.
"Id.
400Id.
401Sommers&Ellsworth,RaceintheCourtroom,supranote325,at1367.
402Id.
at1372-73.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense545thedefendantyelled,"Youknowbetterthantotalkthatwayaboutamaninfrontofhisfriends.
"403SommersandEllsworthfoundthatwhenracewasmadesalient,WhitemockjurorstreatedtheWhiteandBlackdefendantequallyintermsofguiltandseverityofpunishment.
404Incontrast,whenracewasnotsalient,WhitemockjurorsgavetheBlackdefendantasignificantlyhigherguiltratingthantheWhitedefendant.
405Intheirsentencerecommendations,WhitemockjurorswerealsomorepunitivetowardstheBlackdefendantinthenon-racesalientcondition,recommendinglongersentencesfortheBlackdefendantthanfortheWhitedefendant.
WhenWhitejurorsweresimplyawareofthedefendant'srace,butdidnotthinkracewasrelevanttothecase,implicitbiastrumpedtheirsincerelyheldegalitarianbeliefs.
406SommersandEllsworthsuggestthereasonwhyWhitejurorsactedinmoreegalitarianwayswhenracewasmadesalientstemsfromSamuelGaertnerandJohnDovidio'stheoryofaversiveracism.
407Underthistheory,mostWhiteAmericansholdegalitarianbeliefsbutstillhaveimplicitbiasagainstBlacks.
408"[W]henWhitepeopleareremindedofthepossibilityofracialprejudiceinaninteraction,theymayworktoinhibittheirownracialbiases;iftheyarenotreminded,theymightnotnotice,andtheirbiaseswilloftenbeexpressed.
"409Ayearlater,in2001,SommersandEllsworthconductedanotherstudythatconfirmedthatwhenraceismadesalient,WhitemockjurorswilltreatBlackandWhitedefendantsthesame;whenraceisnotsalient,WhitemockjurorsaremorelikelytoconvictBlackdefendantsthansimilarlysituatedWhitedefendants.
410Inthe2001study,aWhiteexperimenterapproached196Whiteparticipantsinwaitingareasofamajorinternationalairportandaskediftheywouldreadandcompleteaquestionnaireaboutlegalattitudeswhilethey403Id.
at1373.
404Id.
at1373-74.
405Id.
at1374.
406Seeid.
407SeeSamuelL.
Gaertner&JohnF.
Dovidio,TheAversiveFormofRacism,inPREJUDICE,DISCRIMINATION,ANDRACISM62(Dovidio&Gaertnereds.
,1986)(explainingthat"aversiveracismrepresentsaparticulartypeofambivalenceinwhichtheconflictisbetweenfeelingsandbeliefsassociatedwithasincerelyegalitarianvaluesystemandunacknowledgednegativefeelingsandbeliefsaboutblacks").
408Seeid.
409Sommers&Ellsworth,RaceintheCourtroom,supranote325,at1371.
410SamuelR.
Sommers&PhoebeC.
Ellsworth,WhiteJurorBias:AnInvestigationofPrejudiceAgainstBlackDefendantsintheAmericanCourtroom,7PSYCHOL.
PUB.
POL'Y&L.
201,217(2001)[hereinafter,Sommers&Ellsworth,WhiteJurorBias].
546UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471waitedfortheirplanes.
411EachparticipantreadatrialsummarythatinvolvedeitheraBlackdefendantandWhitevictimorviceversa.
Inallofthecases,participantswereawareofthedefendantandvictim'srace,age,height,andweight.
Insomeofthecases,racewasmadesalient.
Inothers,racewasnotmadesalient.
Thetrialsummarydescribedahighschoolbasketballplayerchargedwithonecountofbatterywithseriousbodilyinjuryafteranaltercationwithateammateinalockerroom.
412Thegovernmentarguedthatthedefendantwasupsetafterlosinghisplaceinthestartingline-upandattackedhisreplacement.
413Thedefenseadmittedthatthedefendantverballyconfrontedhisteammateinthelockerroom,butclaimedthatwhenathirdpartytriedtointerveneandrestrainhim,hepanickedandaccidentallymadecontactwiththevictimwhenhetriedtobreakfree.
414Intherace-salientversionofthetrial,adefensewitnesstestifiedthatthedefendantwasoneofonlytwoBlacks(orWhites)ontheteamandhadbeenthesubjectofracialremarksandunfaircriticismthroughouttheseasonfromhisWhite(orBlack)teammates.
415Inthenon-racesalientversionofthetrial,thesamedefensewitnesstestifiedthatthedefendanthadbeenthesubjectofobsceneremarksandunfaircriticismfrommanyofhisteammates.
416Intherace-salientcondition,convictionratesfortheWhitedefendant(69%)andtheBlackdefendant(66%)werealmostthesame.
417Inthenon-racesalientcondition,whentheWhitemockjurorsubjectsweresimplyawareofracebutracewasnotmadesalient,theyvotedtoconvicttheBlackdefendant90%ofthetimeandtheWhitedefendantonly70%ofthetime.
418ThesestudiesbyCunningham,Devine,andSommersandEllsworthsuggestthatwhenraceismadesalient,individualswhoself-reportnon-prejudicedbeliefswillconsciouslymediateandcontroltheirotherwiseautomaticstereotype-congruentresponses.
419Conversely,411Id.
at216.
412Id.
413Id.
414Id.
415Id.
416Id.
417Id.
at217.
418Id.
;seealsoDavidA.
Harris,TheImportanceofResearchonRaceandPolicing:MakingRaceSalienttoIndividualsandInstitutionsWithinCriminalJustice,6CRIMINOLOGY&PUB.
POL'Y5,11(2007).
419Devinelikenstheprocessofinhibitingstereotype-congruentresponsesandconsciouslyreplacingthemwithnon-prejudicedthoughtstobreakingabadhabit.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense547whenraceisnotmadesalient—whenraceisanobviousfact,suchasinacaseinvolvingaBlackdefendantorvictim,butnooneopenlydiscussestheracialimplicationsofthecase—individualsarelikelytorespondinstereotype-congruentways.
Anexampleofhowsubtleappealstoracialbiascanbeeffectivewhenraceisnotmadesalientisillustratedbythewell-knownNewYorksubwayshootingcase.
Inthatcase,BernardGoetz,awhitemale,shotfourblackyouthsaftertwoofthemaskedhimforfivedollarsonaNewYorksubway.
420AtGoetz'strial,nooneopenlytalkedabouttheobviousracialdynamicspresentinthecase.
421Thedefense,however,cleverlyactivatedtheBlack-as-Criminalstereotypebyreferringtothevictimsassavages,predators,andvultures.
422Theyalsoreenactedthesubwayshooting,ostensiblytoshowthejurythepathofthebullets.
423GeorgeFletcher,alawprofessorwhoobservedthetrial,notedthatbybringinginfouryoung,fit,andmuscularAfricanAmericanstoplaythepartofthefourvictims,thedefensecovertlyappealedtoracialbiasandthejury'sfearofbeingmuggedbyfouryoungblackmales.
424ThejuryfoundGoetznotguiltyonallbuttheleastseriouschargeofunlawfulpossessionofafirearm.
Onemightquestionwhethertheresearchonimplicitracialbiasisreadilytransferabletosexualorientationbias,especiallywhenitseemsmorepeopleholdexplicitlyanti-gayattitudesthanexplicitlyracistattitudes.
Evenifmorepeopleareopenlyanti-gaythanexplicitlyracist,implicitsexualorientationbiasisstillaconcern.
Asdiscussedabove,manyegalitarian-mindedheterosexualindividualssincerelybelievegaysandlesbiansshouldnotbediscriminatedagainstandself-reportpositiveattitudesabouthomosexuality,yetmanifestimplicitbiasinfavorofheterosexualityandagainsthomosexuality.
ImplicitDevine,supranote388,at15.
Shenotesthat"automaticstereotypeactivationfunctionsinmuchthesamewayasabadhabit.
"Id.
Bothinvolvespontaneousandundesirableconsequences.
Id.
Toeliminateabadhabit,an"individualmust(a)initiallydecidetostoptheoldbehavior,(b)remembertheresolution,and(c)tryrepeatedlyanddeciderepeatedlytoeliminatethehabit.
"Id.
Toinhibitstereotype-congruentresponses,onemustinitiallydecidethatonewantstoovercomestereotype-triggeredresponses.
Onemustrememberthisdesire,andonemustmakeaconsciousefforttotryrepeatedlytoreplacestereotype-congruentresponseswithone'segalitarianbeliefs.
Id.
420SeePeoplev.
Goetz,68N.
Y.
2d96,99(1986).
421SeeLEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN,supranote80,at148-154(analyzingGoetzcase).
422SeeGEORGEP.
FLETCHER,ACRIMEOFSELF-DEFENSE:BERNHARDGOETZANDTHELAWONTRIAL206(1988).
423Seeid.
at206-07.
424Id.
548UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471biasisaconcernwhetheroneistalkingaboutrace,gender,sexualorientation,orage(biasagainsttheelderly).
Thereareadditionalreasonstobelievethattheresearchonraceandimplicitbiasisapplicabletosexualorientationbias.
425Onestudyspecificallyexaminedwhetherhearingpositiveopinionsaboutgay-relatedissues(inotherwords,makingsexualorientationsalientinapositivewayforgays)wouldaffectwhetherindividualsprivatelyexpressedbiasagainstgaymen.
426MargoMonteith,NicoleDeneen,andGregoryToomanconductedanexperimentinwhichanexperimenterwouldapproachastudentwhowaswalkingaloneoncampusandaskwhetherheorshewouldparticipateinanopinionpollforaclass.
427Aconfederatewouldthenwalkpasttheexperimenterandthesubject.
428Theexperimenterwouldstoptheconfederateandaskwhetherheorshewouldalsoparticipateintheopinionpoll.
429Theexperimenterthenadministeredtwoquestionnairestotheconfederateandtheparticipant.
430ThefirstquestionnairecontainedquestionsfromastandardmeasureofprejudiceagainstgayscalledtheHeterosexualAttitudesTowardHomosexualsscale("HATH")andwascompletedprivatelybyeachindividual.
431Thesecondquestionnaireaskedfortheparticipant'sopinionsrelatingtoissuesinvolvinggaysoncampus.
432Insomecases,thesubjectansweredquestionsonthesecondquestionnaireprivatelywithouthearingtheconfederate'sviews.
Inothercases,thesubjectansweredquestionsonlyafterhearingtheconfederateanswerthesamequestionsoutloud.
433Inthefavorableratingscondition,theconfederateexpressednon-prejudicedopinionsaboutgay-related425SeegenerallyMonteithetal.
,TheEffectofSocialNormActivationontheExpressionofOpinionsConcerningGayMenandBlacks,supranote338(exploringinfluenceofsocialnormactivationonexpressionofopinionsconcerninggaymenandblacks).
426Id.
at271-72.
427Id.
at273.
428Id.
429Id.
430Id.
431Id.
432Id.
at272.
433Inthosecases,theexperimenterexplainedthatheorshehadonlyonequestionnaireleftandaskedtheconfederatetoanswerthequestionsverballysotheexperimentercouldwritehisresponsesonaseparatesheetofpaper.
Theparticipantwasthengiventhesupposedlylastquestionnaireandaskedtoanswerthequestionsprivately.
Id.
at273-74.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense549issuesoncampus.
Intheunfavorableratingscondition,theconfederateexpressedprejudicedopinionsaboutthesameissues.
434Monteithfoundthatparticipantsexposedtonon-prejudicedconfederateopinionsexpressedopinionsthatweresignificantlymorepositivetowardgaysthanthoseinthenoratingcondition(wheretheydidnotheartheconfederategiveanyopinions).
435Moreover,bothlow-prejudiceandhigh-prejudiceindividualsexpressedpositiveopinionsafterhearingtheconfederatemakenon-prejudicedremarksaboutgay-relatedissuesoncampus.
436Monteithconcludedthat"makingsocialnormsopposingprejudicesalientwilllikelyhaveapervasiveeffect,curbingexpressionsofprejudiceamongpeoplewhoholdlessaswellasmoreprejudicedattitudes.
"437Theexistingresearchonstereotypesandprejudicesuggeststhatstereotypes,whicharedeeplyentrenchedinthesubconscious,aretriggeredmorereadilywhennotmadesalient.
Ifoneisconcernedthatstereotypesaboutgaymenwillbeusedbyunscrupulousattorneys,itwouldprobablybebesttohaveclaimsofgaypanicoutintheopenandsubjecttotheadversarialsystem.
Thiswouldforceargumentandcounter-argumentaboutthelegitimacyofsuchclaimsaboveground,andallowjurorstocognitivelyprocessthevalidityofsuchclaimsratherthanreactwithoutreflection.
Moreover,ifjurorsareexposedtonon-prejudicedopinionsaboutgaymen(bytheprosecutororotherjurors),Monteith'sstudysuggeststhissignificantlyincreasesthelikelihoodthatevenhigh-prejudicedjurorswithnegativeprivateviewsabouthomosexualitywillpubliclyexpressnon-prejudicedviews.
D.
InstitutionalCompetencyAfinalconsiderationiswhichinstitutionalactor—thelegislature,thejudge,orthejury—isbestsuitedtodeterminewhetheraheterosexualmaledefendant'sclaimofgaypaniciscredibleandshouldresultinsomekindofmitigation.
Thissectionevaluatesthestrengthsandweaknessesofeachinstitutionalactorandconcludesthatthejuryisbestsuitedtomakethisdetermination.
Acriticofthegaypanicdefensemightcontendthatthesimplestwaytodealwiththeproblemwouldbeforthelegislaturetopassastatutestatingthatanon-violenthomosexualadvancedoesnot434Id.
at274.
435Id.
at276.
436Id.
at277.
437Id.
550UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471constitutelegallyadequateprovocation.
438Onebenefitoflegislativeactionisuniformityandconsistency.
Alljudgesintherelevantjurisdictionwouldberequiredtofollowthelegislativerule,leadingtouniformresultsinsimilarlysituatedcases.
Anotherbenefitisthatlegislaturescancommissionstudies,taketestimony,andconductcontinuingoversightinvestigations.
Morethanonestatelegislaturehasamendeditspenalcodetoreflecttheviewthatacertaintypeofarguablyprovocativeactdoesnotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocation.
Forexample,Marylandprovidesthat"[t]hediscoveryofone'sspouseengagedinsexualintercoursewithanotherdoesnotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocationforthepurposeofmitigatingakillingfromthecrimeofmurdertovoluntarymanslaughtereventhoughthekillingwasprovokedbythatdiscovery.
"439Minnesotaprovidesthatacryingchilddoesnotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocationsufficienttomitigateamurderchargetomanslaughter.
440Theproblemwithrelyingonthelegislaturetodeterminewhattypesofactivitiesshouldorshouldnotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocationisthatlegislaturestendtoenactbroad-basedlegislationthatwillapplytomanydifferentcasesbasedonanabstracthypotheticalsetoffacts.
Aone-size-fits-allruleisparticularlyillsuitedtoaddressthequestionofwhichdefensesthejuryoughttohearbecausesucharule,craftedinadvance,cannotpossiblytakeintoaccountthemyriadwaysinwhichanencounterprecedinganallegedlyprovokedkillingmaytakeplace.
Thelegislaturecannotpossiblyknowinadvancetheprecisefactsofthecasewhichwillberelevanttowhetherareasonablepersoninthedefendant'sshoeswouldhavebeenprovokedintoaheatofpassion.
Thejudgeandjurysittinginjudgmentofaparticulardefendant,incontrast,canmorefullyconsiderthefactualcontextinwhichthekillingtookplaceandthusareinabetterpositiontodecidewhetherthedefendant'sclaimofgaypaniciscredibleandworthyofsomekindofmitigation.
441438IamnotawareofanysuchlegislationintheUnitedStates,butsuchlegislationwasproposedinNewSouthWales.
SeeSantoDePasquale,ProvocationandtheHomosexualAdvanceDefence:TheDeploymentofCultureasaDefenceStrategy,26MELB.
U.
L.
REV.
110,119(2002)(notingthatNewSouthWalesWorkingPartyrecommendedlegislationtoprecludemurderdefendantsfromarguingthatnon-violenthomosexualadvanceprovokedthemintoheatofpassion).
439MD.
CODEANN.
,CRIM.
LAW§2-207(b)(West2002).
440MINN.
STAT.
ANN.
§609.
20(1)(West2003).
441Indeed,somemightarguethattheexistenceofsocialsciencestudiessuggestingthathomophobicmenbecomemorephysicallyaggressivetowardgaymenafterwatchingahomoeroticvideotape,seeBernat,supranote49,supportstheviewthatan2008]TheGayPanicDefense551Anotherproblemwithhavinglegislaturesenactstatutesproclaimingthatanon-violenthomosexualadvancedoesnotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocationisthatsuchanapproachisathrowbacktothedayswhenmurderdefendantshadtofitintocarefullydefinedcategoriesoflegallyadequateprovocationtoclaimtheprovocationmitigation.
442Undertheearlycommonlawapproachtoprovocation,amurderdefendantcouldreceivetheprovocationmitigationonlyifhewas(1)engagedinmutualcombatwiththevictimimmediatelypriortothekilling,(2)subjecttoanaggravatedassaultorbatteryimmediatelybeforethekilling,(3)observedthecommissionofaseriouscrimeuponacloserelativeimmediatelybeforethekilling,(4)illegallyarrested,or(5)caughthiswifeintheactofadulteryjustbeforethekilling.
443Thiscategoricalapproachwaseventuallyreplacedwiththemodern"reasonableman"testbecausethecategoricalapproachwastoorestrictiveandinsensitivetocontext.
444Allowingthelegislaturetoprohibitclaimsofgaypanicthroughlegislationstatingthatanon-violenthomosexualadvancedoesnotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocationwouldleadtothesamerigidityproblemsinherentintheearlycommonlawcategoricalapproach.
Ifthelegislatureisillsuitedtothetaskofdecidingwhetherclaimsofgaypanicoughttobeallowed,shouldthejudgeorthejurymakethiscallUnlikethelegislature,thejudgepresidingoveragivencaseisawareofthefactualcontextinwhichtheclaimofgaypanicarises.
Withoutasupersedinglegislativeruleinstructingjudgesthattheymustrulethesamewayinallcases,however,judgeswillhavethediscretiontoeithertakethequestionofprovocationawayfromtheordinaryheterosexualmancanlosehisself-controlifagaymanmakesanunwantedsexualadvanceuponhim,andthereforetheheterosexualmanshouldbeallowedtoargueprovocationtothejury.
442Aproposalthatencourageslegislationbanninggaypanicdefensestrategiesistheconverseoftheearlycommonlawapproachtoprovocation,whichcarvedoutcategoriesofthingsthatcouldconstitutelegallyadequateprovocation.
Alegislativeapproachwouldsimplycarveoutcategoriesofthingsthatcannotconstitutelegallyadequateprovocation.
443SeeLEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN,supranote80,at19.
444Iftherationalebehindthedoctrineofprovocationisthatundercertaincircumstancesapersonmightunderstandablysnapanddosomethingthathewouldnotordinarilydo,thenitdoesnotmakesensetoallowhusbandswhocatchtheirwivesintheactofadulterytoreceivetheprovocationmitigation,butnotmenwhocatchtheirfiancéeshavingsexwithanotherman.
Themodernapproachtoprovocationaddressedthisconcern,broadeningthescopeofthedefenseandallowingthemitigationaslongasareasonablemaninthedefendant'sshoeswouldhavebeenprovokedintoaheatofpassion.
Initsattentiontocontext,themodernapproachismuchmoresensiblethantheearlycommonlawapproach.
Seeid.
at24-25.
552UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471juryorallowthejurytoconsiderthedefense.
Thistypeofdiscretionisnotnecessarilyabadthing,butoneobviousproblemwiththisapproachisthatwhetherarequesteddefenseispresentedtothejurywilldependinlargepartontheluckofthedraw.
445Ifthedefendantdrawsajudgewhodisapprovesofhomosexuality,thentheheterosexualmalemurderdefendantwishingtoarguegaypanicislikelytogettheinstructionheseeksandevidentiaryrulingsinhisfavor.
446Ifthedefendantdrawsajudgewhobelievesgaysandlesbiansshouldnotbediscriminatedagainst,thentheheterosexualmalemurderdefendantclaiminggaypanicmaybelesslikelytogetthejuryinstructionsandfavorableevidentiaryrulingsheseeks.
Inconsistentrulingsaretobeexpected,especiallygiventhedifferentfactualcontextsthatmaybepresentundertheumbrellaofgaypanic.
Thebiggerproblemisthattrialjudgesactaloneandoftenhavetomakeevidentiaryandotherrulingswithlittletimetodeliberate.
Trialjudges,unlikejuries,donothavethebenefitofco-equalpartnersdeliberatingwiththemtoensurethefairestpossibleoutcome.
Thereisanotherreasontobeskepticalofrelyingonajudicialremedyinthiscontext.
447Socialscienceresearchhasshownthatheterosexualmenonaveragemanifestmoreanti-gayprejudicethanheterosexualwomen.
448Ifthisistrue,thenrelyingonajudgewhoislikelytobea445Ofcourse,asimilarobjectioncouldbemadeagainsthavingthejurymakethedecision.
Manyjokethathavingacasedecidedbyajuryislikerollingthedicebecausejuriesaresounpredictable.
Nonetheless,rulesgoverningjuryselectiongiveeachsidesomesayoverwhoendsupsittinginthejuryboxsuchthatitisprobablymorelikelythannotthatonewillhaveegalitarian-mindedjurorsonanygivenjury.
446SeeMison,supranote10,at163-64(detailingcasesinwhichtrialjudgesmadedisparagingremarksaboutdeceasedhomosexualvictims);seealsoMichaelB.
Shortnacy,Comment,GuiltyandGay,ARecipeforExecutioninAmericanCourtrooms:SexualOrientationasaToolforProsecutorialMisconductinDeathPenaltyCases,51AM.
U.
L.
REV.
309,318-31(2001)(notingempiricalstudiessuggestingthatjudgesarehostiletogaydefendants).
447SeeHutchinson,DissectingAxesofSubordination,supranote50,at13,18-24(urgingscholarsinfieldoflawandsexualitytoconductmultidimensionalstructuralanalysisofjudicialbiasagainstgay,lesbian,bisexual,andtransgenderindividualsthatexistsaspartoflargersystemofdominationalongrace,gender,andclasslines).
448SeeMaryE.
Kite&BernardE.
Whitley,Jr.
,DoHeterosexualWomenandMenDifferinTheirAttitudesTowardsHomosexualityAConceptualandMethodologicalAnalysis,inSTIGMAANDSEXUALORIENTATION:UNDERSTANDINGPREJUDICEAGAINSTLESBIANS,GAYMEN,ANDBISEXUALS39(GregoryM.
Hereked.
,1998);MaryE.
Kite&BernardE.
Whitley,Jr.
,SexDifferencesinAttitudesTowardHomosexualPersons,Behaviors,andCivilRights,AMeta-Analysis,22PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
BULL.
336,337(1996);seealsoGregoryM.
Herek,Heterosexuals'AttitudesTowardLesbiansandGayMen:CorrelatesandGenderDifferences,25J.
SEXRES.
451,452(1988)("Oneofthemostconsistentfindingsisthatheterosexualmalesmanifestmoreanti-gay2008]TheGayPanicDefense553heterosexualmaletodecidewhethertheclaimofgaypanichasanylegitimacyseemslessdesirablethangivingthequestiontothejury.
Accordingtoonesource,only24%ofthestatejudiciaryand19%ofthefederaljudiciaryisfemale.
449Accordingtoanothersource,thereareonly274femalejudges(8.
65percent)and2,894malejudges(91.
35percent)onthefederalbench.
450Giventhesestatistics,theoddsofdrawingamalejudgearemuchgreaterthandrawingafemalejudge.
Additionally,itismorelikelythatajurywillbecomprisedofamixofmenandwomenthanbeallmale(orallfemale).
Evenifanegalitarianjudgepresidesoverthecase,heorshemaynotseethroughallofthesubtleappealstohomophobicbiasthatthedefensemaytrytomake.
Ajuryoftwelvepersonschargedwiththetaskofdeliberatingtoafairandjustverdictisbetterpositionedtoquestionaclaimofgaypanic,especiallyifthedefensemakesthatclaimopenlyandthentheprosecutioncountersit.
Thisisbecausethejuryhasthedistinctadvantageofbeingabletoengageingroupdeliberation.
InherimportantHarvardLawReviewarticleonjurydecision-making,KimTaylor-Thompsondescribesthebenefitsofgroupdeliberation.
451Sheacknowledgesthatwhile"opencommunicationmayintroducestronglyheldbeliefsandprejudicesintothediscussion[theexistenceofcompetingbeliefsandprejudicesinjurydeliberationsmayhelptoreducetheirsignificance.
"452Taylor-Thompsonalsonotesthatwhile"[a]nindividualjuror'sexperiencecanaffectherperceptionofandreactiontotheevidence[interactionamongjurorswillexpandtherangeofissuestobediscussedandbroadenthescopeofinformationsharedbythegroup.
"453Ajuryoftwelveindividuals,selectedthroughaprocessthatenablesboththedefenseandtheprosecutiontostrikeindividualstheybelievewouldbebiasedagainstthem,islikelytohaveatleastonememberhostilityonaveragethandoheterosexualfemales.
")(citationsomitted);LesterW.
Wright,Jr.
,HenryE.
Adams&JefferyBernat,DevelopmentandValidationoftheHomophobiaScale,21J.
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY&BEHAV.
AWARENESS337,337,345(1999)(notingthatmaleparticipantsscoredsignificantlyhigheronHomophobiaScalethanfemaleparticipants,confirmingpreviousstudiesshowingthatmenasgeneralmatteraremorehomophobicthanwomen).
449THEAMERICANBENCH:JUDGESOFTHENATION(MarieT.
Finnetal.
eds.
,Forster-Long,Inc.
18thed.
2008).
450SeeFederalJudicialCenter,HistoryoftheFederalJudiciary,availableathttp://www.
fjc.
gov(lastvisitedNov.
13,2008).
451KimTaylor-Thompson,EmptyVotesinJuryDeliberations,113HARV.
L.
REV.
1261,1272-76(2000).
452Id.
at1276.
453Id.
at1275.
554UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471whoisgayorlesbianorsympathetictogaysandlesbians.
Thatindividualcanremindtheotherjurorsofthehomophobicassumptionsthatunderlieadefenseclaimofgaypanic.
Thereis,ofcourse,noguaranteethatthiswouldhappen.
Agaypersonwhodoesnotwantotherstoknowthatheorsheisgaymightnottosayanything,especiallyifheorshethinksmostoftheotherjurorsarehomophobic.
Itisunderstandablethatanindividualjurormightchoosesilenceinsuchasituation.
Indeed,agaypersonstillintheclosetmightbecomethemostvocalsupporterofadefendant'sgaypanicclaiminanattempttodivertsuspicionthatheisgay.
Monteith'sstudy,however,suggeststhatifevenonejurorspeaksupandexpressesnon-prejudicednormsinthejuryroom,thiscanhaveasignificanteffectontherestofthejury.
454Therefore,aslongasthejuryhasatleastonegaypersonwhoisout(notinthecloset)oratleastoneheterosexualwhoissympathetictogaysandwillingtospeakupandexpressnon-prejudicednorms,thereisafairchancethattheotherjurorswillatleastquestionandpossiblyrejectthegaypanicdefense.
Irealizethatwhatmaybetrueforgays,maynotbetruefortransgenders.
Notallgaysandlesbiansaresympathetictotransgenders;somemayevenbebiasedagainsttransgenders.
Theoddsofatransgenderpersonbeingonajurywhereatranspanicclaimisassertedarefairlyslim.
Therefore,whatmaybeaviablesolutioninthecaseofagaypanicclaimmaynotworkagainstaclaimoftranspanic.
Thereisanotherreasonwhyitmakessensetoallowjuries,ratherthanjudges,todecidethevalidityofgaypanicclaims:communitybuy-in.
Thecommunitywherethecrimetookplaceandfromwhichthejuryisdrawnismorelikelytoviewtheverdictaslegitimateifajuryconsideredthegaypanicdefenseandrejectedit,thanifthejudgeprohibitedthedefendantfrommakingtheargument.
Thisisbecausethetwelvelaypersonsservingonthejuryhavebeenchosenfromthecommunity'smidst.
455Ifthelong-termgoalischangingsocialattitudesabouthomosexuality,thenstartingsuchchangeinthejuryboxisabetterwayofaccomplishingthegoalthantryingtoforcesuchchangebylegislativeorjudicialfiat.
Oneproblemwithlettingjuriesadjudicateclaimsofgaypanicisthatinsomepartsofthiscountry,homosexualbehavioriswidelyviewedasimmoral.
Ifthejuryischosenfromsuchacommunity,it454Monteithetal.
,TheEffectofSocialNormActivationontheExpressionofOpinionsConcerningGayMenandBlacks,supranote338,at276.
455SeeRogerA.
Fairfax,Jr.
,HarmlessConstitutionalErrorandtheInstitutionalSignificanceoftheJury,76FORDHAML.
REV.
2027,2051-59(2008)(discussingfactthatjuryfunctionsasvoiceofcommunity).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense555maybemoreinclinedtobelievethatthedefendantwasreasonablyprovokedintoaheatofpassionbythegayvictim'snon-violenthomosexualadvance.
ResearchsuggeststhatindividualswholiveontheWestCoasttendtohavethemostpositiveattitudestowardhomosexuality,whilethoseintheMidwestandtheSouthtendtohavethemostnegativeattitudes.
456Similarly,individualswithstronglyreligiousbackgroundstendtohavenegativeattitudesabouthomosexuality.
457Thisproblemsuggestsareformthatwouldaccountforregionalvariationsinattitudes.
Iamnot,however,comfortablewithproposingarulethatwouldvarydependingonthejurisdictionwherethecaseistried.
Ifthechoiceisbetweenallowingordisallowinggaypanicarguments,Ithinkthebetterchoiceistoallowgaypanicarguments,despitethefactthatsuchargumentsarereprehensible.
Evenifonetriestobargaypanicarguments,theyarelikelytocomeinthroughthebackdoorastheydidintheMatthewShepardcase.
458Eventhoughthereremainsalotofanti-gaysentimentinsomepartsofthecountry,thereisalsoreasontobehopefulthatthiswillnotalwaystranslateintolenientverdictsincaseswherethedefendantarguesgaypanic.
First,evenindividualswhobelievehomosexualityisimmoralcanbepersuadedtoseethatbeatingsomeonetodeathformakingasexualadvanceiswrongfulandillegal.
Second,attitudesabouthomosexualityhaveseenfairlysteadyimprovementoverthelastthirtytofortyyears.
459AmajorityofAmericanstodaybelieveitiswrongtodiscriminateagainstanindividualbasedonhisorhersexualorientation.
460In2003,theU.
S.
SupremeCourtoverruledBowersv.
HardwickbystrikingdownaTexasstatutemakingitacrimefortwopersonsofthesamesextoengageinintimatesexualconductonthegroundthatcriminalizingsuchconductviolatedtheDueProcessClauseoftheFourteenthAmendment.
461Inaddition,despitethecontroversyoversame-sexmarriagereferencedearlierinthisArticle,manystatesnowrecognize456SeeLoftus,supranote6,at765.
457Seeid.
458Seesupratextaccompanyingnotes274-307.
459Loftus,supranote6,at778.
460Id.
("Whilethepublicstilloverwhelminglyviewshomosexualityaswrong,themajorityisunwillingtorestrictthecivillibertiesofhomosexuals.
").
461Lawrencev.
Texas,539U.
S.
558,578(2003).
InLawrencev.
Texas,theCourtreversedBowersv.
Hardwick,theinfamousdecisioninwhichtheCourtupheldtheconstitutionalvalidityofGeorgia'ssodomystatuteasappliedtoamanarrestedforhavingconsensualsexwithanothermanintheprivacyofhisownhome.
Bowersv.
Hardwick,478U.
S.
186,196(1986).
556UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471same-sexcivilunions.
462In2005,BrokebackMountain,amajormotionpictureabouttwomenwhofallinlovewhileworkingtogetherherdingsheepnearWyoming'sBrokebackMountain,wonfourGoldenGlobeAwards,includingBestMotionPicture-Drama,andthreeAcademyAwards,includingBestDirector(AngLee),BestAdaptedScreenplay,andBestOriginalScore.
463Third,evenprejudicedjurorscanbeencouragedtoactinnon-prejudicedways.
Asdiscussedabove,whennon-prejudicednormsaremadesalientbytheexpressionofpositiveopinionsongay-relatedissues,bothlowandhigh-prejudicesubjectsreportlessprejudicedopinionsaboutgaymen.
464Apparently,"evenhighprejudicedpersons.
.
.
viewgeneralegalitarianidealsascentraltotheirself-concept.
"465Anotherproblemwithallowingjuriestodecidewhetheraclaimofgaypanicoughttoresultinsomesortofmitigationisthatjuriesarenotoriouslyinconsistent.
Onejurymayfeeladefendant'sgaypanicclaimislegitimatewhileadifferentlyconstitutedjurymayfeelthesameclaimiscompletelybogus.
Whileitiscertainlytruethatanapproachthatleavesdecision-makinginthehandsofthejurywillsacrificeconsistencyinresults,Ibelievethebenefitsofthisapproachoutweighitscosts.
466Theonlywayclaimsofgaypanicwilllosetheirappealinthelongrunisiftheassumptionsunderlyingtheseclaimsareexposedforwhattheyare:falsenegativestereotypesaboutgaymalesasdeviantsexualpredatorswithlittlebasisinreality.
Onewaytoensurethatanychangeinsocialattitudesislonglastingistoallowsuchchangetotakeplacegraduallyinindividual462Sixstates(Vermont,Connecticut,California,NewHampshire,NewJersey,andOregon)providetheequivalentofspousalrightstosame-sexcoupleswithinthestate.
Threestates(Hawaii,Maine,andWashington)andtheDistrictofColumbiaprovidesomespousalrightstosame-sexcoupleswithinthestate.
SeeHumanRightsCampaign,RelationshipRecognitionintheU.
S.
,http://www.
hrc.
org/documents/Relationship_Recognition_Laws_Map.
pdf(lastvisitedJanuary11,2008);seealsoAnthonyFaiola,NewHampshireIsSettoApproveSame-SexCivilUnions,WASH.
POST,Apr.
26,2007,atA1(notingthatin2000,Vermontbecamefirststatetopermitcivilunionsandthatsincethen,otherstates,includingConnecticut,NewJersey,andevenrelativelyconservativestateofNewHampshire,haveestablishedlawspermittingcivilunions).
463SeeBrokebackMountain(2005):Awards,N.
Y.
TIMES,http://movies.
nytimes.
com/movie/301840/Brokeback-Mountain/awards(lastvisitedFeb.
14,2008).
464Monteithetal.
,TheEffectofSocialNormActivationontheExpressionofOpinionsConcerningGayMenandBlacks,supranote338,at276.
465MargoJ.
Monteith,Self-RegulationofPrejudicedResponses:ImplicationsforProgressinPrejudice-ReductionEfforts,65J.
PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
469,483(1993)[hereinafterMonteith,Self-RegulationofPrejudicedResponses].
466The"cost"hereisalargeoneinthatitinvolvesallowingsomeonewhohaskilledagaymantoreceiveareducedsentenceorpossiblynosentenceatall.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense557courtroomsacrossthecountry.
Tryingtoforcesuchchangethroughlegislativeorjudicialbanswillonlysucceedindrivingtheseargumentsundergroundwheretheycanappealtosubconsciousbias.
IV.
SUGGESTIONSFORREFORMA.
ProvidingGuidancetoTrialCourtsInlightoftheconsiderationsdiscussedabove,Isuggestthatwhenadefendantwishestoassertagaypanicargumenttobolsteraclaimofprovocationorself-defense,thejudgeshouldallowthedefendanttodosoaslongasthereissomeevidencetosupporttheelementsofthedefense.
467Thisapproachisconsistentwiththegeneralprinciplethatadefendantinacriminalcasehasaconstitutionalrighttopresentadefense.
468Whilethisrightisnotabsolute,469aconsiderablenumberofstatesalreadyrequiretrialjudgestogivearequesteddefenseinstructionifthereisanyevidence(orsomeevidence)tosupportthedefense.
Forexample,inAlaska,"thegeneralruleisthatthedefendantisentitledtoajuryinstructiononadefensetheoryifthereis'someevidence'tosupportit.
"470Asonejudgehasexplained:"Thedefendant'sburdenofproducing'someevidence'insupportofaproposeddefenseisnotaheavyone.
Ifadefendantproducessomeevidencetosupporteachelementofaspecificinstruction,'[a]nyweaknessorimplausibility'inthatevidenceisirrelevant.
"471InColorado,"[t]hequantumofevidencethatmustbeofferedbythe467IhavenoobjectiontojudgesrulingasamatteroflawthatthereisnosupportforatemporaryinsanityordiminishedcapacitydefenselinkedtogaypanicgiventhatneitherHomosexualPanicDisordernorhomosexualityconstituterecognizedmentaldiseases.
468See,e.
g.
,Chambersv.
Mississippi,410U.
S.
284,294(1973)("Therightofanaccusedinacriminaltrialtodueprocessis,inessence,therighttoafairopportunitytodefendagainsttheState'saccusations.
").
Foranexcellentdiscussionofonewayinwhichtherighttopresentadefensehasbeeneroded,seeDougColbert,TheMotioninLimineinPoliticallySensitiveCases:SilencingtheDefendantatTrial,39STAN.
L.
REV.
1271,1316-26(1987)(arguingagainstincreasingpracticeofusingmotioninliminetoprecludeentiredefenses).
469See,e.
g.
,Clarkv.
Arizona,548U.
S.
735,747-57(2006)(holdingthatArizona'sjudicialrulelimitingevidenceofmentaldiseaseordefecttoprovinginsanityandbarringitsadmissiontonegatemensreadoesnotviolatedueprocess);Montanav.
Egelhoff,518U.
S.
37,56(1996)(upholdingMontanastatutewhichprecludedevidenceofdefendant'svoluntaryintoxicationfrombeingadmittedtonegatemensreaagainstdueprocesschallenge).
470Snyderv.
State,930P.
2d1274,1280(Alaska1996)(emphasisadded).
471Statev.
Garrison,171P.
3d91,95(Alaska2007)(quotingToomeyv.
State,581P.
2d1124,1126n.
10(Alaska1978)).
558UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471defendantinordertobeentitledtoaninstructiononatheoryofdefenseis'ascintillaofevidence.
'472'Somecredibleevidence,'analternativestatementofthe'scintillaofevidence'standard,isnecessarytopresentanaffirmativedefense.
"473InFlorida,thedefendant"isentitledtohavethejuryinstructedontherulesoflawapplicabletothistheoryofthedefenseifthereisanyevidencetosupportsuchinstructions.
"474Similarly,inHawaii,"ajuryinstructionmustbegivenoneverydefenseifthereisanysupportintheevidence'nomatterhowweak,inclusiveorunsatisfactorytheevidencemaybe.
'"475InIllinois:Adefendantisentitledtoaninstructiononhistheoryofthecaseifthereissomefoundationfortheinstructionintheevidence,andifthereissuchevidence,itisanabuseofdiscretionforthetrialcourttorefusetosoinstructthejury.
Veryslightevidenceuponagiventheoryofacasewilljustifythegivingofaninstruction.
476Likewise,inKansas,adefendant"isentitledtoaninstructiononhisorhertheoryofthecaseeventhoughtheevidencethereonisslightandsupportedonlybythedefendant'sowntestimony.
"477InMaryland,adefendantneedonlyintroduce"[s]omeevidence"tosupporthisorherproposedinstruction.
478InNebraska,adefendantisentitledtoaninstruction"ifthereisanyevidencetosupport.
.
.
giving[it].
"479Similarly,NewHampshireprovidesthata"defendantisentitledtoajurychargeonhistheoryofdefenseifitissupportedby'someevidence.
'"480Ajudgewhoprohibitsadefendantfromarguinggaypanicgoesagainsttheserulesrequiringjuryinstructionsonthedefense'stheoryofthecaseaslongasitissupportedbysomeevidence.
472Peoplev.
Saavedra-Rodriguez,971P.
2d223,228(Colo.
1998)(quotingPeoplev.
Lundy,533P.
2d920,921(1975))(emphasisadded).
473Id.
(quotingPeoplev.
Dover,790P.
2d834,836(Colo.
1990))(emphasisadded).
474Bryantv.
State,601So.
2d529,533(Fla.
1992)(quotingHooperv.
State,476So.
2d1253,1256(Fla.
1985))(emphasisadded).
475Statev.
Davalos,153P.
3d456,458(Haw.
2007)(quotingStatev.
O'Daniel,616P.
2d1383,1390(Haw.
1980))(emphasisadded).
476Peoplev.
Jones,676N.
E.
2d646,649(Ill.
1997)(citingPeoplev.
Crane,585N.
E.
2d99,101(Ill.
1991))(emphasisadded).
477Statev.
Bell,80P.
3d367,373(Kan.
2003)(citingStatev.
Barnes,948P.
2d627,638(Kan.
1997)).
478Dykesv.
State,571A.
2d1251,1257(Md.
1990).
479Statev.
Nguth,701N.
W.
2d852,858(Neb.
Ct.
App.
2005)(emphasisadded).
480Statev.
Cote,725A.
2d652,658(N.
H.
1999)(quotingStatev.
Aubert,421A.
2d124,125(N.
H.
1980))(emphasisadded).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense559Letmebeclear.
Iamnotadvocatingofficialrecognitionofafreestandinggaypanicdefense.
Iammerelysuggestingthatattemptstoprohibitgaypanicclaimsarenotlikelytosucceedinshieldingthejuryfromconsideringtheforbiddentopic.
Asmodernbehavioralresearchdemonstrates,attemptstoblindfoldthejuryinothercontexts,suchasinsuranceandattorneys'fees,donotwork.
481Implicitbiasresearchsuggeststhatmakingbiassalientcanhelpjurorscognitivelyprocessandrejectstereotype-congruentresponses.
Forthesereasons,judgesshouldallowdefendantstopresentgaypanicprovocationorgaypanicself-defenseargumentstothejurywhensomeevidenceofeachoftheelementsofthetraditionalcriminallawdefenseispresent.
Tolimittheeffectivenessofgaypanicdefensestrategies,Ioffertwosuggestionstoprosecutors:(1)duringvoirdire,requestquestionsdesignedtoidentifyclosethomophobes,and(2)makethepossibilityofsexualorientationbiassalientthroughoutthetrial.
B.
QuestionstoAskDuringJurySelectionDuringjuryselection,attorneysmayhavetheopportunitytoaskorrequestquestionsdesignedtofleshoutwhetheraprospectivejurorislikelytobebiasedagainstonesideortheother.
482Ifanattorneycandemonstratethataprospectivejurorisbiased,thatattorneycanchallengethejurorforcause.
483Additionally,anattorneycanuseoneofhisorherperemptorychallengestostrikeaprospectivejurorforanyreason(otherthanraceorgender)484ornoreasonatall.
Additionally,duringvoirdire,theattorneyscanremindjurorsoftheirobligationtodecidethecasewithoutlettingbiasorunfairprejudiceinfluencetheirdecision-making.
Prosecutorsmaywishtoaskorrequestquestionsthataredirectlyrelevanttosexualorientationtoremindjurorsoftheirdutytobefairandunbiased.
Suchquestionsmightincludethefollowing:481SeeDiamond&Vidmar,supranote234,at1865-66.
482SeeValerieP.
Hans&AlaynaJehle,TheJuryinPractice:AvoidBaldMenandPeoplewithGreenSocksOtherWaystoImprovetheVoirDireProcessinJurorSelection,78CHI.
-KENTL.
REV.
1179,1184-85(2003).
483Achallengeforcauseisachallenge"supportedbyaspecifiedreason,suchasbiasorprejudice,thatwoulddisqualifythatpotentialjuror.
"BLACK'SLAWDICTIONARY245(8thed.
2004).
484J.
E.
B.
v.
Alabama,511U.
S.
127,129(1994)(gender);Batsonv.
Kentucky,476U.
S.
79,84(1986)(race).
560UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471Thistrialinvolvesagaymalevictim.
HowmightthisaffectyourreactionstothetrialDoyouhaveanybiasesorprejudicesthatmightpreventyoufromjudgingthiscasefairlygiventhatitinvolvesagayvictimInyouropinion,shouldthesexualorientationofthedefendantinfluencethetreatmenthereceivesinthelegalsystemSocialscienceresearchonraceandthejurysuggeststhataskingprospectivejurorsabouttheirracialattitudesduringvoirdirehelpstoreduceracialbiasduringdecision-makingbyremindingCategoryThreejurorsoftheiregalitarianvalues.
485Inonestudy,forexample,researchersdividedmockjurorsintogroupsbeforeshowingthemathirty-minuteCourtTVvideosummaryofatrialinvolvingaBlackdefendantchargedwithsexualassault.
486Somegroupsofmockjurorsweresubjectedtoraciallyrelevantvoirdirequestioningandotherswerenot.
487Theraciallyrelevantquestionsincludedthefollowing:ThistrialinvolvesanAfricanAmericandefendantandWhitevictims.
HowmightthisaffectyourreactionstothetrialDoyouhaveanybiasesorprejudicesthatmightpreventyoufromjudginganAfricanAmericandefendantfairlyInyouropinion,howdoestheraceofthedefendantaffectthetreatments/hereceivesfrompoliceInyouropinion,howdoestheraceofadefendantinfluencethetreatments/hereceivesinthelegalsystemasawhole488Only34.
4%ofthoseinthegroupthatreceivedraciallyrelevantvoirdirevotedtoconvicttheBlackdefendantcomparedto47.
1%ofthoseinthegroupthatreceivedraciallyneutralvoirdirequestions.
489Ifmakingracesalientduringjuryselectionhelpsreduceracialbiasduringjurydeliberations,asimilarreductioninsexualorientationbasismayoccurifsexualorientationismadesalient.
485Sommers&Ellsworth,WhiteJurorBias,supranote410,at222.
486SamuelR.
Sommers&PhoebeC.
Ellsworth,OnRacialDiversityandGroupDecision-making:IdentifyingMultipleEffectsofRacialCompositiononJuryDeliberations,90J.
PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
597,601-02(2006).
487Id.
at602.
488Id.
489Id.
at603.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense561Justasfewindividualsarelikelytoansweraffirmativelyifasked,"AreyouprejudicedagainstBlacks,"fewindividualsarelikelytoadmitthattheyareprejudicedagainstgaysandlesbians.
Mostheterosexualindividualseitherwillseektohidetheirbiasesbecausetheyknowitispoliticallyincorrecttobebiasedagainstgaysandlesbians,orwillsaypositivethingsaboutgaysandlesbiansbecausetheysincerelybelievethesethings.
Evenjurorswhofeelpositivelyaboutgaysandlesbians,however,maybeimplicitlybiasedinfavorofheterosexualityandagainsthomosexuality.
Incaseswherejurorsmighttrytohidetheirsexualorientationbias,theattorneyswillwanttothinkcarefullyaboutthedifferentkindsofindividualswhomightbeinthejurypool.
Usingraceasanexample,individualsarelikelytofallintooneofthreecategories.
490InCategoryOneareexplicitracists,includingmembersoftheKuKluxKlanandotherWhitesupremacistorganizations.
CategoryOneindividualsarenothesitanttoexpresspubliclytheirbeliefthattheWhitemanissuperiorandtheBlackmanisinferior.
InCategoryTwoareclosetracists,individualswhoknowthatitisunacceptabletosay,"IthinkBlacksareinferior,"butwhoactuallybelieveBlacksareinferior.
Finally,inCategoryThreeareimplicitracists,individualswhoholdegalitarianbeliefsaboutBlacks,butalsohaveimplicitbiasinfavorofWhitesoverBlacks.
Mappingsexualorientationontothesethreecategories,CategoryOnewouldincludeexplicithomophobesorindividualswhoarenotshyaboutsharingtheirbeliefthathomosexualityisabnormalandhomosexualbehaviorisimmoral.
SomedeeplyreligiousindividualsmightfallintoCategoryOne.
CategoryTwowouldincludeclosethomophobesorindividualswhowillnotsaypubliclythattheythinkgaysareimmoralanddeviant,butactuallybelievegaysareimmoralanddeviant.
CategoryTwoindividualsmightpubliclyprofesstoholdegalitarianviewsabouthomosexualitybutprivatelyopposehavingagayorlesbianastheirchild'steacher.
Finally,CategoryThreeindividuals,implicithomophobes,wouldincludeheterosexualswhobelievegaysandlesbiansshouldbetreatedequallytoheterosexualsbutwhononethelesswouldmanifestimplicitbiasinfavorofheterosexualityandagainsthomosexualityiftheyweretotakeanIATmeasuringsexualorientationbias.
Inagaypaniccase,prosecutorswillwanttoweedoutindividualsinCategoryOne(explicithomophobes)andCategoryTwo(closet490SeeJOELKOVEL,WHITERACISM:APSYCHOHISTORY54-55(PantheonBooks1970)(identifyingthreecategoriesofracists:(1)dominativeracists,(2)aversiveracists,and(3)unconsciousracists).
562UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471homophobes).
ItshouldnotbedifficulttofindtheexplicithomophobesinCategoryOnebecausetheseindividualswillnotbeashamedofexpressingnegativeviewsabouthomosexualityinpublic.
CategoryOneindividualswouldlikelybesubjecttoachallengeforcause.
Itmay,however,bedifficulttoferretoutCategoryTwoindividualsbecauseclosethomophobesknowthatitlooksbadtoappearbiasedagainstgaysandlesbians.
Tofindtheclosethomophobes,prosecutorswillwanttoaskquestionsthatindirectlymeasureaprospectivejuror'sattitudesabouthomosexuality.
DrurySherrodandPeterNardiconductedastudydesignedtoidentifypotentiallyhomophobicjurorsduringvoirdire.
491Recognizingthatsomejurorsmighttrytohidetheirtruebiasesto"savefaceinthecourtroom,"SharrodandNardisoughttoidentifyproxyorsurrogatequestionsthatcorrelatewithhomophobicattitudesbutaremorelikelytoelicitatruthfulresponsethandirectquestionsaboutajuror'sattitudesabouthomosexuality.
492SherrodandNardifoundthatasageneralmatter,themosthomophobicindividualsdidnothaveanyclosefriendswhoweregayorlesbian.
Theyalsothoughttheworldwouldbeabetterplaceifmorepeoplefollowed"old-fashionedvalues,"werepoliticallyconservative,andattendedreligiousservicesweeklyorbelievedreligiousbeliefswerealwaysimportantinguidingtheirdailydecisions.
493Additionally,manyofthemosthomophobicindividualsthoughtthatthefederalandstategovernmentsweredoingenoughtomakesureindustrydoesnotpollutetheenvironment,didnotreadthelocalnewspaperoranymagazinesonaregularbasis,werenotcollegeeducated,hadservedtimeintheUnitedStatesArmedForces,andlivedintheSouth.
494SherrodandNardiconcludedthatifanattorneywantstofindoutwhichpersonsonthevenirearethemosthomophobic,thefollowingquestionswouldbehelpfultoaskduringvoirdire:495DoyouhaveanyclosefriendswhoaregayorlesbianPolitically,areyouliberal,middle-of-the-road,orconservative491DrurySherrod&PeterM.
Nardi,HomophobiaintheCourtroom:AnAssessmentofBiasesAgainstGayMenandLesbiansinaMultiethnicSampleofPotentialJurors,inSTIGMAANDSEXUALORIENTATION,supranote448,at27.
492Id.
493Id.
at33-35.
494Id.
495Id.
at36-37.
2008]TheGayPanicDefense563HowimportantareyourreligiousbeliefsinguidingyourdailydecisionsDoyouthinktheworldwouldbeabetterplaceifmorepeoplefollowedold-fashionedvaluesDoyoutrytoattendreligiousservicesatyourchurchortempleeveryweekArefederalandstategovernmentsdoingenoughtomakesureindustrydoesnotpollutetheenvironmentweliveinHowthoroughlydoyoureadyourlocalnewspapereverydayPleasetellmethepostalZIPcodewhereyoulive.
WhatisyourcurrentmaritalstatusWhatisyourreligionHaveyoueverservedintheU.
S.
ArmedForcesDoyoufeelyourlifeismorecontrolledbyfatethanbyplanningDoyoureadanymagazinesonaregularbasisWhatisyourhighestlevelofeducation496Ifprosecutorsareabletoidentifybothexplicithomophobesandclosethomophobes,andstrikeallormostoftheseindividuals,thejurywillbecomprisedofmostlyegalitarian-mindedjurorswhowanttoactfairlyandnotletnegativestereotypesaboutgaymeninfluencetheverdict.
497Iftheprosecutorthenmakessexualorientationsalient,496Socialscienceresearchsuggeststhatnegativeattitudesabouthomosexualitytendtodiminishwithincreasedlevelsofeducation.
SeeWright,Adams&Bernat,supranote448,at345.
497Thedefensemaytrytousetheirperemptorychallengestostrikealltheopenlygayindividualsonthejury.
Ifthishappens,theprosecutorshouldfileaBatsonchallenge.
Batsonv.
Kentucky,476U.
S.
79,96-98(1986)(holdinguseofperemptorychallengetodiscriminateonbasisofraceviolatesequalprotection);seeJ.
E.
B.
v.
Alabama,511U.
S.
127,129(1994)(extendingBatsontoprohibituseofperemptorychallengesbasedongender).
ThedefensewilllikelyarguethatBatsonshouldnotbeextendedtosexualorientationbecausesexualorientationhasnotbeenrecognizedasaspecialclassificationdeservingofheightenedscrutinyundertheEqualProtectionClause.
TheprosecutorcancounterthatBatsonprohibitstheuseofperemptorychallengestostrikeamemberofacognizablegroup,andthatgaysandlesbiansareacognizablegroupbecausetheyshareacommonperspectivearisingfromtheirlifeexperiencesandhavebeensingledoutfordifferenttreatmentunderthelaws.
SeeUnitedStatesv.
Castaneda-Partida,430U.
S.
482,494(1977)(definingcognizable564UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471thejuryislikelytorejectthedefenseappealtonegativestereotypesaboutgaymenasdeviantsexualpredators,anddecidethecaseinanunbiasedmanner.
C.
MakingSexualOrientationSalientThroughGenderandSexualOrientationSwitchingAnotherwayaprosecutorcanmakesexualorientationsalientistousegenderandsexualorientationswitchingduringopeningandclosingstatements.
Theprosecutorcanaskjurorstoimaginethesamefactsbutwithagaymaledefendantwhokillsaheterosexualfemalevictimaftershemakesanunwantedsexualadvance.
Ifjurorswouldthinkthegaymanunreasonableifheweretorespondthewaythedefendantintheactualcaseresponded,theyshouldthinktwicebeforedecidingthatthedefendantwasreasonablyprovoked.
Theprosecutorcanthenaskjurorstoimaginethesamefactsbutwithafemaledefendantwhokillsaheterosexualmanafterhemakesanunwantedsexualadvance.
Ifjurorswouldthinkthefemaleunreasonable,jurorsshouldagainthinktwiceaboutwhethertheyshouldacceptthedefendant'sclaimofreasonableprovocation.
Second,theprosecutorcanaskthejudgetogivethejuryarole-reversaljuryinstruction.
498Suchaninstructionwouldtelljurorsthatitisinappropriatetoallowbiasonthebasisofrace,ethnicity,nationalorigin,gender,religion,orsexualorientationtoinfluencetheirdecision-making.
Thejuryinstructionwouldthenhelpmakejurorsawareofthepossibilityofanti-gaybiasoperatingatthelevelofthesubconsciousbyaskingjurorstoimaginethesamefactsbutwiththedefendantagaymanwhokillsaheterosexualwomanaftershemakesasexualadvancesimilartotheoneallegedlymadebytheactualgaymalevictim.
Alternatively,jurorscouldimaginethedefendantasaheterosexualwomanwhokillsaheterosexualmanwhomakesasexualadvancesimilartotheoneallegedlymadebytheactualvictim.
Ifjurorscometoadifferentconclusionaboutthedefendant'sgroup).
498Inotherwork,Ihaveproposedthatjudgesgivearace-switchingjuryinstructiontolimittheinfluenceofracialstereotypes.
Lee,RaceandSelf-Defense,supranote379,at481-82;seealsoLEE,MURDERANDTHEREASONABLEMAN,supranote80,at252-59(suggestingrole-reversaljuryinstructionsasmeansofillustratingmeaningofnormativereasonableness).
Inrecognitionofthefactthatracialstereotypesandprejudicecanadverselyaffectjurydecision-making,theSupremeCourthasheldthatacapitaldefendantaccusedofaninterracialcrimeisentitledtohaveprospectivejurorsquestionedontheissueofracialbiasifthedefendantspecificallyrequestssuchvoirdire.
Turnerv.
Murray,476U.
S.
28,36-37(1986).
2008]TheGayPanicDefense565culpabilityintheimaginedscenarios,thiswouldalertthemtothepossibilitythattheymayhaveallowedanti-gaybiastoinfluencetheirdecision-makinginthefirstplace.
Theywouldthenwanttoreconsidertheactualfactsofthecase.
Somemightdoubttheefficacyoftellingjurorsnottobeprejudicedagainstthevictimbecauseofhissexualorientation.
499Theproposedrole-reversalinstruction,however,goesbeyondmerelytellingjurorsnottobebiased.
Itwarnsjurorsofthepossibilityofsexualorientationbias,tellsthemthatsuchbiasisinappropriate,andthengivesjurorsavehicleforcheckingthemselvesforsuchbias.
Itmakessexualorientationfarmoresalientthananinstructionsimplytellingjurorsnottobebiased.
Socialscienceresearchsuggeststhattheuseofmentalimagerycanhelpreduceimplicitbiasinallindividuals500andthatthefirststeptoovercomingimplicitbiasisawareness.
501Arole-reversaljuryinstructioncanmakejurorsawareofthepossibilityofimplicitbiasinaverytangibleway.
502Additionalresearchsuggeststhatmotivationtobenon-biasedcancurbtheotherwiseautomaticeffectsofanti-gaybias.
503Itisparticularlyimportantincasesinvolvingclaimsofgaypanictoallowsuchclaimstobeheard.
Suppressionofgaypanicclaims,likesuppressionofbadspeech,willnoteliminatetheunderlyingstereotypesandassumptionsthatmakesuchclaimspersuasive.
Open499See,e.
g.
,BronwynStatham,Note,TheHomosexualAdvanceDefence:'Yeah,IKilledHim,butHeDidWorsetoMe'Greenv.
R.
,20U.
QUEENSLANDL.
J.
301,302,311(1998-1999)(arguingthatjuryinstructionstellingjurorsnottobeprejudicedagainstdefendantorvictimonbasisoftheirsexualorientationareunlikelytolimitinfluenceofhomophobicprejudiceinHomosexualAdvanceDefensecases).
500SeeIreneV.
Blairetal.
,ImaginingStereotypesAway:TheModerationofImplicitStereotypesThroughMentalImagery,81J.
PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
828,828(2001)(findingthatparticipantswhoengagedincounter-stereotypicmentalimageryshowedweakerimplicitbiasthanthosewhoengagedinneutral,stereotypic,ornomentalimagery).
501SeeMargoJ.
Monteith,Self-RegulationofPrejudicedResponses,supranote465,at472,477-78(findingthatwhenlow-prejudiceindividualswerefalselyledtobelievethattheyhaddiscriminatedagainstgaymalelawschoolapplicantonbasisofhissexualorientationandthenreadessayonreasonswhypeoplesometimesrespondmorenegativelytowardgaysthantheythinktheyshouldandhowtoreducesuchnegativeresponses,theyengagedinself-reflectionandconcertedattemptstocontrolfutureprejudicedresponses).
502TheauthoriscurrentlyengagedinempiricalresearchwithDonaldBraman,DanKahan,andJeffRachlinskitotestwhethergivingmockjurorsarace-switchingjuryinstructioncanreduceimplicitbiasincasesinvolvingminoritydefendants.
503SeeNilanjanaDasgupta&LuisM.
Rivera,FromAutomaticAntigayPrejudicetoBehavior:TheModeratingRoleofConsciousBeliefsAboutGenderandBehavioralControl,91J.
PERSONALITY&SOC.
PSYCHOL.
268,277(2006).
566UniversityofCalifornia,Davis[Vol.
42:471discussionanddebateisabetterwaytocombatthoseassumptions.
Makingsexualorientationsalientthroughrole-reversalexercisescanhelpjurorsconsciouslymediateandcontrolwhatwouldotherwisebeautomaticstereotype-congruentresponses.
CONCLUSIONThereisnoquestionthatwhenmurderdefendantsarguegaypanic,theyseektotapintodeep-seatedbiasesagainstandstereotypesaboutgaymenasdeviantsexualpredatorswhoposeathreattoinnocentyoungheterosexualmales.
Thequestioniswhatrolethelawshouldplayinmediatingtheculturalconflictoverwhatconstitutestheappropriateresponsetoanunwantedhomosexualadvance.
RobertPostexplainsthatsomebelievethelawshouldonlyenforceexistingculturalnorms,reflectingthecurrentmoraljudgmentsofthecommunity.
504Post,however,alsonotesthatwhilethelawissometimesusedtoenforceexistingculturalnorms,itisalsosometimesusedtoreviseandreshape,orconstitute,culture.
505Becauseculturalnormsunfoldovertime,"lawisperenniallyimplicatedinculturalconflict,sothatculturalchangeanddisagreementistheordinarystateofaffairsratherthantheexception.
"506"Controversiesoverthestatusofhomosexualityaretodaythesiteofintenseculturaldispute.
"507Ibelievethelawcanandshouldplayaroleinmediatingthisculturaldispute—notbydictatingwhatjurorscanandcannotconsider,butbymakingsurejurorsarecognitivelyawareofwhatexactlyisatstakewhenagaypersonisthevictimoffatalviolence,andthepersonwhokilledhimclaimshedidsoinresponsetoanunwantedsexualadvance.
504RobertPost,LawandCulturalConflict,78CHI.
-KENTL.
REV.
485,485-86(2003)(citingPATRICKDEVLIN,THEENFORCEMENTOFMORALS10(1965)).
505Id.
at488.
506Id.
at494.
507Id.
at495.