Billhaole16.com

Criterion:AJournalofLiteraryCriticismVolume10|Issue1Article182017Criterion:AJournalofLiteraryCriticism,Vol.
10:Iss.
1Followthisandadditionalworksat:https://scholarsarchive.
byu.
edu/criterionPartoftheEnglishLanguageandLiteratureCommonsThisArticleisbroughttoyouforfreeandopenaccessbytheAllJournalsatBYUScholarsArchive.
IthasbeenacceptedforinclusioninCriterion:AJournalofLiteraryCriticismbyanauthorizededitorofBYUScholarsArchive.
Formoreinformation,pleasecontactscholarsarchive@byu.
edu,ellen_amatangelo@byu.
edu.
BYUScholarsArchiveCitation(2017)"Criterion:AJournalofLiteraryCriticism,Vol.
10:Iss.
1,"Criterion:AJournalofLiteraryCriticism:Vol.
10:Iss.
1,Article18.
Availableat:https://scholarsarchive.
byu.
edu/criterion/vol10/iss1/18"Ifyoucompareseveralrepresentativepassagesofthegreatestpoetryyouseehowgreatisthevarietyoftypesofcombination,andalsohowcompletelyanysemi-ethicalcriterionof'sublimity'missesthemark.
Foritisnotthe'greatness,'theintensity,oftheemotions,thecomponents,buttheintensityoftheartisticprocess,thepressure,sotospeak,underwhichthefusiontakesplace,thatcounts.
"T.
S.
Eliot,"TraditionandtheIndividualTalent"CriterionispublishedbytheBYUDepartmentofEnglish.
Thecontentsrepresenttheopinionsandbeliefsoftheauthorsandnotnecessarilythoseoftheeditors,staff,advisors,BrighamYoungUniversity,oritssponsoringinstitution,TheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-daySaints.
Seescholarsarchive.
byu.
edu/criterionformoreinformation.
Copyright2017.
Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmayberepro-ducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,pho-tocopying,recording,orothers,withoutwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.
PrintedbyBrighamYoungUniversityPress.
Provo,Utah,USA.
CoverdesignbyAmandaSmithStaffEditors-in-ChiefChelseaLeeMakaylaOkamuraFacultyAdvisorEmronEsplinEditorsBreannaAnderlHaileyBlatterMeganClarkJordanDaleboutMorganDanielsEliseDavidsonAdamGarrettMcKayHansenAlisaHulmeClarissaMcIntireEricaOstergarJacquelineSmithAspenStanderContentsviiiEditors'NoteChelseaLee&MakaylaOkamura1RacioculturalUnionand"FraternityofFeeling"Ishmael'sRedemptioninMoby-DickEmilyButler-Probst19TheSpaceIn-betweenExploringLiminalityinJaneEyreMeganClark29TheAmericanHeroinaHawaiianMythConvergenceofCulturesinLondon's"KoolautheLeper"MorganDaniels39Dante'sDivineComedyAPastoralSubversionKatieFrancom51TheStar-SpangledBansheeFearoftheUnknowninTheThingsTheyCarriedMcKayHansen65"BlametheDueofBlame"TheEthicsandEfficacyofCursesinRichardIIIAlexandraMalouf75TheMagicofYeats'"TheLakeIsleofInnisfree"Kabbalism,Numerology,andTarotCardsGenevievePettijohn87WritinginSuspenseACritiqueonAmericanCultureThroughObjectiveandSubjectiveReportageBrittanyTwigg101ForumPromptWhatCanPoeDoForYouScottPeeples107MetempsychosisintheWizardingWorldHannahE.
Degn117DevelopingaFeministPedagogyALookatIntersectionalityTheoryandPoe'sWomenRileyHaacke127Poe'sGothicSoulin"Metzengerstein"AnInvitationtoLookInsideElizabethPeek137TheDevil'sintheDetailsACharacterizationofMontresorinPoe's"TheCaskofAmontillado"AudreySaxton147ContributorsEditors'NoteCriterion:AJournalofLiteraryCriticismisastudent-runjournalassociatedwiththeEnglishDepartmentatBrighamYoungUniversity.
Wearesupportedbyateamofdedicatedvolunteerstudenteditors,andweknowthatwecouldneverproducethisjournalwithouttheiramazingefforts.
Ithasbeenalongandbusysemester,butweareproudoftheworkthatourstaffhasbeenabletoproduceundertheconsistentpressure.
ItwasoneyearagothatwebegancontemplatingthedirectionforourWinter2017issue,andweareincrediblypleasedwithhowourgoalscametofruitioninthisissue.
Inourinitialmeeting,weknewwewantedtocreateaspecialforumaroundEdgarAllanPoe,andwewerefortunateenoughtoreceiveawonderfulandthoughtprovokingforumpromptfromProfessorScottPeeplesfromtheCollegeofCharleston.
WewouldliketothankDr.
PeeplesforhiseffortsandthecontributionhemadetoCriterion.
Hisprompt"WhatCanPoeDoforYou"generatedagreatamountofinterestandencouragedourauthorstoapproachPoeinanewway.
Weareexcitedtopresentourreaderswiththeseintriguingpapersintheforumsectionofthisissue.
Wealsoreceivedanunprecedentedresponsetoouropensubmissioncall.
Thevarietyoftopicswereceivedmadeforanexhilaratingfinaldeci-sion.
FromDanteandShakespearetoCapoteandO'Brien,webelievethisissue'sarticleswillappealtothewideandvariedinterestsofourreaders.
ixWinter2017Whileitisdifficulttoadequatelyexpressourappreciationtoalloftherelevantpartiesconnectedwithastudentjournal,wewouldliketoespeciallythanktheBYUEnglishDepartmentfortheircontinuedsup-portforthejournal.
Wewouldalsoliketoshowourgratitudetoourfac-ultyadvisor,EmronEsplin,forbeingapillarofsupportforthisjournalforthepastthreeyears.
Finally,wewouldliketorecognizetheeffortsofAmandaSmith,whowonourcoverdesigncontest,givingusadelightfullyPoe-themedaestheticforthisissue.
WesincerelyhopethatourreadersenjoytheWinter2017issueofCriterion:AJournalofLiteraryCriticism.
ChelseaLeeandMakaylaOkamura,Editors-in-ChiefRacioculturalUnionand"FraternityofFeeling"Ishmael'sRedemptioninMoby-DickEmilyButler-ProbstHermanMelville'sfocusonAhabinMoby-Dick,andparticularlyhisfocusonthedestructiveconsequencesofAhab'sobsessionwithdiscoveringhiddentruths,isnotnecessarilyaconcernwiththedesiretoseektruth,butratherwiththeisolationthatAhabbringsuponhimselfthroughhissearching.
Ahab's"madness"isamad-nessofisolatedfixationwithtruthwhichcanbecounteredbyhumancompanionship—muchlikeMelville'sownfriendshipwithNathanielHawthorne.
InaletterwrittentoHawthorne,MelvilleexpressedtheconnectionthathefeltwithHawthorneasafellowauthorandfriendwhounderstoodhimandhiswriting:"Asenseofunspeakablesecurityisinmeatthismoment,onaccountofyourhavingunderstoodthebook.
.
.
IfeelthattheGodheadisbrokenuplikethebreadatthesup-perandwearethepieces.
Hencethisinfinitefraternityoffeeling"(Let-ters142).
Melville'sexpressionofhisprofoundconnectiontoHawthorneissignificantbecauseitisbothanintellectualconnectionandanemo-tionalbondcomingoutofHawthorne'srecognitionofthemajorthemesatworkinMoby-Dick.
Melville'sspiritualizeddescriptionoftheconnec-tionanddeepfriendshipthatheshareswithHawthorneisparticularlyinterestingbecauseitisintensifiedinMelville'sdepictionofIshmaeland2CriterionQueequeg'scompanionship.
JustasMelvilleandHawthorne'sfriendshipiscomparabletocommunionbread,Ishmael'smulticulturalcompanion-shipwithQueequegisaredeemingexperiencethatsaveshimfromthebeliefthathecanpossessalloftheanswerstolife'squestions.
Assuch,QueequegbecomesaChristfigurewhointroducesIshmaeltoculturalothernessandrelativism,savinghimmentallyfromthehellishmadnessexperiencedbyAhabinthesamewaythatQueequeg's"coffin"physicallysavesIshmaelattheconclusionofthenovel(Moby-Dick427).
InordertoilluminatetheidealnatureofIshmael'scommunalmulticulturalism,MelvillejuxtaposesthecharacterofAhab,whodirectshiseffortsonlytowardhisownselfish,personalmissiontodissectthemeaningofMobyDick.
Hisexpressedgoalmovesbeyondadesiretoachievevengeanceforthelossofhislegtoanepistemologicaldesireto"strikethroughthemask"ofthewhale'senigmaticsurfaceanddiscovertheunderlyingsecretswithin(140).
Ahab'spursuitofthewhaleisapursuitofabsolutetruth,andasaresult,herequiresunitary,objectiveanswersinordertolocatethewhaleandextracttheknowledgethatheseeks.
WhenAhabispresentedwiththeheadofadecapitatedwhalethatthecrewhasharvested,heasksthisseveredheadtorevealthesolitarysecretcontainedwithin,commandingthepersonifiedwhalehead:"Tellusthesecretthingthatisinthee.
Ofalldivers,thouhastdivedthedeepest"(249).
Ahab'sassertioninthispassagethatthewhalehas"divedthedeepest"illustratesMelville'smetaphorictreatmentofdivingasasymbolfordeepknowledgeandabstractinterpretation.
AsIshmaelalsoattemptstointerpretthewhitewhaleandhissignificance,henotesthatexplainingthefullmysteryofthewhale"wouldbetodivedeeperthanIshmaelcango,"indicatinghisinterestinunderstandingthewhalecoupledwithrecognitionofhisownlimitationsandtheinaccessibilityofthedeepestdepthsofknowledge(158).
Additionally,thenotionofdivingasanindicationofinterpretationcanbeseenin"TheDoubloon,"whentheeffortsofvariouscrewmemberstointerpretthecointhatAhabhasnailedtothemastcausestheirfacestotakeonanaspectthat"mightbesomewherewithinninefathomslong.
Andallfromlookingatapieceofgold"(333).
Thischangeinfacialexpressionstemsfromthecrewmembers'interpretiveprocess.
Thecrewmembers'attempttodiscovermeaningintheambiguousimagesdepictedonthecoincausestheirfacestobecome"ninefathomslong"—parallelingthedivingmovementsoftheirmindsinto3Winter2017theoceanicdepthsofepistemologicalmysteries.
Melville'slinkbetweendivinganddeepinterpretivethoughtexplainsAhab'sclaimthatthedeepdivingwhalemaybeabletoprovideanswerstothemysteriesthatplaguehislife,suchastheultimatereasonorpurposebehindthelossofhisleg.
Ahab'sneedtounderstandthesignificanceofhisinjury,andhisdesiretopursuetheseanswersinspiteofthedangerstohimselfandhiscrew,representsanobsessiveimpulse,aneedtoascertaindefinitivetruthsbeyondtheirpracticallimits.
LaurenBeckerobservesasimilarproblemwithAhab'sfixationondefinitiveanswers:"[Ahab's]monomaniacanbeseenasanobsessivedesirewithhisTruth,regardlessofitspracticalconsequences.
EvenwhenhelearnsofhisTruth'simpracticality,hisstubbornnesswillnotallowhimtogiveitup"(43).
Ahab'sinsistence,notonlythattheseveredwhaleheadholdsaccesstotruth,butalsothattheheadcontainsonlyonetruthor"secretthing,"illustrateshisdevotiontoseekingoutasingular,definiteanswerasthepurposeofhisquest.
Ahab'sobsessionwithdivingintointerpretivedepthsisultimatelyasolitaryanddestructiveone,somethingthatheexpressestoStarbuckbeforehisfinalassaultonthewhalewhenhecriesoutthathislifehasbeena"desolationofsolitude"(405).
Ahab'sreflectiononhisisolationcauseshimtoacknowledgethedetachmentthatbeganwithhisroleasacaptainandintensifiedduringhispursuitofMobyDick.
AsAhabobserves,hisroleasacaptaincontributedtohisinitialisolation,becausehisauthoritativeroleformedthe"walled-townofaCaptain'sexclusiveness,whichadmitsbutsmallentrancetoanysympathy"(405).
Afternotingtheauthoritythatisolateshimfromcommonsympathyandcommunionwithothers,Ahabchartsaprogressionfromisolationtothedehumanizingobsessionwithtruththathasdominatedhislife:"Andthen,themadness,thefrenzy,theboilingbloodandthesmokingbrow,withwhich,forathousandloweringsoldAhabhasfuriously,foaminglychasedhisprey—moreademonthanaman!
"(405).
Ahab'sinteractionwithStarbuckthroughoutthisdiscussionissurprisinglyopen,butitdescribesalifethathasbeencontinuouslyprivateandclosedoff,bothduetotheisolatingattributesofhisauthoritativecareerasacaptainand,moresignificantly,duetothedehumanizingisolationofhisobsession;afixationwithdefinitivetruththattheothercrewmemberscannotnecessarilyunderstand.
Itisthisobsessionwithdelvingintothedepthstofindtheultimatetruthwhileshuttingout4CriterionthecomfortingvoicesofcommunitywhichcausesAhabtolaunchintoapursuitofMobyDickthatdestroysbothhimselfandtheentirecrewwiththeexceptionofIshmael(Moby-Dick406).
AlthoughAhab'sdestructivedemisesuggeststhatisolationandanobsessivedesiretograspabsolutetruthcanbedestructive,Melville'sdesiretowrite,ponder,andexplorecomplexideas,andhissimilardepictionofIshmael,revealsthatintellectualsearchingisstillavaluablepursuit—aslongasitisconductedinasafemanner.
InordertosafelypursueintellectualinquiryMelvilleproposesthattheindividualmustbetetheredtootherhumanbeingsashesearchesinmuchthesamewaythemonkey-ropejoinsIshmaelandQueequegwhiletheyworkonharvestingmaterialsfromwhales(Moby-Dick255).
Inherstudyofphysicalcontactandthepursuitofknowledge,LisaAnnRobertsonnotesthattheattempttodeciphertruthcanbebeneficialsolongasitisbalancedbyhumancompanionshipandtheawarenessthatmanyabsolutetruthsareunattainable:"Weareincapableofknowingifmetaphysicalrealityexistsobjectivelybecauseitisempiricallyunverifiable.
Still,tryingtodiscoverthesetruthsmakesforagrandadventure,asMelvillesoaptlydemonstrates"(7).
Robertsonaddsthatthepersistentsearchfordeeperknowledgeispersonallyfulfilling,butthatit"mustbeaccompaniedbyhumantouch"sothatthepursuitofknowledgedoesnotresultinthepsychologicaldamageexperiencedbyAhab(7).
Thepotentialforhumancontactorcompanionshiptosaveamindmiredinabstractsearchingcanbeobservedinametaphoricalsenseinthechapter"CisternandBuckets,"whenQueequegrescuesTashtegofromdrowninginasinkingwhaleheadinwhichhehasbecometrapped.
AsTashtegoishelpingtoharvestspermacetifromoneofthewhales,hefallsinsidethewhale'sheadwhileitissinkingintothewater,anincidentassociatedwithabstractcontemplation:"Tashtego—likethetwinreciprocatingbucketinaveritablewell,droppedhead-foremostdownintothisgreatTunofHeidelburgh,andwithahorribleoilygurgling,wentcleanoutofsight!
"(271).
ThecombinationofTashtego'sdescentintothecontemplativedepthsoftheseaandhisphysicalplacementoffalling"head-foremost"intothiswhale'sheadbothconveytheconceptofexcessivecontemplationorabsolutism,whilethefactthatheisdrowninginthesedepthsconfirmstheinherentriskofthispursuit.
Whenitcomestotheintellectualspacerepresentedbythewhale'shead,SamuelOtterremarksthattheresultisconsiderablydisappointingbecause"it'sdisgusting.
It'soily.
It'sgurgling.
Andyou'redrowninginit"(151).
5Winter2017AsTashtegoplungesintothisintellectualabyss,hehasthepotentialtofacethesameisolateddestructionasAhab;however,MelvillepreventsTashtegofromfacingthissolitarydemisebyhavingQueequegleapintothewaterandsaveTashtego'slife.
AfterdivinginafterTashtego,QueequeguseshisswordtocutaholeinthebottomportionofthedescendingwhaleheadandthenpullsTashtegooutofthisnewly-formedhole.
Melville'sportrayalofQueequeg'sapproachtorescuingTashtegogoesbeyondasimpledescriptionofsavingadrowningmanandintolanguagethatimbuestheprocesswiththemetaphorofchildbirth.
WhilerescuingTashtego,Queequeg"thrust[s]hislongarmfarinwardsandupwards,andsohaul[s]outpoorTashbythehead,"anactionwhichdeliberatelymirrorsthebirthingprocess(272).
Additionally,thesuccessoftheQueequeg'soperationandrescueisdescribedbyMelvilleasthe"deliverance,orrather,deliveryofTashtego"(272).
Tashtago's"delivery"byQueequeghighlightstheroleofcommunityandtheneedtoberebornfromdestructivehabits.
Insteadofdrowninginawhaleheadthatisassociatedwithabstractpondering,Queequeg'srescueprovides"bothaliteralreleasefromthewhale'sheadandafigurativereleasefromconceptualcages"(Otter152).
ThisreleaseisbothinitiatedandcompletedbyinterpersonalcontactwhichfreesTashtego'smindfromisolatedintellectualdestruction.
ItisalsosignificantthatQueequeg'srescueisframedasaformof"delivery"orchildbirth,becausehisroleinsavingTashtegofromdeathincontemplativedepthsrepresentsaformofredemptionthatharkensbacktoChristiansalvation,whichnecessitatesbeing"bornagain"intoanewmindsetandoutlookonlife.
Tashtego'sexperienceofa"secondbirth"bybeingsavedfromdrowningincontemplativedepthsallowsMelvilletosetupametaphoricalsalvationnarrativethroughtheredemptiveeffortsofQueequeg.
Queequeg'sroleasa"savior"andhisrescueasaformof"salvation"aredisplayedinamoreovertsensethroughQueequeg'sinfluenceonIshmaelintheearlychaptersofMoby-Dick.
JustasQueequegsavesTashtegofromanuntimelydeathinintellectualwaters,healsosavesIshmaelfromafatesimilartoAhab'sdisastrouspursuitofdefinitivetruths,allowingIshmaeltoembracemultiplesourcesofknowledge.
Ishmael'sfirstencounterwithQueequegandtheirresultingcompanionshipinitiatesatransitioninIshmael'smindfromanAhabicdependenceondetachedobservationandexcessivecontemplationtoa6Criterionbalancedembraceofbothintellectandcommunity.
WhenIshmaelarrivesattheSpouterInntorestforthenightbeforesettingoutonhiswhalingvoyage,heisinformedthatalltheroomsarecurrentlyoccupiedandthathewillneedtoshareabedwithaharpooner.
Ishmael'sinitialreluctancetoshareabedwithQueequegstemslargelyfromtheinnkeeperPeterCoffin'sdescriptionofQueequegas"adarkcomplexionedchap"who"eatsnothingbutsteaks,andlikes'emrare"(28).
Coffin'sdescriptionofQueequegasaharpoonerfromanunfamiliarculturalandracialbackgroundisasourceofanxietyforIshmael,ananxietywhichheattemptstoassuagebysilentlywatchingQueequegundressandconducthisworshippractices.
Ishmael'sobservationofQueequeglastsforasurprisinglylongtime,objectifyingandstereotypingQueequegasaterrifyingOther:"Itwasnowquiteplainthathemustbesomeabominablesavageorother.
.
.
Apeddlerofheadstoo—perhapstheheadsofhisownbrothers.
Hemighttakeafancytomine—heavens!
lookatthattomahawk!
"(34–35).
Ishmael'sstereotypicalviewturnsQueequegintoafrighteningfigureratherthanallowinghimtoappreciateanewculturethathecouldembrace.
ObservingQueequeg'salternateculturalpracticesfromthesafetyofthebed,IshmaelseesQueequegasanenigmaticfigurewithtattoosandotherfeaturesthataremysterioustoIshmaelandcausehimtolongforanswers:"Iamnocoward,butwhattomakeofthishead-peddlingpurplerascalaltogetherpassedmycomprehension.
.
.
IwassoafraidofhimthatIwasnotgameenoughjustthentoaddresshim,anddemandasatisfactoryanswerconcerningwhatseemedinexplicableinhim"(34).
Ishmael'sobsessiveobservationofQueequeg'stattoosandhisinterestindiscoveringthe"inexplicable"inQueequegatthispointisalmostidenticaltoAhab'slaterobservationofQueequeg'stattoos.
WhenAhabisexposedtoQueequeg'stattoos,whichareimbuedwithameaningthatwillinevitably"moulderaway"uponQueequeg'sdeathandremain"unsolvedtothelast,"hestudiesthemandexpresseshisfrustrationthathemayconstantlystudyor"survey"Queequeg,butwillneverdiscovertheultimatemeaningoftheenigmatictattoos,referringtotheinaccessibilityofthetruthbehindthemasa"devilishtantalization"(366–367).
UnlikeAhab,whodiesasadetached,obsessiveobserverinpursuitofabsolutetruth,Ishmaelisforcedoutofhisobserverstatusandintotheroleofaparticipantandcompanion.
Ishmael'sanxiousobservationofQueequegquicklytransformsintooutrightterrorwhenQueequeg7Winter2017extinguishesthelights,jumpsintothebed,andinitiatesphysicalcontactwithIshmael:"Isangout.
Icouldnothelpitnow;andgivingagruntofastonishmenthebeganfeelingme"(35).
AsJosephFruscioneobserves,Queequeg'sphysicalcontactwithIshmaelshatterstheillusionthatIshmaelcanarriveatknowledgethroughobservationandforceshimintotheroleofaparticipant:"ForIshmael,thissafedistanceatwhichtoexperience'thespell'oflookingdisappears;hequicklytransformsfromanaudienceoftoaparticipantinQueequeg'spre-sleepritual"(15).
Ishmael'ssuddentransitionfromobservertoparticipantdismantleshisdependenceondetachedobservationandcauseshimtoembracephysicalcontactasasourceofknowledgebecausesoledependenceonsightisaninadequateempiricalmethod.
RobertsonexplainsthatthedetachedvisualsensesaresimplyunabletoarriveatinterpersonaltruthsaboutQueequegandIshmael'scompanionship:"JustashisearlyvisualimpressionsofQueequegasan'infernal'and'wildcannibal'arerevealedtobeincorrect,sohissenseofsightfailstoprovidehimwithaccurateinformationabouthisnewrelationshipwithQueequeg"(13).
Ishmael'sphysicalcontactwithQueequegservestoinitiatehisembraceofQueequeg'sculturalidentity,aculturalembracewhichIshmaelexpressesonlyafewparagraphslater:"What'sallthisfussIhavebeenmakingabout,thoughtItomyself—theman'sahumanbeingjustasIam"(36).
ContactwithQueequegtransformsIshmael,disruptinghisconfidenceinthedetachedintellectualgazeandallowinghimtorecognizetheneedforinterpersonalcontactinordertodiscovermulticulturaltruths.
WhilethedescriptionofIshmaelandQueequeg'sphysicalcontact,sharedbed,and"marriage"bringtomindhomoeroticassociations,thisrelationshiphasbeenexploredbyothercritics(see,forexample,theworksofStevenB.
HerrmannandLeslieFiedler),anditisworthnotingthattheconceptofmarriageandromanticattachmentisalsoutilizedintheBibleasanallegoryforsalvation.
InthebookofEphesians,husbandsareurgedtobasetheirtreatmentoftheirwivesontheexampleofChrist'sloveforthechurch:"Husbands,loveyourwives,asChristlovedthechurchandgavehimselfupforher,thathemightsanctifyher,havingcleansedherbythewashingofwaterwiththeword"(Eph5.
25–26).
Inthiscase,thebiblicalallegoryofmarriageisdesignedtorepresentanintimaterelationshipbetweenaredeeminglover,Christ,andhisbride,thechurch,whichreceiveshisaffection.
Giventhatthismarriageplaces8CriterionChristintheroleofthehusbandandthechurchasawife,itisparticularlystrikingthatMelvilleuseshisfamiliaritywiththeBibletoplaceIshmaelinthepositionofawifefigurewhenheawakensthenextmorningaftersharingthebedwithQueequeg:"IfoundQueequeg'sarmthrownovermeinthemostlovingandaffectionatemanner.
YouhadalmostthoughtIhadbeenhiswife"(Moby-Dick36).
ThisbondwithQueequegisvitaltoIshmael'spsychologicalhealth;PaulMcCarthyobservesinhisstudyofmadnessthatthefactthat"touchy,imaginativeIshmaelmanagestokeephisequilibrium"withoutdecliningintomadnesshimselfisprimarilyduetothedirectinfluenceofQueequeg(348).
BypositioningQueequegasaChrist-figureandIshmaelasanindividualinneedofredemption,Melvilleisalsoutilizingtheconceptofmarriagetopresentapictureofsalvation,theprimarydifferencebeingthatIshmaelreceivesaculturalredemptionratherthanareligiousconversion.
MelvillecontinuestodevelopIshmael'sstoryasasalvationnarrativeinthechapter"ABosomFriend,"whenIshmael'sperspectiveundergoesashiftfromseeingQueequegasanintriguingenigmatoviewinghimasapotentialcompanion.
WhileIshmael'searlierexperienceinsharingabedwithQueequegimpliesaredemptivemarriage,thispassageclearlydescribesIshmael'sacceptanceofQueequegasa"salvation"ofsortsthatisaccompaniedbyaninternaltransformation:"Ibegantobesensibleofstrangefeelings.
Ifeltameltinginme.
Nomoremysplinteredheartandmaddenedhandwereturnedagainstthewolfishworld.
Thissoothingsavagehadredeemedit"(56).
Ishmael'slovingfriendshipandquasi-marriagetoQueequeggiveshimaformofredemption,endowingIshmaelvicariouslywithadegreeofexposuretoanalternatecultureandthusanalternateunderstandingoftruth.
IshmaelequatesthenewfoundculturalsyncretismbetweenQueequeg'sbeliefsandhisownwithareligiousrevivalthathassavedhimfromdamnation,inthiscaseaninterpersonalandmulticulturalrelieffromtheobsessiveneedforcertainty.
Melville'sdepictionofQueequegasaPacificIslanderratherthanamorehomogeneousAmericanidentityandQueequeg'sroleinpersonallysavingIshmaelfromobsessionandinsanityareinterconnectedattributesthatmaybelinkedtonineteenth-centuryperceptionsofdecreasedinsanityamongnon-whitecultures.
AsNormanDainnotesinhisstudyofnineteenth-centuryconceptsofinsanity,researchersduringthisperiodobservedfewercasesofinsanityamongNativeAmericansandAfrican9Winter2017Americansandthusassumedthatinsanitywasprimarilyaconsequenceoflivinginanindustrializedsocietythatwasdeemedmorecivilizedthanotherindigenouscultures(89).
LynnGamwellandNancyTomesaddthatthebeliefthatotherculturalidentitieswerenotsusceptibletomadnesswasfairlyprevalentinthenineteenthcenturyandinfluencedwhetherindividualsfromotherdenigratedracescouldbeadmittedintoinsaneasylums:"Becausemedicalauthoritieslinkedmentalderangementwithadvancedcivilization,theytendedtoassumethatthemore'childlike,'dependentraces,includingIndiansandAfricanAmericans,sufferedlessfrequentlyfrominsanityandthereforedidnotneedasylumcare"(56).
BydepictingQueequegasthecureforAhabicmadness,MelvilleinvokessomecontemporarynotionsoftheOtheraslessinfluencedbyinsanity,butherewritesorperhaps"redeems"theimperialistnineteenth-centuryimplicationsofthisworldviewbyallowingIshmaeltofindhealingbyembracingQueequeg'sculturalidentity.
AsIshmaelbeginstounitewithQueequeg,healsointegratesattributesofQueequeg'scultureintohisownlifestyle,joiningQueequeginsomeofhisculturalpractices.
ShortlyafterIshmaelandQueequegbegintopursuearelationship,IshmaelasksQueequegifhecanshareasmokewithhimonhistomahawkpipe,anactionthatillustratestheculturalmergerbetweenIshmaelandQueequeg,aswellasanembraceofcommunity:"SoonIproposedasocialsmoke;and,producinghispipeandtomahawk,hequietlyofferedmeapuff.
Andthenwesatexchangingpuffsfromthatwildpipeofhis,andkeepingitregularlypassingbetweenus"(56).
BysharingQueequeg'spipe,IshmaelallowshimselftoembraceanewculturalpracticeandengageswithQueequegasanequalandsociablecompatriot.
Ishmael'stransformationthroughtheinfluenceofQueequegissoprofoundanddramaticthatheeventuallytransitionsfromobservingQueequeg'suniquetattooinginadetachedmannerin"TheSpouterInn,"toplacingsimilartattooingonhisownbody:"TheskeletondimensionsIshallnowproceedtosetdownarecopiedverbatimfrommyrightarm,whereIhadthemtattooed"(346).
Ishmaelthenexpresseshisdesiretoleavetherestofhisbody"blank"sothathisremainingskincanserveasthecanvasforapoemheiscomposing,possiblyinremembranceofQueequeg(346).
Ishmael'sdescriptionofthesetattoosisparticularlysignificantbecauseunlikeQueequegorAhab,thedescriptionofhistattoosservesashisprimaryphysicaldescriptioninthenovel.
InMelville'sAnatomies,10Criterionaworkwhichinformsmanyofmyobservationsaboutphysicalityandidentityinthelatterportionofthisessay,SamuelOtterobservesthat"incontrasttothepagesdevotedtothedetailsofAhab'saspectandailments,theregardforQueequeg'sfigureandfigures,andchapterafterchapterlavishedonthewhale,nowordsinMoby-DickdescribethefeaturesofIshmael"(165).
AsaresultofIshmael'slimitedphysicaldescription,hisowndescriptionofhistattoosservestodefinehimbecauseheoffersupnootherphysicalidentifiers:"[When]Ishmaelrevealsthathehasthemeasurementsofawhaleskeletontattooedonhisarm,thefactthathehasatattoo,andeventhefactthathehasarightarm,comeassomethingofasurprise"(Otter165).
Byphysicallyidentifying,andinsomewaysdefiningIshmaelbyhistattoos,MelvillesuggeststhatIshmaelhasembracedQueequeg'sculturetosuchanextentthatithasdefinedhisidentity,inmuchthesamewaythatanewreligiousbeliefmightservetoredefineanindividual'sconsciousness.
However,itisimportanttonotethatIshmael'sacceptanceoftattooingisnotjustanacceptanceofracialconversionbyQueequeg,butitisalsoanexampleofculturalsyncretismbecausehistattoosareEnglishwordsandfiguresratherthantattoosthatresembleQueequeg's.
Ishmael'sembraceofQueequeg'sculturethroughsmokingtheotherman'spipeandthetattooingofhisownbodywithoutnecessarilyabandoninghisoriginalculturalidentityexpressamodelofculturalhybridityandmergingwithinIshmael'smind.
Ishmael'swillingnesstocoverhisbodywithtattoosinthiswayisparticularlystrikingwhencomparedtotheprotagonistfromMelville'sfirstnovel,Typee:Tommorefusestoaccepttattooing,and,byextensionrefusestheracioculturalconversionthataccompaniesit.
Tommo'sfirstconcernswiththeprocessoftattooingseemtostemfromaconcernthattattooingwilldamagehisphysicalappearance;Tommodescribeshimself"shudderingattheruin[thetattooartist]mightinflictuponmyfigure-head"(Typee219).
RegardlessofTommo'sinitialconcernsaboutthephysicaldamageoftattooing,itbecomesevidentoverthecourseofhisnarrationthatTommoisfarmoreconcernedaboutthereligiousimplicationsoftattooingthanheisaboutachangeinhisphysicalappearance:"AfactwhichIsoonafterwardslearnedaugmentedmyapprehension.
Thewholesystemoftattooingwas,Ifound,connectedwiththeirreligion;anditwasevident,therefore,thattheywereresolvedtomakeaconvertofme"(220).
Tommo'shostilitytowardreceivingtattoosfromtheTypeeisnot11Winter2017onlyarejectionofthereligiousconversionimplicatedbytattooing,butitisalsoarefusaltobecomeapartoftheTypeecultureheisbeinginvitedtojoin,whichbecomesevidentashebeginstosearchfranticallyforameansofleavingtheTypeesettlement(220).
TheideathatTommo'saversiontotattooingsuggestsadeeperrejectionofculturalconversionratherthansimplyreligiousconversioncomesfromOtter'sobservationthattheanxietysurroundingTommoandtattooingisultimatelyananxietyaboutembracinganalternateracialconsciousness.
Otterexplainsthat"Tommoisafraidnotoftheologicalconversionbutofracialconversion.
Tattoosare'engrafteduponwhiteskin'—asthoughtheoperationinvolvedatranslationoflivingtissuefromPolynesiantoAmerican"(40).
Tommo'srejectionoftattooinginaphysical,religious,butmostimportantly,culturalsenseindicatesthatheisnotfearfullyrejectingthepracticeoftattooinginparticularbutisinsteadrejectingthelargersymbolismofanopportunityforracioculturalsalvationthroughtheTypeepeople,thesamesalvationprovidedtoIshmaelbyQueequeginMoby-Dick.
Ishmael'sconnectionwithQueequegisnotonlysignificantbecauseit"converts"himtoamorepluralisticwayofseeingtheworld,butalsobecauseitservestointroducehimtoawiderwebofhumaninterconnectivity,aconnectivitythatisdisplayedquiteprominentlyinthechapter"TheSqueezeofHands.
"WhileIshmaelisbreakingdownthetinyglobulesofspermacetiwithhiscrewmates,heexperiencesamomentofradicalinterconnectivitywheretheboundariesbetweenhimselfandtheothercrewmembersdestabilizes:Ifoundmyselfunwittinglysqueezingmyco-laborers'handsinit,mis-takingtheirhandsforthegentleglobules.
Suchanabounding,affec-tionate,friendly,lovingfeelingdidthisavocationbeget.
.
.
Come;letussqueezehandsallround;nay,letusallsqueezeourselvesintoeachother;letussqueezeourselvesuniversallyintotheverymilkandspermofkindness(322–323).
Thisextremedissolutionofinterpersonalboundariespresentsastrongdepictionoflove—alovewhich,asWilliamEllerySedgwickobserves,musteschewdivisionsandsegmentation:"Allthatwithdrawsmenfrommenandputsbarriersbetweenthem,andobstructstheflowofvitalsympathies,allthatisevil.
.
.
Virtuedoesnotkeepherselftoherselfonthequarterdeckbutdescendsandfraternizeswiththemen"(161).
AsSedgewick'squote12Criterionsuggests,loveandinterpersonalconnectionshouldnotbeconcernedwiththehierarchiesthatgenerallycarveuphumanexistenceasadissectingscalpelwould,butloveshouldinsteadfindcompanionshipinavarietyofpeople,includingthosefromdiverseoroppressedperspectives.
TheexperienceofblurredboundariesthroughsqueezingthespermacetialsopresentsanalternateapproachtopursuingknowledgeasIshmaelengagesintactilecontactalongwithhiscrewmatesratherthanisolateddissection.
Otterexpressesthefunctionof"TheSqueezeofHands"indissolvingintellectualhierarchiesthroughphysicaltouchwhenhenotesthat"inthisscene,fingersareextendedandboundariesstretched.
Themonumentaldifferencerepresentedbythewhaleiscaressedandinhaledratherthandissected,calibrated,ordeciphered"(159).
ThetactileandcommunalmethodofengagingwiththewhalethatOtterdescribeshereisdirectlyoppositionaltoAhab'sobsessivedivefortruthandrevealsacommunalpresencewhichcansustainindividualsastheypursuedeepertruths.
ThebenefitofinterpersonalconnectionasameansofamelioratingobsessioncanalsobeobservedinthisinstanceasAhab'smanicquest,whichhas"infected"theentirecrewtoacertainextent,isforgottenandreplacedbycommunity:"Iforgotallaboutourhorribleoath;inthatinexpressiblesperm,Iwashedmyhandsandmyheartofit"(322).
Ishmael'scommunalinteractionhasthepowertosupersedethedestructiveinfluenceofAhab'sobsessivequestforabsolutetruthbecauseitprovideshimwithadifferentsourceoffocusandfulfillment,inmuchthesamewaythatpragmatismasaphilosophyseeksoutcommunityandeschewsthepursuitofabsolutetruths.
LeighHunt,anessayistthatMelvillereadwhilehewaswritingMoby-Dick,describesasimilarcurativeinfluencethroughcommunityinhisessay"AdvicetotheMelancholy"(Sanborn109).
Inthisessay,Huntarguesthatcommunalanddomesticpursuitshelpedtoalleviatemelancholyfeelingswhichalsoconstitutedaformofmentalillness:"Increaseallofyournaturalandhealthyenjoyments.
Cultivateyourafternoonfire-side,thesocietyofyourfriends,thecompanyofagreeablechildren"(24).
Inreadingthisessay,Melvillemayhavefoundpartoftheinspirationforhisowndepictionofaredeemingcommunalexperience,anexperiencewhichsavesindividualsfrommadnessandalsopreventsthemfromlosingtheirsanityinthefirstplace.
AsRobertsonobserves,Melville'sdepictionofcommunitypresentscompanionshipwithotherhumanbeingsasa13Winter2017sourceofpeacethattheindividualcantakesolacein,particularlyafterconfrontingtheimpossibilityofdecipheringthemysteriesofexistence:"PeriodicphysicalcontactwithanotherhumanbeingisMelville'santidotetothemaddeningfactthatthe'secrets'oftheuniverseareimpenetrable"(7).
Byengaginginhumanaffection,whichideallybreaksdownhierarchalandinterpersonalboundaries,individualsareexposedtoavarietyofcomminglingperspectivesandmayevenbecomelesscertainthatthereisadefinitivetruthtopursueinthefirstplace.
WhileIshmael'salternate,communalandpragmaticapproachtounderstandingtheworldispromotedasabetteroptionthanAhab'sobsessivedestruction,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatIshmael'sapproachisvoidofchallengesorfreeoffrighteningimplications.
WhileIshmael'smodeofthinkingcanbequiteliberatinginitsdisassociationfromthelimitationsofcategorizationanddominationbyobsessiveextremes,itisalsoaninsecure,perilous,andfrighteningexistencebecausetheindividualisnolongerabletorelyonformulaic,ingrainedculturalknowledge.
Ishmael'sembraceofculturalsyncretismbyunitingQueequeg'sbeliefswithhisownisalsoanembraceofapragmaticapproachtotruthwhichemphasizestheimportanceofcommunityinarrivingatanunderstandingoftruthandarejectionoftheconceptofabsolutetruths.
Whiletheofficialgenesisofpragmatistphilosophywasn'tuntilthelatenineteenthcentury,MauriceLeenotesthatMelville'swritingcontainsearlyechoesofthiscommunal,experiential,anti-absolutistphilosophy(396).
Asaworldviewthatshunsobjectivetruths,thepragmatistphilosophythatIshmaelseemstobeembracingalsohastheunfortunateconsequenceofsettinghimadriftinaworldthathecanneverfullyunderstand,aworldwherehisexperiencesarerewritinghisunderstandingoftruthonaconstantbasis.
EdwinShneidmanexploresasimilarideatotheinstabilityofpragmatismwhenhewritesthatacomplexworldviewthatembracesambiguityanddualityisterrifyingbecauseitiscompletelyoppositionaltothe"ordered"worldthatpeoplearefamiliarwith:"Toexistwiththeknowledgeofambivalences,dualities,andoxymoronsisamorecomplicatedchallengethantoliveinthemoresimpleworldofthesixteenvalidmoodsofAristoteliansyllogism.
Andevenmorefrightening,forunliketheorderedAristotelianworld,therearenomagictalismanicformulastoguideus"(Shneidman556).
Ishmael'shierarchaldestabilizationin"SqueezeofHands"isagoodexampleoftheuncertaintythatShneidmanisreferringtointhiscase.
WhileIshmaelis14Criterionexposedtoastateoftranscendentalunionwiththecrewinthecommunalactofsperm-squeezing,anexperienceofallindividualsbeingsqueezed"intoeachother"andbecomingoneisaradicalnewstateofbeingthatcanpotentiallybejustasterrifyingasitisexhilarating.
Ishmael'sactiveblurringandmergingofhierarchiesandculturalboundariesenableshimtomovebeyondthelimitationsofobjectiveanalysisandenterintoanexcitingstateofbeingthatisfreefromthepitfallsofabsolutism.
However,inspiteofthejoysofIshmael'scommunalblurring,hisexperiencesalsosignifytheentryintoafrighteningworldofuncertainty,liminality,andtheunsettlingpotentialforaimlessness.
IshmaelexistsinMelville'snarrativeasameansofintroducinganalternatewaytonegotiatetheworld,onewhichdoesnotdependondetachment,dissection,orabsolutism.
Ishmaelobservesafterinvestigatingthewhale'stalethatinspiteofhiseffortsandrepeatedexplorations,hewillneverfullycomprehendthemysteriousattributesofthewhale:"DissecthimhowImay,then,Ibutgoskindeep;Iknowhimnot,andneverwill.
ButifIknownoteventhetailofthiswhale,howunderstandhisheadmuchmore,howcomprehendhisface,whenfacehehasnone"(296).
Ishmaelacceptsthatsomeanswersarebeyondthescopeofhisknowledgeeventhoughhealsoenjoyssearchingforthisknowledgeofthewhale.
Hisintellectualpursuitandembraceofunknowabilityreflectsthepragmaticdesiretopursuetruth,evenasitrejectsthepursuitofabsolutes.
TheacceptancethatIshmaeldisplaysbyrecognizinghisownlimitedknowledge,aswellasthefactthathecannot"dissect"thewhaleinordertoarriveatdefinitivetruth,setsIshmaelindirectcontrasttoAhabwhomust"strikethroughthemask"inordertobreakthroughappearancesandarriveatabsolutetruth(140).
Thisproblematic,unrelenting"dissection"ofculturalmysteriesispreciselywhatAhabdoesashestudiesQueequegobsessivelyandthenexpresseshisfrustrationwhenhecannotarriveatanexplanationforwhatQueequeg'stattoosmean(367).
WhileAhabishimselfamixedcharacteratmanypoints,bothromanticizedanddestructive,thejuxtapositionbetweenAhabandIshmaelallowsIshmaeltopresenthimselfasthesolutionforthepitfallsanddevastationencounteredbyAhab.
AsEmoryElliottexplains,Ishmael'ssurvivalisaformofbalancebecausehecombinesdeep,insomecasesevenscientific,contemplationwithinterpersonalunion:"Onemoment,heistheempiricalscientistcataloguinganddefiningindetaileachtypeofwhaleinthe'Cetology'chapterwhileatanotherhe15Winter2017issqueezingthespermandthehandsofotherseamen,appreciatingtheuniversalcommunicationandspiritthatflowsthroughthem"(190).
BecauseIshmaelengagesinbothcommunalenrichmentandasearchforknowledge,theknowledgethathediscoversismoremulticulturalandinterpersonal,makinghimlessvulnerabletotheobsessivedestructionencounteredbyAhab.
Ishmael'ssurvivalprovideshopetoreadersbecauseitoffersanalternativetothedestructivefatemetbyAhab.
RobertsondescribesIshmaelastheredemptivesolutiontoAhabwhenshewrites:"Oncehisvoyagehasbegun,Ahabwillnotabandonit,butotherslearnwaystomakeitmanageable.
IshmaelisAhab'sproblemsolved.
Thequestrequiresashuttle-likeapproachthatalternatesbetweenseekingandresting,questingandcommuning"(14).
BecauseIshmaelembracescommunity,heachievesabalancebetween"questing"aftertruthand"communing"withothersabalancewhichchangeshisoutlookonthepursuitofknowledge,allowinghimtoappreciatethechaseafterknowledgemorethananydefinitiveknowledgethathemaygainfromthepursuit.
Ishmael'scompanionshipwithQueequegisnotonlyasourceofpersonalsolace,butultimatelyaforcethatcompletelytransformsIshmael'sworldviewandensureshisfuturesurvival.
WithouthisembraceofaspiritualredemptionthroughQueequeg,Ishmael'slifestylewouldbeanechoofAhab'sobsessive,detachedapproachtotheworld,anditwouldlikelyhavethesamedestructiveresult.
InsteadofexperiencingdeathasAhabandtherestofthecrewdoes,IshmaelemergesfromthewreckageastheonlysurvivorofthePequod.
HiscontinuedsurvivalisonceagainduetoQueequeg,asIshmaelexplainsthatQueequeg'scoffin,theonlyremainingsymbolofQueequeghimself,hassurvivedthedisasterandpreservedhislife(Moby-Dick427).
ThedeathofQueequegandthemannerinwhichthesymbolofthatdeath,hiscoffin,becomesthesourceofIshmael'scontinuedlife,merelycementsthedepictionofQueequegasaculturalChristfigurewhichreoccursthroughoutthenovel.
ThroughQueequeg,Ishmaelisculturallyconverted,welcomedintoanunderstandingoftruththatiscommunalandinfiniteinitsexpansivepotential.
Aworldviewthatcancontaintheconflicting,multiculturalviewsofthecommunityandstillhungerformorewithoutobsessingovertruthsthatareunattainable.
16CriterionWorksCitedBecker,Lauren.
Melville'sWhiteWhale:Pragmatism'sRoleinMoby-Dick.
M.
A.
Thesis,AmericanU,2011.
Dain,Norman.
ConceptsofInsanityintheUnitedStates,1789–1865.
RutgersUP,1964.
Elliott,Emory.
"'WanderingTo-and-Fro':MelvilleandReligion.
"AHistoricalGuidetoHermanMelville.
EditedbyGilesGunn,OxfordUP,2005.
pp.
167–204.
Fruscione,Joseph.
"'WhatIsCalledSavagery':Race,VisualPerception,andBodilyContactinMoby-Dick.
"Leviathan:AJournalofMelvilleStudies,vol.
10,no.
1,2008,pp.
3–24.
ProjectMuse,http://muse.
jhu.
edu.
colorado.
idm.
oclc.
org/article/492836/pdf.
Gamwell,Lynn,andNancyTomes.
MadnessinAmerica:CulturalandMedicalPerceptionsofMentalIllnessBefore1914.
CornellUP,1995.
Hunt,Leigh.
"AdvicetotheMelancholy.
"MiscellaniesSelectedfromtheIndicatorandCompanion,PartI.
WillisP.
Hazard,1856.
pp.
23–25.
Lee,MauriceS.
"Melville,Douglass,TheCivilWar,Pragmatism.
"FredrickDouglassandHermanMelville:EssaysinRelation.
EditedbyRobertSLevineandSamuelOtter,UofNorthCarolinaP,2008.
pp.
396–415.
McCarthy,Paul.
"TheTwistedMind":MadnessinHermanMelville'sFiction.
UofIowaP,1990.
Melville,Herman.
TheLettersofHermanMelville.
Ed.
MerrellRDavisandWilliamHGilman.
YaleUP,1960.
---.
Moby-Dick:ANortonCriticalEdition.
2nded,EditedbyHershelParkerandHarrisonHayford,Norton&Company,2002.
---.
Typee:APeepatPolynesianLife.
IntroductionandExplanatoryCommentarybyJohnBryant,PenguinBooks.
1996.
Otter,Samuel.
Melville'sAnatomies.
UofCaliforniaP.
1999.
RevisedStandardVersion.
1971.
BibleGateway.
Robertson,LisaAnn.
"'UniversalThump':TheRedemptiveEpistemologyofTouchinMoby-Dick.
"Leviathan:AJournalofMelvilleStudies,vol.
12,no.
2,2010,pp.
5–20.
ProjectMuse,http://muse.
jhu.
edu.
colorado.
idm.
oclc.
org/article/492949/pdf.
17Winter2017Sanborn,Geoffrey.
"LoungingontheSofawithLeighHunt:ANewSourcefortheNotesinMelville'sShakespeareVolume.
"Nineteenth-CenturyLiterature,vol.
63,no.
1,2008,pp.
104–115.
JSTOR,http://www.
jstor.
org/stable/10.
1525/ncl.
2008.
63.
1.
104.
Shneidman,EdwinS.
"Melville'sCognitiveStyle:TheLogicofMoby-Dick.
"ACompaniontoMelvilleStudies.
EditedbyJohnBryant,GreenwoodP,1986.
543–564.
Sedgwick,WilliamEllery.
HermanMelville:TheTragedyofMind.
Russell&Russell,1944.
18CriterionTheSpaceIn-betweenExploringLiminalityinJaneEyreMeganClarkFromMrs.
Reed'shousetoMorton,JaneEyreisalwayssingledoutasotherworldly.
Throughoutthenovel,CharlotteBrontcre-atesdifferentspheresandworlds,especiallythroughthemeansofsocialclassandthewaypeopleareperceivedandtreated.
Theseworldsarepre-sentedinjuxtaposedpairs,butJaneneverbelongstoeitherworld.
Sheremainsinherownrealm,alwaysseparatedfromtheothers.
Throughoutthetext,sheiscomparedtoanelforfairy,emphasizingtheotherworld-linessthatdefinesher.
WhilesomelookatJaneasasocialoutcastdueexclusivelytoclassboundariesandotherlimitationsoutsideofhercon-trol,itisimportanttorecognizeheragencyinthematter.
Despitewhatcritics,suchasSarahGileadandJohnPeters,havesaidabouther"gain-ingsocialmembership"bytheendofthebook,thereisextensivetextualevidencethatJaneisalwaysapartofthisotherworld,aliminalplacethatbelongsneithertooneworldnortheother.
Duringeachstageofherlife,Jane'sreactiontoherseparationistheverythingthatleadstoherother-worldlinessinthenextstage.
Therearemomentsinthetextwheresheseemstoalmostescapethisliminalrealm,butintheendshemustremainthere,withRochestereventuallyjoiningherintheotherworld.
WeseethebeginningofJane'sseparationandperpetualliminalityduringhertimeatGateshead.
Sheissingledoutandexcluded,madetofeellesserthanherspoiledcousins.
Theimportanceofthisseparation20CriterionismadeapparentbyBront'semphasisofitonthefirstpageofthenovel.
Withinthefirstparagraphs,Janehasbeen"dispensedfromjoiningthegroup"anddescribedasunnatural(5).
TheReeds,inthewordsofJohnPeters,"attempttotransformJaneintotheotherbyexcludingherfromsocietyandbylabelingherassomethingotherthanhuman"(57).
JanethenchoosestoseparateherselffromtheReedswithaphysicalbarrier,theredcurtain,andenclosesherselfinherownrealmofbooksandprivatethought.
ThisisourintroductiontoJane'sworld.
ItisaplaceofimaginationandartistrywhereJanecanescapethelabelsimposeduponherandform"idea[s]ofherown"(6).
Shetellsusthatinthisstate,inherworld,sheishappy.
Thispeaceofmindisbrokenalongwiththeremovalofthephysicalbarrierthatshehadestablishedbetweenherselfandherhard-heartedfamily.
JohnReed'sarrivalnotonlyshattersJane'sfeelingofcontentedisolation,butitalsocreatesanewenvironmentofpainandterror.
ThisfearisaugmentedwhenJaneislockedinthered-room,whichbecomesyetanotherphysicalbarrierdividingherfromtheothersinthehouse.
Thisbarrier,however,wasnotself-imposed.
Petersdescribesthisseparationasarepresentationof"thephysicalandspiritualsolitaryconfinementtowhichtheReedsrelegateher"(59).
Despiteherpreviousdesiretobeisolated,Janeisnowembitteredandhurtbyherforcedisolation.
Inthisstate,herimaginationrunningrampant,shebeginstoapplynon-humanlabelstoherselfastheReedshaddonepreviously.
Whilelookinginthemirrorshethinkstoherself:Alllookcolderanddarkerinthatvisionaryhollowthaninreality:andthestrangelittlefiguretheregazingatme,withawhitefaceandarmsspeckingthegloom,andglitteringeyesoffearmovingwhereallelsewasstill,hadtheeffectofarealspirit:Ithoughtitlikeoneofthetinyphantoms,halffairy,halfimp.
.
.
(11)Onecouldinterpretthesethoughtsandacknowledgementofhernatureas"other"asameresubmissiontoabusivewordsandbehaviorfromtheReeds,butasSarahGileadargues,"theconsequenceofeach[liminal]episodeistostrengthenJane'sselfhood"(305).
EachlifeoccurrencethatseemsonlytoisolateJanefromthegroupsimultaneouslyallowshertofurtherdiscoverherselfandtocreateherownworld.
Jane'sworldisnotsimplyaseparationfromthefamily,butaliminalspherethatiscaughtinbetweentwoworlds,thatoftheReedsandthatoftheservants.
JaneisnotoneoftheReedsasmadeconsistentlyclear21Winter2017byMrs.
Reed,andevenbyJaneherself.
Sherecognizesadiscrepancyinhercharacterandthatofhercousinswhenshedefiantlystatesthat"theyarenotfittoassociatewith[her]"(22).
Theservantsalsodisownher,sayingthatsheis"lessthanaservantfor[she]doesnothingfor[her]keep"(9).
Twosocietieshavebeenestablished,andJanebelongstoneither.
Althoughshehasfeltthemosthappinesswheninherownworldofimagination,Janestilldesirestobeloved.
ShedoesnotwishtobeliketheReeds,therebyjoiningtheirworld,butshedoeshopetobecaredforbythem.
TheReeds,however,cannotacceptJaneinherotherworldlystate.
ItisthisdisapprovalthatembittersJaneandcauseshertolashoutatheraunt.
Becauseofherbehavior,Mrs.
ReedtellsMr.
BrocklehurstthatJaneisaliar,thus"obliteratinghopefromthenewphaseofexistencewhich[she]destined[Jane]toenter"(28).
Throughherreactiontoherseparation,Janeperpetuatesthisstateintothenextstageofherlife.
AtLowoodschool,JaneissingledoutasaliarbyMr.
Brocklehurst,thusseparatingherfromtheotherstudentsandreinforcingherliminality.
Hecallshera"castaway,"an"interloper,"andan"alien,"publiclymarkingheroutasotherworldly.
AlthoughmostoftheteachersandstudentsdonotnecessarilyexcludeJaneasBrocklehurstwouldhavethemdo,sheisstillmadeseparatefromthembyhisdeclaration.
Inresponsetohisspeech,MissTemplereachesoutspecificallytoJane,alongwithHelen.
Shetreatsthemdeferentially,givingthemfoodandtalkingwiththem.
JanenolongerbelongswiththemassofLowoodgirls,butbecomesotherworldlyyetagain.
Gileadrecognizesthisphenomenonwhenshesays,"Janeisspokentoandtreatedasanadult.
Sheentersasecretandlargelyhypotheticalmicrocosmicsocietyofintellectualandhumaneelite"(307).
Thus,JaneisseparatedfromthegroupbothbyBrocklehurstandMissTemple,albeitindifferentmanners.
Thereisanother,however,whodoesnotbelongtotheworldoftherestofthestudents—HelenBurns;Helenoccupiesanotherworldthat,combinedwiththatofthestudents,framesJane'sliminalrealm.
HersaintlybehaviorissomethingthatJanecannotcomprehendatthispoint,letaloneexhibitherself.
JanestillfeelstheolddesireforhumanacceptancethatshethirstedforatGateshead.
ShepassionatelytellsHelen,"ifothersdon'tlovemeIwouldratherdiethanlive—Icannotbeartobesolitaryandhated"(58).
HelengentlychastisesherandtellshertoturntoGodratherthanrelyontheloveofpeople.
ThismarksaturningpointinJane's22Criterionneedforapproval.
Shebeginstochange,attemptingtoworrylessabouttheopinionsofothers.
Evenwithhereffortstoreform,JaneisunabletobecomeasangelicasHelen.
Helenisraisedabovetherest,includingJane,byMissTempleherself.
WhenJaneandHelenleaveMissTemple'sroom"shelet[Helen]gomorereluctantly;itwasHelenhereyefollowedtothedoor"(62).
JaneiscaughtbetweenthestudentbodyononesideanduprightHelenontheother.
RatherthanlashoutasshedidatGateshead,Jane'sreactioninthisstageistoemulatetheexemplarofthebetterofthetwoworlds.
SherecognizesinHelenawillingnesstotakecriticism,tosuffersilently,andtolooktoGodinallthings.
Janeseesthatthesequalitiesgiveherstrengthandallowhertolivefullyandhappilywithoutconcernforhumanjudgments.
Assheworkstodevelopthesequalitiesinherself,Janecareslessabouttheopinionsofothersandthelabelsthattheyplaceuponher—thusbecomingfurtherentrenchedinherownworld.
TheseveryqualitiesarethefoundationforJane'sotherworldlinessduringhertimeatThornfield.
WhenJanefirstarrivesathernewhome,sheislonelyandmustfindsolaceinherimagination.
ShehasyettomeetMr.
Rochester,andthecompanyofAdèleandMrs.
Fairfaxdoesnotexciteher.
Whenshefeelsthisdiscontent,Janewalksalongthethirdfloorhallwayinsilence,recreatingthesolitudeofherchildhoodhideawaybehindtheredcurtain.
Heresheletsherimaginationrunwildandallowsgleamingvisionstocomeintohermind.
She"open[s][her]inwardeartoatalethatwasneverended—atale[her]imaginationcreated,andnarratedcontinuously;quickenedwithallofincident,life,fire,feeling,that[she]desiredandhadnotin[her]actualexistence"(93).
HereweseeJane'sactiveretreatintoherselfandherworld.
Shehasrecognizedthisrealmasaplacewhereimpossibilitiesbecomereality,andsherevelsinthepowerthatsheholdsthere.
Herimaginationisthedrivingforceforthecreationandcontinuationofherworld.
WhenRochestercomeshometoThornfieldheacknowledgesJane'spowerfulandinnovativemind.
Helooksoverherartandcomments,"thedrawingsare,foraschoolgirl,peculiar.
Astothethoughts,theyareelfish"(108).
SusanneLangerrecognizestheuseofartandimaginationasaway"tokeepourselvesorientedinsocietyandnature"(253).
Janeusesherpaintingsasavehicletoenterherworldandfindpeace.
JenniferGribbleagreesthat"inJane'sresponsestoevents,inherdrawingsandherdreams,weseeamindactivelycreatingitsexperience"(281).
Janeisable23Winter2017tonotonlyenterherworldthroughimagination,butsheisalsocreatingherworldandallowingotherstoenvisionit.
AsRochesterlooksatthepaintings,heseemstobemomentarilytransportedintoJane'sworld.
Thereisadepthinherpaintingsthatonlyheseemstoperceiveandfeel.
DespiteRochesternotbeingapartofJane'sworld,hehasacceptedherandgivenherpeaceofheartandmind.
However,likeJohnReeddisruptedhercomfortinthepast,visitorscometoThornfieldtoremindherofherperpetualliminality.
WiththearrivalofRochester'sguests,Jane'ssocialstatusidentifiesherasthoroughlyother,butMr.
Rochesterrecognizesandisintriguedbythisotherworldliness.
Thedashinggentlemanandcoyladiesarelikeanewspeciesforhertoexamine;theyarenotofherworld.
Janeagainfindsherselfinaliminalplacebetweenrealms.
Shedoesnotfitinwiththeupperclass,andalthoughsheispaidbyMr.
Rochester,asagovernesssheisnotoftheservingclass.
Shefindsherselfisolated,yetJane'sperennialneedforacceptancehasbeenalmostentirelyeliminated,andsheregardsthepartyasanaloofobserver,neitherexpectingnordesiringtheirattention.
TheonlyexceptiontohernewphilosophyofcontenteddetachmentisMr.
Rochester.
However,shedoesnotlookathimasaneligibleandrichbachelor,butasakindredspirit.
Shecompareshimwithhisguestsanddecides,"heisnotoftheirkind.
Ibelieveheisofmine;—Iamsureheis,—Ifeelakintohim.
.
.
thoughrankandwealthseveruswidely,Ihavesomethinginmybrainandheart,inmybloodandnerves,thatassimilatesmementallytohim"(149).
JanerecognizesRochesterashavingqualitiesofthe"other,"despitehisbeingapartofaworlddifferentfromherown.
RochesteralsorecognizesthesequalitiesinJanealmostimmediatelyaftermeetingher.
Hetellsherthatshehas"ratherthelookofanotherworld,"comparinghertoelvesandfairies(104).
Ashecontinuestolearnabouther,heseemsmoreconvincedthatJaneisotherworldly.
Sheisquiet,obedient,andmoral.
HerethicallikenesstoHelenBurnsatthispointispronounced.
Beyondthat,hercharacterandintelligencebothsurpriseandchallengeRochester.
HemarksJaneoutasdifferentfromthemajority,tellingherwhensheanswershisquestionsboldlyandhonestlythat"notthreeinthreethousandrawschool-girl-governesseswouldhaveansweredmeasyouhavejustdone"(115).
HercandorcaptivatesRochesteranddrawshimtoJane.
Hefallsinlovewiththispurefairyanddesirestomakeherapartofhisworld.
24CriterionEdwardRochesterdoeseverythinginhispowertoextractJanefromherworldandplantherfirmlyinhis.
Hecompareshertoacaptivebirdthat"wereitbutfree,wouldsoarcloud-high"(119).
InRochester'smind,hehasthepowertosetherfree,givingherwealth,position,andtheabilitytoliveaccordingtoherwill.
Heplanstomarryher,tomakeherhiswife.
Initially,Janedoesnotbelievethatthisplanwillcometofruition.
ShetellsRochesterthatnobodygetstoenjoycompletehappinessinlifeandthatshe"wasnotbornforadifferentdestinytotherestofherspecies:toimaginesuchalotbefalling[her]isafairytale—aday-dream"(220).
Janeseesthatthismarriagecouldonlyhappeninaworldofimagination—herworld.
Rochesterswears,however,thatthisisadreamthathe"canandwillrealise"(220).
HisdeterminationtobewithJanedriveshisendeavortopullJaneintohisworld.
HeattemptstobuyexpensiveclothesandgiveJaneelaborategifts,transformingher,inhismind,intoanelegantlady.
Jane,inspiteofherdeeploveforRochester,resiststheseattentions,recognizingthatsheistrulyfreeonlyinherownworldandwouldbecagedbysocietalexpectationsandjudgmentinhis.
Hersubconsciousacknowledgestheimpossibilityofherleavingherworldforanotherwhenshedreamsof"somebarrierdividing[them]"(240).
OwingtoherdevotiontoRochester,Janedecidestomarryhim,hopingthatshecanremaina"plain,Quakerishgoverness"aswellasabride(220).
However,Rochester'sdarksecretisdisastrouslyrevealed,makingJanewhowas"almostabride—acold,solitarygirlagain"(252).
Rochester,whowassoakintoher,hasbeentakenaway.
Janeisagaincompletelyaloneinherworld,leavingherheartbrokenyetdetermined.
SheknowsthattoretainherfreedomandpreventRochesterfromnewattemptstoextricateherfromherworld,shemustleaveThornfieldandherbelovedmasterbehind.
Shedoessoandsetsoutforthewild,leavingthecageofRochester'sworldbehindher.
Janespendsdaysonanemotionallyandphysicallytaxingjourneythatdemandsallofherstrengthandfurtherentrenchesherinherotherworldliness.
Atthismomentsheisinaliminalplace,caughtbetweenherpitifulpastandherunknownfuture.
Thisisanothertransformativemoment,similartoJane'straumaticexperienceintheredroom.
However,therearenoReedsforcingherintotheunknown.
Gileadnotesthat"thismostconsequentialofJane'sliminalordealsisself-devised"(307).
Heragencyisdrivingherforward,nottheforcesofsocietyorlabelsplaced25Winter2017uponher.
Bytheendofherjourney,"notatieholdshertohumansociety"(275).
Then,whenshefinallyarrivesinMorton,PetersnotesthatJanestill"doesnotfitintoanyrecognizablecategory.
Shebegsfoodbutisnotabeggar.
Shelookslikealadybuthasnomoney"(59).
Janeremainsinherotherworld,moreisolatedthanshehaseverbeen.
Paradoxicallythisisthebeginningofastageinherlifewhichisexemplifiedmostlybyacceptance,yetstilldoesnotremoveherfromherownworld.
GileadmarksMoorHouseasarebirthandtheendofJane'sseparation,notingthat"atthisborderlineplace,sheismultiplyendowedwithfamilyandfriends"(310).
ItistruethatintheRiverssiblings,Janefindskinshipandhappiness.
But,inspiteofthis,herreactionfromthelaststagewillstillmarkherasotherworldlyinthisnewstageofherlife.
AfterleavingRochester,Janecravesnothingmorethanloveandapproval.
Inmanyways,thetraumaoflosingRochesterhasshakenhernewfoundconfidenceinherselfandincreasedherneedforhumanacceptance.
Shedoesallinherpowertogaintheadmirationandacceptanceofhernewfamily.
DianaandMarygivetheirlovefreely,butSt.
Johnremainsexacting.
Janetellsusthatshe"dailywishedmoretopleasehim:buttodoso,Ifelt.
.
.
thatImustdisownhalfmynature.
.
.
HewantedtotrainmetoanelevationIcouldneverreach;itrackedmehourlytoaspiretothestandardheuplifted"(340).
Inheroverwhelmingdesiretoplease,Janeseparatesherselffromtheothergirls.
Diananoticesthisdifferentialtreatment,sayingtoSt.
John,"youusedtocallJaneyourthirdsister,butyoudon'ttreatherassuch"(339).
St.
JohnhaschosenJaneforahighertaskthanthatofmeresister,hehassingledheroutasapotentialwifeandmissionary.
Indoingso,heattempts,asRochesterdid,toremoveJanefromherworldandplaceherinhis.
Indespair,Janeexclaimsthatshe"couldnotreceivehiscall"(343).
SherecognizesthatshecanneverliveinSt.
John'sworldoficeandself-sacrifice;shemustremaininherworld.
Duringthistime,Rochesterhassufferedterriblelosses;theselossesinturnwillmakehimcapableofjoiningJaneinherliminalworld.
Hisestateisinruins,andhisbodyisweakanddisabled.
Rochesterisnolongertheeligiblegentlemanthatheoncewas,livingaloneina"desolatespot"(366)withfewservants.
He,whowasalwayssosimilartoJane,hasnowlefttheworldofhighsocietyandhasbeenhumbledandisolated.
Petersrealizesthat"thisisolationthenqualifieshimtoengageinarelationshipwithJane"(65)asapartofherrealm.
Rochesterhasfinally26CriterionenteredJane'sliminalworld.
BecauseJane'sworldisoneofimaginationandimpossibilities,itbecomescompletelylogicalforitstwoinhabitantstobeabletocommunicatewithoneanotherinspiteofthedistancebetweenthem.
WhenRochestertellsoftheirmiraculouscommunicationhesays,"inspirit,Ibelieve,wemusthavemet"(381).
Thisspiritualmeetingleadstoaphysicaloneinthesecludedmanor-houseofFerndean.
Thecoupleisatlastreunited,andRochester'swishofbeingon"aquietislandwithonly[Jane]"isnowfulfilled(174).
Hisdifficulties,bothphysicalandemotional,hadmadehimfeelasifhewere"pass[ing]throughthevalleyoftheshadowofdeath"(380),butindoingsoheisabletoenterJane'sworldandfindhappinesswithher.
Theconclusionofthebookremindsusthatthisisinfactan"autobiography"writtenbyJaneherself;thisliteraryworkthenbecomesJane'sinvitationforthereadertoenterherworld.
Sheaddressesusdirectlywhenshewrites,"Reader,Imarriedhim"(382).
Indoingso,Janeshowsthatshehasanotherformofworldcreationotherthanthoseofimaginationandart.
JanetFreemanrecognizesthatJanehasa"needtoputherexperienceintowords,"andthatindoingsosheisbothactivelycreatingherworldandsharingitwithus(683).
Jane'sstoryistoldrepeatedlythroughoutthenovelbythosewithoutauthority.
PeoplelikeMrs.
Reed,Brocklehurst,andevenRochesterandSt.
Johnlabelherandtellheraboutherself.
Janerecognizesthisasawayofmarginalizingherandherworld,andshechoosestotakecontrolofherstoryinwritingitherself.
JustasRochesterwasabletoseeintoJane'sworldbylookingatherpaintings,weareabletomomentarilyenterherworldthroughreading.
KathleenTillotsonreinforcesthisideawhenshenotesthatJaneEyreis"anoveloftheinnerlife,notofmaninhissocialrelations;itmapsaprivateworld"(257).
AlthoughJanewritesoflife,school,relationships,andsocialclass,thesesubjectsarenotherfocus.
Sheistellingusofherworld,andhergrowthwithinit.
Herwritingshowsthatherotherworldliness,althoughisolatingattimes,isablessingthatallowshertodevelopadeepersenseofselfandtobringhappinesstoherselfandthemanthatsheloves.
Intheend,weseethatJane'sagencynotonlyperpetuatesherstatusasotherworldly,butalsodriveshertoshareherworldwithus.
27Winter2017WorksCitedFreeman,JanetH.
"SpeechandSilenceinJaneEyre.
"StudiesinEnglishLiterature,1500–1900,vol.
24,no.
4,1984,pp.
683–700.
Gilead,Sarah.
"LiminalityandAntiliminalityinCharlotteBront'sNovels:ShirleyReadsJaneEyre.
"TexasStudiesinLiteratureandLanguage,vol.
29,no.
3,1987,pp.
302–22.
Gribble,Jennifer.
"JaneEyre'sImagination.
"Nineteenth-CenturyFiction,vol.
23,no.
3,1968,279–93.
Langer,SusanneK.
FeelingandForm:ATheoryofArt.
CharlesScribner'sSons,1953.
Peters,JohnG.
"InsideandOutside:JaneEyreandMarginalizationthroughLabeling.
"StudiesintheNovel,vol.
28,no.
1,1996,pp.
57–75.
Tillotson,Kathleen.
NovelsoftheEighteen-Forties.
OxfordUP,1985.
28CriterionTheAmericanHeroinaHawaiianMythConvergenceofCulturesinLondon's"KoolautheLeper"MorganDanielsJackLondon's"KoolautheLeper"(1912)tellsthestoryofaleprousHawaiianwhorefusestoberelocatedtoMolokaibytheAmericangovernment.
DuringKoolau'slaststand,KoolaukeepstheAmericanarmyatbaydespitetheirsuperiorweaponry.
ThestoryendswithKoolaudyingfromleprosyafreemanonKauai,hisislandhome.
CriticshavelongdebatedwhatthisstoryrevealsaboutLondon'sviewpointonAmericanimperialismandcolonialism.
Somecritics,likeLeonardCassuto,arguethisshortstory"helpstocontradictthestereotypedcriticalviewofLondon'sracism"(120).
JamesSlagelvalidatesthisviewpointwhenheclaimsthatthisstoryshowsthe"disappearanceoftheracism"weseeinLondon'searlierworks,implyinganewrespectfornativeHawaiians(182).
Whilethesescholarsview"KoolautheLeper"asacritiqueofAmerica'simperialreachintoHawaii,otherslikeKu'ualohaHo'omanawanui—aNativeHawaiian—arguethatLondon'smisrepresentationandfictionalizationofKoolau'sstoryshowsthatLondonis"oneofthoseracist,usurpinghaolehe[London]despises"(238).
TheseinsightfulinterpretationsbringdepthtoourunderstandingofLondon's"KoolautheLeper"sincetheydepictLondonsimultaneouslyasaproponentandanantagonisttoAmericanimperialism.
30CriterionIwouldliketoaugmentthisunderstandingbysuggestingthatLondon'scritiqueofAmericanimperialismisinitselfanactofimperialism.
AccordingtotheOxfordEnglishDictionary,imperialismcanbedefinedas"theextensionandmaintenanceofacountry'spowerorinfluencethroughtrade,diplomacy,military,orculturaldominance"(italicsadded).
IproposethatJackLondon's"KoolautheLeper"isanactofculturaldominanceasLondontookthetruestoryofKaluaiko`olau,apoliticalandculturalherotonativeHawaiians,andaltereditinsuchawayastopresentatraditionalAmericanhero:independent,rebelliousofauthorityfigures,andindividualistic.
BytakingaHawaiianstoryandtransformingittofitAmericansensibilities,London'sstorybecomesaninstanceofimperialism,ademonstrationofAmerica'sculturaldominance.
LondonreplacesHawaiianvalueswithAmericanoneswhenhesupplantstherealKoolau'sstorywithhisfictitious,highlyexaggeratedone.
HisfragmentationandreinventionoftherealstoryofKoolaushowcasesamodernistresponsetothecreolizationofdifferingculturesandvalues,celebratingtheconvergenceofculturesthatoccursthroughimperialism.
Koolau'sphysicalandculturalrebellionagainstAmericanauthorityfiguresisaqualityassociatedmorewiththetraditionalAmericanherothanaHawaiianhero.
London's"KoolautheLeper"beginswithKoolaugivingarousingspeechtohisfellowHansen-diseasedoutcasts,railingontheinjusticesdonebytheAmericangovernmentandencouragingthemtodefythesoldiersthatdemandtheirremoval.
Inhisspeech,Koolauproclaims,"Tomorrowthesoldierslandontheshore.
Lettheweakheartsgodowntothem.
.
.
.
Asforusweshallstayandfight"(London42).
Koolau'srebellionagainstthedemandoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentappearstoparalleltheAmericanRevolution;thePatriotsrejectedestablishedprejudicesandtheexpectationsofGreatBritain,andtheyfoughttocreateanentirelynewgovernmentthantheonethatruledfromanoceanaway.
Koolaurebelsonanindividualleveltothedemandsofaforeigngovernment,rejectingtheirauthoritytoexilehimtoMolokaiandclaiminghisrightforindependentrule.
BothtraditionalAmericanPatriotsandKoolauarewillingtofightfortheirindependence.
RegalaFuchsclaimsthatthearchetypalherooftheAmericanfrontieris"thesocialoutlawwhofoughtagainstinjusticelocatedofteninpowerfulinstitutions"(37).
Koolau'soutlawstatusandretreatintothewild,untamed—andforthemajorityinaccessible—outreachesofKauaialso31Winter2017placeKoolauonparwiththeAmericanfrontierlegend.
LondoncreatesacharacterthatexemplifiesthequalitiesheldbytheiconicAmericanfrontiersmenandpatriot.
Koolau'sactionsdonotresemblethoseofourHawaiianexample:QueenLiliuokalani.
SheabdicatedherthrowntotheUnitedStatesgovernmentinordertosaveherpeoplefromviolenceandbloodshed(Liliuokalani274).
RatherthanrebellingagainstAmericanintrusion,QueenLiliuokalaniconcededtoit.
InLondon'sdepictionofKoolau,Koolau'sfocusonhisindividualfreedomratherthanthecommunityisalsoassociatedmorewithWesternvaluesthanthoseofHawaii.
Whenablue-eyedAmericancaptaindemandsKoolauturnhimselfin,Koolaurespondsfervently,"Iamafreeman.
.
.
IhavelivedfreeandIshalldiefree.
Iwillnevergivemyselfup"(London53,italicsadded).
WhileKoolau'syearningforfreedomisnotuniquetoanAmerican,hisfocusonhisownindividualityreflectsmoreAmericanvaluesthanthecommunityvaluedbyHawaiians.
AccordingtoRobertSayre,Americans"thinkofthemselvesashavinggreatrespectfortheuniquenessoftheindividual"anditisoneofthetraitsmostassociatedwiththeWesternmindset(9).
Whentherestoftheleperoutcaststurnthemselvesin,Koolauchoosestoremainoutsidethecommunity,earning"imprecationsandinsults"forhisdesertion(London53).
InHawaii,oneofthemostimportantvaluesoftheircultureisthatofohana,whichliterallytranslatesto"family"inEnglishbutisconnotativelyassociatedwithsomuchmorethanthatinHawaii.
JohnMcDermottdescribestheimportanceofohanatonativeHawaiiansbysaying,"theconceptofohanabindsagrouptogether,andinthegroupistobefoundthestrengthandpurposeandmeaningofexistence"(12).
Bychoosingtoprotecthisindividualrightsandremainoutsideofthegroup,KoolaurejectsohanaandadoptsanewWestern-basedmeaningforexistence.
JackLondonpaintsKoolauasthearchetypalherooftheAmericanWest,furtherappropriatingthisHawaiianintothefabricofAmericanlegends.
Duringthelatehalfofthenineteenthcentury,storiesthataresetintheAmericanWildWestandthatfeatureanomadiccowboyoroutlawgrewinpopularityduetoinfamousoutlawslikeBillPickett,JesseJames,andBillytheKid.
ItisduringthisperiodthatKoolau'sstorybegins.
InLondon's"KoolautheLeper,"KoolauisacowboybeforeheisforcedtofleeinordertoavoidexiletoMolokai.
AsKoolauisdying,heistakenbacktohiscowboydayswhereheisoncemore"inthethickofthehorse-breaking,32Criterionwithrawcoltsrearingandbuckingunderhim,"andinanotherinstanceheis"pursuingthewildbullsoftheuplandpastures"(55).
ItissignificantthatthenostalgiathatovercomesLondon'sKoolauisforhiscowboydays,daysthatwerespentconqueringthewildandtheuntamed.
Memoriesoffamilyorfriendsdonottraipseacrosshisreminiscences.
Koolaufindscomfortinmomentsthatexemplifyhisyouthfulvigorandstrength.
Thecowboyofmythis"definedbyhisstrength,honor,independence,andhiswildernessidentity…Heemergesfromthewildernessafreeandequalindividual"(Wright6).
Koolau,cowboyandoutlaw,exemplifiestheAmericanvaluesofstrength,independence,andindividuality.
IncontrasttoLondon'sshortstory,theHawaiianversionof"KoolautheLeper"depictsadifferentsetofvalues:community,family,andChristianity.
InPi'ilani'sautobiographicalaccountwediscoverthatthereasontheyrefusedtogotoMolokaiwasPi'ilani'sandKoolau'sbeliefthattheirweddingvowswouldbebrokeniftheyweretoseparatebeforedeath.
Pi'ilanirecalls,"Andweagreedtogethertolivepatientlytogetherinthehardshipsofthislife,andthatonlydeathwouldseparateus"(8).
KoolauwaswillingtogotoMolokai,untilherealizedthathisfamilywouldnotbeabletoaccompanyhim.
Koolau'sfocuswasnotprotectinghisindividualfreedoms,aspostulatedbyJackLondon,buttoremainapartofhisfamilialcommunity.
Accordingtohiswife,Koolau'srefusalwasbasedonhisdesiretobeagoodChristian.
Hisstory,accordingtoKu'ualohaHo'omanawanui,isnotthestoryofarebelliouscowboybutthestoryof"acourageousChristianfamilymanwhostandsbyhisprinciples,aHawaiian'David'fightingtheAmerican'Goliath'(253).
WhilebothLondon'sandPi'ilani'saccountsportraysKoolauasanunderdogwhorefusestosubmit,theiraccountsrevealdifferentmotivationsbehindKoolau'sactions.
JamesSlagelclaimsthatthestoryofKoolauis"alovestory,tragicandtrue"(182)andyetinLondon's"KoolautheLeper,"thereisnomentionoffamilymembersandnottheslightestallusiontoChristianity.
LondonreplacedthequalitiesofKoolauthatmadehimaHawaiianherowithonesthatweremoresympathetictoAmericansensibilities.
Koolau'srelationshipwithhisgunisoneexampleofthedifferentculturalvaluesemphasizedinLondon'sandPi'ilani'sstoriesanddemonstratesAmerica'sencroachmentonaHawaiianstory.
InLondon'sstory,Koolau'sMauseristheonethinginhislifethatneverfailedKoolau,33Winter2017andhedieswithhisgun"pressedagainsthischestwithhisfoldedfingerlesshands"(55).
Heholdshisgunasifitwassomethingprecious,somethingclosetohisheart.
TheMauserisasymbolofrebellionandofhisfightforfreedom;hisgunisthereasonKoolaucoulddieafreeman.
Inessence,thegunallowshimtoprotecttheAmericanvalueshetreasures.
TherelationshipbetweenKoolauandhisgunisportrayeddifferentlyinPi'ilani'saccount.
WhenKoolaurealizesheisdying,heinstructshiswifetoburythegunwithhimstating:"becauseyouhadnothingtodowiththegun.
IaloneuseditandwhenIgo,wegotogether;whenmyworkisdone,itsworkinthisworldisdone"(36).
Pi'ilanisawthismomentasanactoflove.
Bytakingthegunwithhim,Koolauwasacceptingtotalblameforthetroublehecaused(Slagel183).
Thegunwasasymbolofhisloveanddesiretoprotecthisfamily,evenathisdeath.
Thetwoaccountsdemonstratethedifferentmotivationsbehindthecharacter,Koolau,andcorrespondtothedifferentheroesportrayedinthestory:AmericanandHawaiian.
ByportrayingKoolauasanAmericanhero,LondonunderminesthecurrentopinionmostAmericanshadofHawaiians.
Leprosy,inaChristianHawaii,carriedasocialstigma,sincetheBibledeclaresthosewhohaveleprosyareunclean.
DuetothisstigmaandHawaiians'geneticproclivitytosufferfromleprosy,Hawaiianswereconsidered"savage,immoral,promiscuous,undisciplined,stupidandinferior,inneedofguidancefromthe'greatwhitefather'"(Ho'omanawanui,235).
ByportrayingKoolauasarenegadewhonotonlyrebelsagainsttheAmericangovernmentbutsuccessfullywithstoodtheirmortarshells,guns,andsuperiornumbers,LondoncreatesacharacterwhodefiesnegativestigmastowardHawaiians.
Koolauisproudthatdespitebeing"acrippledwreckofaman"theAmericanarmystillneeded"gunsandrifles,policeandsoldiers"inordertocapturehim(London50).
DuetoAmerica'sunderdogstatusduringtheAmericanRevolution,Americansholdacertainlevelofempathytowardotherunlikelyconquerors,andKoolau'sstoryresonateswiththem.
LondontiedqualitiesthatAmericansvaluetoaleprous'other,'implyingthatKoolau—aleperandaHawaiian—canstillbeanAmericanhero.
Pi'ilani'sautobiographicalaccountcedestoLondon'sfictionalstory,reflectingtheappropriationofculturethatoccurredthroughoutthecolonizationofHawaii.
AccordingtoSusanStanfordFriedman,thishybriditybetweenculturesisaresultofmodernity(479).
Duetothetechnologicaladvancesinthecommunicationsystemsandtransportation34Criterionofourmodernworld,nationsandculturesthatbeforehadremainedisolatedstarttointeractwithothercultures;someevenadoptthepracticesofforeignnations.
JackLondon's"KoolautheLeper"isaresultoftheseinteractions.
TheconvergencebetweenaHawaiianlegendandAmericanideologiescreatedsomethingentirelynew.
Inmanyways,London'sadoptionofaforeigntaleisnotwhollyanAmericanpractice,butaHawaiianoneaswell.
InLiliuokalani'sHawaii'sStory,shedescribesingreatdetailthecommonadoptionpracticeinHawaiiwherebabiesimmediatelyafterbirtharegiventoanotherchieftoberaisedastheirown.
Liliuokalanicitedthatthereasonforthispracticewasto"cementthetiesoffriendshipbetweenthechiefs…andithasdoubtlessfosteredacommunityofinterestandharmony"(4).
CouldwenotreadLondon's"KoolautheLeper"inthesamewayWhilethestoryofKoolauisonebornofHawaii,LondonadopteditandraiseditintheAmericanway.
Belongingtobothcultures,"KoolautheLeper"canbeaunifyingforce,fosteringacommunityofinterestandharmonythroughthetimelessanduniversalpracticeofstorytelling.
"KoolautheLeper"isanexampleofwhatFriedmancalls"creolization"definingitasamergingofculturesthrough"patternsofimitation,adaptation,transculturation,andculturaltranslation"(483).
PerhapsaccordingtoFriedman'sdefinition,London'sstorydoesnothavetobeeitheranAmericanstoryoraHawaiianone:"KoolautheLeper"canbebothandbelongtobothcultures.
WhenKoolauadmirestheAmericansfor"thatwillinthemthatwasstrongerthanlifeandthatbentallthingstotheirbidding,"hefailedtorecognizethathe,too,hadthesamequality,ashecontinuedonevenashisbodyandcommunityfailedhim.
KoolaudoesnotrecognizetheAmericanqualitieshepossesses.
Ifliteratureisareactiontothemodernitythatsurroundsus,then"KoolautheLeper"suggeststhatHawaii,evenintheearlytwentiethcenturyisnolongerstrictlyHawaiian,norisitwhollyabsorbedbyAmerica.
Thisintermeshingoftraditionalmythsandlegendsbetweenculturesisprevalenttoday,andduetoAmerica'smediadominance,Americanidealsoftenovershadowotherculturalstoriesandvalues.
In2016,Disneyreleasedanewanimatedmovie,Moana,whichfeaturesthePolynesiandemigod,Māui,andMoana,thedaughterandheirofachief,whosequestistoreturnTeFiti'shearttoitsisland.
ThecharacterMāuiislooselybasedontheculturalheroandtricksterfoundinHawaiianmythology.
35Winter2017Accordingtolegends,Māui"fishedupfromtheoceanNewZealandandtheHawaiianIslandswithamagichook"(Westervelt18).
Heisalsocreditedforlassoingthesun,findingfire,andmakingtheearthahabitableenvironmentforhumankind.
ThistricksteriswellbelovedbymanyofPolynesiandescent,andsomeworriedthattheportrayalofaPolynesianlegendfromsuchahugeAmericanconglomerateliketheWaltDisneyCompanywouldmisrepresenttheirculturalmyth.
Withthatinmind,DisneycreatedtheOceanicStoryTrust,agroupofanthropologists,historians,andlinguistsfromthePolynesianislandswhosemissionwastokeeptheintegrityoftheoriginalPolynesianlegend(Ito).
IncludedintheTrustwasthetattooartistSu'aPeterSulu'ape,"asixth-generationmastertattooist"who"checkedeverymarkandpattern"ofMāui'stattoos,aswellasfishermaninFijiwhoseinputhelpedmaketheboatandropeshistoricallyandculturallyaccurate.
DespiteDisney'sin-depthresearchintoPolynesiancultureandmyths,DisneystillreceivedbacklashaboutthesizeofMāui,ofwhomLawrenceDownesfromTheNewYorkTimes,describedasa"heavilyinkedmusclemanpumpedtowhat,inatire,wouldbeadangerouslyhighp.
s.
i.
"Despitethiscritique,CaitlinMoorefromTheWashingtonPostclaimsthatMoanaisDisney's"mostculturallysensitivefilmever.
"Disney'sattemptstobeculturallysensitiveintheirportrayalofaPolynesianprincessdemonstrateAmerica'sefforttorecognizethegreatnessofothercultures.
Disney'sculturalsensitivityindicatesashiftfromthecreativelicensetakeninJackLondon's"KoolautheLeper,"whilestilldemonstratingtheexpansionofAmericaninfluenceintoothercultures.
WhileLondoncreatedanAmericanherofromaHawaiianlegend,DisneycreatedfromaPolynesianmythanewhero,onewhodepictsqualitiesfrombothAmericanandPolynesiancultures.
Māui'sdedicationtomankind,hishumanohana,aswellashisdeterminationtosaveMoanashowthePolynesianvaluesofcommunityandfamily.
Hisexcessiveprideinhispersonalaccomplishments—allofwhichhavebeenmemorializedastattoosonhisskin—reflectstheAmericanfocusonindividualism.
AccordingtoJohnMcDermott,inPolynesia"individualsarediscouragedfrommakingpublicdisplaystoseekrecognitionforself"and"toflauntandpubliclyannounceone'scredentials"isauniquelyWesternmindset(14).
Thiscreolizationofdifferentculturalvaluesenhancesanation'sidentity,broadeningitthroughtheinclusionofanother'smythsandlegends.
36CriterionThroughLondon's"KoolautheLeper"andDisney'sMoana,wecanseethatAmerica'sculturalappropriationcelebratesthetransformationthatcomesofnewandunexpectedcombinationsduetomodernglobalization.
London'sKoolauexemplifiestheAmericanherooftheWestandoftheFrontier;thisherowascreatedfromaleprosy-strickenHawaiian,shiftingAmerica'spoliticalparadigmandbroadeningthedefinitionofanAmericanherotosomeonehistoricallyconsideredanundesirableforeign"other.
""KoolautheLeper"andMoanaareexamplesofAmericanimperialismthroughculturaldominance,andyetthisculturalintermeshingoftenleadstoagreaterunderstandingandrespectforothernations,theirculturesandtheirtraditions.
37Winter2017WorksCitedCassuto,Leonard.
"London'sClass-BasedGrotesque.
"LiteratureandtheGrotesque.
EditedbyMichaelJ.
Meyer,Rodopi,1995.
Downes,Lawrence.
"TheSupersizeClichéinMoana.
"TheNewYorkTimes,10December2016,https://www.
nytimes.
com/2016/12/10/opinion/sunday/the-supersize-cliche-in-moana.
html.
Friedman,SusanStanford.
"Planetarity:MusingModernistStudies.
"Modernism/Modernity,vol.
17,no.
3,2010,pp.
471–99.
Fuchs,Regula.
RememberingVietNam:GustavHasford,RonKovic,TimO'BrienandtheFabricationofAmericanCulturalMemory.
PeterLang,2010.
Ho'omanawanui,Ku'ualoha.
"HeroorOutlawTwoViewsofKaluaiko'olau.
"NavigatingIslandsandContinents:ConversationsandContestationsinandaroundthePacific.
EditedbyCynthiaFranklin,RuthHsu,SuzanneKosanke,UofHawaiiP,2000,pp.
232–63.
"Imperialism.
"OxfordEnglishDictionary.
OxfordUP,2016.
Ito,Robert.
"How(andWhy)MauiGotSoBiginMoana.
"TheNewYorkTimes,15November2016,https://www.
nytimes.
com/2016/11/20/movies/moana-and-how-maui-got-so-big.
html_r=0.
Liliuokalani.
Hawaii'sStorybyHawaii'sQueen.
CharlesE.
TuttleCo,1964.
London,Jack.
StoriesofHawaii.
EditedbyA.
GroveDay.
Mutual,1986.
McDermott,John.
PeopleandCulturesofHawaii:APsychoculturalProfile.
UPofHawaii,1980.
Moore,Caitlin.
"Disney'sMoanaisaBreathofFreshIslandAir.
"TheWashingtonPost,22November2016.
Pi'ilani.
TheTrueStoryofKaluaikoolau.
TranslatedbyFrancesN.
Frazier.
KauaiHistoricalSociety,2001.
Sayre,RobertF.
AmericanLives:AnAnthologyofAutobiographicalWriting.
UofWisconsinP,1994.
Slagel,James.
"PoliticalLeprosy:JackLondonthe'Kama'āina'andKoolautheHawaiian.
"RereadingJackLondon.
EditedbyLeonardCassutoandJeanneCampbellReesman.
StanfordUP,1996.
Westervelt,WilliamD.
HawaiianHistoricalLegends.
Tuttle,1977.
Wright,Will.
TheWildWest:TheMythicalCowboyandSocialTheory.
SageP,2001.
38CriterionDante'sDivineComedyAPastoralSubversionKatieFrancomInVirgil'swritings,"pastoralpoetrycametobeusedasavehicleforallegoryorveiledsocialandpoliticalcomment"("PastoralPoetry").
ItisthusfittingthatDante,inhisattempttowritewhathebelievedtobethegreatestallegoryevercreated,choseVirgiltobehisliteraryandnarrativeguide.
DantepullsfromwhatPrueShaw,aprominentDantecritic,callsthe"fertilisingpowers"ofVirgil'sallegoricalandpastoralinfluencesthroughoutTheDivineComedy(172).
Andyet,itisinhisveryhomagetoVirgilthatDantesubvertsthepastoralmode.
KyleAnderson"examinestheparticularsofhowDanteasChristianpoetreplacestheclassicalmodelofpastoralpoetry,Virgil,inCantoXXVIII,viaaclevermisuseoftheamoebeancontest,"atypicalpastoraldevice(9).
AndersonarguesthatDantesupplantsthepaganpastoralofVirgilinordertoreplaceitwithhisownChristianversion,butisthisreallyaccomplishedinthesingleliterarymoveoftheamoebeancontestOrisDante'ssubversionoftheclassicalpastoralevidentthroughoutTheDivineComedyAndwhatisthesignificanceofDante'sdecisiontotransformthegenreThispaperwillattempttowidenthescholarlyunderstandingofDante'sultimatecondemnationoftheclassicalandpaganpastoralbyrootingthemesanddevicestypicalofthisgenrethroughouttheCommedia.
Bydenouncingthepaganpastoral,Dantedeclareshisstatusasthesupremepoetandexaltstheimportanceof40CriterionaChristianunderstandingofthepastoral.
Toprovethis,wewillfirstestablishsometypicalcharacteristicsofthepastoralmode,thenwewillexaminethedevelopmentofVirgil'srolethroughoutTheDivineComedy,thepresenceofpastoralthemeswithinit,andDante'sChristianreinventionofthepastoral.
BeforewecanbegintostudythepastoralwithinTheDivineComedy,wemustfirstreviewthegenreitself.
AlexanderPopebeautifullydefinedpastoralpoetryas"animitationoftheactionofashepherd"(4).
Thissimpledepictionofshepherd'slifeincludesafewkeycharacteristics.
Onecharacteristicis"thatpastoralisanimageofwhattheycalltheGoldenAge"(Pope5).
BoththereaderandthecharacterswithinthepoemlongforthisidealizedandseeminglyperfectGoldenAge.
Thislonging,andthenameitself,makeitevidentthatreaderandcharacterarenolongerapartoftheGoldenAge.
Inaddition,Andersonaddsthatthepastoralis"characterizedbytheantithesisofArtandNature"(16).
Allegoricalrepresentationisakeyfeatureofpastoralpoetry.
SamuelJohnson,aprominentliteraryfigureoftheeighteenthcentury,noted,"IfwesearchthewritingsofVirgil,forthetruedefinitionofapastoral,itwillbefoundapoeminwhichanyactionorpassionisrepresentedbyitseffectsuponacountrylife"(19).
Therefore,pastoralpoetryisbynaturerepresentativeandthusallegorical.
VirgilisbothaprominentpastoralpoetandakeyfigureinTheDivineComedy;consequently,itisessentialtounderstandhisroleinDante'swork.
Wewillbeginbybrieflyreviewingtheuseofexileandallegorywithinhispastoralwriting.
InhisEclogueI,VirgiltellsthetaleofTitryusandMeliboeus.
AsthetwodiscusstheirflocksandlanditbecomesapparentthatMeliboeusisjealousofTityrus,because,asMeliboussays,"youracreswillstillbeyours.
.
.
buttherestofusmustgofromhereandbedispersed"(Virgil23).
Meliboeusisbeingforcedtoleavehislandandgotoforeignfields.
WhenMeliboeusexclaims,"Nomoresingingforme,nomoretakingyoutobrowse,/Mylittlegoats,"thereisaclearsensethatwhenMeliboeusleaveshisfieldshewillnolongerbequiteashappy(Virgil77).
However,Virgil'spastoralpoemismorethanataleofexile;itisalsoallegorical.
ForWendellClausenthatallegoryliesattheheartofVirgil'spastoral.
Heexplains,"thepoetryofTheocritusandVirgilisneversimple,thoughitaffectstobe;andinthisaffectationofsimplicity,thedisparitybetweenthemeannessofhissubjectandtherefinementofthe41Winter2017poet'sart,liestheessenceofpastoral"(xv).
ThustheessenceofEclogueIismorethanasimplestory.
WhenreferringtohisjourneytoRomeandabsencefromAmaryllis,Tityrussays,"freedomgavemealook"and"therewasnowayoutofmyslavery"(Virgil27,40).
Clausencommentsupontheselines,writing,"'Freedom'(libertas)and'slavery'(seruitium,seruitus)wereestablishedpoliticalmetaphors,andlibertashadacquiredacurrentsignificance:itwasthesloganofOctavianandhisparty"(31).
InthisinclusionofmetaphorsandtheallusiontoOctavian,VirgilmakesitclearthatEclogueIismuchmorethanataleoftwoshepherds,buta"veiledsocialandpoliticalcomment"("PastoralPoetry").
ItissignificantthatDantechosetousesuchaquintessentialpastoralpoetasaprinciplecharacterandguideinTheDivineComedy.
IntheopeningcantoofInfernowefindDantealoneinadarkwoodandinseeminglygreatperil.
Danteispresumablyabouttobeattackedbytheshe-wolfwhenheseesashadeandcries,"Havepityonme.
.
.
/whateveryoumaybe—ashade,aman"(Inferno1.
65–66).
VirgilthenrevealshisidentitytoDante,whoreactswithgreatexpressionsofpraise,declaring,"Olightandhonorofallotherpoets,/maymylongstudyandtheintenselove/thatmademesearchyourvolumeservemenow.
/Youaremymasterandmyauthor"(Inferno1.
82–85).
ItisclearherethatDantethepilgrimnotonlyesteemsVirgil,butthatheacceptshimashissuperior.
PartofthisregardforVirgilisbasedonhiswriting,forDantecallshimthe"lightofallotherpoets.
"Yes,DantedrawsmostlyfromtheAeneid,buthewascertainlyawareoftheEclogues,andthusweknowthatDanteacceptsandrecognizesVirgilforhisstandingasapastoralpoet.
DanteextendsthisadmirationbeyondpoetryandgivesVirgilapracticalroleashisguidetobringhimoutofthedarkforestandinto"aneternalplace"(Inferno1.
112–114).
VirgilisthelightthatbringsDanteoutofdarknessandgiveshimpurpose,aviewreinforcedbyP.
LuigiPietrobono,afamousItalianliterarycritic,whowrote,"Qualbene,sidomanda,cipotevaesserenellaselvaMoltidicono:Virgilio"(14).
1Dante'schoicetotakeapastoralpoetasaguideisclearlyintentional.
WhydidDantenotchooseHomerorHoraceorOvidWhenhemeetsVirgil,DantemakesitclearthathehasreadVirgil'swritingandheraldshimasanincrediblepoet,andinInfernoIVitbecomesapparentthat1"Whatgood,oneasks,couldtherebeintheforestManysay:Virgil"(translatedbyauthor).
42CriterionDante'schoiceofVirgilisintentional.
WhileinLimbo,VirgilandDanteencounterfour"giantshades"andVirgilintroducesthem,commenting,"ThatshadeisHomer,theconsummatepoet;/theotheroneisHorace,satirist;/thethirdisOvid,thelastLucan"(Inferno4.
88–90).
Dantethepoetacknowledgesthegreatnessoftheseotherwritersofepicpoetry,buthechoosesashisguidetheonefamedforthepastoral.
ItisapparentherethatthepastoralisimportanttoDante.
ThewaythedynamicofstrengthbetweenDanteandVirgilprogressesisindicativeofthewayDantebeginstosupplantVirgilasthereigningpastoralpoet.
AtthebeginningofInferno,DantethepilgrimisweakandalmostentirelyreliantuponVirgil.
VirgilisseenaspowerfulandcapableofguidingandreassuringDante.
Virgil'spowerismanifestastheyattempttoenterthefourthcircleandareblockedbyPlutus,"thegreatenemy"(Inferno6.
115).
PlutusisaGreekgod,herecastbyDantethepoetintotheformofadevil.
Danteisapparentlyscaredbythisencounter,butVirgil,"Thegentlesage,awareofeverything,/saidreassuringly,'Don'tletfear/defeatyou'"(Inferno7.
3–5).
HereDanteisseenasweakandVirgilisabletoperceivethatandcomforthim.
ThenVirgildemonstrateshisownpowerandasserts,"whateverpowerhehas,/hecannotstopourclimbingdownthiscrag"(Inferno7.
5–6).
LoydH.
HowardcommentsonVirgil's"guidingcompetence,"thushighlightingtherespectivestrengthandweaknessofVirgilandDante(25).
ThisdynamicchangesastheytravelthroughInfernoandDantebecomesstrongerwhileVirgilbecomesweaker.
Virgil'sweaknessisfirstperceptibleinCantoIXwhentheyreachthegatesofDis,and,accordingtoHoward,"Virgil'sauthorityhasreachedalowebb"(42).
AtthegatesDanteandVirgilareunabletopassthem,and,inthefaceofthatobstacle,Virgilcriesout,"Wehavetowinthisbattle.
.
.
/ifnot.
.
.
Butonesogreathadofferedhelp.
/Howslowthatcomingseemstome!
"(Inferno9.
7–9).
TheyarestuckandVirgilcandonothingtochangetheirsituationwithoutsomegreaterhelpfromabove.
HereweseeaVirgilthatknowshehasanimportantroleanddoubtshisabilitytocompleteit.
ThisgrowingweaknessofVirgilisalsoevidentinCantoXXIV.
AtthebeginningofthiscantoDanteandVirgilarestrugglingtotraveltotheseventhbolgiabecausethebridgehascollapsed.
InthemidstofthistrialDantepresentsthereaderwithapastoralsimile.
Hedescribesayoungfarmerwhowatchesthesunriseoverhislandinearlyspring.
As43Winter2017thesuncomesup,thefarmer"gathersupnewhope/onseeingthattheworldhaschangeditsface"(Inferno24.
12–13).
ThefarmerinthesimileisalsoashepherdbecauseDantetellsusthathetakeshis"sheeptopasture"(Inferno24.
15).
ThisclearlytiesthesimileintothepastoralmodewithwhichVirgilissoadept.
MuchhasbeenmadeofthissimileandthebreakitprovidesinthebleaknessoftheInferno,butanearlyscholar,BenvenutodaImola,attemptstounpackthepoem'smeaningbeyonditsfunctionwithinthecanto.
Benvenutosuggeststhat"theshepherdisVirgil,whohadactuallybeenashepherdhistoricallyandallegorically"andthatthesunrepresentsthereliefVirgilfeelswhen"atfirstconfusedbyhiswrath,havingexpelledit,afteralittlehasletthesheepoutofthepouchtograzeonnewgrass,namelyonthefodderofnewmatter"(qtdinEconomou640).
ItissignificantthatBenvenuto,acontemporaryofDante,believedthatVirgilwasashepherdandsuggeststhatDantemayhavebelievedsuchaswell.
However,GeorgeEconomou,amodernDantescholar,disagreeswithBenevento'sviewofVirgilastheshepherdinthismetaphorandpositsDanteastheshepherdandVirgilasthesun.
HelikensVirgil"tothesun,or,moregenerally,toanaturalprocessinthecosmos"(Economou641).
ThisreadingisintriguingbecauseittakesVirgiloutofhistraditionalassociationwithshepherdsandreplaceshimwithDante.
InEconomou'splacementofDanteastheshepherdweseethebeginningsofDante'smovetoreplacethethepaganpastoralofVirgilwithhisownChristianpastoral.
AswecontinuethroughtheComedy,Dante'sstrengthbecomesgreaterandgreaterandhebeginstosurpassVirgil.
ThisisvisibleinhisuseofotherguidesinPurgatory.
WhenthepilgrimsfirstmeetStatius,beforeknowinghisidentity,VirgiltellshimthathehasbeenexiledtohellandStatiusquestions,"IfGod'snotdeemedyouworthyofascent,/who'sguidedyousofaralongHisstairs"(Purgatorio21.
20–21).
ThissuggeststhatinsomewayVirgilisaninadequateguideonthemountainofPurgatory.
Followingtheirdiscussion,StatiusbecomesasupplementalguideandaccompaniesthepilgrimsallthewaytothetopofPurgatory,atransitioninwhichweseeVirgilveryclearlybeginningtofadeawayandDantebegintotakehisplace.
Virgil'sdisplacementbecomescompleteintheGardenofEdenatthetopofthemountainofPurgatory.
IntheCantoXXVIIDanteandVirgilenterthatearthlyparadiseandVirgiluttershislastwords.
AsPoggioli44Criterionremarks,"itisquitenoteworthythathe[Virgil]isallowedtoentertheGardenofEden,"anditshowsDante'sgreatrespecttowardshim(135).
However,itisalsothemomentinwhichVirgilsurrendersallpower;inhislastlineshetellsDante,"Awaitnofurtherwordorsignfromme:/yourwillisfree,erect,andwhole—toact/againstthatwillwouldbetoerr:therefore/Icrownandmiteryouoveryourself"(Purgatorio27.
139–142).
AndersonwritesthatDante'snewindependence"provestobeasmuchofapoeticasaspiritualprivilege"(7).
Thisisnotmerelyafeatureoftheplot.
Yes,VirgilwillnolongerbeDante'sguide,butheisalsorelinquishinghispoeticsuperiorityandcrowningDanteashisownsuperiorpoet.
ThisreplacementofVirgilisalsothereplacementofthetraditionalpaganpastoralthatherepresentsbyfirstshowinghowthepastoralusesofallegoryandexilearepresentandthenbydemonstratingitsChristiansubversion.
Allegoryispresentfromtheveryfirstlinesofthepoem:"WhenIhadjourneyedhalfofourlife'sway,/Ifoundmyselfwithinashadowedforest"(Inferno1.
1–2).
Danteopens,ashasoftenbeenstated,bysayingthathewasinthemidstof"ourlife'sway,"thusinvitingthereadertotakepartinthislife.
ThisisimportantbecauseitestablishestheuniversalityofDante'sstoryandclaim.
Bycreatingsuchabroadapplication,Dantemakesitclearthatthemeaningextendsbeyondtheeventsofthepilgrim'slife,andinfactsymbolizesthelivesofhisreaders.
CantoIcontinuestoincludeanallegoricalpresentationofanimals:aleopard,alion,andashe-wolf.
Dantedescribesthelionassoterrifyingthat"eventheairaroundhimseemedtoshudder"andtheshe-wolfasonethat"hadalreadybroughtdespairtomany"(Inferno1.
46–47,50,52–53).
Theseanimalsareplainlyterrifying,buttheyalsoseemquitemaliciousbecausetheshe-wolfhasalreadyharmedpeople.
Thepresenceoftheseanimalsisimportantbecauseitshowstheperilsthatarefoundinnature,buttheyalsoseemtocontrastwiththeanimalsfoundinpastoralpoetry.
Classicalpastoralpoetryfocusesonsheepandgoats,whichtendtobeharmless.
Dante'sanimals,thoughviolent,areneverthelesspastoral,becausetheyareallegorical.
BenedettoCroce,theItalianphilosopher,writesthatinCantoI"weencounterthreewildanimalsthatarenotthreewildanimals,"(qtdinCassata14)butaresymbolsoflargerideas.
Cassataassignsspecifichumansinstoeachanimal,suchasthe"lionofpride"andthe"she-wolfofcupidity"(16).
Thespecificmeaningof45Winter2017theanimalsmaybeunclear,butsurelytheyarenotsimplyapartofthesettingaspastoralgoatsandsheepseemtobe.
Rather,theyarearichsymbolicpartofthetext.
Withtheline"Ifoundmyselfwithinashadowedforest,"CantoIalsointroducesthepastoralconceptofexiletothereader(Inferno1.
1–2).
InItaliantherearetwowaystosay"Ifound":"trovai"and"ritrovai.
"Bothcanmean"Ifound,"buthereDantechoosesthewordwiththeprefix"ri,"which,asinEnglish,meanstorepeatordoagain.
ThusDantefindshimselfagaininashadowedforest.
Pietrobonoreinforcesthisreadingof"ritrovai,"writingthat,"Quandodunqueladirittaviaerasmarrita.
.
.
Dantesiritrova"(11).
2ThisimpliesthatDantedoesindeedfindhimselfagain,notonanewpath,butononethathadbeenlost.
Thisdistinctionisessentialbecauseitchangesthewholesettingofthefirstcanto:itisnotacompletelystrangeplacetoDante,butonetowhichheisreturning,thusembodyingareturntonature.
ThisallusiontoexileiscontinuedinthefirstCantoasDanteestablishesthenaturalsettingasdarkanddangerous.
Pietrobonointroducesthesethemeswhenhenotes,"Quelchemiparcertosièchelasuaselvasiacontinuazioneesvolgimentodiquellaterraaspradispiniedirovi,nellaqualeAdamofucacciato,subitochesitorse'daviadiveritàedisuavita'"(Pietrobono11–12).
3PietrobonomakesthisargumentbyconnectingthenegativeanddarkdescriptionoftheforesttothethornsandthistlesdescribedbyGodinGenesis3.
Hethenmovesbeyondlinguisticsimilaritiestotalkmoreaboutfunction.
Dantereferstotheforestasaplace"thatneverhasletanymansurvive,"afactthatPietrobonoclaimsrecallstheoriginalsin,whichalsoletnomansurviveandbroughtdeathtomankind.
ThisconnectiontotheBibleimmediatelyrendersthestoryallegorical(Inferno1.
27).
However,italsointroducestheideaofexile.
AdamwasexiledfromtheGardenofEden,andPietrobono'sconnectionbetweenDanteandAdamimpliesthatDantehasalsobeenexiledtoadarkerplace.
Thesethemesmakeitclearthat,althoughDanteischangingthetraditionalpaganpastoral,healsovaluestheuseofexilewithinthegenre.
2"Whenthestraightwaywaslost.
.
.
Dantefoundhimself"(translatedbyauthor).
3"Thatwhichseemscertaintomeisthathisforestisacontinuationanddevelopmentofthatruggedlandofthornsandbrambles,inwhichAdamwascastinto,immediatelyonecontorts'bywayoftruthandofone'slife'"(translatedbyauthor).
46CriterionThisthemeofexileresonatesstronglywithDante'sownlifeandtheexilefromwhichhewroteTheDivineComedy.
InParadiseDantemeetshisgreat-great-grandfather,Cacciaguida,whoinCantoXVIIbeginstopredictDante'sfuture.
HewarnsDante,"Youshallleaveeverythingyoulovemostdearly:/thisisthearrowthatthebowofexile/shootsfirst"(Paradiso17.
55–57).
WhatseemedprophetictoDantethepilgrimwasrealityforDantethepoet.
Caughtonthewrongsideofapoliticalbattle,DantewasexiledfromFlorencein1302andneverreturned.
Thisexilemusthaveinfluencedhischoicetodrawfromthepastoralanditsthemesofexile.
However,Dante'sownfeelingsintroduceasenseofbitternessnotasevidentinMeliboeus'nostalgia.
CacciaguidainformsDante,"Youaretoknowthebittertaste/ofothers'bread,howsaltitis,andknow/howhardapathitisforonewhogoes/descendingandascendingothers'stairs"(Paradiso17.
57–61).
ClearlyDante'sexilewasnotoneofnostalgiccontemplation,butofrealbitternessandhardship.
Thisbitternessbeginstocastanegativeshadeonthepastoralthemeofexile.
WhileDanteincludespastoralthemesandimages,itisobviousthatheisdoingsomethingdifferentwiththemthansimplyechoingtheirtraditionaluse;heisinfactsubvertingthepastoral.
AprimeexampleofthissubversionishisdescriptionofthesettinginCantoI,whichbecomesparticularlyinterestingwhenDanteestablishesthatthesettingis"ashadowedforest"(Inferno1.
1).
Forestsareapartofthenaturalworld,which,inclassicalpastoralpoetry,areusuallyconsideredtobeahaven.
Danteisreturningtowhatwouldtraditionallybeanaturalparadise,butinsteaditis"shadowed"anddark.
Pietrobono'sreadingofthe"selvaoscura"reinforcesthisnegativefeelingwhenhecallstheforestthe"principioecagionediognidolore"(12).
4WithinthisoneinitialphraseDantebeginstosubvertthetypicalpastoralbyarguingagainsttheideathatareturntoparadiseisdesirablebecauseDante'sreturntothenaturalworldisanythingbutideal,insteaditis"shadowed"anddark.
Clearlythisisnotthenaturethatpastoralpoetshaveheraldedandlongedfor,thisissomethingmuchmorehaunting.
Dantecontinuestodescribethisnaturalscenewithlessthanpositiveemotions;whenDantemeetsVirgilinthewoodVirgilinviteshimto"leavethissavagewilderness"(Inferno1.
93).
Virgilreferstonatureas4"Principleandcauseofallpain"(translatedbyauthor).
47Winter2017savage.
ThismakesitclearthatitisnotsimplyDante,orsimplythedarkwoods,thatisaffectedbythissenseoffear,butallofnatureandVirgil,apoetofnature.
NowhereinTheDivineComedyisDante'spastoralaselevatedasitisinthefinalscenesofPurgatorio,intheGardenofEden,whereDantebringstogetherthethemesofallegoryandexileandmakeshissubversionofthepastoralfinal.
Uponcrossingthepurifyingflames,Danteimmediatelybeginsapastoralmetaphor.
Hedescribesgoatswho"whentheygrazed,wereswiftandtameless"and"herdsmenintheopenfields"(Purgatorio27.
76–82).
Then,referringtoVirgil,Statius,andhimself,Danteexplains"suchwereallthreeofusatthatpoint—they/wereliketheherdsmen,Iwaslikethegoat"(Purgatorio27.
85–86).
ThisseemstobealasthonortoVirgil,whohassokindlybeenaguideandshepherdtoDante.
AnditseemsalmostsweetthatDantewouldhonorVirgilinthatpastoralforwhichhewasfamous.
ItisalsonoteworthythatthefirstthingDantedoestoexplaintheGardenofEdenisrefertothepastoral.
Clearlyhewantstodrawittothereader'sattentionandkeepitthereastheyprogressthroughtheearthlyparadise.
Usingthepastoralmodeoflocusamoenus,DantecreatesatruepastoralparadiseintheGardenofEden.
Locusamoenusis"theliterarydescriptionofalandscapewithtypicalrecurringfeatures—shadytrees,runningwater,agrassymeadow,andacoolingbreeze.
.
.
anditisthebackgroundtothepastoralpoetryofTheocritusandVirgil"("LocusAmoenus").
PoggiolinotesthattheGardenofEden"maybeconsideredasthesingle'pastoraloasis'intheCommedia"(Poggioli135).
Itisinthis"pastoraloasis"thatDantemergestheChristianandthepagan.
DanteadaptsTheocritusandVirgil'sbackgroundtocreatehisearthlyparadise.
Heincludesthe"shadytrees"whenhedescribesitasa"forest—dense,alivewithgreen,divine"(Purgatorio28.
2).
UponseeingLethe,againstwhich"Allofthepurestwatershereonearth/.
.
.
wouldseemedtobetouchedwithimpurity,"Dantemakesthepresenceofthe"runningwater"manifest(Purgatorio28.
28–29).
Withthislocusamoenus,"DanteisnowrepatterningtheGardenofEdenafterthebucolicversionsofclassicalpoetry"(Poggioli137).
Dantehimselfrecognizesthiswhenhewrites,"Thoseancientswhoinpoetrypresented/thegoldenage,whosangitshappystate,/perhaps,intheirParnassus,dreamtthisplace"(Purgatorio28.
139–141).
Danteacknowledgestheuseofapaganparadise,orParnassus,buthealsousesthismovetosaythathedoesitbetter.
48CriterionDantedoessomethingwiththispastoraloasisthatVirgil,Theocritus,andotherpaganpoetscouldneverdo:heChristianizesit.
Dante'slocusamoenusisitselfaChristianizationastheGardenofEden,butitalsobecomesthesceneofsupremeChristianspiritualexperienceforDantethepilgrim.
Poggiolicomments,"Beginningwithearlyhumanism,clerics,scholars,andpoetstriedtointerpretandtotranslatetheancient,paganpastoralintonew,Christianterms,"butasDantewouldproudlysay,healwaysdoesitbest(Poggioli135).
Inasense,Dantethepilgrim'sexileisundonewithinthisparadise:hehasfoundtheGoldenAge,anditisChristian.
ItisinterestingthatDantethepoetcreatessuchaparadise,acreationthatexaltshisChristianpoeticprowessasthesolutiontopaganpastoralnostalgia.
AlthoughatitsclimaxinthefinalcantosofPurgatorio,Dante'sChristianreinventionofthepastoralisevidentthroughoutTheDivineComedy.
PerhapsoneofthemostapparentinstancesisStatius'ChristianizationofVirgil'swritings.
UponmeetingVirgilandDante,butbeforeknowingtheiridentities,StatiusbeginstoheappraisesuponthewritingsofVirgil(Purgatorio21.
97–136).
StatiusandVirgilbegintalkingandStatius,originallyapagan,recountshisconversion.
StatiustellsVirgil,"throughyouIwasapoetand,throughyou,/aChristian"(Purgatorio22.
73–74).
StatiusbecameaChristianbecauseofwhathereadinVirgil'swritings.
HereDantethepoetisclearlyusingVirgil'spastoralwritingstoservehisChristianends.
However,DanteextendstheChristianizationbeyondthefunctionofVirgil'swritingtotheiractualcontent.
StatiusquotesVirgil'sfourthEcloguesaying,"Theagesarerenewed;/justiceandman'sfirsttimeonearthreturn;/fromHeavenanewprogenydescends"(Purgatorio22.
70–72).
AccordingtoMandelbaum,"FromearlyChristiantimes,theselines.
.
.
wereseenasprophesyingthebirthofChrist—the'newprogeny'whodescends'fromHeaven'"(72)torestoremankind"(370).
HereDantepositsVirgilasasortofpre-Christianprophet,andheuseshismostpastoralwritings,theEclogues,todoit.
Dante'sGardenofEdenisfilledwithrichallegoryandsymbolism,whichdrawsuponChristiantheologytocreateanoverwhelmingsenseofspirituality.
Uponenteringtheearthlyparadise,Dantecomesuponaprocession.
Heseesfirstsevencandlesthat"flamed/moreradiantlythanthemidmonthmoon/shinesatmidnightinanuntroubledsky"(Paradiso29.
52-54).
AccordingtoMandelbaum,"thesecandlesticks,likethesevenlampsoffireburningbeforethethroneinRevelation4:5,mayrepresentthesevenfoldspiritofGod"(390).
49Winter2017Thisbiblicalallusioncreatesaprofoundsymbolicsenseofmeaninginwhatwouldotherwisesimplybecandles.
Thecandlesarefollowedbyaprocessionof"twenty-fourelders"thathave"wreathsofliliesontheirheads"(Paradiso29.
83–84).
Theseelders,likethecandles,haveagreaterallegoricalsignificanceandrepresentthetwenty-fourbooksoftheOldTestament(Mandelbaum391).
FourbeaststhenappearbehindtheeldersandareadirectreferencetothefourbeastsfoundwithinRevelation4(Mandelbaum391).
Allofthisspiritualsymbolismculminatesintheappearanceofthegriffonpullingachariot.
Thegriffonismajestic,andDantedescribeshimwithgoldlimbsandwingsthatreach"sohighthattheywerelosttosight"(Paradiso29.
112).
Thismagnificentcreature,madeofmanandbird,"istraditionallyasymbolofChrist,whopossessedbothahumanandadivinenature"(Mandelbaum391).
Theallegoryoftheprocessionharkensbacktotheallegoryfoundwithinpaganpastoralpoetry,butcompletelyoutdoesit.
Dante'sallegorygoesbeyondVirgil's"veiledsocialandpoliticalcomment"tothedivine("PastoralPoetry").
HereDantehasexaltedthepastoralallegory.
Aswehaveseen,throughoutTheDivineComedyDantesubvertsthetraditionalpaganpastoral,withVirgilasitsrepresentative,andreplacesitwithaChristianpastoral.
ButDantedoesnotstopthere,ashadmanypoetsbeforehim;instead,heplaceshimselfatthehelmofanewpoetry.
Poggioloexplainsthat"Bygivinganewsubstancetoitsconventions,andnovelmeaningstoitscommonplaces,Dantetransfiguresnotonlythatancientfablebutalsothewholetraditionofpastoralpoetry"(152).
Dantehascreatedanewtraditionofpoetry.
Thisnewtraditionisbegunwithacoronation;whenVirgiladdressesDanteforthelasttimehecrownshim(Purgatorio27.
142).
Inwhatseemslikethecoronationofanewpoetlaureate,Dantehasoneofthegreatestpoetsofalltimepassthepowertohim.
Dante'sDivineComedyrevolutionizedliterature,andhisChristianreconstructionofthepastoralwasapartofthat.
Suddenly,themesthathadsolongbeenpagantookondeepreligiousmeaning.
Dante'sChristiansymbolismgoesbeyondexaltingDanteasthesupremepoettocreateaspiritualexperienceforhisreaders.
DantethepilgrimdoesnotgothroughthedarknessofInferno,thepenitenceofPurgatory,andthegloryofParadisealone;heisaccompaniedbyhisreader.
Increatingsuchaspiritualexperienceoutofwhatmightotherwisebepagan,Dantesurpasseshistime.
ThisiswhyhisChristianpastoralmatters:hemakesanartisticstoryaboutDantethepilgrimintoaspiritualjourneyforthereader.
50CriterionWorksCitedAlighieri,Dante.
Inferno.
TranslatedbyAllenMandelbaum.
BantamClassics,2004.
---.
Paradiso.
TranslatedbyAllenMandelbaum.
BantamClassics,1986.
---.
Purgatorio.
TranslatedbyAllenMandelbaum.
BantamClassics,2004.
"Allegory.
"TheOxfordCompaniontoClassicalLiterature.
3rded.
,2011.
Anderson,KyleDavid.
Dante'sPastoral:SilencingVirgilinEden.
MAthesis,BrighamYoungUniversity,2005.
Antonucci,Giovanni.
"Ilsognodelparadisoterrestrenellaculturarinascimentaleebarocca.
"Studium,vol.
106,no.
1,2010,p.
137.
Cassata,Letterio.
"CantoI:TheHardBegin.
"LecturaDantis:Inferno:ACanto-by-CantoCommentary.
UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1999.
Cataldi,Pietro.
IlCantoIdell'InfernoeleNuoveStrategiedelSignificato.
Palumbo,2008.
Clausen,Wendell.
ACommentaryonVirgil:Eclogues.
ClarendonPress,1994.
Economou,GeorgeD.
"ThePastoralSimileofInfernoXXIVandtheUnquietHeartoftheChristianPilgrim.
"Speculum,vol.
51,no.
4,1976,pp.
637–646,www.
jstor.
org/stable/2850714.
Frankel,Margherita.
"Dante's'Inferno'I,aNewTranslationoftheCanto–Cassell,AK.
"Speculum,vol.
67,no.
2,1992,pp.
391–393,www.
jstor.
org/stable/2864394.
Howard,LloydH.
Virgil,theBlindGuide:MarkingtheWayThroughDante'sPoem.
MQUP,February2010.
Johnson,Samuel.
"TheTruePrinciplesofPastoralPoetry.
"TheRambler.
VolumetheSecond.
J.
Payne,1752.
"LocusAmoenus.
"TheOxfordCompaniontoClassicalLiterature.
EditedbyM.
C.
Howatson,3rded.
,OxfordUP,2011.
Mirollo,JamesV.
RenaissancePastoralPoetry.
1983.
"PastoralPoetry.
"TheOxfordCompaniontoClassicalLiterature.
EditedbyM.
C.
Howatson,3rded.
,2011.
Pietrobono,P.
Luigi.
IlCantoIdell'Inferno.
SocietàEditriceInternazionale,1959.
Pope,Alexander.
"ADiscourseonPastoralPoetry.
"TheWorksofMr.
AlexanderPope.
W.
Bowyer,1717.
Puttenham,George.
TheArtofEnglishPoesy.
EditedbyFrankWhighamandWayneA.
Rebhorn,Cornell,2016.
Schiller,Friedrich.
OnNaveandSentimentalPoetry.
TranslatedbyWilliamF.
Wertz,Jr.
,F.
UngarPublishingCo.
,1967.
Virgil.
TheEclogues.
TranslatedbyA.
S.
Kline,2001,classics.
mit.
edu/Virgil/eclogue.
html.
TheStar-SpangledBansheeFearoftheUnknowninTheThingsTheyCarriedMcKayHansenTheVietnamWarshooktheAmericanconsciousnesswithitspersistent,loomingunknowns.
PresidentLyndonB.
Johnsonevenaddressedsuchpublicanxietiesovertheconflict'suncertaintieswhenheacknowledgedbeforethenationthat"questionsaboutthisdifficultwar.
.
.
musttroubleeveryreallythoughtfulperson.
"Eversincetheconflict,Americanliteraturehastackledthesequestionsaboutthewar'sworrisomeunknowns.
Notably,TimO'Brien'sTheThingsTheyCarrieddepictsaplatoonofsoldiersthatmeetsthefearoftheunknownhead-on.
O'Briendescribesthesoldiers'physicalandmoralsurroundingsasafoginwhich"everything'sallwetandswirlyandtangledupandyoucan'tseejack"(69).
Themen,nothavinganythingdefinitetodread,experienceafearthatonlygrowsuntilitenvelopsanythingandeverythingtheymightencounter.
Givingasenseforsuchobscurityandterroratwar,thenarrator,Tim,recountshowasoldierfacesthatimmensefearoftheunknownwhensearchingoutadarktunnelalone;evencomparedwiththeveryrealthreatofbeingkilledbyanunseenenemy,heaffirmsthatatleastinsomerespects,"thewaitingwasworsethanthetunnel.
Imaginationwasakiller"(10).
Thenovelchallengestraditionalexplanationsoffearasitexploresmanysuchconfrontationswiththeunknown—indicatingthateventhereturnhomeaftertheturmoilofmilitaryservicecancausedisorientingalienation.
O'Brien52Criteriondepictsthetremendousfearoftheunknown,that"killerimagination,"asanemotionalforcesomehowmorepowerfulthananxietyabouttheworstconceivablecombatexperiences,likecapture,injury,ordeath.
SincethetextdescribesVietnamasaplacewhere"theveryfactswereshroudedinuncertainty"(38),agreatdealofcriticalattentionhasgonetowardunderstandingtheunknownsofTheThingsTheyCarried,butthefearoftheunknownhasgonelargelyunaddressed.
Iarguethatthisleavesoutaninvaluablefacetofunderstandingthatthetextoffersaboutculturalinteractionwiththeunknown.
O'Brien'snovelportraysthefearoftheunknownasthepsychological,social,andemotionalstruggletoreconcilegapsinone'spreconceivedideasofrealitywithchallengingtruthsinthesurroundingworld.
Butmanywhohavewrittenaboutthenoveltakeforgrantedhow,onceexposedtotheforeign,O'Brien'scharacterscanconceiveofideologicalsubstitutestowhattheircommunitiesteachthemaboutotherpeoples.
SoalthoughcriticslikeRegulaFuchsandMichaelTavelClarkehavemadesignificantstepstowarddetailingthebattleofindividualsagainstthe"normativeandformative.
.
.
pressures,constraints,andobligations"imposedbysociety,theirworkremainsincomplete(Fuchs83).
TheThingsTheyCarriedillustrateshowpeoplecanbecomesoindoctrinatedwithinadequateideologiesthattheyundergoparalyzingfearuponencounteringunknowns,neverhavinggraspedhowtoembraceorcomprehendthingsoutsideofwhattheyhavealwaysbeentold.
ItakeClarke'sanalysisof"thevoicesthataremissingfromthetext"further,claimingthattheportrayalofasilencedVietnamesepeopleinthetextrepresentsnotonlyimperialisticcensorshipbytheUnitedStates,butanactivelyconstructedtropeofforeignpeopleswithwhomitisimpossibletocommunicate,therebyalsorestrainingAmericansthemselvestoaconfinedsphere(139).
IarguethatTheThingsTheyCarriedexposesfearoftheunknownasasociety-drivenmeansofunifyingpeopleintoacollectiveidentity,oneindirectoppositiontooutsiders,whoareleftforeverindefinite.
Seeingafearoftheunknowninanewlightnecessarilycallsintoquestionthewaycommunitiesteach—andwhattheyneglecttoteach—aboutwhatexistsintheworldbeyondthemselves,theOther.
TheThingsTheyCarriedsuggeststhatthefailuresofAmericancommunitiespermittedsoldierstopersistintheirapprehensionabout"alltheambiguitiesofVietnam,allthemysteriesandunknowns,"revealing53Winter2017manycommunitiestobestructurallylimitedintheirperspectives(15).
Acommunalconstructionoffearhasbroadimplications,forifasocietalnotionoffeardiscouragesindividualsfromsteppingoutsidearbitrarysocialbounds,guilt,conversely,resultsonlyfromtransgressingthesameillogicalconventions.
Inthetext,guiltcomestosuggestmerelytheemotionalshamingimposedbyacommunityforleavingwhatthatcommunityconsidersexplainedandknowable—andbyimplication,culturallyimportant.
IassertthatthesepressuresdonotmanifestthemselvessolelyonthescaleofasmalltownorplatoonlikeTim's,butthatfearandguiltbearswayonanationallevelaswell.
Devotiontoone'splaceoforiginisinmanywayssimpleinsecurityabouttheunknownOther,adistressedadherencetothecomfortandsecurityoftheknown.
Tim'sexpressionofimmobilizingfearwhentryingtoleavehishomelandcapturesthetext'sportrayalofthatculturalpredisposition:"Run,I'dthink.
ThenI'dthink,Impossible"(42).
Inthisway,TheThingsTheyCarriedevenunderminesfundamentalassumptionsaboutpatriotism,exposinghowloyaltytoapeopleandacountrydoesnotderivefromanyvalueinherenttoanation'sideals,butratherfromacitizen'sinabilitytoconceiveofescapingtoanyalternative.
Inthenovel,fearreachesbeyondthepreoccupationwithimpendingmisfortunes;itcomestoencompassthefeelingofignoranceinthefaceofnewexternalrealities.
Infact,fearevidencesthegapsinpeople'sunderstandingabouttheworldoutsidetheirownexperience,arising,asJasonWirtzdescribes,whenanindividualhasleftthefamiliarand"passedintotheterritoryoftheunknownandchaotic"(240).
TimexperiencessuchfearofachaoticunknownwhenhecontemplatesfleeingtoCanadatoavoidthedraft:allhecanpictureabouthisjourneyisreachingthelimitofwhatisdescribedandprescribedbyhisculture.
Hecanimagine"gettingchasedbytheBorderPatrol—helicoptersandsearchlightsandbarkingdogs,"butcannotconceiveofanykindoflifeoncehestepsontoforeignsoil(48).
Hefearswhathedoesnotknoworcomprehend;Tim'sminisculeunderstandingaboutaworldoutsidehisownexperienceisrepresentativeofthewidespreadmyopiaofhiscommunity,evenhiscountry.
Afocused,localawarenesslimitsinhabitants'consciousnessto"thetown,thewholeuniverse"(57).
Whencommunitymemberslackareliablenotionofexistencebeyondtheirownpriorexperience,54Criterionthestrangeandtheunexplainedbecomedisturbinglyincompatiblewiththefamiliar.
Feelingrepulsiontowardtheunknownresultsnaturallyfromaffirminganincompleteworldview.
Afearoftheunknowngrowsintoanunnaturallypowerfulforceassoldiers,uponencounteringtheunfamiliarandforeign,attributemuchofwhattheyfailtounderstandtolarger-than-lifehorrors,supernaturalphenomenalike"cobwebsandghosts"(10).
Relyingoninevitablylimitedperspectivesofreality,travelerslikeO'Brien'ssoldiersseldomfindtheirpriorunderstandingsufficienttocomprehendeverynewexperience;andtheirdisplacement,TinaChenclaims,"transformseverythinginitsscope"(96).
Unequippedtohandlethenewness,theyascribetheiratypicalexperiencestomythsandlegends.
Suchmythsaretheircommunities'primarynarrativesaboutwhatexistsoutsidereality,storieswhichhelpthemmaintainasemblanceoffamiliarityamidsttheunknown.
Givinganyexplanation,howeverillogical,totheunknownispreferabletoremaininginavoidwherereasondoesnotfunction.
Thisresponsetothediscomfortexperiencedasanentityabroad,asElspethTilleydescribesit,exemplifiesatendencyto"populatethespacesbeyond[one's]immediateknowledgewithmythicalpresencesandimbuethemwithqualitiesoffearandmenace"(33).
Eventhingsthatmightseeminnocentbackhome,likenoisesinthenight,become"thisstrangegookmusic,"takingonfrighteningelementsoftheracial,thecultural,andthesurreal(69).
AndsothemenofO'Brien'splatoonswearthatthereinVietnam,"thelandwashaunted.
Wewerefightingforcesthatdidnotobeythelawsoftwentieth-centuryscience"(192).
Byendowingthelanditselfwithdreadandwiththeinexplicablymystical,thesemeninadistantlandshowhowsuperstitiousimaginingsarisefromtheculturalOther.
Withallits"spirits"and"boogiemen,"thefearoftheunknowntakesonanunrealstrengthmoretroubling,even,thanthephysicalconcerns(likeimpendingviolence,miscommunication,illness,andotherliteralailments)thattravelersmayactuallyface(192).
Sincebeinginastrangeplacecausessomanyuncannysensationsfortheplatoon,TheThingsTheyCarriedrevealsthatfearoftheunknownisactuallybroughtaboutlargelybycommunityshortcomings,thefailingsofdomesticeducationtoaccuratelyteachaboutothersocieties.
Byendowingentirelandsandpeopleswithparanormal,unnaturalpower,O'Brien'ssoldiersshowthattheirculturalviewsoftheVietnameseare55Winter2017taintedbydehumanizingmisunderstandings,biases,andprejudices.
Inthetext,NormanBowker'sexperience"learning"abouttheoutsideworldinacommunitycollege"seemedtooabstract,toodistant,withnothingrealortangibleatstake"(149).
CommunitieslikeBowker'stendtoemphasizeonlythedisparitiesbetweenculturesandleaveunspokenmuchthatmightprovidecommonground.
Anditfollowsthatcommunitymemberseasilyformskewed,exaggeratedimagesofotherpeoplesasaresult,inwhichmosteverythingisalien—imagesestablishedbyhighlightingonlyafewmajorpointsofdifference,likelanguage,race,andreligion.
Inotherwords,communitiesallowtheirmemberstocontinueintheirfaultynotionsofoutsidepeoples,preservingthewaythey"didnotknowshitaboutshit,anddidnotcaretoknow"(137).
Withoutcomprehendingothercultures,anyattemptstoenvisionaworldthatincludesthemarenecessarilyinadequateandevenwell-meaningeffortscan,asClarkeputsit,"involveappropriation,misrepresentation,distortion,andreduction,allofwhichcanbeformsofarroganceandethnocentrism"(149).
Thisflawed,incompleteculturaleducationmeansthatsoldiers,andforeignersmoregenerally,rarelypossessthenecessarytoolsforinterculturaldiscourseandmutualempathy;andwithoutthosetools,theyaremadeuncomfortablebywhattheydiscoverbeyondthemselves.
Thereforethefearoftheunknown,becauseitisderivedfromfaultysocialteachings,isasocietalconstructthatembodieslargerpsychologicalstruggleswithquestionsofculturaldifference.
CommunityasportrayedbyTheThingsTheyCarriedisthuspurposefullyshortsighted:itrequirestheunknowntodefineandperpetuateitself,toestablishaclearcontrastwiththe"knowns"itclaimsasreality.
EvenO'Brien'ssmallgroupofsoldiersreliesontheassuranceofcertaintruthsandusesstoriestocasttheirculturalcounterparts,women,asinexplicableandmysteriousfoilstotheirconcretereality.
ForJimmy,therainblursMarthawiththefog(23);inRat'stale,MaryAnneis"stillsomewhereoutthereinthedark,"envelopedintheland'ssecrets(110).
Inbothcases,womenstandinfortheunknown.
Thenovelthustakesapessimisticviewofthegroupspeopleform,showinghowtheyareunitednotbywhattheyhaveincommon,butbywhattheydonotandcannotsharewithothersoutsidetheirgroups.
Peopleinstinctivelyerectbarrierstodefinewhatconstitutesamemberofacommunity—simultaneouslyspecifyingwhoandwhatmustremaindistancedandunexplained.
Pitting56Criterionthedesirable"known"againstthefearsomeunknown,LoriNewcombcontraststhepullof"whatiseasilyrecognizable,definable,categorical,andmorallyabsolute"withallthatisunappealingabout"whatisnebulous,undefinable,ambiguous,andrelative"(97).
Newcomb'sworkshowshowtheplatooninteractswithboththeVietnameseandthoseonthehomefronttodistancethemysteriousOtherandmaintainadefininggroupidentity.
Byextension,anycommunitypersistsonlybymaskingthereasonsapersonmightabandonitforanotherandsubjectingexternalpeercommunitiestogeneralizedobscurity.
Sincethenovel'ssocietaldepictionsoftheOtherremainincompletebydesign,theunknownpersistsnotoutofbenignignorance,butoutofactiveattemptsatquietingandsmotheringforeignentities.
In"TheManIKilled,"O'BrienbrutallysilencesaVietnamesesoldierbyleaving"hisjawinhisthroat"beforethesoliderhasanyopportunitytomakeknownhisownintentionsoranythingaboutthepeopleherepresents(124).
Tim,infalteringeffortstospeakforhim,candolittlemorethanprojecthisowngeneralexperienceasasoldierandasonontothedeadman.
Tim'stotalinabilitytoempathizereflectshowtheVietnameseculturalvoiceisutterlyunfamiliartotheAmericanpublic.
Tim'splatoonevensymbolicallyappropriatesthegoodthatlocalsachievebygivingthemracializedAmericanlanguage;whenthesoldiersfollowanelderlyVietnamesemanthroughaminefieldtosafety,heonlyparrotsandmimicsthesoldiers'bigotedwords,robbingthestrangerofhisownvoice,thought,andaccomplishment(32).
O'Brien'sworkisnotisolatedinaddressinghowAmericasilencedtheVietnameseduringthewar;filmsandotherliterarypiecesfromtheperiodallowsimilarinsightintothatmethodofmaintainingtheunknown'smysteries.
InTheIronTriangle,a1989VietnamWarfilm,protagonistCaptainKeenesays,"IspokeVietnamese,soIguesstheythoughtIcouldcommunicatewiththepeople.
Theywerewrong.
"HissentimentmakestheimpossibilityofcommunicationwiththeOthermorethanalanguagebarrier:itbecomesaculturalwallerectedbetweenthewarringpeoples.
Adecadeclosertothewar,thepopular1979filmApocalypseNowfeaturedsoldiersrepeatingthemantra"nevergetoutoftheboat.
"TheprevailingAmericanattitudeaboutVietnamthereforebarsallcontactwithpeoplenativetootherlands,betrayingtheforegoneconclusionthatanyinteractionwiththeunknownwillendinfailure.
57Winter2017FearoftheunknownthereforetakesonevenfurthernuanceinO'Brien'sfiction,whereitisoftenemployedasamanipulativetoolthatkeepscommunitymemberswithinestablishedsocialbounds.
OneofTim'sVietnambuddiestellsofhishopelessfeelingthatafterthedissolutionoftheplatoon,hewillbeunabletoeverintegrateintoacommunityagain.
BowkerwritesTim,"There'snoplacetogo.
Notjustinthislousylittletown.
Ingeneral.
Mylife,Imean"(150).
Bowker,withhisultimateelectiontodieratherthantoliveonwithoutfittingintoameaningfulcommunity,demonstrateshowtheunknownactsasaforcethatpushesagainstpeoplewhentheytryleavingthesecurityandcomfortofthefamiliar.
Yetcommunity,withitssimplisticportrayaloftheworld—howevereasyandcomfortablethatportrayalmayseem—retainsthepotentialfaultofproducingnarrow-mindedness.
Callingoutthattrend,Clarkeclaimsthat"powerful,familiarculturalnarrativesmakeitdifficultforindividualstogiveoriginalorcounterculturalmeaningstoexperiencesintheirownlives"(133).
Clarkesubmitsthatwhilecommunalpressurescanhelpunifyvaluesunderasinglebanner,theycanalsorestrictthefreedomtoexploreculturallyunconventionalideologies.
IpositthatTheThingsTheyCarriedthereforeoffersadditionalsignificancetoEdwardSaid'sconceptof"Othering"asareductionofforeignentitiestocrudetropes.
ThenovelindicatesthatcommunitieslikeBowker'sleaveseeminglystrategicgapsintheirdescriptionsofotherpeoplesinordertofosterthefearoftheunknown,therebyeliminatingthepossibilityofanindividualcommunitymemberleavingthehomelandtointegratewiththeOther.
SocietaltaboosarethereforenotattachedasmuchtoviewsofmoralityastheyaretothisviewoftheOtheraspowerfulandmenacing.
Imaginingexternalphenomenatobeirreconcilablewiththeirreality,communitymembersresignthemselvestosocietalinput,whichtheyseetobeinevitable.
AndsotheweariedTim,too,finallygivesin:"IunderstoodthatIwouldnotdowhatIshoulddo"(55).
Hefollowsthecrowdtoawarhepersonallyopposes,decidingnotoutofasenseofgood,butoutofacompellingfearoflosingwhatheknows.
Asubjectivemoralityremainsinforcemerelybywithholdingfromitsadherentstheknowledgenecessarytosubsistoutsideoftraditionalcommunities.
IfcommunitystandardsinTheThingsTheyCarriedconsistprimarilyoffearsandunknownsusedtocontrol,theguiltthatarisesfromtransgressingsuchsocietalnormsbecomesnottheresultofreal58Criterionwrongdoing,butjustanotherarbitrarymechanismofculturetoretainitssubjects.
Ifacommunity'svaluesandnarrativesaretrulysoself-exalting,thenitisassubjectiveasRobinSilbergleidsuggests,and"tobegoodistodowhatoneistold"(146).
WhenO'Brien'scharactersfeelguilt,then,itisoftenduetotheir"sins"againstarestrictive,flawedsociety.
Ascribingshameandguiltdoesnotpunishcommunitymembersfortrespassingboundariesbetweengoodandevil;itinsteadchastisesenteringandexploringterritorytraditionallyleftuncharted,sincethoseathomefearhownewdiscoveriesmightupsetthedelicatebalanceoftheorganizationtheyhavealreadybecomeacquaintedwith.
ThisreadingofthetextenablesmorecomprehensiveinterpretationofkeypassageslikeTim'saccountofhisguilt,inwhichhetellsreaders,"Iwasashamedofmyconscience,ashamedtobedoingtherightthing"(49).
Thatshame,nowidentifiedasatoolofsocietalinfluence,representsTim'sstruggleagainstthemachine—notaconflictbetweentwoofhisowninternalideals.
HisbattleisamicrocosmofwhatJohnSchaferterms"thetensionbetweencollectiveconcernandindividualdesire,"atensionSchaferfindseverybitasprevalentincontemporaryVietnameseliterature(across"enemy"lines)asinthepost-warUnitedStates(14).
Tim'ssubmissiontoexpectationrevealshowlapsesinethicscanbeatonce"nobody'sfault"and"everybody's":acommunityhasnosingleentitytopinblameon,buteachofitsindividualconstituentssharestheblameofsubscribingtoanimperfectsystemofmorality(O'Brien168).
WhilebothfearandguiltoperateinlocalcommunitygroupsthatrangefromtownspeopleinMinnesotatosoldiersinSoutheastAsia,theyalsobearswayonanationalscale,refutingtheconventionalimageofanigh-infalliblenationalidentity.
TheThingsTheyCarriedallegesthatthesocietyofAmericaatwarcraftsaveryincompleteimageoftheworld,subjectingitscitizens,intheir"blind,thoughtless,automaticacquiescencetoitall,"tofearandguiltoftheOtherinordertousetheminprotectingitsinterests(43).
Presentedwiththeunbalancedalternativesofkillingforunclearcausesorabandoningalltheyknow,draftees,inJohnWharton'swords,findthemselveshesitatingbetween"personalandnationalimagesofanAmericanselfwhichsimplycannotbehaveinanaltogetherethicalway"(4).
Diehardnationaladvocatesturnagainstthosewhoquestionthegovernment'simperialisticmilitaryimperativesin"patrioticridicule,"endlesslylabelingascowardsthoseunwillingto59Winter2017giveovertheirwills(O'Brien57).
ThepopulaceoftheUnitedStatesaccordinglyfeelsincapableofleavingthemotherland,sinceintegrationintoforeignculturesandcountriesisportrayedasshameful—insomeways,evenimpossible.
Sothetrulybraveandmoralintheworldofthenovel,asRegulaFuchscontends,arethosewho"fightthevaluesinstilledby[their]culturalupbringing"anddaretochallengelongstandingtraditionsthatperpetuateinjusticesagainstpeopleathomeandabroad(80).
O'Brien'sworkpresentscitizenswithablueprintofanation'sideologicalandpsychologicalinnerworkings,enablingthemtoresistthesubmissionandoppressionthatfuelcyclicalsystemsofcompulsionandencouragingindividualstoworkbeyondthefailingsoftheirnations.
Yetinthenovel,smallercommunitiesstruggletobreakfromculturalprecedent;insteadtheybecomeunitedthroughsharednationalisticterror,formingxenophobicimagesofanebulousenemysointimidatingittranscendsthedifferencesbetweenthem.
Sucha"joinordie"mentalityisevidentinthesoldiers,who,findingthemselvesinaplatoonintegratedbyotherstheycannotunderstand,areforcedtoaccepttheirfellowservicemenasalesserevil—orelsepersistinanimpossiblydivisivestateofcognitivedissonance.
DaveJensen,fearingretaliationfromLeeStrunkafterafight,saysthatobsessingovertheintentionsoftheVietnameseandthoseofanothersoldieratonceis"likefightingtwodifferentwars.
.
.
Nosafeground:enemieseverywhere"(60).
Havingnosenseforthemotives,purposes,orobjectivesofanexternalentityinstillsfear.
Accordingly,inordertofocusfearonanentireforeignpeopleasafoe,ratherthanonfellowcitizensandthedisparitiesbetweentheircommunitiesandorigins,anarrativeofnationalunityarises.
Thus,usingwhatRichardSlotkincalls"amythofnationalidentity,"soldiershesitantlytrustoneanotherontheassumptionthattheysharemoresimilaritiesbetweenplatoonmembersthanwithstrangersacrossnationalborders(470).
O'Brien'splatoon,forinstance,initiallyrejectsBobbyJorgensenasanoutsider,butthenewmedicsoonbeginsto"fitinverynicely,allchumminessandgrouprapport"ashejoinsineffortsconcentratedagainsttheVietCong(193).
AndTheThingsTheyCarriedsuggeststhatthesameprocesstakesplaceonthescaleofanentirecountrybyunitingfiguresfromhistory,family,andpopcultureagainstTim'sdesertion;howeverdisparateandmotleythegroupmayseem,itsucceedsindissuadingTimfromleavinghishomelandandcrossingtheRainyRiver.
Slotkinexpoundsonthe60CriterionnationalharmonyshapedbyjuxtapositiontotheOther,addingthat"weneedthesupremedifferenceofanenemytoallowustoseeourlikenessasAmericans"(494).
Forthisreason,eveninitialhesitanceaboutmarkedlyuniquegroupmembers,whoseemnottofitin,soonnecessarilydissipatesinordertomaintainthevisiononthelarger,moreworrisomeunknownsaboutthefoe.
TheThingsTheyCarrieddemonstrateshowwhenvitalnationalnarrativesdisintegrate,citizensgrowdisillusionedwiththeirownideologiesbecausetheveryinstitutionsthatmakeuptheirsocietalstructurebecomeincreasinglyunknown.
SincemostofthesoldiersinthenoveldriftfromtraditionalAmericanperspectives,liketheanswersofChristianityindealingwiththeunknownsofdeath,theyfindthemselvesneedingtoinventnewexplanationsfortheirsurroundings,explanationsthatfittheirrealitybetterthanthesocietalstoriestoldthemforsomanyyears.
Timsaysthatinreachingtofindanswersforsuchdefiningquestions,heandthesoldiers"hadtomakeup[their]own.
Oftentheywereexaggerated,orblatantlies.
.
.
"(226).
Confrontedbyagapinempiricalevidenceaboutasociallypromoted"truth,"one(liketheexistenceofanafterlife)whichtheircultureasksthemtocrosswithaleapoffaith,thesoldiersstruggleandsearchforotherwaysaroundtheissue.
O'Brien'ssoldiersenteramoralvacuum,awhirlingchaosofconflictingidealswhichMarilynWesleycharacterizesas"difficulttoorganizeintoareassuringfiction.
.
.
"(89).
TheirskepticismcaptureswhythegovernmentstruggledtoconvincetheAmericanpeopleoftheVietnamWar'scausesandconsequences.
Ultimately,attemptstoportrayconflictsassomethingtheyarenotprovedfutile,signalingariseinwarinesstowardpoliticalleadersandconfirmingthatwar'seffect"dependsoncollectivefictiveinterpretations"(Wesley91).
WhenPresidentRichardNixonclaimedbeforethenationinhis1969speechonVietnam,"Ourgreatnessasanationhasbeenourcapacitytodowhathadtobedonewhenweknewourcoursewasright,"hiswordswereironicallyunderminedbybeingpresentedatatimewhenthenationcouldnotagreeuponjustwhatwasright.
Lefttochoosebetweencowardiceanddissidence,civiliansoftensimplycomplywithwhatthegovernmentproclaimstoberight.
Manysoldiersgotowarmotivatednotbythemoralcallofadraft,butbyanadministration61Winter2017thatdropsbombsonthosethatdonotcomplywithitsexpectations,forafacelessorganizationmightjustaseasilyturnagainstnon-conformistciviliansasattackdissimilarforeignenemies.
Challenginglongstandingnotionsofthecitizen'sloveofcountry,TheThingsTheyCarriedultimatelyunmaskspatriotismtobemerelyamanifestationofinsecurityabouttheunknown—adesperate,clingingallegiancetoone'sfamiliarreality.
TheAmericannarrativeportrayedinthetextwouldrequireitspeopletodiminishthecomplexitiesofworldpowersuntiltheyseejust"redcheckersandblackcheckers,"ensuringthatitsrepresentatives"knewwhere[they]stood"(31).
Butthenovel'ssoldiersmakethedifficultdiscoverythattheirnation'sidealsdonotactuallyprovideaninfalliblemoralcompass,andthatwhileitmayseemtheeasiestroute,itisnotalwaysmostethicaltodoasCarlHornerdescribesand"succumbtonationalpride"(256).
Exposedtothefrightfulnewexperiencesofwar,allconfidenceinapatrioticcause,andeventhesuretyofjusticeitself,beginstocollapse.
Soldierswhogrowembitteredtowardtheirsupposedly"good"nationalinterestsarefigurescharacteristicofVietnamWarliteratureasagenre.
ThiscommonthreadofexposingfaultsinbiasedhomelandnarrativesrunsacrossmanyliterarypiecescontemporarytoTheThingsTheyCarried;MatthewHillclaimsthatsuchliteratureillustrateshowanation's"collectiveideologiesandmythologiesmakeindustrializedviolencepossible"(179).
AndTheThingsTheyCarrieddriveshomeforcefullythatsuchmythologicaltraditionsnotonlyenableinternationalconflict,butperpetuateandaggravateit.
O'Brienshowshowassoldiersrelyontheircountry'sfallaciouslegendsastheirbasisforunderstandingtheforeign(and,byextension,theunknowngenerally),theymaintainthedemeaningoversimplificationofethnictropes.
Wantingtheeaseofenvisioningaworldwith"rules,"manycitizensswallowinadequatenationalnarrativeswhilesuppressingreservationsaboutthem.
Butwhilealltheflagsandfireworksmayputon"aprettygoodshow,"seemingtocelebratethevaluesandenlightenmentanationembodies,suchflashydisplaysofcommitmenttowhatisclosetohomeoftenblindpeopletoliesbeyondthem,shroudingallelseinshadowandmystery(148).
Patriotismdoesnotchampionthefamiliar—itbetraysfearoftheunfamiliar.
62CriterionWorksCitedApocalypseNow.
DirectedbyFrancisFordCoppola.
UnitedArtists,1979.
Chen,Tina.
"'UnravelingtheDeeperMeaning':ExileandtheEmbodiedPoeticsofDisplacementinTimO'Brien'sTheThingsTheyCarried.
"ContemporaryLiterature,vol.
39,no.
1,1998,pp.
77–98.
ProQuest,doi:dx.
doi.
org.
erl.
lib.
byu.
edu/10.
2307/1208922.
Accessed11Feb.
2016.
Clarke,MichaelTavel.
"'IFeelClosetoMyself':SolipsismandUSImperialisminTimO'Brien'sTheThingsTheyCarried.
"CollegeLiterature,vol.
40,no.
2,2013,pp.
135–54.
ProQuest,doi:dx.
doi.
org.
erl.
lib.
byu.
edu/10.
1353/lit.
2013.
0018.
Accessed16Feb.
2016.
Fuchs,Regula.
RememberingVietNam:GustavHasford,RonKovic,TimO'BrienandtheFabricationofAmericanCulturalMemory.
NewYork:PeterLang,2010.
ProQuest,doi:dx.
doi.
org/10.
3726/978-3-0351-0165-2.
Accessed16Feb.
2016.
Hill,Matthew.
"TalkingtheRealWar:Jargon,Guilt,andVietNamVeteranPoetry.
"TheJournalofAmericanCulture,vol.
31,no.
2,2008,pp.
175–84.
ProQuest,doi:10.
1111/j.
1542-734X.
2008.
00671.
x.
Accessed7Mar.
2016.
Horner,CarlS.
"ChallengingtheLawofCourageandHeroicIdentificationinTimO'Brien'sIfIDieinaCombatZoneandTheThingsTheyCarried.
"War,Literature&TheArts,vol.
11,no.
1,1999,pp.
256–267.
AcademicSearchPremier.
web.
b.
ebscohost.
com.
erl.
lib.
byu.
edu/ehost/detail/detailsid=8d6d15a7-8a26-4e23-9ea6-84ed9a2406ad%40sessionmgr103&vid=0&hid=102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=6075154&db=aph.
Accessed23Feb.
2016.
TheIronTriangle.
DirectedbyEricWeston.
ScottiBrothersRecords,1989.
Johnson,LyndonB.
"AddressonVietnamBeforetheNationalLegislativeConference.
"29Sept.
1967,SanAntonio,Texas.
Address.
TheAmericanPresidencyProject.
http://www.
presidency.
ucsb.
edu/ws/pid=28460.
Accessed21Mar.
2016.
Newcomb,Lori.
"ALittleUniverseforThemselves":NarrativeandCommunityinPostmodernAmericanFiction.
Diss.
UofSouthDakota,2014.
DissertationAbstractsInternational:3629810,2015.
http://gradworks.
umi.
com/36/29/3629810.
html.
Accessed17Feb.
2016.
Nixon,Richard.
"AddresstotheNationontheWarinVietnam.
"3Nov.
1969.
Address.
TheAmericanPresidencyProject.
http://www.
presidency.
ucsb.
edu/ws/pid=2303.
Accessed21Mar.
2016.
O'Brien,Tim.
TheThingsTheyCarried.
HoughtonMifflin,1990.
63Winter2017Schafer,John.
"TheCollectiveandtheIndividualinTwoPost-WarVietnameseNovels.
"Crossroads,vol.
14,no.
2,2000,pp.
13–48.
JSTOR,www.
jstor.
org/stable/40860735.
Accessed26Feb.
2016.
Silbergleid,Robin.
"MakingThingsPresent:TimO'Brien'sAutobiographicalMetafiction.
"ContemporaryLiterature,vol.
50,no.
1,2009,pp.
129–55.
JSTOR,www.
jstor.
org/stable/20616415.
Accessed11Feb.
2016.
Slotkin,Richard.
"UnitPride:EthnicPlatoonsandtheMythsofAmericanNationality.
"AmericanLiteraryHistory,vol.
13,no.
3,2001,pp.
469–498.
EBSCOhost.
doi:dx.
doi.
org.
erl.
lib.
byu.
edu/10.
1093/alh/13.
3.
469.
Accessed24Mar.
2016.
Tilley,Elspeth.
"TheUsesofFear:SpatialPoliticsintheAustralianWhite-VanishingTrope.
"Antipodes,vol.
23,no.
1,2009,pp.
33–41.
ProQuest.
search-proquest-com.
erl.
lib.
byu.
edu/docview/211338649accountid=4488.
Accessed26Feb.
2016.
Wharton,Lynn.
"TimO'BrienandAmericanNationalIdentity:AVietnamVeteran'sImaginedSelfinTheThingsTheyCarried.
"49thParallel,vol.
5,2000.
ProQuest.
www.
49thparallel.
bham.
ac.
uk.
erl.
lib.
byu.
edu/.
Accessed16Feb.
2016.
Wesley,MarilynC.
ViolentAdventure.
UofVirginiaP,2003.
Wirtz,Jason.
"GreatestEvolvability:APlaceofChaos,WhiteRabbits,Fear,ReceptivityandInvention.
"NewWriting,vol.
9,no.
2,2012,pp.
237–44.
ProQuest,doi:dx.
doi.
org.
erl.
lib.
byu.
edu/10.
1080/14790726.
2011.
618542.
Accessed26Feb.
2016.
64Criterion"BlametheDueofBlame"TheEthicsandEfficacyofCursesinRichardIIIAlexandraMaloufLanguage,particularlythelanguageofcursing,playsapowerfulroleindeterminingtheoutcomeofeventsinShakespeare'sRichardIII.
GenderimperativesreflectedinthespeechofRichardIII'scharactersindicatewherepowerliesandhowitisexercisedacrossgenderedspheres.
Whilemalecharactersinthehistoryplaystypicallyobtainandexertpowerthroughviolence,bothinwarandinsecret,theprimarysourceofpowerheldbyfemalecharactersinRichardIIIistheiruseoflanguage.
Consistently,thewomensealtheviolentendsoftheirenemieswithcurses,andRichardisperpetuallygivencausetobelievehimselfevilbecauseofthewomen'sdescriptivelanguagesurroundinghisdeformity.
Whenworkingoutsideofahomosocialcontexthowever,Richarduseswomen'sownsourceofpower—language—asaperformativetoolofmanipulationagainstthem.
Inthisway,hedefiesmanymasculinegenderimperatives,afactwhichallowshimtoobtainpatrilinealpowerdespitehisinitialisolationfromthepatriarchallineofsuccession.
Ultimately,Shakespeare'sthematicuseoflanguageasthedeterminingconveyorofpowerinRichardIIIplacestheviolence-causingcursesofthewomenonanequalethicalplainwiththephysicalviolenceoftheirmalecompanions,andinsodoing,urgesustoconsiderspeechasanactionforwhichwearemorallyresponsible.
66CriterionTodate,muchofthecriticalconversationsurroundingRichardIIIrevolvesaroundwhichcharactersaretoblameforthedestructiveeventsthatoccurinthecourseoftheplay.
Furthermore,asubstantialportionofthisdiscussionisconfinedtoabinary,gendereddiscourse,suchthatonecriticblamestheplay'sfemalecharacterswhilearespondingcriticarguesagainstthemalesphere.
Inthisdebate,femalecharactersaretypicallyblamedthroughassociationwithwitchcraft,sorcery,andtheirprocreativepowertocontinueordiscontinuethepatrilineallineofsuccession.
Meanwhile,Richardhimselfiscastinvarious,oftenopposing,genderedpositions;someconstruehimasadangeroususerofwomen,whilecontendersinterprethimasunfairlyusedbywomen.
SuchargumentsofblameoftenfocusonRichardasahypermasculinepowerhouse,adeformedevilcreatedbyfemaleprocreativepowers,orasanunmanlyruntexcludedfromthepatriarchywhomustconsequentiallyrelyuponfemalepowersinordertoaccessthepowerhedesires.
ThisdiscussionofgenderedblameinRichardIIIfindsitssignificanceinthegenderanxietiesoftheElizabethanage,duringwhichtheplaywasinitiallystaged.
Intransitionfromwarriorcommunitytocourtsociety,EarlyModernEnglishculturebegantodiscourageviolenceamongstthearistocraticmalepopulaceandfeareditasadeplorableformofmasculineunruliness(Moulton253).
Fearingmaleaggression,thisperiodalsoproducedarangeofinstructionaltextssuchasCastiglione'sBookoftheCourtier,whichprovidedcounseltomenattemptingtonavigatethenow"pacifiedsocialspaces"ofthearistocraticcourt(Elias).
UnderElizabethI,lawenforcementsalsoallocatedsignificantefforttoreininginlower-classmaleviolence,includingtheimplementationofcurfewstopreventnightriots,placinglimitsonunauthorizedpistols,andprohibitingconcealedfirearms(Moulton252).
Unrulymen,however,werenottheonlysourceofgenderanxietyforEarlyModernEnglanders.
DuringthereignofQueenElizabethI,femaledivergencefromgenderimperativeswasalsoasubjectofgreatanxiety.
Althoughsymbolicallyandpoliticallyrepresentativeofthepatriarchal"bodypolitic,"England'slatesixteenth-centurymonarchwasanagedwoman,whononethelessembracedtheroleofmilitantleaderinthewarwithSpain(Moulton254).
ItwasduringthiswarwithSpainthattheLondonstagesawaflourishingofhistoryplays,whichdespiterepresentingeventsofthepast,oftenreflectedthegenderimperativesandanxietiespresentincontemporaryEngland(Moulton254).
In67Winter2017RichardIII,men,includingRichardhimself,arecriticallyimplicatedinthedisastrouseventsoftheplayduetotheirtendencytoapproachpowerplaythroughviolence.
WhilethenarrativeofShakespeare'sWarsoftheRosestetralogyoccursacenturypriortoitsstaging,patriarchalanxietiesofthelatesixteenth-century,ratherthanthefifteenth,areeverpresentintheirpages.
Shakespeare'srepresentationofRichardIIIisperpetuallyaggressiveandhypermasculine.
Richardvehementlyrejectsanythingheperceivesaseffeminate,beginningwiththe"idlepleasures"and"sportivetricks"thathehaspreviouslywarnedhiswomanizingbrother,Edward,against(RichardIII1.
1.
14–31).
Inhisyouth,Richardbeginstoperceiveweepingasaneffeminateweakness"forbabes"(HenryVI2.
1.
86).
Recountinghisfather'sdeathtoAnne,Richardrecallsthathis"manlyeyesdidscornanhumbletear,"suchthathewasphysicallyincapableofweepinginresponsetothelossofhisfather(RichardIII1.
2.
166–67).
FurtherevidenceofRichard'sscornforfemininityispresentinhiscontemptforwomen.
Forhim,the"mightygossipsinthismonarchy"(RichardIII3.
4.
72)aretoblameforanythingthatgoesamiss,includingtheimprisonmentofhisbrother,Clarence.
Richardperceiveshimself"incapableoflovingwomen"andinstead"makeshisheaventodreamuponthecrown"(Moulton266).
Moreover,Richard'shypermasculinityisnotmerelypresentinhisrejectionofeffeminacy,butalsoinhisviciouspreoccupationwithobtainingaplaceinthepatriarchalsuccession.
Hismultiplemarriagesareobviouslypursued"notallsomuchforlove/Asforanothersecretcloseintent"(RichardIII1.
1.
157–58),undertherecognitionthatwomenarevitaltothelegitimacyofhispatriarchalpower.
Richard'shypermasculinecompensationfortheeffeminacyofhisbrothersreflectstheEarlyModernanxietytowardsunrulymasculinityandisfrequentlyusedtoimplicateRichardasthevillainbehindtheruinousoccurrencesinShakespeare'splay.
Richard'smonstrousdeformityisalsofrequentlycitedinordertocastblameonbothRichardandwomen.
DuetotheRenaissancebeliefthatphysicalbeautyiscorrelatedwithmoralvirtue,Richard'sevilnatureandaggressivepursuitofpowerisintegrallytiedupwithhisphysicaldeformity.
Moreimportantly,hisdeformityalsoservestoimplicatetheplay'sfemalecharactersbyconnectingthemtowitchcraftandcorruption.
Thewitch'sproclivityforbirthing"monstrousandillegitimatechildren"(Roper219)allowsthewitchtointerferewith,andultimately"preserveorpervertthe68Criterionpatriarchalheritage"(Willis98)withoutengaginginthemasculineviolencethatRichardmustresorttoforobtainingpower.
WhileitisRichardwhodirectlyandviolentlyinterfereswiththelineofsuccession,itistheDuchessofYorkwhogivesbirthtohiscorruption,andwhoconsequentlymightpresentthegreaterthreatfortheElizabethanaudience.
"Fromforththekennelof[her]wombhathcrept/Ahell-hound.
.
.
thatfouldefacer[and]grandtyrantoftheearth"(RichardIII4.
4.
47–53).
Throughfemaleassociationwithwitchcraft,thewomenofRichardIIIcometorepresentaperceivedhazardtosocietythatisequalto,ifnottheorigin,ofRichard'sunrulynature.
Richard,inmurderinghiswaytothethrone,complicatestheroyallineofsuccessionbyalteringitfromitspresentstateandleavingthelineofdescentpending.
Yet,ascriticsonthemalesideofthedebatewillargue,Richard'smonstrosityisanevilproducednotbyanymalepower,butbyfemalesorcery.
WhatcorrelateseffeminacyevenmorestronglytowitchcraftandblameworthinessinRichardIII,however,isthewomen'suseoflanguage.
Particulartothefemalespeechesintheplayistheirtendencytocomeintheformofcurses,afactwhichinvariablyassociatesthewomenwithwitchcraft.
Throughout,QueenMargaret'spropheticcursespredictwithfrighteningaccuracytheeventsofhistory.
FunctioningwithintheworldofRichardIII,curseshaverealworldconsequencesthatinterruptbothhistoricaloutcomeandroyalsuccession.
Grammatically,thecursesarespokenasoptatives—imperativeand"highlyarticulate"statementsofwish(Magnussen32).
Whatseparatesthesecursesfrommerewishesistheinsertionof"God"intothestatements,asintheDuchessofYork's,"Cancelhisbondoflife,dearGod,Iplead.
/ThatImayliveandtosay,'Thedogisdead'"(RichardIII4.
4.
7).
Thewomen'sstatementstranscendmerewishes,forbyinvokingGod,theirwordsbecomeprayersorcurses,whichultimatelyactastheagent's"pleathatGodinterveneonhisorherbehalf"(Magnussen36).
Regardlessofwherethesourceofthecurses'powerlies,theyarenonethelessmoresubstantivethanmerestatements.
Linguisticallyspeaking,thecursesconstitutewhatJ.
L.
Austinhastermedperlocutionaryspeechacts—statementswhichperformactions,ratherthanmerelyreportingordescribing(Austin6).
Intheirperlocutionarynature,cursesinRichardIIIdifferfrommereexclamationsofprofanity,forlikemarriagevowsandordersofhouse-arrest,theperlocutionarycursegenerateseffectsexternaltotheperformance69Winter2017ofthecurse.
Priortohisdeathforinstance,Richard'smotherleaveshimwithher"mostheavycurse,"that"Either[he]wiltdiebyGod'sjustordinance.
.
.
Or[she]withgriefandextremeageshallperish/Andneverlookupon[his]faceagain"(RichardIII4.
4.
173–76).
This,theDuchessofYork's"mostheavycurse"(4.
4.
177),notonlyprecedes,butconclusivelysecuresRichard'sbloodyendatRichmond'shand.
Thecurses,fortheirremarkableinfluenceontheroyalsuccession,functionastheprimarymeansoffemalepowerintheplay.
FemaletransgressioninRichardIIIdiffersfundamentallyfromtheaggressiveunrulinessoffemalecharacterssuchasKateinTamingoftheShrew,andevenfromthewomenoftheearlierHenryVIplays,inthatthesewomendonotconsistentlyattempttocrossintothemalesphereofphysicalviolence.
EvenwhenexplicitlygiventheopportunitytostabRichard,Annedoesnotactoutphysicalaggression.
Rather,femaleviolenceinRichardIIIisfundamentallylinguisticinnature.
LookinguponthedeadHenryVI,Anne'scurseuponRichardisfullofviolentlanguage:"O,cursedbethehandthatmadetheseholes!
/Cursedtheheartthathadthehearttodoit!
/Cursethebloodthatletthisbloodfromhence!
"(RichardIII1.
1.
14-28).
Thiscurse,althoughultimatelybackfiringonAnne'sintent,conductsalinguistic"dismemberment"ofHenry'smurderer,"dividinghandfromheartandheartfromblood"(Brown548).
AlthoughAnnerefrainsfromphysicalviolence,shemaystillbeimplicatedinlinguisticviolence.
BynatureofthepowerstructuresinRichardIII,femalecharactersareisolatedfromthepatriarchalsuccessionandconsequentlyarenotfrequentlypresentforthepivotalmomentsofmaleviolenceandwarfarethatdeterminethelineofsuccession.
Clarence'sexecutorsarenotwomen,norisRichardIIIkilledinbattlebyawoman.
Femaleinfluenceneverthelesssnakesitswayintothewaronsuccessionbywayofperlocutionary,optativespeechacts.
WhenRichardcriticizesMargaret,asking"Whyshouldshelivetofilltheworldwithwords"(RichardDukeofYork,5.
5.
43),hebothaffirmsJoan'sforetellingthatMargaret'spowerliesinherwords(Smith152),andimpliesthatsheisculpablefortheeffectsofherpower.
Joan'sprophesyalsoleadsustoamajordifferenceinthewaythatRichardIIInavigatespatrilinealpowerstructuresascomparedtoothermalecharactersintheplay.
WhilemalepoweristypicallynavigatedthroughviolenceinRichardIII,Richardhimselffrequentlyinterjects70Criterionhimselfintothefemalelinguisticsphereinordertoobtainpowerthathecannotaccesswithinthepatrilinealsphere.
Richard'sstrategicparticipationindifferentgenderedspheresisnotpresentinShakespeare'sprecedingHenryVIplays,butrather,isdistinctiveofRichard'sbehaviorinRichardIIIalone.
IntheHenryVIplays,threatstothepatriarchalsuccessionaremuchmoretypicallyfemale,aswithJoan'ssexualtransgressions,theirevenmoreovertwitchcraft,Margaret'sadultery,andtheconsequentillegitimacyofherchildren(Howard106-7).
Contrastingly,thegreatestthreatpresentedbythewomenofRichardIIIistheperlocutionaryspeechact—apowerwhichRichardfrequentlyhijacks.
Margaret'sfirsttorrentofcursesonRichardisinterruptedbythelatterandreverseduponMargaret(Howard109).
Respondingtohisinterjection,Margaretprotests,"O,letmemaketheperiodtomycurse!
"towhichRichardstinginglyreplies,"Tisdonebyme,andendsin'Margaret'"(RichardIII1.
3.
237–8).
ThushasMargaret,"breathed[her]curseagainst[her]self"(RichardIII1.
3.
239).
Morethanothermalecharactersintheplay,Richardunderstandsthecrucialinfluencethatwomenplayonthepatrilinealsuccession,andhisunhesitatingappropriationoffemalepowerisrootedinhisrelentlesspursuitofaplacewithinthatpatriarchalline.
RichardalsodeftlyappropriatesfemalepowerinhismanipulativeseductionofAnneduringthefirstactoftheplay.
FollowingherverbaldismembermentofRichard,shecursesthat"Ifeverhehavewife,letherbemade/Moremiserablebythelifeofhim/ThanIammadebymyyounglordandthee!
"(RichardIII1.
1.
26–28).
AswithMargaret,RichardinterjectsAnne'scurse,speakingtoherseductively,inanemotionallyevocativediscoursewhichhehasotherwiserejectedforitseffeminacy(Moulton267).
RichardfurtherdivergesfromhisstaunchhypermasculinitytofullyenterintothefemalediscoursebyplacinghisswordinAnne'shandand"lay[ing]hisbreast'naked'forherpenetration"(Howard109–10)(RichardIII1.
2.
177).
Richard,stillowneroftheswordtowhichhesubmits,playsthepartofbothpossessivemanandsubmissivewoman(Bushnell124).
ByengaginginfemalediscourseRichardisabletoeffectivelydispossessAnne'scurseofitspower,turninghermaledictionagainsthersothat"shebecomesthewifewhoselifeisblightedbyherhusband's"(Brown548).
Althoughthefemalecursescertainlyharnessincrediblepowerovertheoutcomeofevents,thegreatestthreattothepatriarchalsuccessioninRichardIIIisnotfemaleadulteryasintheHenryVIplays,butalternatively,themurderousRichard(Howard106–7).
71Winter2017Richardatonceharnessesboththepowerofthefemalecurseandtheaggressivepowerofmalewarfare,suggestingthatgenderedpowerisperformativeratherthanbeingimplicitinthecharacter's"sexedbod[ies]"(Howard109).
Perlocutionaryspeechactscertainlycomprisetheprominentmeansoffemalepower.
Nonetheless,cursingisnotinherenttothefemalesex,afactwhichisinsinuatedbyElizabeth'sappealforMargaretto"teachmehowtocursemineenemies"(RichardIII4.
4.
116–17).
Thisrequestsuggeststhatcursingisnotanaturalformofaction,butonewhichmustbelearned,andaswithAnne'sunintentionalcursingofherselfpriortoherwooing,theseactionscanbecarriedoutsuccessfullyorunsuccessfullybytheagentperformingit.
Thatthesespeechactsarenotinherentlysexed,butratherareconsciouslyperformedbyindividualagents,impliesthatRichardisnotmerely,asscholar,KristinSmithargues,aproductofwitchcraftand"Margaret'sembodiedcurse"(156),butanagentaccountableforhisownactions.
Forthisreason,wecannotholdthewomensolelyresponsiblefortheeitherthehistoricaloutcomeoftheplay,norallofthemoralwrongdoingsenactedtobringitabout.
Individualsofbothsexesmustanswerfortheiractionsregardlessonwhatgenderedsideofthepatrilinealstruggletheystand.
WhoistoblameforthetragediesofRichardIIIis,however,furthercontingentonhowthesetragedies,orhistories,oftheplayaredefined.
DuringtheliteralWarsoftheRoses,historywasperceivedassomethingthatmerelybefellhelplessvictims,unfairlyfavoringonemanwhilecondemninganother,butthisconceptiondiffersstarklyfromtheviewofhistorypresentedbyShakespeare'splay.
Alternatively,thehistoricaleventsthatoccurwithinthetextofRichardIIIarelargelycreatedbytheactionsofcharacters,whosubsequentlymustanswerforthemoralresponsibilitiesassociatedwiththeresultsoftheiractions.
Ofthemanytypesofactioninfluencingtheeventsoftheplay,perlocutionaryspeechactsbearaconsistentlymoresignificantimpactonhistoricaleventsthandoesphysicalviolence.
Certainly,murderandviolencedofunctionasthetoolbywhichthepatrilinealsuccessionisdeconstructed.
Nevertheless,theactualoutcomeofthisdeconstructionissanctionedbytheengagementofbothmaleandfemalecharactersinthediscourseofperlocutionarycursing,ratherthanviolence.
Richard'sdeath,althoughexactedbyRichmondonabattlefield,issealedandauthorizedbyhismother'ssworncurse.
Throughthis,itbecomesincreasinglyapparent72CriterionthattheactiveinfluenceofcursesinRichardIIIdoesmorethanmerelyimplicatewomeninwitchcraft,andfurthermore,doesnotholdeithersexsolelyresponsibleforthecorruptionofthepatriarchalline.
Yet,eventhoughcursespossessthestrongestefficacyontheoutcomeofhistoryofanyactionintheplay,theyarenotthesoleperlocutionaryspeechactsthatbearethicalweight.
OneinstanceofthiscanbefoundinRichard'scompletedivergencefromhisearliermodeofusingphysicalviolencetogaincontrolofthethrone.
Insteadofdirectlystabbinghisbrothers,ashedoesMargaret'ssoninHenryVIPartII,Richardconductshislatermurdersthroughtheuseofverbalordersgiventoothers.
Consequently,thefaultforthesemurdersisnotlimitedpurelytothosewhodothestabbing,orthedrowning,orthepoisoning,butisalsoextendedtohimwhospeakstheorder.
Onsomelevel,Richardisawareoftheethicalresponsibilitythathebearsforthesespokenactions,andhisconsciousnessofthatguiltisevidencedbyhiseffortstoverballyjustifyhismurderousactions.
Heattemptsperpetuallytopegothersasthecauseforhisunjustactions,beginningby"makingEdwardappear.
.
.
responsibleforClarence'sdeath,"thenlater"positingAnne'sbeautyasthecauseforhismurderingthemensheloved,andputtingElizabethtoblameforvirtuallyallofthecountry'swoes"(Olson317).
Suchvocalcastingofblamedoesnotconstitutegenuine"justification,"butinreality,merelyrevealsanineffectualattemptonthepartofawrongdoertoneutralizehisorhermoralresponsibilitybyenvisioningitontheshouldersofanother.
Thisisoneofthedangersoflinguisticpower,thatitallowstheusertoactandyetremainmentallyremovedfromdirectresponsibilityfortheiractions.
Richardisnotaloneinhisattemptstomorallyneutralisehisactionsinthisway.
HistransformationfromviolentpowertovocalpowerbetweentheHenryVIplaysandRichardIIIissharedbyQueenMargaret.
OnthebattlefieldsofHenryVIPartII,Margaretisadirectandviolentparticipantinthewaronpatrilinealpower,yetheronlysourceofpowerinRichardIIIishertongue.
This,sheusestoblameRichardforthecontinuationofthewar:"IhadanEdward,tillaRichardkill'dhim:/IhadaHarry,tillaRichardkilledhim"(RichardIII4.
4.
40–41).
RespondingtoMargaret'saccusations,theDuchessofYorkcontendsthatMargarethaslikewisespilledthebloodofmensheloves.
Margaretrefusestoacknowledgeherguilt,andretortsbyreversingtheDuchess'sblameupon73Winter2017herself:"Thywombletloose,tochaseustoourgraves"(RichardIII4.
4.
54).
ThefactthatbothRichardandMargaretattempttodefertheirmoralresponsibilitytoothersconfirmstheenormousethicalgravitybehindtheiractions,forthereisnoreasontojustifyanactionforwhichoneisnotguilty.
Moreover,thefactthattheirguiltstemsequallyfromactsofphysicalviolenceandfromperlocutionaryspeechactsindicatesthattheethicalweightbetweenbothtypesofactionisrelativelyequal.
ItisoffurthersignificancetopointoutthattheverypresenceofthismutualblamemayactuallyaccountformuchofthewidespreadcriticalcontroversyregardingwhichgenderisatfaultinRichardIII.
However,tomerelyparticipatealongwiththecharactersinthisgameofblameisanalyticallyinsufficient,ifwedonotalsounderstandtheethicalimplicationsofblameonspeechactswithintheplay.
Becausespeechactionsfunctionastheprimarymeansbywhichtheeventsofhistoryaresealed,theethicalweightofspeechactsisenormous.
WithinthetextualworldofRichardIII,wordsarepotentiallymoredangerousandimpactfulthananyotherformofactionintheplay.
Thisfactsuggeststhatallagentswhoexercisethispowerbearjustasmuchethicalresponsibilityforwhattheysayasanymanwhowieldsaswordinbattle.
ThisplayneitherasksreaderstosidewiththewomenwhocastallblameuponRichard,norwithRichardwhocastsallblameuponwomen.
Rather,itbegsustoquestiontheefficacyofourwords,andfurther,toreconsidertheethicalresponsibilitiesbornebyeverymanorwomanwhowieldsthemasweapons.
TheincredibleascendencyofcursesinRichardIIIinsistsuponourviewingwordsasactionswithrealworldconsequences—actionswhichholdthepowertodestroy,deconstruct,andterminallyalterthecourseofhistory.
Inthesewords,moralresponsibilityisimplicit,andthisresponsibilitycannot—asthecharactersofRichardIIIcertainlyattempttodo—simplybeshruggedoffandcastuponothersasblame.
74CriterionWorksCitedAustin,J.
L.
HowtoDoThingswithWords.
2nded,HarvardUP,1975.
Brown,KateE.
,andHowardI.
Kushner.
"EruptiveVoices:Coprolalia,Malediction,andthePoeticsofCursing.
"NewLiteraryHistory,Vol.
32,Iss.
3,2001.
Bushnell,RebeccaW.
TragediesofTyrants:PoliticalThoughtandTheaterintheEnglishRenaissance.
CornellUP,1990.
Elias,Norbert.
"StateFormulationandCivilization.
"TheCivilizingProcess.
Trans.
EdmundJephcott,Vol.
2,Blackwell,1982,pp.
235.
Howard,JeanE.
,andPhyllisRackin.
EngenderingaNation:AFeministAccountofShakespeare'sEnglishHistories.
Routledge,1997.
Magnusson,Lynne.
"GrammaticalTheatricalityinRichardIII:SchoolroomQueensandGodlyOptatives.
"ShakespeareQuarterly,Vol.
64,No.
1,2013,pp.
32–43.
Moulton,IanFrederick.
"'AMonsterGreatDeformed':TheUnrulyMasculinityofRichardIII.
"ShakespeareQuarterly,Vol.
47,No.
3,1996,pp.
251–68.
Olson,Greta.
"RichardIII'sAnimalisticCriminalBody.
"PhilologicalQuarterly,Vol.
82,no.
3,2003,pp.
301–24.
Roper,Lyndal.
"WitchcraftandFantasyinEarlyModernGermany.
"WitchcraftinEarlyModernEurope:StudiesinCultureandBelief.
EditedbyJonathanBarry,MarianneHester,andGarethRoberts,CambridgeUP,1996,pp.
207–36.
Smith,KristinM.
"MartialMaidsandMurderingMothers:Women,WitchcraftandMotherlyTransgressioninHenryVIandRichardIII.
"Shakespeare,Vol.
3no.
2,2007,pp.
143–60.
Willis,Deborah.
"ShakespeareandtheEnglishWitch-Hunts:EnclosingtheMaternalBody.
"EnclosureActs:Sexuality,Property,andCultureinModernEngland.
EditedbyRichardBurtandJohnMichaelArcher,CornellUP,1994,pp.
96–120.
WorksConsultedJoel,ElliotSlotkin.
"HoneyedToads:SinisterAestheticsinShakespeare'sRichardIII.
"JournalforEarlyModernCulturalStudies,Vol.
7,No.
1,2007,pp.
5–32.
Lee,B.
S.
"QueenMargaret'sCurseonRichardofGloucester.
"ShakespeareinSouthernAfrica:JournaloftheShakespeareSocietyofSouthernAfrica,Vol.
7,1994,pp.
15–21.
Totaro,Rebecca.
"TheMeteorophysiologyoftheCurseinShakespeare'sFirstTetralogy.
"EnglishLanguageNotes,Vol.
51,No.
1,2013,pp.
191–209.
TheMagicofYeats'"TheLakeIsleofInnisfree"Kabbalism,Numerology,andTarotCardsGenevievePettijohnWilliamButlerYeatspublishedhispoem"TheLakeIsleofInnisfree"inDecemberof1890,animportantyearinYeats'lifeduetohisincreasedassociationwithoccultsocietiesinLondon.
In"Innisfree,"Yeats'narratorassertshisdesiretoleavethe"pavementgray"ofhiscurrentlocaleanddwellonthemysteriousislandofInnisfree,withonlybees,crickets,andlinnetsforcompany.
Criticsofthepoemhavehighlightedseveralimportantaspectsof"Innisfree,"includingthespiritualjourneyundertakenbyYeats(Hunter);theislandasanescapefromsexuality(Merritt);andtheislandasaplaceofwisdomorfoolishness,dependingonvaryinghistoricalperspectivesonbeans(Normandin).
Tothesecritics,itseemsthattheislandisaplaceofrefugefromadangerousoutsideworld—supposedlyLondonspecifically,althoughMerrittmightbroadenthisinterpretationtoincludeallsexualencounters.
Whilethesecriticsacknowledgethattheislandisaplaceofescape,citingwhatYeatshimselfhassaidabouttheIrishislandSligo,theyfallshortofrecognizingthefullimplicationsofYeats'fascinationwiththeoccult.
HisinvolvementwiththetheTheosophicalSocietyandlatertheHermeticSocietyoftheGoldenDawnhasbeenobservedbyseveralcritics;someofhislaterworksareeveninterpretedwiththese76Criterionconsiderationsinmind.
However,theteachingsandphilosophyofthesesocieties,aswellasYeats'interestinmysticismandhisunderstandingofoccultsymbolism,havenotfullybeenincorporatedinaninterpretationof"Innisfree.
"IassertthatthesymbolswhichYeatsincludesontheisland—specificallytheninebean-rows—aremeanttobeexaminedinthelightoftheKabbalism,numerology,andtarotcardstowhichthesesocietieslookedforinspirationintheiroccultpractices.
Throughhisinclusionofthesesymbols,YeatsisdemonstratingmasteryovertheGoldenDawn'sbasictenants,amasterywhichheperhapshopedwouldhelphimadvanceinrankinthesocietyandfurtherhisstudiesofmagic.
AlthoughmanycriticsinterpretYeats'laterpoeticendeavorsthroughthelensofhisinvolvementintheoccult,mysticismandtheoccultweresurelyontheforefrontofYeats'mindduringthepublicationof"Innisfree.
"Yeats'interestinoccultismexpandedafteran1886visittoDublinbyMohiniMohunChatterji,BengalimemberoftheTheosophicalSocietymanipulatedbyMadameHelenaBlavatskytocometoLondonasanauthoritative"oriental"(Owen60;Sasson78–80).
Chatterji'sinfluenceextendedfarbeyondChatterji'sweek-longvisittoLondon(Harper3).
Alreadyco-founderandpresidentoftheDublinHermeticSociety,Yeatssoughtforamorerapidprogressionofhisperceivedinnateabilities(Brown34;Leavitt131).
Yeats'honorarypoemtoChatterjilaterinlifesuggeststoKenMonteith,authorofYeatsandTheosophy,thatYeatscountedChatterjias"thesourceofhistheosophicalinterests"(21).
Indeed,Chatterji'sarrival,coupledwithYeats'increasingdissatisfactionwithhisowngroup's"vaguelyprogressiveself-improvement,"appearstohavespurredYeats'ambitiontojoinBlavatsky'sTheosophicalSocietyin1887(Brown34;Owen60).
Eventhissociety,however,didnotsatiateYeats'affinityforoccultpractices,andsoYeatsjoinedtheHermeticOrderoftheGoldenDawnin1890,thesameyearhepublished"Innisfree"(Owen60).
TheGoldenDawnwasasocietymeantto"[follow]throughtheinterestinritualmagicandstudyprescribedbyEsotericTheosophists,"anotherHermeticgrouptowhichYeatshadpreviouslybelonged(Foster103).
AccordingtoPatZalewskiinTheMagicTarotoftheGoldenDawn,theGoldenDawnwasfoundedinEnglandin1888andbecamean"immenselyinfluentialmagicalgroup[which]concentrateditsteachingsonapplyingtheTarottotheKabbalah,"ortheliteratureofOthodoxJudaismandHebrewtextsmingledwitheasterntexts(Zalewski8;Farley98–99).
77Winter2017ThetarotcardsandtheKabbalahnodoubtplayedimportantrolesinYeats'poeticcompositions,notonlybecauseofhisintrinsicinterestinthembutalsoduetohisdeeperdesiretopracticeadvancedmagicalarts.
HehadlefttheTheosophicalSocietyofMadameBlavatskybecausehermysticexperiments"didnotsatisfyhisrestlessspiritofinquiry"(Harper7).
Increasinglyattractedto"practicalmagic,"YeatsjoinedtheSocietyoftheGoldenDawninMarch1890(Owen60).
AccordingtoEllicHowe,aBritishoccultwriter,"Yeats'smembershipoftheOrder.
.
.
hadanotableinfluenceuponhisimaginativeandpoeticaldevelopment"(xxii).
Indeed,Yeatswroteinaletterthat"ThemysticallifeisthecentreofallthatIdoandallthatIthinkandallthatIwrite"(Autobiographies,qtd.
inWade70).
Clearly,theinfluenceoftheoccultbegantopermeatehislifeandhiswriting.
"Innisfree,"thoughoneofhisearlierworks,isnotexcludedfromthisinfluence.
SinceYeats'curiositywasnotsatisfiedwithBlavatsky'ssociety,hispursuitofthemysticcontinuedintheGoldenDawn.
EvidencesuggeststhatYeatshadinterestingainingaccesstotheSecondOrderoftheGoldenDawn,orRoseaeRubisetAureaeCurcis,aninnercircleinwhichmoreadvancedmagicwouldbepracticed.
Tenyearsafter"Innisfree,"hewroteapamphletentitled,IstheOrderoftheR.
R.
etA.
C.
toRemainaMagicalOrder,indicatinghisconcernforthepurityofinnercircle(Howe100).
ThisSecondOrderwashighlyselective.
WhilethoseintheFirstOrder"hadto.
.
.
knowtheHebrewalphabet,understandthebasicsignificanceandattributionsofthe[Kabbalistic]TreeofLife,andbefamiliarwiththesymbolicimportofdivinatorysystemslikethetarot,"thoseintheSecondOrderindulgedmorefullyinmagic(Owen59).
Yeatsdemonstratedearlyproficiencyinactionandinwriting.
"Innisfree"isoneindicationofthisproficiency.
CriticMarioD'AvanzoarguesthattheKabbalahwasextremelyimportanttoYeatsashewrote"TheLakeIsleofInnisfree.
"BesidesreferringtotheliteratureofOrthodoxJudaismandHebrewandeasterntexts,theKabbalahalsoexpressed"thenatureofGodandhisdivineemanationswhichwererepresenteddiagrammaticallyastheTreeofLife"(Farley98–99).
AssertingthatYeatsstudiedtheKabbalahduringthecompositionof"Innisfree,"D'AvanzonotestheparallelsofthepoembetweentheBiblicalSongofSolomon.
A"[Kabbalistic]interpretation"oftheSongofSolomoninconjunctionwith"Innisfree"impliesthat"theinteractionofthespeakerandthelakeisle.
.
.
conformsfullyto78Criterionthe[Kabbalistic]conceptoftheindividual'sachievementoforderandmysticalunitywith.
.
.
theearthlypresenceofGod"(16).
Yeatsexemplifiesthis"mysticalunity"inhisabilityto"hearlakewaterlapping,"thoughhestandsonaroadfarremovedfromtheisland.
Perhapsevenhisabilitytohearthewater"inthedeepearth'score"isevidenceofmysticpowerandunitywithGod'searthlypresence.
HerewecanalreadyseeelementsoftheoccultseepingintoYeats'writingasheincludesKabbalisticinstancesofunitywithGodinhispoem.
Yeatsdemonstratedthrough"Innisfree"notonlyhisunderstandingoftheKabbalahbutalsoofnumerologyandtarotcards.
Oneelementof"Innisfree"thatisparticularlyfascinatingisthe"ninebean-rows.
"Oneinterpretationofthebean-rowsisputforwardbyShawnNormandin.
HeexaminestherelationshipthatYeatshadwiththeTheosophicalSocietybetween1887and1890,especiallyYeats'connectiontoMadameBlavatsky,who"drewmuchofherwisdomfromancientphilosophers,"especiallyPythagoras(25–26).
NormandinhighlightsthepotentialdualityofthemeaningofbeansinYeats'poem:"TogotoInnisfreeandplant'bean-rows'may,fromaThoreauvianperspective,reapausterewisdom,oritmay,fromaPythagoreanperspective,amounttothebetrayalofwisdom.
.
.
.
ThesimplewordbeancondensesthestruggleofapoetcaughtbetweenLondonandSligo[theassertedinspirationforInnisfree]"(27).
Normandin'sinterpretationisinstructiveinthatitincorporatesthehistoricalfactthatYeatswasamemberoftheTheosophicalSocietyandmostlikelyreadBlavatsky'sPythagoras-saturatedwritings.
However,Normandindoesnotgosofarastoexaminetheoccultinterpretationsofthenumberofbeanrows—nine.
IntheirbookabouttheGoldenDawn,ChrisandPatZalewskiexplaintheKabbalistictheologybehindcertainnumbersandconceptsintheoccult.
Accordingtothistheology,therearethreestagesofLight—thepotentialco-creatoroftheuniversealongwithSound—whichbecomeincreasinglymoresolid(Zalewski43).
Thethirdstage,AinSophAurorLimitlessLight,ismadeupofnineHebrewletters.
ZalewskiandZalewskiexplainthatthenineHebrewletters"constitutetheunmanifestedstepsorspheres.
.
.
sothatatthenumberninewecannotprogressfurtherwithoutreturningtounity"(16).
Nine,itappears,isanimportantnumberforboththeKabbalahandthetarotdeck.
Othermeaningstothenumbernineexistinoccultnumerology.
AccordingtoSepharial,authorofTheKabalaofNumbers:AHandbook79Winter2017ofInterpretation,ninesymbolizesmystery.
Itsignifies"anewbirth,""premonition,"andperhapsmostinterestingly"goingforth"(28),whichechoesYeats'sentimentto"ariseandgo"toInnisfree.
Nineisalsolinkedto"Cupid,justasErato,fromdesiringitsoppositeforapartner"(Westcott37).
ThislastinterpretationofthenumberninewouldsuggestthateventhoughYeatsispotentiallyfleeingtotheislandtoescapehisaffections—Merritt'sproposedinterpretation—heisstillaslavetohisaffections,ashewillbeaslavetotheninebean-rows.
Again,however,thisinterpretationisanincompletepicturewithouttheintroductionoftarotcards.
Theexactoriginoftarotcardsisnotknown.
SomespeculatethatthecardswereintroducedbyCrusadersorgypsies("Tarot").
AccordingtoHelenFarley,authorofACulturalHistoryoftheTarot,TarotcardsfirstappearedinnorthernItalyintheearlyfifteenthcentury(18).
Fromthere,tarotcardsgainedpopularityinFranceandthenonwardtoEnglandduringtheVictorianperiod(121).
Yeatswouldhavebeenfamiliarwithtarotcards,forhehadapackofthemamonghis"treasuredpossessions"inLondon(Raine5).
Furthermore,Farleywrites:"Originallymembers[oftheGoldenDawn]wererequiredtomakeacopyofthetarotdeck.
.
.
.
Initiatesweretousethecardsforbothmeditationanddivination"(136).
GoldenDawnmembersusedthesecardsformeditationanddivination(Zalewski3,27).
Anunderstandingofthesetarotcards,asmentionedearlier,wasrequiredforadvancementintotheSecondOrderoftheGoldenDawn.
Tarotcardsholdsignificantimplicationsfortheninebean-rowsof"Innisfree"ontwolevels:overtly,throughanunderstandingofthepurposeofthecards;andcovertly,throughanapplicationofthenumerologyassociatedwiththecards.
First,thephysicalbeanplantcouldbesynonymoustotheTreeofLifewhichthetarotcardsaremeanttopictoriallyrepresent(Raine15).
TheimageoftheTreeofLifemayconnecttotrees"sacredtoCelticgods"whichYeatsattemptedtoincorporateasanelementoftheCelticRenaissanceinhispoetry(Hunter71).
However,deeperexaminationofthecardsandtheirnumericalsignificanceyieldsaricherimplicationforthebean-rows.
Inthetarotdeck,nineisthenumberoftheHermit,atarotcardfigure,someonewhohasforsakenallandgonetowardsaspiritualpath"(Zalewski168).
Heisalso"anoutcast,whetherself-imposedornot,seekingsolacethroughtheactofself-disciplineofthesensesandcommunionwithhismakerthroughhisparticularbeliefstructure"(122).
Yeats,whodesiresto"livealone"ina"smallcabin.
.
.
ofclayandwattlesmade,"appearstobecometheHermit(Yeats).
80CriterionThenumberofbean-rowsandtheinherentimageoftheHermitmaybeapromptforustounderstandYeats'motivationtolivealoneonInnisfree:toendonecycleandbeginanewone,anothermeaningofthenumbernine(Zalewski121).
Indeed,hisinitiationintotheGoldenDawncommencedattheendofhisinvolvementwithBlavatsky,who,inYeats'mind,wantedtolimithismagicalexperiences.
TheHermitisalsoaMagusorMagician,oneofYeats'aspirationswhenhejoinedtheGoldenDawnandwhichheeventuallyachieved,asconfirmedbyhisRoseCross(Owen140;Raine59).
Afterhisinitiation,YeatsremarkedthathisstudieswiththeGoldenDawn".
.
.
[convinced]methatimageswellupbeforethemind'seyefromadeepersourcethanconsciousorsubconsciousmemory"(Autobiographies,qtd.
inHowe69).
ThisobservationseemstoechothelappingofthelakewaterwhichYeatshears"inthedeepheart'score.
"Yeatsfurthershowcasedhismagicalabilitiesin"Innisfree"bydescribingthesightsandsoundsontheislanditself.
SeveralpersonalaccountsconfirmthatYeatshadspecialpowerstranscendingthenaturalrealm.
MaudGonne,theobjectofYeats'unrequitedlove,assertedinherMemoirsthatYeatswasabletocalluponspiritstocommunicatesymbolicimagestoher;duringonesuchsession,shecried,"Iseeafigureholdingoutitshandwithaskullinit,"andthetwoknewtheywerespirituallycompatible(qtd.
inLeavitt134).
Indeed,soonafterjoiningtheGoldenDawn,Yeatsbraggedthat"hecouldmake'thevisibleworldcompletelyvanishandanotherworldsummonedbythesymbolwouldtakeitsplace'"(128).
"Innisfree"couldbe,inoneway,anexpressionofthispower.
SeanPyorarguesthatthe"slowandsonorousincantationandliturgicalechoes.
.
.
castamagicspell,"whichendsupbeingmoreofa"chantratherthananyphysicalarrival"(99).
Avarietyofsoundsareexpressedinthepoem,suchasthe"bee-loudglade,""lakewaterlapping,"thesingingcricket,and"thelinnet'swings"(Yeats).
ThesesoundscouldserveasafurtherexpressionofYeats'mysticalprowess—hisabilitytonotonlymakethevisibleworldvanisharoundhimself,butalsototakehislistenerswithhim.
WemayturntostudiesofmodernityforanexplanationastowhyYeatsandothersinfin-de-siècleEuropeandtheUnitedStateswerefascinatedbytheoccult.
Theindustrialrevolutionvastlyincreasedtravelandglobalcommunication(Farley123).
Atthesametime,urbanizationcreatedfeelingsofalienation;race,gender,andsocialclassesand81Winter2017boundarieswerebeginningtobereconfigured(Friedman474).
Becauseofthesenewemergingmodernities,writerssuchasYeatsturnedtomysticismforanswersto"fundamentalbutnonethelessprofoundquestionsaboutthemeaningoflifeandthespiritualdimensionsoftheuniverse"(Owen5).
Indeed,middleclassfin-de-siècleBritonsweredrawntooccultismforitsexclusivityandunificationwith"peoplelikeus"(Owen5).
Inessence,Yeats'involvementwiththeoccult,beginningwiththeTheosophicalSociety,"madeYeatsasomebody"inaneraofuncertainidentity(Monteith218).
ItisinterestingtonoteherethatYeats'feelingofinclusionstemmedfromhisapparentattemptatisolationon"Innisfree.
"ButIassertthatthesymbolsoftheHermit,thenumbernine,andtheoverallunificationwithnaturearelessrepresentativeofYeats'desireforphysicalisolationandmoreanexpressionofhismysticalprowess,thusappendinghimselftothehighestorderoftheGoldenDawn.
ThisdoesnotmeanthatYeatsdidnotintendthepoemtohaveisolationistovertones.
Indeed,writerssuchasEzraPound(who,notably,alsousedtarotcardsinhisplaySweenyAgonistes)feltisolatedbytheirgeniusintheworldofmodernity.
PerhapsYeatsexperiencedasimilarfeelingofisolatedgeniusduringhisyearsintheTheosophicalSocietywhenhewasdeniedfreeexperimentationwithmagic.
Atanyrate,returningtoasurface-levelinterpretationof"Innisfree"leadsonetoconcludethattheislandisanescapefromvariousformsofrepression.
AnotherPoundism,"makeitnew,"isrelevantnotonlyinmydiscussionoftheoccultsymbolismof"Innisfree,"butalsofin-de-siècleBritain'sculturalappropriationofnon-Europeanreligioussymbols.
Aspreviouslymentioned,theKabbalah,numerology,andtarotcardsareofancientorigin.
Yettheymadetheirappearanceatthecloseofthenineteenthcentury,thoughatleastinthecaseoftarotcardswithnew"esotericmeaning"(Farley2–3).
ThisnewincorporationofancientartifactsandsymbolswouldsupportPeterKalliney'sideathat"EuropeanimperialismwasasmuchaboutjealousyofotherEuropeanpowersasitwasaboutdispossessingorcivilizingnon-Europeanpeoples"(39).
AsFarleynotes,thoughthehistoryoftarotcardsisasmuchmysteriousasthecardsthemselves,theyhavestrongtiestoItalyandFrance.
Kalliney'spictureofajealousandcovetousEuropeanpowersuchasEnglandappearstobeaccuratehere.
Perhaps,onthesurface,theassessmentthatthedispossessionandcivilizationofnon-Europeannationswasofequal82CriterionimportancetotheEuropeanjealousyofthesenationsseemsuntrue.
Onedoesseedispossession,forallthreemysticalsystems—theKabbalah,thetarotcards,andnumerology—haveextra-Europeaninfluenceifnotorigin.
ButthelackofsocietyexpressedinYeats'"Innisfree"wouldappeartoindicateaconsciousreturntoprimitivismandthereforeadesiretodecivilize.
However,uponfurtherexamination,thereissomesemblanceofsocietyonInnisfree:the"smallcabin;"theorderlinessof"ninebean-rows;"the"hiveforthehoneybee,"oneofthemostindustriousinsects(Yeats).
SoInnisfreeisnotsodecivilizedasitmayappear.
Furthermore,thereissomethingsweepingandever-presentinthedoctrinesofTheosophythatunderminestheconceptofcompletedecivilization.
Composedofsymbolsrelevanttomultiplereligions—includingChristianity,Judaism,AncientEgyptian,andHinduism—themottoofthesocietypurportsthat"ThereisNoReligionHigherThanTruth"("EmblemortheSeal").
Indeed,theKabbalisticunitybetweenGodandmanwhichD'AvanzoarguesforaddstotheconceptofKalliney'scivilizationofnon-Europeanpeoples—perhapsasanexpressionoftheunitybetweenahighernationandalower.
Throughculturalappropriation,Europeanmodernitysalvagedtheemblemsofvariousreligionsandcombinedthemunderoneflagof"truth.
"Yeatsnotonlyascribedtothismodernity,butheclimbedanelitistsocialladderconstructedofappropriatedculturalartifacts"madenew.
"Yeats'fascinationwiththeoccultattheturnofthecenturywasindicativeofalargerculturaltrendofthatera.
ParalleledinGreatBritain,thistrendtowardsoccultismtookrootintheUnitedStatesbeforeblossominganewinfin-de-siècleEurope.
Blavatsky,afterestablishingherTheosophicalSocietyinLondon,inspiredYeatsandcountlessotherswhowereinvestedinmysticism.
ButwhatwastheirinspirationAccordingtoSamWattersofTheLosAngelesTimes,whatinspiredYeatsthen—andwhatinspiresotherstoday—isthedesiretoreachUtopia.
WattersdescribeshowBlavatsky'sendeavorsbeganin1897"asindustrialAmericaroseandavaricetrouncedcharity.
"Hegoesontoexplainthesocietycontaineda"healingblend"ofvariousoccultpractices,whichheassertswere"dedicatedtocharitableworksandbrotherlylove.
"Twenty-fiveyearsafterfoundingSocietiesintheUnitedStatesandLondon,Watterswrites,Blavatsky'sinitialconceptsolidifiedina"unifiedforceforhumangood"inasectinthesouthernIndiantownofAdyar.
Oneofthesectleaders,AlbertP.
Warrington,attemptedtorecreateAdyarinSouthern83Winter2017CaliforniainacolonycalledKrotona.
AsasortofcontinentalInnisfree,KrotanaembodiestheidealsYeatsandotheroccultdevoteeshopedtoachievethroughtheirstudiesofmagic.
YeatshadhisownAdyarorKrotana—hisownUtopia—inInnisfree,asecludedplacetobecometheHermit,gainwisdom,andpracticemagicuninhibitedbysocietalrestrictionsorexpectations.
Here,YeatscouldcontinuetoexploremagicwhilelivingasawisebutpowerfulHermit-Magicianinunitywithnature,seekinggreaterknowledgeinaccordancewiththemantra,"ThereisNoReligionHigherThanTruth.
"YeatsattemptedtoreachUtopiaonInnisfree,for"Ishallhavesomepeacethere.
"Thispeace,inanearlierdraftof"Innisfree"came"fromthedawnabove"(Owen79).
ThatYeatstrulyachievedpeacethroughhisassociationwithTheosophicSocietiesandoverallstudyoftheoccultisdebatable.
However,itseemsthat,toatleastsomedegree,thepoetreachedhispersonalUtopiaintheSecondOrderoftheGoldenDawn.
84CriterionWorksCited"EmblemortheSeal.
"TheTheosophicalSociety:InternationalHeadquarters,Adyar,www.
ts-adyar.
org/.
Farley,Helen.
ACulturalHistoryoftheTarot:FromEntertainmenttoEsotericism.
I.
B.
Tauris,2009.
Foster,R.
F.
W.
B.
Yeats:ALife.
OxfordUP,1997.
Friedman,SusanStandford.
"Planetarity:MusingModernistStudies.
"Modernism/Modernity,vol.
17,no.
3,2010,471–99.
Howe,Ellic.
TheMagiciansoftheGoldenDawn.
Routledge&KeganPaul,Ltd.
,1972.
Harper,GeorgeMills.
Yeats'sGoldenDawn.
Harper&Row,1974.
Hunter,Stuart.
"Returnto'labonnevaux':TheSymbolicSignificanceofInnisfree.
"ModernLanguageStudies,vol.
14,no.
3,1984,70–81.
Kalliney,Peter.
ModernisminaGlobalContext.
Bloomsbury,2015.
Leavitt,June.
EsotericSymbols:TheTarotinYeats,Eliot,andKafka.
UPofAmerica,2007.
Merritt,Henry.
"RisingandGoing:The'Nature'ofYeats's'TheLakeIsleofInnisfree.
'"English:TheJournaloftheEnglishAssociation,vol.
47,1998,103–109.
Monteith,Ken.
YeatsandTheosophy.
Routledge,2008.
Normandin,Shawn.
"Yeats,'TheLakeIsleofInnisfree,'andtheWisdomofBeans.
"Explicator,vol.
73,no.
1,2015,25–28.
Owen,Alex.
ThePlaceofEnchantment:BritishOccultismandtheCultureoftheModern.
UofChicagoP,2004.
Pryor,Sean.
"IconicityandtheDivineintheFindeSièclePoetryofW.
B.
Yeats.
"InsistentImages,EditedbyElzbietaTabakowska,ChristinaLjungberg,andOlgaFischer.
JohnBenjamins,2006,91–102.
Raine,Kathleen.
Yeats,theTarot,andtheGoldenDawn.
DolmenPress,1972.
Sasson,Diane.
YearningfortheNewAge:LauraHolloway-LangfordandLateVictorianSpirituality.
IndianaUP,2012.
Sepharial.
TheKabalaofNumbers:AHandbookofInterpretation.
Rider&Co,1913.
"Tarot.
"Funk&WagnallsNewWorldEncyclopedia,2016.
85Winter2017Yeats,WilliamButler.
"TheLakeIsleofInnisfree.
"TheCollectedPoemsofW.
B.
Yeats.
EditedbyRichardJ.
Finneran,Simon&ShusterInc.
,1989.
Watters,Sam.
"UtopiainHollywood.
"LosAngelesTimes,6Feb.
2010.
articles.
latimes.
com/2010/feb/06/home/la-hm-lostla6-2010feb06Westcott,W.
Wynn.
Numbers:TheirOccultPowerandMysticVirtues.
TheosophicalPublishingSociety,1911.
FirstEditionpublished1890.
Zalewski,ChrisandPatZalewski.
TheMagicalTarotoftheGoldenDawn.
AeonBooks,2008.
86CriterionWritinginSuspenseACritiqueonAmericanCultureThroughObjectiveandSubjectiveReportageBrittanyTwigg"Youareamanofextremepassion,ahungrymannotquitesurewherehisap-petitelies,adeeplyfrustratedmanstrivingtoprojecthisindividualityagainstabackdropofrigidconformity.
Youexistinahalf-wordsuspendedbetweentwosuperstructures,oneself-expressionandtheotherself-destruction.
Youarestrong,butthereisaflawinyourstrength,andunlessyoulearntocontrolittheflawwillprovestrongerthanyourstrengthanddefeatyou"(Capote43).
DuringPerrySmith'sfirstthreeyearsinprison,hebefriendsamannamedWillieJay,wholaterwritesaletterdescribingSmith'scharacteristics.
TheportionoftheletternotedabovenotonlydescribesSmith,amaincharacterinTrumanCapote'snovel,InColdBlood,butalsopersonifiesthedevelopmentofanewformofjournalism.
InthesamewaythatPerrySmithbecomesfrustratedbytryingtocreatehisownidentityoppositeofsocialexpectations,thegenreofnarrativejournalismgrewoutofadesperationamongwritersforindividuality.
Thoughnarrativeformenhancedthewayinwhichjournaliststoldstories,theincreaseoffictionalelementscandetractfromtheauthor'scredibilityifnotkeptundercontrol.
Therefore,asPerryseekstofindhimselfbetweenaworldofself-expressionandaworldofself-destructionthroughoutthenovel,hedemonstratesthewayinwhichjournalistssoughtabalancebetweenfactandfiction.
88CriterionDuringthe1960's,fictionwritersbecamedissatisfiedwiththenovelasmeansofdescribingreality,andsimultaneouslyjournalistsgrewfrustratedwiththeconfinesoftheinvertedpyramid—atechniquethatrequiredjournaliststoincludethemostnewsworthyinformationintheintroductionofthestory.
Asaresult,bothjournalistsandnovelistsrejectedtheconstructednormsoftheirgenresandbegantoexperimentwithnewwaysofself-expression.
Asthequotesuggests,thewritersofthiserawerepassionateabouttheworldinwhichtheylived,buttheysoughtnewwaystosharetheirreal-worldexperiences.
Writerssoughttointegratetheirownperceptionswithintheobjectivetruthofjournalisminordertobetterexpressthemselves.
Thistransitionledtothecombinationoffactandfictionthroughwhichsubjectivetruthbecametheprimaryfocus.
Althoughthisstylehasincreasedinpopularitysincethen,manycriticsstillquestionitsvalidityandfactualityduetotheincreaseduseoffictionalelementstotellfactualstories.
Bydefyingthefoundationofobjectivetruthinconventionaljournalism,CapoteandThompsoncreateamoreprofoundexperiencefortheiraudiencethroughthedevelopmentoftheirownpersonaandtheiruseofsuspensewithintheirnovels.
DefiningNarrativeJournalismThegenreofnarrativejournalismistheresultofanerawhenbothnovelistsandjournalistsbecamefrustratedwiththeirmeansofexpression.
Whilewritersbegantoquestionthelimitationsofthenoveltoexpress"contemporaryreality,"journalistsweredispleasedwiththeinvertedpyramidand"theneutralityofconventionaljournalism"(Olster44-45).
Therefore,narrativejournalismmarkstherecognitionofthelimitationspresentedinobjectivereportagebygiving"significancetothepersonalviewofjournalists"andfindingnewwaystodescribe"thefeelingoratmosphereofanevent,"furtherexposingreaderstonewaspectsofsociety(Olster44-45;Lucy289).
Byforgoingtheconfinesoftheinvertedpyramid,narrativejournalismseekstopromoteaestheticappealandresonanceamongreadersratherthanfactualaccounts.
Therefore,objectivitywithinnarrativejournalismbecomes"atextualeffect,theproductofa89Winter2017certainaestheticproficiency,awaywithwords"(Lucy294).
Writers,suchasCapoteandThompson,constructthisformofobjectivitybyinsertingthemselvesascharactersintheirwritingandimmersingthemselvesintheeventstheycover(48).
Theuseofoneselfasacharacterinanarrative,otherthaninanautobiography,contrastswithconventionaljournalism.
Traditionaljournalistsdevelopknowledgethrough"anidealofprofessionaldetachment,"whichallowsthemtosimplyobserveandrecordwhathappensintheworld(Lucy284).
Incontrast,narrativejournalismallowswriterstopersonallyparticipateintheeventbycreatinganewepistemologyforwriters.
Fromthe1960'stothepresentday,thiswrittenformofexpressionbegantoincorporateaparticipatoryunderstandingoftheworldthatcouldnotbeaccomplishedthroughconventionaljournalism.
However,thisnewstyleofwritingcausedwriterstobeconsidered"incompetentoutsidersfromaprofessionalpointofview"becausetheydidnotadheretothetraditionalexpectationsofobjectivereportage(Lucy289).
In1990,JoanDidionwroteanessaythat"warnedofthefalsehoodsthatcanemergewhenhistoricaleventsareframedasnarrativesthatmisconstruetheirmeaning"(Olster52).
Inordertotrulyunderstandthistypeofwriting,aparadigmshiftmusttakeplaceinordertounderstandthattheauthorsarenottryingtobestrictlyfactual,butarerathercommentingonsocietyinanewway.
NarrativeJournalismandTrumanCapoteThisshiftinthinkinggivesinsightintothestyleandpurposeofCapote'snovelInColdBloodasheaimstoretelloneofthemosthorrificmurderstohappeninAmericanhistory.
InNovember1959,TrumanCapotewassenttoKansastoreportontheCluttermurderfortheNewYorker(Tynan130).
Theaccountsofthemurderthatwerepublishedinthenewspaperadheredtotheconventionalformsofjournalism.
However,throughspendingfiveyearsresearchingthemurderofHerb,Bonnie,Nancy,andKenyonClutter,Capotedevelopedhismostrenownedwork—InColdBlood.
Thisnovel,unlikeanyofhisjournalisticwriting,usesanarrativestructuretotelltheeventsoftheCluttermurderthroughCapote's"consciousintentiontothenovelisticobjectivethroughout"90Criterion(Wiegand137).
Inanarticletitled"TheKansasFarmMurders,"authorKennethTynanexplainsthat"InColdBlood.
.
.
iscertainlythemostdetailedandatmosphericaccounteverwrittenofacontemporarycrime"(130).
TheuseofnarrativedescriptionthatTynanpointsoutinhisarticleallowedCapotetodefytheconfinesofconventionaljournalism.
Capote'snarratorpersonabecomesevidentinthestructureofthestory,eventhoughheisnotthemaincharacter.
InColdBloodbeginswithdetaileddescriptionofthecharactersandthesetting.
Throughthisinitialdescription,Capoteestablisheshimselfasanomniscientnarrator.
However,thenoveliswritteninthird-personasameanstodistancetheauthorfromthesubject.
Inapersonalinterview,Capoteexplainedthatthehardestpartofwritingthisnovelwaskeepinghimselfoutofthestory(Voss72).
ThedistancingeffectofCapote'sthird-personnarration,however,didnothinderhimfrommanipulatingtheeventsofthemurderasanauthortoadheretoanarrativeform.
Capote'sinfluenceontheportrayaloftheeventsofthecrimedefyobjectivity,ascertainscenesarereconfigured,furtherdiminishingthefactualityofthenovel.
Capote'smoststrategicmanipulationisthewaythatheportraysPerry.
WhilePerryisadmittedlyavictimofapoorhomelife,Capotereshapestheeventsinthenoveltoreinforcethisvictimizedimageandgeneratesympathyfromhisaudience.
RalphF.
Voss,authorofTrumanCapoteandtheLegacyofInColdBlood,explainsthereasoningbehindCapote'ssympathytowardsPerry:"CapotehadanextraordinaryrelationshipwiththeClutterkillerPerrySmith.
HehadparallelstoSmithinhisownlife:bothweremoreorlessorphanedintheiryouth,rejectedbytheirparents,andraisedbysurrogates"(77).
BecauseofhisconnectionwithPerry,CapoteemphasizesPerry'spoorhomelifeinseveralplacesthroughoutthenovel.
Oneinstanceofthisistowardstheendofthestory,whenadetectiveinterviewsDickandPerryabouttheClutterfamilyandnotesthat"[Perry's]lifehadbeennobedofroses,butpitiful,anuglyandlonelyprogresstowardonemirageandthenanother"(Capote246).
BecauseCapotepresentsPerryinthisway,heneverattributesguilttoPerryforthecrimeagainsttheClutterfamily.
Instead,CapoteminimizesPerry'sguiltatthetimeofthekillingandjustifieshisactionsbysayingthathehada"brainexplosion"(Voss87-88).
Throughtheportrayalofsucheventsinthenovel,Capote'sbiasbecomesclearthroughhisintentionalportrayalof91Winter2017thecrime.
ThispointofviewallowedCapotetowriteoutsidethelimitsofregularjournalismandconstructthesetting,characters,andeventsinawaythataddssuspensetothenovel.
ThestructureofthenoveladdssuspensetotheeventsofthecrimefurtherseparatingCapote'sworkfromconventionaljournalism.
Whenanalyzingthetext,onemightdrawthesameconclusionasGalloway,whoexplainsthe"metaphoricalpatterns"inCapote'snovel(Galloway145).
Thefirstmetaphoroccursinthedescriptionofthesceneofthecrime—asuburbofGardenCityinKansas.
Whilethelocationofthecrimeis"situatedatthegeographicalcenteroftheUnitedStates,"theCluttersandthekillersrepresenttwoverydifferentclassesofpeople(Galloway145).
Gallowayexplainsthat"theCluttersseemed,atfirstglance,anapple-pieembodimentoftheAmericanDream;thekillerswerethevictimsofasuccess-orientedsociety"(145).
ThroughGalloway'sidentificationofsuch"metaphoricalpatterns"withinthesettingandcharacters,onecanunderstandthelargerimplicationsofCapote'snovel(145).
TheCluttermurdersnotonlydisturbedtheresidentsofGardenCity,butthecrimealsoinvokedasenseoffearineverysmalltownacrosstheUnitedStates.
Becausetherewasnoapparentmotivebehindthemurder,thesamecrimecouldhavebeencommittedagainstanyAmericanfamily.
Thus,byshapingthesettingandcharacterstoberepresentativeofthetypicalAmericanfamilylivinginasmalltown,CapotegeneratestensionnotfoundintheaccountspublishedintheNewYorker.
InColdBloodisnotachronologicalorderoftheClutterfamilymurders;rather,Capoteorganizesthefoursectionsofhisnovelinawaythatgeneratessuspenseforhisaudience.
Inthefirstsectionofthenovel,readersareintroducedtoDickandPerry,theClutters,andGardenCity.
InhisdescriptionofCapote'sstyle,Vossexplainsthat"itisanextraordinarystylisticachievementthatCapoteestablishesandmaintainsthebuildingtensionofalternatingscenesbetweenvictimsandkillersinpartone,eventhoughreadersknowwhatisgoingtohappen"(74).
Throughthesealternatingscenes,CapoteprovidesathoroughbackgroundofDickandPerry,whocommitthecrimeagainsttheClutterfamily.
Bychoosingtointroducethesuspectsandthevictimspriortothedescriptionofthemurder,Capoteallowshisreaderstoconnectwiththecharactersonanintimatelevel.
92CriterionBystructuringthenovelthisway,Capotehumanizesthemurderersandthevictimsbeforedescribingthemurderinsectionthree.
Afterreadingthenovel,Mas'udZavarzadehexplainsthatCapote"structuredthefacts,andgeneratedsuspense,bywithholdingthemurdersceneuntilhehadsentimentalizedthevictimsandtheirkillers"(qtd.
inLucy308).
Inthefirstsectionofthenovel,Mrs.
Ashida,oneofMr.
Clutter'sneighbors,saysshecouldnotimagineMr.
Clutterscaredbecausehecanalwaystalkhimselfoutofanything,yetMr.
CluttercouldnottalkDickoutofkillinghimandhisfamily(Capote36).
Laterinthenovel,CapoterevealsthatMr.
Clutterarranged"aforty-thousand-dollarpolicythatintheeventofdeathbyaccidentalmeans,paiddoubleindemnity"thedaybeforehissuddendeath(48).
TheironypresentinbothofthesesceneswouldnothavebeenpossibleifCapotehadnotsavedthemurdersceneuntilthethirdsectionofthenovel.
BecauseCapotehadtheauthoritytoordertheeventsinthebestpossiblewaytotellthestory,hebeginstorefertohisbookasanonfictionnovel—"Havingwrittenabookthatwaslikeanovelfromthepointofviewoftechnique,butunlikeanovelinasmuchasitwassupposedtobemadeupoftranscriptsofactualconversationsandreconstructionsofactualevents"(Lucy292).
ThoughCapote'snovelservesasanexcellentexampleoffictionbecauseofitsnarrativestructure,Capote'scredibilitybecomesquestionablewhenconsideringthedefinitionofhisworkasanonfictionnovel.
AccordingtoAHandbooktoLiterature,anonfictionnovelisdefinedas"aclassification.
.
.
inwhichanhistoricaleventisdescribedinawaythatexploitssomeofthedevicesoffiction,includingnonlineartimesequenceandaccesstoinnerstatesofmindandfeelingnotcommonlypresentinhistoricalwriting"(Harmon326).
ThiscombinationoffactandfictionresultedinamixtureofobjectivefactsandsubjectivedescriptionthroughoutthenovelasCapotemanipulatesthestructureoftheeventstodevelopasuspensefulnarrativeaccount.
"Determinedtomakethebookassumetheformofatraditionalnovel,[Capote]apparentlyplacedfactsinaconsciousnessinwhichhehadchosentolocatethepointofviewofcertainscenes"(Lucy312).
Inthisway,Capoteinsertshisownbias,howevernoticeable,bymanipulatingthesetting,plot,andcharacterstoimplyadeepermeaningforhisaudience.
Regardlessofthefactualevidence,Capote"stretchedthematerialinwaysdisturbinglyclosetotheapproximatingillusionsassociatedwithrealistfiction,whilecontinuingtoclaimajournalisticcontract"(Lucy312).
Nevertheless,93Winter2017Capote'snovelremainsaliteraryachievementbecauseofhiswillingnesstoventurebeyondtheconventionalformsofjournalismto"portraythedeclineoftheAmericanWest,thedeathofthesmalltown,andtheeasewithwhichAmericandreamscanturnintoAmericannightmares"(Olster46).
NarrativeJournalismandHunterS.
ThompsonCapote'sworkonthenonfictionnovelultimatelypavedthewayforotherwriterstodefytraditionalformsofjournalismbecauseofhissuccesswithnarrativejournalism.
Onesuchwriter,HunterS.
Thompson,wroteFearandLoathinginLasVegas,inwhichheaimstodefinetheAmericandreamthroughjournalisticpursuits.
TheplotofFearandLoathingmirrorsatripthatThompsontookwithhisfriendOscarZetaAcostain1971whenThompsonwasassignedtocovertheMint400raceinLasVegas(Dossn.
p.
).
PerhapsthemostnoticeablesimilaritybetweenCapoteandThompsonistheirplacingofthemselvesascharactersintheirnovels.
ThoughCapotedoesnotblatantlyintroducehimselfasamaincharacter,hisnovelis"suffusedfromstarttofinishwithitsauthor'smanipulations"(Olster49).
Inasimilarmanner,Thompsonmanipulatestheeventsthattakeplaceinhisnovel,yethehasmorefreedomtoconstructtheplotofthestorybecauseheisthemaincharacter.
Thompson'snoveldiffersfromCapote'sinthathetellsaspecificstoryabouthimselfuncoveringtheAmericandream,ratherthantellingsomeoneelse'sstory.
BecauseThompsoneliminatesallboundariesbetweenthereporterandthesubject,hisversionofthenonfictionnovel—asaseparationofreporterandsubjectandasanextensionofauthorialvoice—canbedefinedasgonzojournalism.
GonzoJournalismTheconceptofnewjournalism,whichcategorizesbothCapoteandThompson'snovels,isaparticipatorymannerofreportage.
Ratherthanremainingobjectiveintheirnewsstories,CapoteandThompsonallowthemselvestoparticipateintheeventonwhichtheyarereporting.
However,Thompsonexpandsthisstyleofreportingthroughthecreationof'gonzojournalism.
'Throughblurringthelinesbetweenthereporterandthesubject,Thompsonallowshisownfeelingsandexperiencestodominatethestory.
TomWolfedefinesgonzojournalismasa"manic,94Criterionhighlyadrenalfirst-personstyleinwhichThompson'sownemotionsdominatethestory"(qtd.
inReynolds55).
Becauseofhismorepersonalwritingstyle,Thompsonisfreetoreportonstoriesasheexperiencesthem,ratherthanmerelyreportingbasedonoutsideinterviews.
InessenceasJohnJ.
Paulyexplains,Thompson'swritingexhibitshisbeliefthatanauthorcannotfullydevelopafactualaccountwithout"personalinvolvementandimmersion"(qtd.
inReynolds56).
Therefore,theauthor'sparticipationbecomesthefoundationforgonzojournalism.
WilliamStephenson,authorofGonzoRepublic:HunterS.
Thompson'sAmerica,describesThompson'sjournalismas"avehicleforoutrageoussemi-autobiographicalnarrativethat[does]notcloakitselfinanypretenseofobjectivity"(10).
Byoutlininghisownexperiencesandemphasizinghisownpersonalityinhiswriting,Thompsoncreatesafictivepersonaofhimselfthatblursthelinesbetweenfictionandnonfictiongenresandfurtherrepresentsa"fragmentedrealityinfragmentedform"(Stephenson33).
Thisexperientialformofwriting,whichchallengesobjectivityevenmoresothanCapote,allowsThompsontodefytheconventionalformsofjournalism.
Therefore,experienceandemotionbecomethefoundationtounderstandingsubjectivityinThompson'snovel.
Thompsonchallengesobjectivityinhisnovelthroughthedevelopmentofhisownpersona,almostasiftheprotagonistisaself-caricature.
Thebeginningofthenovelisnarratedinfirstperson,thoughreadersarenotsurewhichcharacterisnarratingthestory;however,Thompsonfinallyintroducestheprotagonistbyhisname,RaoulDuke,inchapterthree.
NotuntilthetenthchapterdoreadersrealizetheconnectionbetweenThompsonandDukewhenaletteriswrittento"HunterS.
ThompsonC/ORaoulDuke"(76).
Thoughhisaudiencemayhavepickeduponthesimilaritiesbetweentheauthorandhispersona,Thompsonexplicitlymakestheconnectionforhisreadersbyinsertingthisletter.
BecauseThompsonwantedtocreateamoreexperientialformofwrittendiscourse,hesoughtto"createfromwithinhimselfandtoinvolvehimselfinhisworld.
.
.
whichsuggest[s]aneedtoexperiencefullywhatitmeanstobehuman"(Stephenson7).
Throughthesepersonalexperiences,Thompson"realizedhisownhumanitythroughwritingasmuchasthroughlife;"infact,thepersonathatThompsoncreatesinhisnovelgivesinsighttohisauthenticself(Stephenson7).
95Winter2017Thompson'scharacter,RaoulDuke,isuniqueinthatheseemsdisconnectedfromtheworld,yetheknowsthatheispartofsomethingmuchlargerthanhimself.
DukeisultimatelyonaquesttofindtheAmericandream:"Itwasaclassicaffirmationofeverythingrightandtrueanddecentinthenationalcharacter.
Itwasagross,physicalsalutetothefantasticpossibilitiesoflifeinthiscountry—butonlyforthosewithtruegrit"(Thompson18).
AsDukeandhislawyertravelinaredconvertiblefilledwithamixtureofdrugs,theyareunawareoftheimmenseissuestheywillsoonuncoveraboutAmerica.
DukewassenttoLasVegasonanassignmenttocovertheMint400motorcyclerace—"justafewphotosofmotorcyclesanddunebuggiesracingaroundthedesert"(Thompson56).
However,bytheendofhistimeinLasVegas,"hewasplunged,withoutrealizingit,intothemawofsomeworldbeyondhisken.
Therewasnowayhecouldpossiblyunderstandwhatwashappening"(Thompson56).
Thompson'spersonaisconsistentlydisorientedbothinrealityandthroughdrughallucinations,whichmakeshiscommentaryonAmericanculturealmostvoidofmeaning.
However,throughthisdisorientation,Thompsonexposesthevulnerabilitythatoccurswhenjournalistsdirectlyexperienceorinteractwiththatwhichtheyarereporting.
Therefore,Thompson"positionshispersonainanextremesituation"ontheedgeofthedesertdrivingahundredmilesperhourtocoverastoryinLasVegasinhopesoffindingtheAmericandream(Stephenson27;Thompson3).
Byusingthis"comic,mock-psychoticpersonaasnarrator-protagonist,"Thompsonenableshimselftowritebeyondtheconfinesofconventionaljournalismthroughthe"dramatizingofanindividualmindexperiencing,ordering,andinterpretingnationalevents"(Hellmann17).
Theprotagonist,Duke,isnotstrugglingwithmeetingadeadline,eventhoughheclaimstobeatruejournalist.
Infact,hischaracterisneverseenfinishinganewsstoryinthenovel.
Rather,Thompson'spersonais"anantiheroonaquest,confrontedbypowerfulenemieswhosesymbolicrepresentativesaretheanimalshehassummoneduphimself"(Stephenson27).
WhileThompsonclaimsthattheeventsinthenovelarefactual,andthatheisthe"DoctorofJournalism,"hisconsumptionofavarietyofdrugsandalcoholthroughoutthenovelcreatedoubtinhiscredibility.
Fromthebeginningofthenovel,asDukeandhislawyersetoffontheiradventuretoLasVegas,Dukehasnointentionofreportingonanythingwithoutdrugs:"Ifathinglikethisisworthdoingatall,it'sworthdoing96Criterionright.
We'llneedsomedecentequipmentandplentyofcashontheline—ifonlyfordrugsandasuper-sensitivetaperecorder,forthesakeofapermanentrecord"(Thompson9).
ThoughheintendstoreportfactualinformationabouttheMint400race,hispersistentrelianceondrugsmakesreadersquestionhiscredibility,anditevenplacesDukeandhislawyerinseveralcompromisingsituations.
Throughoutthenovel,Dukedescribestheeffectsthedrugshaveonhim,whichcontributestotheoverallexperiencethathehaswhileattemptingtofulfillhisjournalistresponsibilities.
Theentirenovelswitchesbetween'real'lifeandhallucinationsasDuke'sbodyandmindsuccumbtotheeffectsofthedrugs:"Ah,devilether—atotalbodydrug.
Themindrecoilsinhorror,unabletocommunicatewiththespinalcolumn.
Thehandsflapcrazily,unabletogetmoneyoutofthepocket…garbledlaughterandhissingfromthemouth…alwayssmiling.
EtheristheperfectdrugforLasVegas"(Thompson46).
Becauseoftheirconsumptionofdrugsanditseffectsontheirbodies,Dukeandhislawyerplacethemselvesinsituationswheretheyareonthevergeofgettingcaughtwiththedrugs.
PerhapsthemostuniquesceneiswhenDukehallucinatesashetriestocheckintohishotelinLasVegas:"Theroomservicewaiterhasavaguelyreptiliancasttohisfeatures,butIwasnolongerseeinghugepterodactylslumberingaroundthecorridorsinpoolsoffreshblood"(Thompson27).
ThelawyerdragsDukeoutofthebarjustbeforetheemployeescallthecopsandblowtheir'press'coverstory.
Scenessuchasthisdemonstratehowtheeffectsofthedrugsdrasticallyaltertheperceptionoftheeventsinthenovelbycreatingamorefictionalandsuspensefulnarrative.
Theeffectsofthedrugsfurtheralterthepersonalitiesofthemaincharactersaswellastheirdecision-makingskills.
"Thecharacters'trainsofthoughtbecomedifficulttounravelasthedistortionsinducedbydrugsandbytheextremityoftheirsituationtaketheirtoll"(Stephenson36).
Becauseoftheeffectsofthedrugs,Dukestrugglestodistinguishbetweenrealityandthehallucinationsthatheandhislawyerhave,whichiswhytheyarebothconsistentlyparanoidaboutbeingcaughtforstealing,cheating,andconsumingdrugs.
Theentireplotprovesthat"…theGonzostaple[is]thestonedfreaktryingtodealwithofficialdom"(Stephenson25).
AsDukeandhislawyerpretendtobewell-known,professionaljournalists,theymusthidethedrugsandtheliestheyhavetold.
97Winter2017AsThompsonworkstotellthestoryofDuke,healsocomposeshimselfas"bothacentralcharacterwithinthenarrativeandanimpliedauthorbehindit"(Stephenson29).
ThestorythatThompsoncreatedwasacommentaryonAmericancultureandtheAmericandream.
WilliamStephensonexplainsThompson'sculturalcommentarybyreferencingworkbyWeingarten:"Vegashasbeenreadas'journalismasbricolage:ThompsonmovedaroundfreelyinspaceandtimealwayssearchinginvainfortheAmericandream.
'TheadversarystoppingthebricoleurDukefromfindingthedreamwasvulgar,oppressivecapitalismoftheNixonera,personifiedbyLasVegasitself"(29).
ThisdevelopmentwouldnothavebeenpossibleifThompsonhadremainedwithinthestrictconfinesofobjectivejournalism.
HellmanexplainsthatbecauseThompson"conceivedhisjournalismasaformoffiction,[he]hasbeenabletoshapeactualeventsintomeaningfulworksofliteraryart"(16).
Thompsoncreatesanauthenticselfandamoreaccurate,yetsuspenseful,pictureofAmericanculturebyallowinghimselftoexplorethemeaningofhumanitythroughdrugexperimentation.
FearandLoathinggrantedThompsontheopportunitytoexpresshimselfasajournalistinawaythathehadnotfoundinconventionaljournalism:"Hefloutedtheconventionsofjournalismandfictionandviolatedtherulesofsyntaxinordernotonlytorepresentdruggedconsciousness,butalsotosupportthepremisesofthestate"(Stephenson17).
ConclusionBothCapoteandThompsonwroteworksofliteratureinwhichthesubjectiveandobjectivebecomeone.
Theytookcreativelibertieswithintheconfinesofjournalismthatallowedthemtointertwinefactandfictionbyestablishingpersonasandgeneratingsuspense.
However,eachauthorusesdifferenttechniquestoachievethesedefiningcharacteristicsoftheirnovels.
WhileCapoteestablishesapersonathroughhisomniscientnarration,Thompsonimmerseshimselfasamaincharacterinhisnovel.
Theirmeansofgeneratingsuspensealsodiffers,asCapoteusesthestructureofevents,whereasThompsonusestheinfluenceofdrugstoaltercharacterchoicesandmotivations.
ThewritingstylethatCapoteandThompsonexhibitinthesenovelscontrastsfromconventionaljournalismbecausetheyallowthemselvestoplayarolewithintheplot;98Criterionwhereas,journalistsmustremainstrictlyobjective.
Thiscreatesamoreinteractiveandexperientialstyleofwriting,wheretheauthorscanexpressthemselvesandtheirexperiences,whilethereadersdiscovernewwaysoflookingatsocietyandfactualevents.
Inthisway,CapoteandThompsontransformedtheexpectationsofjournalismbychallenging"theverywaywethinkaboutajournalist'sroleasproducerofthefirstdraftofhistory"(Nuttall113).
Indoingso,CapoteandThompson'sworkreachesbeyondtheconfinesoftheirownlives.
NotonlydidCapoteandThompsoncreateanewstyleofwritingaboutreality,buttheyalsoleftbehindmessagesofAmericanculturethatmayappeartobemorerelevanttodaythanwhentheirnovelswerepublished.
Thedevelopmentofnarrativejournalismgavewritersthefreedomtoincorporatetheirownexperienceswithinthefactualityofthereportedevent.
Thus,thecombinationoffactandfictionsuggestsamoreintimatelevelofverisimilitudebypresentingthefactsthroughtheexperienceofthewriter.
Nolongerarejournalistsrestrictedbyquestionsofwho,what,when,where,andwhy;instead,theyhavemorelibertiestocommentdirectlyontheAmericancultureastheyexperienceit.
99Winter2017WorksCitedBrinkley,Douglas.
"TheArtOfJournalism:AnInterviewWithHunterS.
Thompson.
"ConversationswithHunterS.
Thompson.
EditedbyBeefTorreyandKevinSimonson,UPofMississippi,2008,pp.
140-60.
Capote,Truman.
InColdBlood.
VintageBooks,1965.
Doss,YvetteC.
"TheLostLegendoftheRealDr.
Gonzo.
"LosAngelesTimes,05June1998.
Galloway,David.
"RealToadsinRealGardens:ReflectionsontheArtofNon-FictionandtheLegacyofTrumanCapote.
"TheCriticalResponsetoTrumanCapote.
EditedbyJosephWaldmeirandJohnC.
Waldmeir,GreenwoodPress,1999,pp.
143-54.
Harmon,William.
AHandbooktoLiterature.
PearsonEducation,2012.
Hellman,John.
"CorporateFiction,PrivateFable,andHunterS.
Thompson'sFearandLoathing:OntheCampaignTrail'72.
"Critique:StudiesinModernFictionvol.
21,no.
1,1979,pp.
16-30.
MLAInternationalBibliography,https://search.
proquest.
com/docview/53763077accountid=4488.
Lucy,Niall.
"TheNewJournalism:AReportOnKnowledge.
"Technicity.
LitterariaPragensia,2006,pp.
281-316,MLAInternationalBibliography.
,https://search.
proquest.
com/docview/814470394accountid=4488.
Nuttall,Nick.
"'ApocalypseandHell':HunterS.
Thompson'sAmericanDream.
"LiteraryJournalismStudiesvol.
4,no.
1,2012,pp.
103-14.
MLAInternationalBibliography,https://search.
proquest.
com/docview/1427741213accountid=4488.
Olster,Stacey.
"NewJournalismAndTheNonfictionNovel.
"TheCambridgeCompaniontoAmericanFictionafter1945.
EditedbyJohnN.
Duvall,CambridgeUP,2012,44-55.
Reynolds,Bill.
"OnTheRoadtoGonzo:HunterS.
Thompson'sEarlyLiteraryJournalism(1961-1970).
"LiteraryJournalismStudiesvol.
4,no.
1,2012,pp.
51-84,MLAInternationalBibliography,https://search.
proquest.
com/docview/1427741009accountid=4488.
Stephenson,William.
GonzoRepublic:HunterS.
Thompson'sAmerica.
Continuum,2012.
Thompson,HunterS.
FearandLoathinginLasVegas:ASavageJourneytotheHeartoftheAmericanDream.
VintageBooks,1971.
Tynan,Kenneth.
"TheKansasFarmMurders.
"TheCriticalResponsetoTrumanCapote.
EditedbyJosephJ.
WaldmeirandJohnC.
Waldmeir,GreenwoodPress,1999,pp.
129-134.
Voss,RalphF.
TrumanCapoteAndTheLegacyOfInColdBlood.
UofAlabamaP,2011.
Wiegand,William.
"The'Non-Fiction'Novel.
"TheCriticalResponsetoTrumanCapote.
EditedbyJosephJ.
WaldmeirandJohnC.
Waldmeir,GreenwoodPress,1999,pp.
135-41.
100CriterionForumPromptWhatCanPoeDoForYouScottPeeplesCollegeofCharlestonForabout180years,readershaverespondedintenselytothepoetryandfictionofEdgarAllanPoe,experiencingterror,delight,shock,andakindofmelancholicjoy,tonameafewoftheemotionsPoe'sworkinspires.
Butforallthosesensations,doesreadingPoedousanygoodDowelearnanything,or—dareIsayit—becomebetterpeopleforhavingreadhimAsitturnsout,thisisanoldquestion,butonethatstillresonates.
Ina1937AmericanLiteratureessay,forinstance,YvorWintersattackedPoeforbasicallynotdoinganyoneanygood:"[P]oetryisnot,forPoe,arefinedandenrichedtechniqueofmoralcomprehension.
Itcanbeofnoaidetousinunderstandingourselvesorinorderingourlives,formostofourexperienceisirrelevanttoit"(387).
AsforPoe'sfiction,"weseethestory-teller,likethepoet,interestedprimarilyinthecreationofanemotionforitsownsake,notintheunderstandingofanexperience"(396).
PerhapsWinters'humanisticemphasisonmoralcomprehensionasagoalorcriterionforartseemsmerelyquainttoday.
Perhapsit'svalid,buthe'swrongaboutPoe.
Orperhapshe'sright.
102CriterionWintersbasedhiscriticismonPoe'stheoryasmuchashispractice;andindeed,inhistheoreticalwritingPoeobjectedtodidacticisminfavorofeffect—forwhichhewaslaterchampionedby"decadent"artistsfromBaudelairetoLouReed.
Asearlyas1831,borrowingliberallyfromColeridge,Poeposedthatapoem"isopposedtoaworkofsciencebyhaving,foritsimmediateobject,pleasure,nottruth"(11).
AndaslateasDecember1848,lessthanayearbeforehisdeath,hewouldinveighagainst"theheresyofTheDidactic,"themistakenbeliefthat"theultimateobjectofallPoetryisTruth"(75).
Poewaslessinsistentinhisoppositiontodidacticisminfiction,butinhisfamousreviewofHawthorne'sTwice-ToldTales,heofferedaparallelemphasisoneffectandthewriter'scontrolofthereader,thoughhegrantsthat"Truthisoften.
.
.
theaimofthetale"(573).
Truth,perhaps,butnotnecessarilyanethicaltruth:Thesubtitleofthesatirical"NeverBettheDevilYourHead:ATalewithaMoral"(1841)isclearlyironic,asPoe,inthestory'sintroduction,mockscontemporarycriticswhoclaimthathehasneverwrittenamoraltale.
Ofcourse,poetryandfictionneednotdeliveraclearmorallessoninordertoconveyaprofoundunderstandingofhumanbehaviorandourplaceintheworld—inthelanguageofmytitle,todosomethingforus.
Butrelativelylittleliterarycriticisminrecentdecadeshasusedthatkindoflanguage("here'swhatPoehastotellus")orconcerneditselfdirectlywithwhatmightbecalledfundamentalquestions,whichiswhyIwanttoraisethatpossibility,andofferthatinvitation,particularlyinrelationtosuchanunlikelysuspectasPoe.
LetmeofferafewexamplesofcriticswhoIbelievehavesuccessfullyanalyzedPoe'sworkinlightofethicsorfundamentalquestions.
Ina1963essayon"TheMasqueoftheRedDeath,"JosephPatrickRoppoloarguesthattheintruderwhowearsthemaskisnotdeathitselfbutarepresentation(amask)ofdeath.
Therevelersareforcedtoacknowledgewhattheyareattemptingtoevadewhenthemaskedfigureinvadesthecastle:"TheRedDeathisnotapestilence,intheusualsense;itisunfailinglyanduniversallyfatal,asnomerediseaseorplaguecanbe;andbloodisitsguarantee,itsavataranditsseal.
Lifeitself,then,istheRedDeath,theone'affliction'sharedbyallmankind"(140).
PrinceProsperoandhisguestshaveletthefearofdeathgetthebestofthem.
RoppolomaintainsthatwhilePoe's103Winter2017storyisnotdidactic,itdoesteachussomethingaboutlivingwiththeknowledgeofdeath'sinevitability:"WhatPoehascreated,then,isakindofmythicparable,briefandpoetic,ofthehumancondition,ofman'sfate,andofthefateoftheuniverse"(144).
In"PoeandtheUnreadable:'TheBlackCat'and'TheTell-TaleHeart'"(1992),ChristopherBenfeydescribesthetwostories'narratorsasextremeexamplesofatwinnedlongingforanddiscomfortwithintimacy.
InvokingWittgenstein,StanleyCavell,andRilke,Benfeyexploresthephilosophicalproblemoftheunknowabilityofothers'mindsinlightof"TheTell-TaleHeart,"whosenarratorinsiststhathedoespossessthisextremeidentificationwiththeoldman,whomhethenkills.
LikeRoppolo,hereadsthesestoriesascautionarytales:Poeseems.
.
.
tobesaying:Thesefearsarealwayswithus—thefearofloveandthefearofisolation.
Takentoextremes,theybothleadtodisaster:Onecatavoidsusandisblinded,anothercatfollowsusandiskilled.
Tolivelifeistosteeradangerouscoursebetweentheseextremesandthereisnopointatwhichthecurrentwidens.
(43)Morerecently,J.
GeraldKennedyhasdiscussed"Poe'sWaronTerror"invariouslectures,notablyonedeliveredatthe4thInternationalPoeConferencein2015.
ForKennedy,Poe'sfictionoffersguidanceforthetwenty-firstcenturyon"terrormanagement,"despitehisreputationforinstillingterror.
IadmirethescholarsI'vecitedherefortheirabilitytoteasemeaningfromthehorrificeffectsofPoe'staleswithoutreducingthemtothekindofdidacticismPoewouldhaveabhorred.
Butwheredoesonedrawthelinethatseparates"useful,"meaningfulinterpretationfromdidacticismInanessayon"TheBlackCat"andNewHistoricistcriticism,PaulLewisobjectstowhatheseesasthetendencyofmuchlatetwentieth-centurycriticismtoreducePoe'shighlyambiguous,effect-drivenstoriestoargumentsaboutculturalandpoliticalissuesofhistime.
Indeed,muchNewHistoricistcriticismassociatedwithPoe,whilefocusedonthe1830sand1840s,suggestedtruthsaboutrace,gender,andpowerrelationsthattranscendtheconcernsofantebellumAmerica.
AndsuchusesofPoehavebeenseenbymanyscholarsasover-determinedandpreachy.
Again,where,ifatall,doesonedrawtheline104CriterionWeinvitereadersofCriteriontoaddressthisbroadquestioninanynumberofways.
DoesPoe'sworkseriouslyaddressethicalissuesnotspecifictohismomentinhistoryDoesthehistoryofPoecriticismofferanylessonsofitsownonhow(not)to"use"literatureforhumanistpurposesIfreadingssuchasRoppolo'sseemreductivein2016,howdoesworkinformedbymorerecentapproaches—traumatheory,animalstudies—avoidthesametendencyAuthorsmightfocusonspecificPoetextsorexaminelargerissuesofthepurposeofliterarystudywithPoeasanexampleortouchstone.
105Winter2017WorksCitedBenfey,Christopher.
"PoeandtheUnreadable:'TheBlackCat'and'TheTell-TaleHeart.
'"NewEssaysonPoe'sMajorTales.
EditedbyKennethSilverman,CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUP,1993,pp.
27–44.
Kennedy,J.
Gerald.
"WhyPoeMattersNow.
"KeynoteAddress,FourthInternationalEdgarAllanPoeConference,NewYork.
28Feb.
2015.
Lewis,Paul.
"A'Wild'and'Homely'Narrative:ResistingArgumentin'TheBlackCat.
'"PoeStudies,vol.
35,2002,pp.
1–13.
Poe,EdgarAllan.
EssaysandReviews.
EditedbyG.
R.
Thompson.
NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1984.
Roppolo,JosephPatrick.
"Meaningand'TheMasqueoftheRedDeath.
'"TSE:TulaneStudiesinEnglish13(1963):59–69.
ReprintedinPoe:ACollectionofCriticalEssays.
EditedbyRobertRegan,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1967,pp.
134–44.
Winters,Yvor.
"EdgarAllanPoe:ACrisisintheHistoryofAmericanObscurantism.
"AmericanLiterature,vol.
8,no.
4,1937,pp.
379–401.
106CriterionMetempsychosisintheWizardingWorldHannahE.
DegnDeathisbutcrossingtheworld,asfriendsdotheseas;theyliveinoneanotherstill.
Fortheymustneedsbepresent,thatloveandliveinthatwhichisomnipresent.
Inthisdivineglasstheyseefacetoface;andtheirconverseisfree,aswellaspure.
Thisisthecomfortoffriends,thatthoughtheymaybesaidtodie,yettheirfriendshipandsocietyare,inthebestsense,everpresent,becauseimmortal.
—WilliamPenn1EdgarAllanPoeisrenownedforhisshortfiction,whichdelvesintotherealmofterror,horror,andthefantastic.
Inseveralofhistexts,protagonistsgrapplewiththesethemesandtheirrelationshipwithdeathindistinctways.
OnesuchwaythatPoecreateshorrorthroughdeathisthroughanextensionoflifeusingtheprocessofmetempsychosis,therebycreatingterrorforboththeprotagonistsofthetextandthereader.
TheOxfordEnglishDictionarydefinesmetempsychosisas"thesupposedtransmigrationatdeathofthesoulofahumanbeingoranimalintoanewbodyofthesameoradifferentspecies.
"UponstudyingPoeandmetempsychosis,itisclearthattherootoftheterrorthatfascinatesPoeiscreatedbyexploringthehumanisticfearassociatedwithdeath.
J.
K.
Rowlingisanotherauthorwho1OriginallyfoundinFruitsofSolitude(qtd.
inRowling,DeathlyHallowsXI)108Criterionhasexpoundedupontheideaofmetempsychosisanddeath,utilizingbothtoadvancetheplotlinewithinherHarryPotterseries.
Rowlingadvancedtheuseofmetempsychosisincontemporaryliterature,mirroringthehorrificeffectsofPoe'sliteraturethroughthecharacterofLordVoldemort.
Rowlingsuccessfullyengagedanewgenerationintoare-tellingofaclassichorrorstorythatdealswiththeeffectsofthesoulinbothitsmeaningandexistence.
AvoidingDeathAmajorthemethatbothPoeandRowlingdealwithisthedecisionstheircharactersmaketoavoiddeath.
InPoe'sshortstory,"Morella,"thenarrator'sliferevolvesaroundhiswifeandherattempttoextendherlifeupondying.
Theactionshetakestoensurehiswife'ssurvivalharkenbacktothedefinitionsetoutbytheOxfordEnglishDictionaryasthetransferofasoulintoanewbody(Poe,"Morella"233).
Morellaseeminglydies,butnotbeforecreatingavessel—herowndaughter—toactashernewbody,allowinghertocontinuetolive.
Thenarratorexplains,withagrowingsenseofhorror,therealizationthathecomestoabouttheidentityofhisdaughter:Forthathersmilewaslikehermother'sIcouldbear;butthenIshudderedatitstooperfectidentity—thathereyeswerelikeMorella'sIcouldendure;butthentheytoooftenlookeddownintothedepthsofmysoulwithMorella'sownintenseandbewilderingmeaning.
Andinthecontourofthehighforehead,andintheringletsofthesilkenhair,andinthewanfingerswhichburiedthemselvestherein,andinthesadmusicaltonesofherspeech,andaboveall—oh,aboveall—inthephrasesandexpressionsofthedeadonthelipsofthelovedandtheliving,Ifoundfoodforconsumingthoughtandhorror—forawormthatwouldnotdie.
(234)ThisexplanationofthesimilaritiesbetweenMorellathemotherandMorellathedaughtercastdoubtonthedifferencebetweenthetwowomen.
ThenarratorgivesnonoticeofMorella'spregnancyorchildbirth,thusallowingreaderstointerpretthe"birth"asacreationofanotherbodyorbeingthroughsomeothermeans.
Poealsoleavestheendingofthetextambiguous,withthenarratorrememberingthedeathsofbothMorellas;however,tohimtheyareonepersonandnottwoseparatebeings,leavingthereadertointerprettheextentofmetempsychosisatplay(235).
109Winter2017RowlingbuildsuponthelevelofmetempsychosisestablishedbyPoein"Morella"andeffectivelyillustratesthroughouttheHarryPotterseriesthelevelofterroritcancause.
BothMorellaandLordVoldemortactivelylookforwaystocontinuelivingandrefusetoacceptdeathasanabsoluteconcept.
Morella,loathtodie,searchesforawaytoliveon,ultimatelyprophesizinghercontinuedexistence(233).
ThisobsessionwithimmortalityisalsoseeninVoldemort'scharacter,whichRowlingbuildsHarry'sstoryaround,justasPoeexpandsonMorella'simmortalitythroughtheexperiencesofthenarrator.
SimilartoMorella,Voldemort'smethodologyforavoidingdeathisexplainedthroughthesamedefinitionofmetempsychosisinwhichlifecanbeextendedthroughthetransferringofthesoultoanewordifferentbody.
Voldemort'sdominatingcharacteristicishisfearofdeath.
Eventhoughheisthevillainofthestory,withouthisjourneytoovercomemortality,HarryPotterwouldneverhavebeenleftanorphan,andtherewouldbenohero'sjourneyforhimtoembarkon.
Inshort,theideaofmetempsychosisiswhatmovesthestoryalongandallowsJ.
K.
RowlingtointerweavethemesofgoodversusevilinHarry'squesttotrackdownVoldemort'ssplitsoultoultimatelyendthisvillain'slife.
ThefearofdeathdominatestheactionsofLordVoldemortashesearchesforthemeanstoovercomeit.
TheideaoffearorterrorissomethingthatPoegreatlyemphasizesasamotivationforattemptingtoperformactsofmetempsychosiswithinhisshortstories.
ThisattributionandVoldemort'sexperimentationwithmetempsychosismakehimoneofthegreatestliteraryvillainsinthe21stcentury.
Additionally,Rowlingisableto,likePoe,createasenseofterrorincharactersthatinteractwithVoldemortandinherreadersthemselves.
Thissenseofterrorstemsfromtheunknownresultsofthemetempsychosisprocess,Voldemort'smentalconnectionwithHarry,andhisownfearofdeath.
VoldemortandLigeiaPoe'stextsdealwithcharacterswhoarefocusedonextendingtheirlives—nottocontinueliving,butrathertoavoiddying.
In"Ligeia,"theprotagonistnarratorisafraidofhislovedying,sohegoestoextrememeasurestoextendherlife.
Poeisinterestedinthemotivationsbehindextendingone'slife.
In"Ligeia,"themainmotivationthatexistsin110Criterionextendinglifeisadesireloversshareinwantingtobetogether.
Whetheritisbecauseofloveorobsession,thenarratorismotivatedtoexperimentinextendingthelifeofhisonce-livinglover.
Rowlingdarkensthisaspectofmetempsychosisandexploreshowfearingdeathcanmotivateonetotakeextremeactions,exploringthefearofdeathversusthefearoflosingalifethatmanyofPoe'snarratorsstrugglewith.
ReadersareintroducedtoVoldemortasacharacterfromwithinthefirstfewchaptersofHarryPotterandtheSorcerer'sStone,however,itisn'tuntilHarrycomesfacetofacewithhimthatonerecognizesmetempsychosisatplay.
Voldemortisassumedtobedeadthroughoutthebook,butasHarryconfrontsProfessorQuirrell,QuirrellremoveshisturbanrevealinganotherfaceonthebackofhisheadbelongingtononeotherthanLordVoldemort.
ToHarry,Voldemortsays,"SeewhatIhavebecome.
.
.
Mereshadowandvapor.
.
.
IhaveformonlywhenIcanshareanother'sbody.
.
.
buttherehavealwaysbeenthosewillingtoletmeintotheirheartsandminds"(293).
ThispassageexplainsVoldemort'scontinuedexistence.
Eventhoughhisbodyandsoulwereseparated,hewasabletosurvivebyfindinganotherwillingbodytoinhabit.
Thisisaclearinstanceofsuccessfulmetempsychosis,muchliketheinstancethattakesplaceinPoe's"Ligeia.
"ThenarratorinPoe'sstorytakesthereaderthroughhisrelationshipwithLigeia,whopracticedwitchcraftandwhoultimatelydied.
However,thenarratorgoesthroughhisgriefandthenembarksuponhissecondmarriagetoanotherwoman,Rowena.
Shethendiesandthenarratorexpresseshishorroruponhearingherreviveandrealizingthatsheis,infact,notdead.
ThestoryconcludeswiththenarratorrealizingthatwhileRowena'sbodyhascomebacktolife,itisLigeiawhoisactuallypossessingit.
"Andnowslowlyopenedtheeyesofthefigurewhichstoodbeforeme.
'Herethen,atleast,'Ishriekedaloud,'canInever—canIneverbemistaken—thesearethefull,andtheblack,andthewildeyesofmylostlove—oftheladyoftheLADYLIGEIA'"(327).
Thisclearexampleofmetempsychosisreadstwoways.
EitherLigeiahascomeback,successfullyinhabitingthebodyofRowena,orbothwomenendupdead.
Thenarrator'sultimateconfrontationwiththeladyleavesthereaderassumingthatmetempsychosisoccurredsuccessfully,yetitstillallowsforthereadertointerpretanddecidewhetherLadyLigeiacontinuedlivingornot.
Bothreadingssupportanarratorwho111Winter2017isactivelyseekingawaytoprolongthelifeofLigeia.
Poeleavesanambiguousending,whichfurtherdeepensthelevelofterrorcreatedbytheunknownfactoroftheresolutionandsurvivalofLigeiabeingquestioned.
RowlingisabletobuilduponthislevelofmetempsychosisandeffectivelyillustratethroughouttheHarryPotterseriesbyproducingseveralinstancesofmetempsychosisinvolvingVoldemort,andwhileHarrymanagestothwarthimseveraltimes,themetempsychosisprocessisstillsuccessfulinprolongingVoldemort'slife.
TerrorfortheReaderOneofPoe'sprimaryconcernswastheintentbehindthewriting.
Hewasawareoftheimpressionhiswritingwouldhaveonthereaderandintentionallycreatedstoriesrevolvingaroundterrorandhorror.
Inhisessay,"ThePhilosphyofComposition,"Poefocusesontheeffectonthereaderasthemainmotivationforhiswritingprocess;forhim,oneofhisgoalsistohavethereaderexperiencefearthroughhisstoriesandpoetry.
Similarly,Rowlingcreatesafeelingofterrorinthereaderbyshowingthemanycharacters'fearofVoldemort.
Infact,themajorityofWizardsthatyoungHarrycomesintocontactwithrefusetosayhisfullname,referringtohimas"He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named"or"You-Know-Who"(Rowling,TheSorcerer'sStone54).
ThisuseofambiguitydirectedtowardsVoldemortwithinthewizardingworldalertsreaderstothepotentialthreatheposestothestory'sprotagonist.
Whilethepossibilityofanevilsoulcontinuingtosurvivethroughthemetempsychosisprocessisclearlyusedtocreatethisleveloffearamongwizards,HarryhimselfbeginstodevelopapersonalrelationshipwithVoldemortasHarryattemptstocontinuesurvivinginthewizardingworld,afterVoldemortfailstomurderhim(12).
ItisthispersonalrelationshipthatadvancesthetensionoftheplotandallowsRowlingtoeventuallyofferasatisfyingresolutiontoreadersregardingtheterrorandfearVoldemortproduces.
CreatingasuccessfuleffectonthereaderwasoneofPoe'smainpointsincritiquingotherauthors,andthisidealinfluencedhisownwritingsashespecificallyfocusedoncreatingscenariosdealingwithterrorandfeartohaveamorepowerfuleffectonthereader(PoetryFoundation).
ThethemeofobsessionwithanextensionoflifethatdominatesHarryPotterissomethingthatPoealsowroteaboutspecificallyin"TheFacts112CriterionintheCaseofM.
Valdemar,"astorythatfollowsamanwhoremainsalivethroughtheprocessofhypnosis(1230).
HerePoehasstriventoexploreothermeansofimmortalitytoshockandterrifythereaderaboutthedifferentpossibilitiesthatexistregardingsupernaturaldeaths.
ThisconceptlendsitselftoRowling,whosimilarlycreatesahistoryofotherwizardswhoattemptedtoextendtheirlivesthroughunorthodoxmethods,thuslayingthegroundworkallowingVoldemorttomakethemostadvancementsinthisfieldofmagicinawaywhichbothresonateswithandterrifiesreaders.
BothPoeandRowlingutilizethecommonfearofdeathindifferentways,however,bothstrivetocreatethesameeffectofhorrorwithintheirtales.
ThereaderishorrifiedandshockedwithM.
ValdemarandhiseventualdeathsimilarlytothereactionofreaderstoVoldemort'soverarchingfearofdeathandhisattemptstoavoiditatallcosts.
JustwhenthenarratorthinksM.
Valdemarhassucceededinlivingpastdeath,hisbodydissolves,leavingaclearandhorrifyingdeathforthereaderstocometotermswith.
ThissamefeelingofhorrorandterrorisfoundthroughoutHarryPotterasreaderslearnaboutVoldemort'spastandthemurdershecommitsinordertosplithissoulandprolonghislife(Rowling,DeathlyHallows498).
MetempsychosisandtheSoulRowlingallowsforseveraldifferentinstancesofmetempsychosistooccur,creatingoppositionforHarryasVoldemortcontinuestoreturntolifeagainandagain.
InHarryPotterandtheChamberofSecrets,HarryisconfrontedwithaschoolboyversionofLordVoldemortwho,afterpossessingafemalestudent,preparestounleashabasiliskuponHogwarts(312).
ThisbookexudesevenmoreofPoe'sinfluenceasLordVoldemortrevealshisnametobeananagramofTomMarvoloRiddle(314).
Poeutilizesanagramsinhistale"TheLiteraryLifeofThingumBob,Esq.
LateEditorofthe'Goosetherumfoodle'"tomakeadeeperconnectioncreatingadoublingthemebetweenhischaracters(Pollin30).
Theuseofananagramwithinthestorybuildsupasenseofforeshadowingthatgivesthereaderadeepersenseofsatisfactionupontheunveilingoftheanagram.
AfterVoldemortrevealshimselfasTomMarvoloRiddle,HarryultimatelyisabletothwarthisreturnbykillingthebasiliskanddestroyingthejournalthatVoldemort'ssoulwastetheredto(332).
Even113Winter2017thoughHarryisvictorious,onlyapieceofVoldemort'ssoulisdestroyedratherthanhissoulinitsentirety.
RowlingelaboratesonthisconceptandhowitplaysintoVoldemort'sdemiseintheseventhbook,HarryPotterandtheDeathlyHallows.
RowlingusesbookwormcharacterHermionetoexplaintheconceptbehindmetempsychosis,ofwhysoulscansurvivewithoutaperson'sbodybutthattheyneedtobehousedinanotherbodyinordertocontinueexisting.
"'Mypointisthatwhateverhappenstoyourbody,yoursoulwillsurvive,untouched,'saidHermione.
'Butit'stheotherwayroundwithaHorcrux.
Thefragmentofsoulinsideitdependsonitscontainer,itsenchantedbody,forsurvival.
Itcan'texistwithoutit'"(104).
Thisexplanationofasoul'ssurvivalworkswithPoe'sinterpretationofmetempsychosiswithinhisstory"Morella.
"In"Morella,"thereisatransferofasoulintoanewbodyorvessel.
Thenarrator'swife,Morella,dies,butleavesbehindadaughter.
However,Poeleavesthisopentointerpretationastowhetherornotitisherdaughterthroughnaturalbirth,orifitisavesselthatMorellaisthenabletocomebacklaterandpossess,therebyrestoringhertolifeashersoulexitsfromonebodyandintoanother.
Morella'shusbandiswithherassheuttersherlastwords,ultimatelyprophesyinghercontinuedlivingstate.
"Ikissedherforehead,andshecontinued:'Iamdying,yetshallIlive.
''Morella!
'Thedayshaveneverbeenwhenthoucouldstloveme—butherwhominlifethoudidstabhor,indeaththoushaltadore"(226).
Theprophecyoflifeindicatesthattheextensionoflifeisn'tonebyaccidentbutapurposefulincidentofmetempsychosis.
AnotherimportantelementtothetheoryofmetempsychosisthatVoldemortengagesinisthetransferofhissoulintothatofalivinganimal.
ItisclearthroughouttheseriesthatVoldemortandhissnake,Nagini,shareanunusuallyclosebond(GobletofFire13).
ThisbondgeneratesfromthefactthatsheisalsooneofhisHorcruxes(Rowling,DeathlyHallows647).
Rowlingwritesthatthetransferofpartofthesoulintoanotherlivingthing,likeananimal,isincrediblyunstable.
TheinstabilityenablesHarrytodefeatVoldemortonceandforallwhichbringstolightthequestionofwhetherornotmetempsychosiswasinactualitysuccessful.
WhileitpermittedVoldemorttoliveanother17yearsfromhisoriginaldeathdate,hewasstillrenderedincapableoflivingforever.
Here,RowlingdiffersfromPoe,wholeaveshisconclusionsfullofambiguityinfavorofapreciseconclusionwhereherprotagonistcangainclosureandthereadercanfullyinterpretwhathastakenplace.
114CriterionTheDoubleinRowlingandPoeTheconnectionthatHarryandVoldemortsharespeakstoPoe'sinfluenceregardingtheterrorthatdevelopsishistextsrevolvingaroundthesplittingofthesoul,resultinginathemeofdoubling.
TheideaofthedoubleismoststronglydevelopedinPoe'stale,"WilliamWilson.
"Thestoryrevolvesaroundthenarrator,whocallshimselfWilliamWilson,andhisperceivedstrugglewithhisconnectedfoe,whosharesthesamenameofWilliamWilson.
Thenarrator'sstruggleissimilartoHarry'sastheybothdealwiththesharingofamindwithanother:HarrywithLordVoldemort,andthenarratorwithWilliamWilson.
WhilePoe'staleleavesthetrueidentityofthedoubleambiguous,RowlingbuildsontheconnectionbetweendoublestodeepentheconflictbetweenHarryandVoldemort.
ThethemeofthedoubleismostprevalentinthefifthinstallmentoftheserieswhenHarryrecognizesthetraitsheandVoldemortshareinadditiontothemindconnectiontheyhave.
Thesenseofterrorthenarratorexperiencesmeetinghisdouble,WilliamWilson,throughouthislifeiswhatHarrygoesthroughwhenhediscoversthementalconnectionwithVoldemort.
Upontheconclusionof"WilliamWilson,"Poeeffectivelyillustratesthepossibilityofkillingapartofone'ssoul,however,thisacthasirrevocableconsequencesandaltersthenarrator'scoreidentity(447-448).
Similartothenarrator,Voldemortsuccessfullykillsapartofhimselfinordertocreatehisnew"body.
"Ultimately,thisstrengthensthedoubleconnectionthatHarryandVoldemortshare,deepeningthebondthoughblood.
HarrydiscoverstheconnectionhighlightingthedoublingelementthatexistsbetweenhisandVoldemort'slives(TheGobletofFire642).
SimilartoWilliamWilson,VoldemortisterrifiedofHarrybecauseofthesimilaritiesbetweenthemandHarry's"destiny"toonedayendVoldemort'slife.
Additionally,Harry,likethenarratorinWilliamWilson,eventuallyneedstokilloffthesharedsoulbetweenhimandVoldemort.
UnlikeWilliamWilsonthough,Harrysurvivestheencounterandisabletowalkawayunscathed,whilethenarratorstrugglestomovepasthisdecisiontokilloffapartofhimself.
TheoriginofthedoubleinHarryPotterisfoundinVoldemort'srelationshipwithmetempsychosisandthesuccesshefindsenablinghimtocontinueliving.
RowlingbeginstoelaboratemoreonVoldemort'slifeandthewayhecametosuccessfullymanagemetempsychosisinHarryPotterandTheHalf-BloodPrince.
HereRowlingintroduces115Winter2017Horcruxesasameanstoaccomplishmetempsychosis.
InPoe's"Ligeia"inorderformetempsychosistooccur,anotherneededtodie,sothatthesoulcouldliveon.
Similarly,inorderforLordVoldemorttosplithissoul,heneededtocommitmurdereachtime(DeathlyHallows104).
TerrorisamplifiedbytheaddednumberofHorcruxesVoldemortcreated,deepeningthefearofmetempsychosisduetoitsconnectiontomurderandimmortality.
ConclusionThethemeofterrorpermeatesbothPoe'sandRowling'sfiction,eventhoughRowlingstrivestocounterbalancethiswithstrongthemesofloveandfriendshipthatbringtheothercharacterstogether.
WhileloveexistsinPoe'stexts—specificallybetweenLigeiaandthenarrator,hismainfocusisthethemeofdeathandterror.
Poe'sfascinationwithdeathisevidentinthetreatmentofitinhistexts.
Hepushestheboundariesbetweenrealityandtruthbywritingaboutmetempsychosisandtheextendedlifeitenables.
Poeutilizesmetempsychosisasasupernaturalelementallowinghimtochangethereader'sexpectationswhenitcametothenotionof"death,"whileRowlingcreatesaliteraryworldinwhichmetempsychosisoccurs,utilizingitasaliterarydevicethatdevelopsandadvancesherprotagonist,HarryPotter,onhishero'sjourney.
ThefundamentalityofmetempsychosisinboththeworksofPoeandRowlinggivesfurthercredittoPoeandhisunderstandingofwhatprocessescouldeffectivelyproduceterrorinthereader.
Rowlingcertainlyadvancestheideaofmetempsychosisthroughoutherstoryandutilizesitasatooltocreateconflictandadrivingneedforloveandacceptanceofdeath.
Theterrorsurroundingdeaththatshepreysontocreateherstorycomesintoconflictwiththeidealisticviewoflivingforever,whichRowlingprovescanalsobesomethingterrifying.
BothRowlingandPoeplaywithdifferentexpectationsandunderstandingsregardingdeath.
WhilePoefailstoofferaresolutiontoappeasereadersofthisfear,Rowlingdoesexactlythatwiththeover-archingthemeofloveallowinggoodtotriumphoverevil.
Ratherthantakeawayfromthemetempsychosiswithinthestory,itre-iteratesitsfundamentalroleintheplot,allowingRowlingtoorchestrateconflictandthenresolveitthroughHarry'suniqueperspectiveandunderstandingofdeath.
116CriterionWorksCited"EdgarAllanPoe.
"PoetryFoundation,www.
poetryfoundation.
org/poems-and-poets/poets/detail/edgar-allan-poe.
Accessed8Mar.
2017.
Fowler,H.
W.
,et.
al.
"Metempsychosis.
"TheConciseOxfordDictionaryofCurrentEnglish.
OxfordClarendonPress,1964.
Joshi,S.
T.
"Poe,Lovecraft,andtheRevolutioninWeirdFiction.
"EdgarAllanPoeSocietyofBaltimore,2012.
01Dec.
2016.
McEntee,Grace.
"RememberingLigeia.
"StudiesinAmericanFiction,vol.
20,no.
1,1992,pp.
75.
ProQuest,doi:10.
1353/saf.
1992.
0006.
Poe,EdgarAllan.
"TheFactsintheCaseofM.
Valdemar.
"CollectedWorksofEdgarAllanPoe.
EditedbyThomasOliverMabbott,vol.
2,BelknapPressofHarvardUP,1969,pp.
1228-44.
---.
"Ligeia.
"CollectedWorksofEdgarAllanPoe.
EditedbyThomasOliverMabbott,vol.
2,BelknapPressofHarvardUP,1969,pp.
305-334.
---.
"Morella.
"CollectedWorksofEdgarAllanPoe.
EditedbyThomasOliverMabbott,BelknapPressofHarvardUP,1969,pp.
221-37.
---.
"ThePhilosophyofComposition.
"TheEdgarAllanPoeSocietyofBaltimore,www.
eapoe.
org/works/essays/philcomp.
htm.
---.
"WilliamWilson.
"CollectedWorksofEdgarAllanPoe.
EditedbyThomasOliverMabbott,BelknapPressofHarvardUP,1969,pp.
422-451.
Pollin,BurtonR.
"Poe'sLiteraryUseof'Oppodeldoc'andOtherPatentMedicines.
"TheEdgarAllanPoeSocietyofBaltimore,www.
eapoe.
org/pstudies/ps1970/p1971205.
htm.
Rowling,J.
K.
HarryPotterandtheSorcerer'sStone.
Scholastic,1998.
---.
HarryPotterandtheChamberofSecrets.
Scholastic,1999.
---.
HarryPotterandtheGobletofFire.
Scholastic,2002.
---.
HarryPotterandtheOrderofthePhoenix.
Scholastic,2003.
---.
HarryPotterandtheHalf-BloodPrince.
Scholastic,2005.
---.
HarryPotterandtheDeathlyHallows.
Scholastic,2007.
DevelopingaFeministPedagogyALookatIntersectionalityTheoryandPoe'sWomenRileyHaackeThediscussionofpedagogyhasrecentlybeenattheforefrontofPoecriticism,raisingthequestion:howshouldweteachPoeInthefaceofsuchaquestion,anotherbegstobeaskedinreturn:whyshouldweteachPoeAmericanauthor,feminist,andsocialactivistbellhookssaidthatstudentsofliteratureoftensuffer"fromacrisisofmeaning,unsureaboutwhathasvalueinlife"(qtd.
inBracher76).
Similarly,literarycriticMarkBracherstatedthat"[Students]comewithimplicit(andsometimesexplicit)questionssuchas:.
.
.
howcanIasanindividual,orweasagroupreduceoursufferinganddestructiveness"(128).
Inresponsetosuchexistentialinquiry,literarypedagogiesareseekingtoaddressthesocialissuesthatplagueoursocietytodayinanattempttohelpformulateavalue-basededucation.
InthewordsofJacquelineGlasgow:"Howarewetonurturetheprizingdifferencesinrace,ethnicity,class,gender,sexualorientation,andlanguageWemustcreateforstudentsdemocraticandcriticalspacesthatfostermeaningfulandtransformativelearning"(54).
Withintheclassroom,literatureprovidestheopportunityandthecontextforexploringtoday'scriticalissues.
Therearecopiousliterarydiscourses118CriterionconcerningPoeandhisrepresentationsofrace,mentalhealth,andphilosophy(MagistraleandWeinstock).
However,despitetherecentsurgeofpopularityregardingfeministcriticism,therehasbeenlittletonodiscussiononhowtoteachPoe'sfemalecharacters.
ConsideringPoe'spervasivenessonaglobalscale,thewayweteachPoecanhaveaprofoundimpactonhowwetalkaboutgender.
AnintersectionallookatPoe'srepresentationsofwomenandfemininitylaysasolidfoundationforafeministpedagogy.
Byprovidingamoreholisticunderstandingofgenderandvictimization,ourliterarystudiesaremoreapttoaddressthesocialquestionsofwho,why,andhowwomenaretreatedandvictimized.
TheinfluenceofEdgarAllanPoeandhisliteraryworkspermeatesmanydiversefacetsofoursociety,andPoemaintainsaglobalpresenceinpopularcultureandliterarystudiestoday.
Therefore,bydevelopingafeministpedagogyonPoethatemphasizesthediversityandindividualityofwomenandtheiroppression,wecanbegintocultivateasocietythatdeviatesfromaninquiryfixatingsolelyonthewhatandbeginstoexplicatethewhy.
Intersectionalitytheory,theideathatsocialidentitiesoverlapandintersectwithoneanothertoformsystemsofoppression,discrimination,anddomination,firstemergedinthe1980swiththeintentionofcombatinggenderedandracialdiscriminationaswellasotherformsofsocialoppression.
Sinceitsorigin,ithasbeenacknowledgedasa"leadingfeministparadigm"(Nash3).
Thetheoryseekstoaddressthevariationanddiversityofvictimsandresiststhereadingofauniversalvictimor,inthisinstance,auniversalwoman.
Instead,"theintersectionalprojectcenterstheexperiencesofsubjectswhosevoiceshavebeenignored"(2).
Intersectionalityhighlightstheindividualandhisorheruniquecircumstancesasopposedtoassertingarepresentationalandfacelessvictimofhegemonicpatriarchyormonoculture.
Althoughthetheorydoesnotproposeaspecificwayofapproachinganintersectionalinterpretation,thebasicpremiseholdsthatcriticscannotrelyonassumptionsorblanketinterpretations.
Instead,criticsneedtoactivelyacknowledgetherealityofintersectingsocialidentitiesandtheirrelationshiptooppression,whichrequiresassessingindividualcasesofoppressionanddiscrimination.
119Winter2017Poestudies,inallitsgenderedcomplexity,offersaprimeopportunityforestablishinganintersectionalfeministpedagogy.
Historically,feministcriticismonPoeisriddledwithcontradictions.
However,thesecontradictionsandvaryingperspectivesilluminatethecomplexityanddiversityofPoe'swomen,complementinganintersectionallookatprimaryPoesources.
TherichdiversityinandoutofPoe'sliteraryworksprovidesamoreholisticunderstandingofwomen'sissuesinPoe'seraandhighlightshowweunderstandthosesameissuestoday.
Nevertheless,whiletherehasbeenaplethoraoffeministscholarshiponPoe,criticshavefocusedtheirattentiononexplicatingPoe'sattitudetowardswomen.
Insteadoftryingtounderstandtheroleofwomenwithinthetext,criticshavebeenoverlyconcernedwithunravelingthemysteryofPoehimselfandhisrelationshiptowomen.
Scholarshavelinkedhistumultuoushistorywiththewomeninhislifetothedeadwomeninhistextsandlabeledhimamisogynist.
However,inrecentyearsscholarshavearguedthatsuchareadinghasundergonea"politicalrevolution.
"Inessence,afterdecadesofcriticsviewingPoeasamisogynist,Poehasjoined"thevanguardofmalefeminists"(qtd.
inKot388).
ScholarsclaimthatthecharactersofMorella,Ligeia,andMadelineUsherexemplifyfemininestrengthandprowessinthefaceofthepatriarchy.
However,itmaybemorebeneficialsimplytolookatPoefeministcriticismasawholeinsteadoftryingtoidentifyasingleargumentaseithertrueorfalse.
Thecontradictingschoolsofcriticismreflectthecomplexityofthecharactersthemselvesandcanthereforeserveasaspringboardforafeministpedagogy:becausePoeisseenasbothafeministandamisogynist,thetwoschoolsofthoughtallowforampleopportunitytoengageinavalues-baseddiscussionconcerninghowweviewvictimizationandhowweperpetuateitinoursociety.
HistoricalfeministcriticismlacksanexpansivelookonPoe'streatmentofwomenbeyondlabelingthemasdeadandbeautifulvictims.
Rather,ithasbeenovershadowedbyPoe'sownassertionsmadein"ThePhilosophyofComposition":thatthemostpoetictopicintheworldisthedeathofabeautifulwoman.
Thecriticism,ingeneral,maintainsthisbroadexplanationregardlessoftheextensivevariationofPoe'sfemalecharacters.
"Poethefeminist"and"Poethemisogynist"arebothworthwhilearguments,andjustasscholarshiphasseentherevolutionofPoefrommisogynisttofeminist,itmayyetexpanditsopen-mindedness120CriterionfurthertoembracetheintersectionalityofPoe.
Thisperspectiveresistsasinglereadingortruth,butratherexploresthecomplexityanddiversityofeachtext.
AnintersectionalperspectiveonPoe'swomencanfillthegapwithinfeministcriticismandcanpotentiallyhelpcultivateaneededpedagogythatfocusesonwhywomenaretreatedastheyareinthetextsasopposedtomerelywhatisharmingthem.
ThereisagreatdealofdiversityinPoe'sfemalefigures–characterswhichtypicallyfallunderthegeneraltitleof"thedeadbeautifulwoman.
"However,acceptingsuchabroadinterpretationhindersourconversationsaboutgenderandgenderrelations.
IncongruencewithidentifyingheuristicelementsinPoe'swritings,alookatPoe'sintersectionalityrevealsthevariousdrivinginfluencesbehindinstitutionalizedsexism.
While"womenoftenexperiencehorribledeathsinEdgarAllanPoe'stales"from"prematureburial,mutilation,poisoning,[and]psychiccannibalization,"criticsrarelylookforanexplanationbeyondPoe'sneedformelancholiceffect(Kot388).
Nevertheless,therangeofattitudesexpressedbythemaleprotagonisttothewomanismuchmorevaried.
Forexample,Morellaisdespisedforhermind,Ligeiaforherpower.
Thewifein"TheOvalPortrait"iskilledforherbeauty,Mariein"TheMysteryofMarieRogêt"forgettingpregnant,BerniceandMadelineUsherfortheirweaknessandfrailty.
In"TheBlackCat,"thewifeisseenasmerecollateral.
Bylumpingallthedistinctfemalecharactersintothecategoriesof"woman"and"victim,"welosetheopportunitytoengageinadiscussionofgenderrelations.
ThereisanapparentrichnessanddiversityintheinteractionsbetweenthemasculineandthefemininecharacterswhichhasbeenlargelyignoredthroughoutPoestudies.
ApedagogythatemphasizesthevariouscircumstancesPoe'swomenfacecaninfluencethewayweteachgenderbychangingtheconversationswehaveaboutvictimsandtheirstrugglewithsilenceandoppression.
WhiletherearemanyexamplesoffemaleoppressionthroughoutPoe'stales,"TheMysteryofMarieRogêt"isparticularlyinterestingintermsofdevelopingafeministpedagogy.
BecausethetalemirrorsthetruestoryofMaryRogers,awomanwhodiedfromabotchedabortion,ittestifiestotheapplicabilityofvalue-basedliterarystudies.
Theill-performedabortionin"MarieRogêt"reflectssociety'sdisdainforfemalepromiscuity;MissRogêtfeelscompelledtoriskherlifegettinganabortionasopposedtobearingthechildalongwiththeassociatedsocial121Winter2017consequences.
Thisparticulartaleisusefultoaconversationcenteredonpedagogybecauseitaccuratelymirrorsreality,boththenandnow.
Today,60,000womendiefromunsafeabortionseachyear(Haddad1).
Dialogueaboutsexualabuseandrapecontinuallyplaceswomenatblameforsexualviolencethroughphrasessuchas"shewasaskingforit,""shelookedolder,"and"sheshouldn'thavebeenwearingthat,"whichhavebecomecommonplaceinourvernacular.
LikeMarieRogêt,thewomenoftodayfacethebruntofsocietalattitudesaboutsexualpromiscuitythroughmisplacedjudgementandblame.
Theattitudesthatdrovewomeninthe1800stowardabortion,theshameandfearofbeingostracizedandalienatedfromtheircommunities,reflectsimilaroppressiveattitudesthatplaguewomentoday.
Whenaskedwhytheychoseabortionoverhavingababy,manywomenfeltthathavingchildrenwouldbarthemfromparticipatingintheworkforceorschool.
Perhapsmorepoignantly,youngerwomenfeltpressuredbytheirparentstohaveanabortionorfearedthatsomeonewoulddiscoverthattheyhadsex(Torres169).
DespitethetimedifferencebetweenPoeandthepresent,therearesimilarsocialpressuresthatdrivetheformsofoppressionfemalesexperiencetoday.
OtherPoestoriesthatarenotbasedontrueaccountshavethesamecapacityformodern-dayapplication.
Stigma,stereotypes,power,andobjectificationarecommonfactorsbehindthedeathsofcertainwomen.
Whiletheactualviolenceoccursbecausetheyarewomen,howeachwomanistreateddependsonothersocialconditionsandcircumstances.
MadelineUsherandBerenicebothexperienceprematureburialafterbeingostracizedbyafamilymemberduetotheirfailinghealth.
EgaeusbecomesfixatedonBerenice'sdecayingteeth,designatingthem"theteeth"andnot"herteeth,"thusobjectifyingBereniceasanillnessandstrippingawayherhumanity.
Similarly,RoderickUsherisfilledwithdreadwhenMadelinecomesnearhim.
Anyfeelingofremorseorsympathyforhissisterisnowovershadowedbyafearofcontaminationanddisease.
MadelineandBerenicearethusdefinedbytheirillnesses.
Theyarerepresentedasobjectstobeacteduponratherthanpeoplewhoact.
Nevertheless,theirdeathscontrastwiththedeathofMorellaandthewifein"TheBlackCat"whoserelationshipswiththeirhusbandsrevealmoreabouttheirdeathsthantheirphysicalhealthdoes.
In"Morella"thenarratorremarks,"Indeedthetimehadarrivedwhenmywife'ssocietyoppressedmelikeaspell…shallIthensaythatIlongedwithanearnest122CriterionandconsumingdesireforthemomentofMorella'sdecease"(Poe2:227).
In"TheBlackCat"thenarratorhasagreaterregardforthecat,Pluto,thanforhiswife:"Isufferedmyselftouseintemperatelanguagetomywife.
Atlength,Ievenofferedherpersonalviolence…forPluto,however,Istillretainedsufficientregardtorestrainmefrommaltreatinghim"(Poe1:851).
Andalthough,asreaders,weknowthatheeventuallykillsPluto,wealsoknowthathemurdershiswifeduringhissecondattemptonPluto'slifeandconsidershiswifeamere"interference"(1:856).
However,Poe'swomenarenotvictimsofviolenceonly.
WhilethemesofviolencedopermeatemanyofPoe'sworksinregardtowomen,womenalsoexperiencesocialandpsychologicalharm.
"Morella,""Ligeia,"and"TheRoyalLady"exemplifytheinequalityofpowerdynamicsbetweenmenandwomen.
Poe'scharacterTrippetta,from"Hop-Frog,"facesdiscriminationthatgoesbeyondsexasPoecritiquescastedistinctionsaswell.
Similarly,Poe'spoems"AnnabelLee"and"TheRaven"aswellashispoeticdefense"ThePhilosophyofComposition"donotharmwomenwithinthetextsthemselvesbutreflecttheunattainablestandardimposedonwomenbythenarrator'sfixatingonthedeadobjectoftheiraffection.
Themeninthesepoemsplacethefeminineidealonapedestal,resultinginobsessionandinfatuation.
ThewomenpresentacrossPoe'sliteraryworksrepresentafallfromthemalegazepedestal;womenwhoexperiencesickness,ambition,pregnancy,orbeautyareroutinelykilledfornotlivinguptotheideal,andthereasonsforthatviolencearejustastellingastheviolenceitself.
Astudyontheintersectingsocialidentitiesoffemalecharacterswouldrevealtheintricacyofmale-on-femaleoppressionwhichextendspastphysicalharm,anareathathasroutinelybeeneclipsedbythepresenceoffatalviolence.
AcomparativeanalysisoftheindividualrepresentationsofPoe'sfemininecharactersrevealsthedepthofsexismthatmovesbeyondbiology.
CynthiaS.
JordanarguesthatthroughoutPoe'scareerhesoughttorecoverthe"secondstory;"she"pinpointsthreephasesofPoe'scareerrangingfromthetalesthat'bearwomen'snames'tothelatertalesofdetectionthroughwhichPoeworkedtowardafictionalformthatwouldallowhimto'rejectone-sidedmale-authoredfictions'"(qtdinKot394).
PoecriticsthusrecognizeanevolutioninPoe'sstoriesfromobjectifyingwomentoempoweringthem.
However,itisthisverybreadthofrepresentationthatinspiresanintersectionalfeministpedagogy.
AfeministstudyofPoecan123Winter2017inspireconversationaboutgenderrelationsandteachstudentsaboutthevariousformsoffemaleoppressionaswellasfemalestrength.
InPoestudies,thefemalecharactersdonothavetobereducedtoPoe'sownlimitinginterpretationofthedeadandthebeautiful,butrathertheycanbeusedtounderstandandexplicatethefemale'sroleinthepast,thepresent,andthefuture.
WhilethereisanobvioushistoricaldividebetweenthecontextofPoe'sstoriesandthepresent,women'sissuescontinuetobeprevalentandtheinfluencesthatperpetuateviolenceagainstwomenremaintoday.
AlthoughPoe'sstoriesareareflectionofhistime,theyalsoserveasahistoryofthepresent.
Duringtheyearsof2001and2012,anestimated11,766Americanwomenwerekilledbyadomesticpartner–-twicethenumberofAmericanwarcasualtiesduringthesameperiod(Vagianos).
Anestimated20millionAmericanwomensufferfromeatingdisordersbecauseofbodydysmorphiaandunrealisticstandardsofbeauty--standardswhicharecommonlyrepresentedinart(ANAD).
Womencontinuetobevastlyunderrepresentedinstategovernments--todate,therehaveonlybeenfiftyfemaleheadsofstate.
Womendieinchildbirthwhileothersrisktheirlivesabortingtheirbabies.
Inessence,theconversationswecanhaveaboutPoeandwomencaninfluencetheconversationsweneedtohaveaboutwomen,adiscoursethatattemptstoexplicatethevariousformsofvictimizationinsteadofgroupingthemunderasinglegenerictitle.
Therefore,Poestudiescanstarttoaddressvaluesthatarecriticaltooursocialconversationstoday.
Concerningavalue-basededucationmodel,R.
S.
Petersstated:Educationimpliesthatsomethingworthwhilehasbeenintentionallytransmittedinamorallyacceptablemanner.
Itwouldbealogicalcon-tradictiontosaythatamanhadbeeneducatedbutthathehadinnowaychangedforthebetter,orthatineducatinghissonamanwasat-temptingnothingthatwasworthwhile.
(qtd.
inCarbone25)Establishingavalue-basededucationisoftconsideredacontroversialsubject,threateningthebalancebetweenneutralityandethics.
Nevertheless,afeministpedagogythatteachesanintersectionalperspectiveofPoe'swomenandthecriticismofthesewomenwouldnot124Criterionattempttoasserttruthbutrathertoextendtheconversationbeyondthebroadgenericanswers.
ItwouldcultivatecriticalthinkingaboutanissuethatremainsjustasprevalentasocialissuenowasitwasinPoe'sday.
Afeministpedagogyhasthepotentialtotranscendnotonlytime,butgeographicaldistanceaswell.
AstudyconductedbyMargaretLeeZoredainMexicofoundthatwhennon-Englishmajorsweresurveyed,EdgarAllanPoewasthe3rdmostpopularauthortobereadamongthatdemographic.
In"TeachingPoeasPopularCultureinMexico,"ZoredaexplainshowsheusedthepopularityofPoetoherbenefittoteachaliterarycoursecenteredonvalues.
EdgarAllanPoehasfurtherdemonstratedaglobalinfluence—Akutagawa,Baudelaire,andMachadodeAssisareforeignexamplesofhowPoeandhistreatmentofwomenhaveinfluencedvariousliterarytraditionsbeyondAmerica.
Poe'sglobalpopularitypresentstheneedforestablishingafeministpedagogybecauseitrequiresanalterationofanalreadyacceptedliterarydiscipline.
PeoplearoundtheworldarealreadyreadingPoe.
AndalthoughZoreda'scoursewasdesignedtoteachEnglishlanguageskills,itutilizedPoe'spre-existingpopularityinMexicotobenefitthestudentsbeyondtheintentofthetext.
Therefore,byappropriatingaliterarytraditionthatalreadyhastheinfluenceandthepopularitythatPoedoes,wecanestablishavalue-basedpedagogythathasthepotentialtomakeadifference.
ByfinallygivingavoicetoPoe'swomen,wecanbepreparedtoprovidestudentswithacriticalopportunitytotalkaboutwhygenderissuesmatter.
Womendonotholdamonopolyonoppression,butmendoexemplifyamonopolyonvoice—"malesinthesetalesapplytheirownexperiencestoexplainthecrimesagainstwomen"(Kot395).
Thewomenthroughoutthetalesaredeniedavoiceasthemenclaimeachfemalevoiceinadditiontotheirown.
ByrespectingeachwomaninPoe'stalesasautonomousandunique—byrespectingtheintersectionalityofPoe'sfemalecharacters—conversationsaboutPoe'swomencanshiftfrombeingaboutwhatwomenaretowhytheyaretreatedastheyare.
Therefore,developingafeministpedagogyforPoestudiescouldbeinstrumentalinaddressingpresent-dayinequalityanddiscrimination.
BytappingintoPoe'suniversalpopularityandhisbreadthofdiversefemalecharacters,wecanbegintoaltertheconversationswehaveabouttheliteraturewereadaswellasthecriticalconversationswehaveaboutourownrealities.
125Winter2017WorksCited"AboutEatingDisorders.
"ANAD,6Dec.
2016,www.
anad.
org/get-information/about-eating-disorders/eating-disorders-statistics/Bracher,Mark.
"Transference,Desire,andtheEthicsofLiteraryPedagogy.
"CollegeLiterature,vol26,no.
3,1999,pp.
127-46.
Carbone,PeterF.
"PerspectivesonValuesEducation.
"TheClearingHouse,vol.
64,no.
5,1991,pp.
290–292.
JSTOR,www.
jstor.
org/stable/30188619Glasgow,JacquelineN.
"TeachingSocialJusticethroughYoungAdultLiterature.
"TheEnglishJournal,vol.
90,no.
6,2001,pp.
54–61.
JSTOR,www.
jstor.
org/stable/822056.
Haddad,LisaB,andNawalMNour.
"UnsafeAbortion:UnnecessaryMaternalMortality.
"ReviewsinObstetricsandGynecology,vol.
2,no.
2,2009,pp.
122–26,www.
ncbi.
nlm.
nih.
gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709326.
Kot,Paula.
"Feminist'Re-Visioning'oftheTalesofWomen.
"ACompaniontoPoeStudies.
EditedbyEricW.
Carlson,GreenwoodPublishingGroup,1996,pp.
388-402.
Nash,JenniferC.
"Re-thinkingIntersectionality.
"FeministReview,vol.
89,no.
1,2008,pp.
1-15,www.
jstor.
org/stable/40663957.
Poe,EdgarAllan.
TalesandSketches,vol.
1:1831-1842.
EditedbyThomasOlliveMabbott,UniversityofIllinoisPress,2000.
Poe,EdgarAllan.
TalesandSketches,vol.
2:1843-1849.
EditedbyThomasOlliveMabbott,UniversityofIllinoisPress,2000.
Torres,Aida,andJacquelineDarrochForrest.
"WhyDoWomenHaveAbortions"FamilyPlanningPerspectives,vol.
20,no.
4,1988,pp.
169–176.
JSTOR,www.
jstor.
org/stable/2135792.
Vagianos,Alanna.
"30ShockingDomesticViolenceStatisticsthatRemindUsit'sanEpidemic.
"HuffingtonPost,23Oct.
2014,www.
huffingtonpost.
com/2014/10/23/domestic-violence-statistics_n_5959776.
html.
Weinstock,JeffreyAndrew,andTonyMagistrale.
ApproachesToTeachingPoe'sProseandPoetry,vol.
104,ModernLanguageAssnofAmer,2008.
Zoreda,MargaretLee.
"TeachingPoeasPopularCultureinMexico.
"AmericanPopularCulture:HistoricalandPedagogicalPerspectives,EditedbySeymourLeventman,CambridgeScholarsPublishing,2008.
126CriterionPoe'sGothicSoulin"Metzengerstein"AnInvitationtoLookInsideElizabethPeekEdgarAllanPoedidnotspeakGerman.
Hewasfluent,however,intheliterarystyleofGermangothicism.
ThisproficiencyisevidentinPoe'searliestshortstory,"Metzengerstein:ATaleinImitationoftheGerman.
"Thesesilver-tonguedarticulationsofthegothicsoulcausedmanyGermanreaderstowonderifPoewas,infact,aGermanspeaker.
Globally,criticsspottedadistinctivelyGermansortofdarknessandgloomthroughoutPoe'swriting.
Though,uponaccusationofthisso-called"Germanism,"Poeflinched.
HeresistedtheideathathisbrandofterrorwasuniquelygothicorderivedfromanyGermantradition.
Iarguethatthisresistanceresemblesapainter'swhenthepainterisaskedifanartworkisaself-portrait;Poe'sardentdenialstemsfromtheautobiographicalnatureof"Metzengerstein.
"Althoughthestorydoesnotmanifestasanautobiographyintheclassicalsense,itreadsasanartifactofPoe'sverysoul—aself-destructive,vagrantsoul.
"Metzengerstein"isthereforenotan"ImitationoftheGerman,"butanoriginaldisplayofintrinsicGermangothicismandanenduringinvitationforauthorstoreachinsideandwrite—honestlywrite—aboutwhattheyfind.
128CriterionAlthoughhewasneverknowntosetfootonGermansoil,EdgarAllanPoemanagedtocraftaloftypresencethere.
Echoingaromantictradition,Poe'sworkflourishedbywayofartisticliterature,asopposedtothepopulareducationalwritingsinGermanyduringthe19thcentury.
RatherthancreateaffinitiessemanticallyortotheGermanlanguageitself,Poe'swritingfindsaplaceinGermanideologyandstyle.
Themesofromanticism,gothicism,andGermanismarecertaininPoe'swork.
"Metzengerstein,"inparticular,canbediagnosedwitheverysymptomofgothicfiction:itisbasedintheMiddleAges,revelingintheterrifyingsideofthehumansoul,allwhilefeaturingclassicalgothicelementsofroyalty,specters,andrevenge.
WhenreadingPoe'sworks,thereaderis"hauntedcontinuallybyechoesandreminiscencesoftheGermanRomanticists,"alsoknownas"Gothics"(Gruener2).
OnebeginstowonderifthesesimilaritiescamefromPoe'sstudyoftheoriginals,wereunintentionallyabsorbedfromtheliteraryatmosphereoftheperiod,orwereinnatelyPoe.
ItshouldalsobenotedthatwhileGermanymaynothaveinformedPoe'swritingstyle,PoegreatlyinformedGermanwriters.
PoeembodiedGermanromanticism,andinturn,Germansdevouredhiswork.
Poegarneredbothpopularandelitistattention,attractingtheinterestofdiversegothicwriterssuchas"RainerMariaRilke,WalterBenjamin,andErnstJunger"(Forclaz,"PoeinEurope").
AccordingtooneGermanauthor,Germansare"Poe'scompatriotsbybirth,"andPoehasbecomeanintegralpartof"Germaneducationandcivilization"inthestudyofgothicliterature(Schaumann).
PoeislaudedinGermany—inthisparticularway—becausethegothic"schoolofGermanletters"hadunknowinglypreparedforhisreception(Schaumann).
Poe,ayoungandtroubledAmerican,wasinadvertentlywritingandlivingforanentireculture,acrosstheworld.
GermansnotonlyrelishPoe'screations,buttheyalsohonorhistragicbackground.
Poe'swritingisseenasmoreauthenticandmorevaluable,asitisnottheonlythingabouthimthatemitsastenchofterrorandthefantastic—Poe'slifedidaswell.
Poe'sownclassical"fallenhero"personaislikeabeaconoftruthtomanyGermanreaders(Schaumann).
Germansvaluethisauthenticityandrawnessofgothicisminwordanddeed,makingPoea"naturalchampion"tocountlessGermanreadersandwriters(Schaumann).
BecausePoewastranslatedintoGermanasearlyas1853,hemaybemorelovedbyGermanreaders"thanbyhiscountrymen"(Forclaz,"PoeinEurope").
Accordingtoscholars,Poeis"theAmerican129Winter2017writerwhoismostreadanddiscussedinGermany,"despitethefactthathenevertraveledthere(Forclaz,"PoeinGermany"38).
Acrossmediums,PoewasaplentifulsourceofmaterialforGermanartistsandliterarycritics:"twoAustrianengravers,AlfredKubinandHansFronius,particularlydeservemention,KubinhavingdonethreehundredengravingsofPoe'sworks,"alongwiththefamously"perceptive1968criticalstudy"ofPoe'sworksbyliterarycriticFranzLink(Forclaz,"PoeinEurope").
PerhapsPoe"hasalwaysbeenmoreappreciatedbyGermanreadersthanbyAmericans"becauseAmericanreadersarenotsoapttoappreciaterealhorror(Forclaz,"PoeinGermany"38).
Poe'sstyledidnotexactlyresemblepopularAmericanworksatthetime.
"Metzengerstein"didnotprovidethespiritualityfoundinWaldenorthecelebrationthatwasLeavesofGrass.
Poe'slifemighthavebeenoneoffameandwealth,hadhelivedinGermany,butAmericansdidnotacceptPoe'sdarkofferingwithsuchwarmth.
Still,Poewouldnotmimictheauthorswithmorehopefulsensibilities,becausethatwasnothistruth.
Insteadofaninventedoptimism,hegavehimself.
AutobiographicalhintsatPoedropthroughout"Metzengerstein"—someclearandothershidden.
Perhapsmostobvious,thereistheconnectionbetweenPoeandtheprotagonist,FredericktheBaronofMetzengerstein.
Frederick,likePoe,isorphanedatayoungageandplaguedbyexpectationandfeelingsofinadequacy.
Forthebaron,dutyisinheritedinhisverynamebecauseofaprophecythattheMetzengersteinhousewillrideupontheBerlifitzinghouse,andyet,Frederickispreoccupiedwithvainactsofcrueltyandviolence:"thedissoluteyoungBaron.
.
.
disappointedeveryexpectation"(Poe25).
Insimilarself-sabotagingfashion,althoughPoeshowedgreatpromiseinschoolwithLatinandFrench,hedrankhimselfintodebtandoccasionalincoherence;he"drankoftenanddrankmorethanwasgoodforhim"("Poe,Drugs,andAlcohol").
Poewasforcedtoquitschoollessthanayearafterhebeganbecauseofthisalcoholism.
Clearly,theseorphanedmenseem"agitatedbyavarietyofemotions,"whichlikelycontributedtotheireventualdemise(Poe24).
BaronFrederickcouldnotresisttheseductiveflamesofthecastle,andEdgarAllanPoe"couldnotrefuseadrink"("Poe,Drugs,andAlcohol").
ItistheseinnatemasochisticbehaviorsinPoeandinhischaractersthatinvigoratehisdarkfictionevenfurtherwithgothicGermanelements.
Inthe"pursuitofemotionalextremes,writersofthegothic130Criterionperiodwerefascinatedbyexperiencesofpainandmisery,andexploredtheabilityto.
.
.
producecreativeenergy,outofmasochism"(Henderson2).
Poepresentsoneoftheseso-called"explorations"ofmasochismin"Metzengerstein.
"Thebaronfigurativelyflogshimselfwithobsession.
Hefixatesuponahorsetapestry;heislatergrippedbythecountenanceofarealhorse.
Thisfixationtwiststhebaron'ssoulinknots,tyinghisfateinextricablytotheequestriandemonthatcarrieshimtoafieryend.
Thisprocessofdescentisa"convulsivestruggle,"a"contemplationofhumanagony,"thatcloselyresemblesPoehimself(Poe29).
Thebaronisdrawntoself-destructivepatterns,justlikethemanwhowriteshim.
ProvingthatonedoesnotrequirestudyoftheGermantraditiontocontractacharacteristicallygothicstrainofself-hatred.
Besidesthisunifyingthreadofself-sabotage,thereareadditionalandsubtletiesbetweenPoeandhistaleinimitationoftheGermanthatemphasizeitsautobiographicalnature.
Withgreatcare,autobiographicalconnectionsarehiddeninplainsight.
PoeinventivelyalignshimselfwiththeworldofBaronFrederickbyleavingFrederickunaligned;forinstance,thereisnospecifictimeperiodgiven.
Theeventsin"Metzengerstein"occurinnospecifiedera,thusoccurringinanygivenera.
Poeclaimsthisisbecausethethemesofhorrorin"Metzengerstein"aretimeless.
"WhythengiveadatetothestoryIhavetotell"Poeasks(18).
ThisdisplacementenforcesPoe'sgeneralflareforthebewilderingandechoesthestateofhisownvagabondspirit.
Additionallydisorienting,PoewritesthatthestorytakesplaceinHungary,butthenameMetzengersteinandthenameofhisrival—CountWilhelmvonBerlifitzing—areclearlyGerman.
Addingtoitsuniversality,thestoryistoldfromtheperspectiveofanunnamedthird-personnarrator.
Thisabsenceofinformation,again,suggeststhatthestoryexistsforanyonereading.
Thenarratorisunidentifiable,omnipresent,andunbiased.
Furthermore,theconflictattheheartof"Metzengerstein"isacenturies-longrivalrybetweentwowealthyfamilies,sooldthatnoonecansayhowfarbackitdates;itsoriginsseemtodependuponanancientprophecy:"Aloftynameshallhaveafearfulfallwhen,astherideroverhishorse,themortalityofMetzengersteinshalltriumphovertheimmortalityofBerlifitzing"(Poe19).
Thiscontinuallackofspecificityandplacementimpliesthatthefollowingeventscouldoccuratanytime,inanyplace,toanyperson.
Poemakesthelinkingpossibilitiesabundant.
Thisambiguityfunctionsasthe131Winter2017story'sconnectivetissue:theselectivevaguenessconnectsthereadertoBaronFrederick,connectsFredericktoPoe,andtransitivelyconnectsPoetothereader.
Terrorallaround.
Inadditiontothiselementofuniversality,whichcomesfromPoe'sambiguityin"Metzengerstein,"therecomesanothereffect:itisapparentfromthisliterarychoicethatPoeisprivileginggothicthemesbeforehistoricalaccuraciesanddetails.
Thechronologyandgeographyof"Metzengerstein"takeabackseat,palinginsignificancewhencontrastedtotheinteriorgoings-onofthebaron.
Thestoryvibratesinitsgothicthemes,comingtolifewith"hintsatsecretobsessionsandsins,forebodingprophecies,"and"familyrivalry"(Sova155).
Itisrememberedmorefortheheightsanddepthsofemotionitsactionscreate,ratherthantheactionsthemselves.
Clearly,Poeismoreconcernedwithinteriorfunctionsthanexteriorones.
AsRogerForclazmentionsin"PoeinEurope,"Poeisoftenfixatedwiththeconditionofthesoul–heandhischaractersaredistinguishedbytheirinternalwreckage,ratherthanoutsideforcesorhistoricalcontext:"ThefragmentationoftheselfinPoeisatthecoreofhischaracters'be-ingratherthantheresultofexternalincidents,andthisfragmentationisconnectedwitharadicaltreatmentofthesenseofspace.
LandscapesinPoe,asinHawthorneandMelville,arecharacterizedbyanincreas-ingambiguitythatcaststheindividualbackuponhimself:theresultisadarkintermediaryworldinwhichterrorispartandparcelofexistenceandintimatelyconnectedwithindividuality.
"(50—51)Theterroranddivisionin"Metzengerstein"isnoexceptiontothistrend.
Thecharactersseemdrivenbyanunexplainedforceofvengeanceanddoomedinexplicably,inspiteofwhattheydo.
Thebaroniscursedwith"atrociousandrecklessbehavior"andplaguedbya"perverseattachment"tohishorse(Poe26).
Poemusthavefeltsimilarlydoomed,tiedwithoutconsenttoagenerallyunrequitedloveofpoetryandliterature—alifeofmelancholyandunfulfilledwishes.
Poehimselfoftensaidhewas"miserableinspiteofgreatimprovementincircumstances,"unabletoshakehisinvisiblehaunts("MasterofthePsychological").
Poecreatedandexploredtheatrociousinner-workingsofBaronFrederick,perhapstofurtherunderstandhisowndarkness.
Poewroteonce,ina132Criterionlettertoafriend,"Iamwretched,andknownotwhy"("MasterofthePsychological").
Thisistrulythemarkofagothicwriter,toaskquestionsthathavenoanswer—tocreateterrorforthesakeofterror.
Becauseitssourceofinspirationissomysterious,"Metzengerstein"hasbeenahotbedforcriticsandscholarstodebatePoe'strueintentions.
Itcontainsalltheelementsofgothichorror:shadowycastles,howlingwinds,andseeminglysupernaturalphenomena.
WhileithasbeenestablishedthatPoewaswritinginagothicway,lovedbyGermanreaders,itisnowpertinenttoestablishwherethisdarknesscamefrom.
WhetherPoeintendedthestoryasaforthrighttaleofhorror,asaparodyofgothicstorytelling,orasanexplorationofselfisapopularquestion.
Imaintain,doubtlessly,thatitcameaboutinternallyand—inPoe'sownwords—quite"withouthisconsciousness"(Poe22).
Whileitisplausibleforreaderstointerpretthebizarrehappeningsinthestoryasthe"burlesquederisionsofGothicfare,"itreadsmorepersonalthanthis(Sova4).
And,althoughthestorymaybeastraightforwardmorallesson"thatevilcanbecomesopowerfulthatthehumansoul[gives]waytoitand[loses]thepowertoresist,"andcanbe"drawnfromthehaplessriderandchainedtothewildsteed,"Poewasnotoneformoralclarity(Quinn193).
Onecanindeedinterpretitallegorically,aseventsintendedtodemonstrateauniversaltruth:badthingshappentobadpeople,butitisunlikePoetopermitsuchsimplicity.
Andfinally,thestorymayappearasapossibleworkofabstractautobiography,adepictionofthehorrorsthatgooninPoe'sownhead.
Thisseemsthemostfittingandhumananswer,becauseaccordingtoPoehimself,"horrorandfatalityhavebeenstalkingabroadinallages"(Poe18).
Thisstorybringshorrorupclose,stokingaflamethathurtstolookat.
Sincemanyofthethemesintroducedin"Metzengerstein"arefrequentinPoe'slaterwriting,includingitsgeneralgloominessandthepowersofevil,itisconsideredoneofhismostformativeworks.
Poepublishedthestorywhenhewasonlytwenty-twoyearsold,bafflingscholarswithhismasteryoflanguageandgothichorror:Alreadyinthisfirststorytheunityofconstructionandoftone,themas-terlysuggestionofthesupernatural,thepreservationofsuspense,andthehandlingoftheclimax—manyofthegreatPoequalities—thesearein"Metzengerstein.
"Wherebeforehadaboyoftwenty-twoshowedhisabil-ityinmarshalingtheresourcesoftheEnglishlanguagetodepictsuchasceneofterrorasclosesthecareerofBaronMetzengerstein(Quinn192)133Winter2017ItishighlysignificantthatPoeisinhisyouthwhenwritingthisstory.
HowdoesanuntrainedandadolescentauthorexpressthesentimentsofanancientsadnessHowdoeshecreate,withwords,theexpressionsofthosestonegargoylesthatlineGothiccathedralsSimplyput,Poeisanatural.
Poe,likeBaronFrederick,issickwithafantastic"hereditarymelancholy"(Poe26).
Itwashisgiftandhispunishment,tobestricken,forlife,withwretchedness.
Ifthegothicmasteryin"Metzengerstein"andPoe'sotherstorieswassovaluable,whydidhedenyitWhy,inresponsetoclaimsandgeneralcriticismofaGermanflareforthegrim,didEdgarAllanPoesointenselyguardhisdarktendenciesConcerningPoe'sromanticismandgothicism,somescholarsassertthatthebulkofPoe'spopularappealrestsuponthesefewstrikingtalesofterror,like"Metzengerstein.
"Yet,whenPoe'sreaderspointedthesetraitsouttohim,concerninghismostpopular"German"or"Gothic"tales,Poeansweredindefense.
Poesaid,"TerrorisnotofGermany,butofthesoul"("MasterofthePsychological").
Inparticular,IinsistthatterrorwasanexhaustingattributeofPoe'sownsoul.
Poebelievedterrorwasanintegralpartoflife,andthereforeanecessarytopicforliterature.
ThisiswhyPoe'sfirstpublishedtale,"Metzengerstein,"issovital.
Itfallsintothegothichorrorgenre,alongwithPoe'sfamouslyfrighteningtaleslike"TheTell-TaleHeart"and"TheBlackCat.
"Poeproducedhorrorinthefaceofhorror,andthisishowhisgreatandterribledarknesscouldbeconquered.
Germansproudlyclaimhim.
ThoughGermanyseemstobeanindisputableupwellingforthegothicsensibilities,itpouredfromPoehimself.
Poewasanaturalgothicwriter.
Hecreatedwiththepurposeofbringinghisownterrortoalargeraudienceandintheprocess,perhapsunintentionally,inspiredotherauthorswithonlytheirownterrortogive.
PoeresistedGermanandgothiclabelsbecausehishorror—althoughcharacteristicallyGerman—wasinternal.
"Metzengerstein"isastoryofgothicproduction,apieceofPoethatisjustvagueandjustspecificenough,ringingwiththe"agonyofhiscountenance"(Poe29).
Poeinsistedthatartandpoetrywerethenoblestpursuits,astheywerehisonlyreliefinthislife.
Likeatrulygothicorromanticfigure,heheldthatthegreatestartwasthatwhichhadastrongeffectonthesenses—whethergoodorbad.
Poe'sproductionofliteraryhorrorinthefaceofhorrificcircumstanceswaslikeanantidoteforhisownlife.
"Metzengerstein"isevidencethat134Criterionruthlesshonestyandself-sacrificecreateart.
WhatappearstobeeffortlessGermanismismadewithgreateffortindeed.
Endeavoringwriterscanfindaplacetostayinstorieslikethis,andallwritersshouldtrytocreatestorieslikethis.
ThiskindofwritingrequiredsomethinghugeandpainfulofPoe:apieceofhimself.
Inreturn,hecorneredreadersintoasharedsenseofdread,ifonlyforamoment.
Thebestwritingexactsapieceofitswriter.
"Metzengerstein"isafixedenticementforthoseseekingtoboastandanesthetizetheirowntorment.
Itisaparadoxicalincentive:themostself-indulgent,mostsacrificialact.
135Winter2017WorksCited"EdgarAllanPoe,Drugs,andAlcohol.
"LifeofEdgarAllanPoe.
TheEdgarAllanPoeSocietyofBaltimore,24Jan.
2009,http://www.
eapoe.
org/geninfo/poealchl.
htm.
Forclaz,Roger.
"PoeinGermanyandAustria.
"PoeAbroad:Influence,Reputation,Affinities.
EditedbyLoisVines,UofIowa,1999,pp.
38–43.
---.
"PoeinEurope:RecentGermanCriticism.
"EdgarAllanPoeSocietyofBaltimore.
PoeStudies,Dec.
1978,http://www.
eapoe.
org/pstudies/ps1970/p1978209.
htm.
Gruener,Gustav.
"Poe'sKnowledgeofGerman.
"ModernPhilology.
Vol.
2,no.
1,1904,pp.
125–140,www.
jstor.
org/stable/432692.
Henderson,AndreaK.
RomanticismandthePainfulPleasuresofModernLife.
CambridgeUP,2008.
Littschwager,Marius.
"PoeinGermany.
"TranslatedPoe.
EditedbyEmronEsplinandMargaridaValeDeGato,LehighUP,2014,pp.
55–64.
"MasterofthePsychologicalHorrorStory.
"EdgarAllanPoeMuseum:Poe'sLife,Legacy,andWorks.
RichmondPoeMuseum,July2014,https://www.
poemuseum.
org/educational-resources.
Poe,EdgarAllan.
"Metzengerstein.
"TalesandSketches.
EditedbyThomasOlliveMabbott,EleanorD.
Kewer,andMaureenCobb,vol.
1,UofIllinois,2000,pp.
15–29.
Quinn,ArthurHobson.
EdgarAllanPoe:ACriticalBiography.
JohnsHopkinsUP,1998.
Schaumann,Herbert.
"PoeinGermany.
"PoeinForeignLandsandTongues.
EditedbyJohnCalvinFrench.
JohnsHopkinsUP,1941,pp.
22–23.
Sova,DawnB.
EdgarAllanPoe,AtoZ:TheEssentialReferencetoHisLifeandWork.
FactsonFile,2001.
Thomas,Dwight,andDavidKellyJackson.
ThePoeLog:ADocumentaryLifeofEdgarAllanPoe.
G.
K.
Hall,1987.
136CriterionTheDevil'sintheDetailsACharacterizationofMontresorinPoe's"TheCaskofAmontillado"AudreySaxtonWrittenin1846,"TheCaskofAmontillado"remainsoneofEdgarAllanPoe'smostgruesomerevengetales.
CriticsoftenexamineMontresor'smotiveformurderandreadhimasabraggart;butwhile"Amontillado"doesdepictamorbidmurder,othercriticsemphasizethereligiousimagerypresentthroughoutthistalewhichdepictstheallegoricalstrugglebetweenChristandSatan.
However,othercriticsfindallegoricalreadingsofPoeproblematicsincePoeoftenvoicedhisdislikeforallegoricalwriting.
InanessaycriticizingNathanielHawthorne'swork,Poewrote,"Indefenseofallegory.
.
.
thereisscarcelyonerespectablewordtobesaid"(254).
AlthoughPoedislikedallegoryingeneral,hewasnotagainstallformsofallegoricalwriting.
PoecontinuesinhisessayonHawthornethathedoesnotmind"allegoryproperlyhandled"which,accordingtoPoe,isallegory"judiciouslysubdued,seenonlyasashadoworbysuggestiveglimpses"(254).
In"Amontillado"Poe'suseofallegoryissubtle,ashadowthatapproachestruthratherthanahornthatblastsoutamoral.
ManycriticshavebeenpromptedtoreadthisshortstoryasanallegorybecauseofthebiblicalimagerepresentedbyMontresor'sfamilycrest:ahumanfootcrushingtheheadofaserpent.
Withinthecontextofthefamilycrest,criticshavereadMontresorasrepresentingboth138Criterionthehumanfoot,ortheChrist-figure,aswellastheserpent,orthedevil.
DonaldPearce'sessaywrittenin1954characterizesMontresorasstrictlyMephistophelean,ordevilish,andreadsFortunatoasare-enactmentofthepassionofChrist.
However,PhilipM.
PittmandisagreeswithPearce'sreadinginhisessay"MethodandMotivein'TheCaskofAmontillado'"sayingthatifMontresoristheserpent,thenSatantriumphs.
Torightthiswrong,Pittmanreads"FortunatoastheMephistopheleanfigure,andMontresorasplayingoutaroleinwhichheextractsafullyChristianretribution"(95).
Thesetworeadingsdemonstrateamajorconflictthatexistsincriticismsurroundingthisshortstory:if"Amontillado"isaChristianallegory,doesMontresorrepresenttheChristfigureorthedevil,andwhataretheconsequencesofsuchareadingBasedonacloseexaminationofthetext,itismorelikelythatMontresoralignswiththeserpentdepictedonthefamilycrest,andthusrepresentsthedevilinthiseternalstrugglebetweengoodandevil.
However,becausecriticshavereadMontresorandFortunatoasrepresentationsofbothsidesoftheconflict,thecriticismhintsatanothermajorelement:Montresor'sandFortunato'sroleasdoubles.
BecauseMontresorandFortunatoaredoubles,readersviewMontresorinasympatheticlightwhichcreatesalessrigiddivisionbetweengoodandevil.
TheirrelationshipasdoublesfurthercomplicatesMontresor'svengefulandSatan-likecharacter,providingacompellinglookintothecontradictionsandambiguitiesofhumannature.
Intheallegoricalreadingofthistext,Montresor'sfamilycrestisthecentralimagethatdepictsthestrugglebetweengoodandevilandeachcharacter'srolewithintheconflict.
Poedescribesthecrestas"ahugehumanfootd'or,inafieldazure;thefootcrushesaserpentrampantwhosefangsareimbeddedintheheel"(1259).
Thefootd'or,orthegoldenfoot,isafittingsymbolfortheprosperousFortunatosincePoedescribeshimas"rich,respected,admired,beloved;[and]happy"(1259).
TheserpentrepresentsMontresor;snakesaretheultimatesymbolofrevenge,bitingbackatthosewhocausethemharmandthusswiftlyprogressingfromthevictimtotheperpetrator.
Andso,evenasFortunatocrushesMontresor'sdignityandpridewith"athousandinjuries"andthesingular"insult"(1256),MontresorturnsaroundandimbedshisfangsintothefootofFortunato.
Poecouldnothavepickedagreatersymboltorepresentamanobsessedandconsumedbyrevengethannature'sgreatestavenger—theserpent.
139Winter2017Butbesidesrevenge,theserpenthasanotherequallyimportantsymbolicmeaning.
Mostreaders,especiallyPoe'swesternaudience,widelyrecognizesnakesassymbolsofthedevilduetotheserpent'sroleinthebiblicalaccountofAdamandEve.
Thus,Montresorcomestorepresentthedevilthroughhisconnectiontothesnakedepictedinthefamilycrest.
Manycritics,includingPearceandPittman,havereadthecrestinconjunctionwiththebiblicaltraditionfoundinGenesischapterthirteen,whichmorefullyconnectsthecresttotheallegoricalstrugglebetweengoodandevil.
Inthedescriptionofthecrest,Poe'sspecificuseoftheword"serpent"ratherthansnakecreatesadirectlinkbetweenthecrestandthesebibleverses.
Genesischapterthreereads:"AndtheLordGodsaiduntotheserpent,Becausethouhastdonethis,thouartcursedAndIwillputenmitybetweentheeandthewoman,andbetweenthyseedandherseed;itshallbruisethyhead,andthoushaltbruisehisheel"(KingJamesVersion,Gen.
3.
14–15).
KatherineM.
Harris,anotherPoescholar,observesabouttheseversesthat"thisisnotanimageofimpartialrevenge,butthetraditionalrepresentationoftheChurchmilitanttriumphingovertheforcesofevil"(333).
ThecrestclearlyshowsFortunato,thefootand"Churchmilitant,"crushingthesnakewith"athousandinjuries"(Poe,"Amontillado"1256)andtriumphing.
Montresor'sdescriptionofthe"thousandinjuries"shouldnotbetakenliterally,butisratherahyperbolethatsuggeststheinjuriesofFortunatoareinnumerable.
Withthisunderstanding,the"thousandinjuries"createconnotationsofcontinuedactionandrepeatedbruising.
However,Genesisreads"[thefoot]shallbruisethyhead,and[theserpent]shallbruisehisheel.
"Thusthecrestdepictsnotonly"theChurchmilitanttriumphingovertheforcesofevil,"asHarriswrites,butalsotheforcesofevilretaliating.
AfterFortunatocrushesMontresor,MontresorembedshisfangsintoFortunato;thefangsarelodgeddeepandfixedfastintotheheelwithlittlechanceofremovingthem.
Withthesecharacteristics,thecrestprovidesthereaderwithanimageofFortunatothefootandMontresortheserpentlockedinacycleofbruising—aclearimageoftheperpetualstrugglebetweengoodandevil.
Butwhilethecrestmayshowcontinualretaliation,Montresoronlycommitsoneactofvengeance.
Thissingleactbreaksthecycleandultimatelyupsetsthebalancebetweengoodandevil.
Montresor'sfirstwordstohisaudienceread,"ThethousandinjuriesofFortunatoI140CriterionhadborneasIbestcould;butwhenheventureduponinsult,Ivowedrevenge"(1256).
Thecrestshowscontinualaction:thefootstomps,thesnakebites,andthecyclecontinues.
However,MontresorhasborneeachbruisefromFortunatowithoutvengefulactionssofar;inotherwords,MontresorhasnotoncebittenFortunatobackforanyofthe"thousandinjuries.
"WhenMontresordecidestobiteback,hedoesnotwanttosimplybruiseFortunato,hewantsrevenge.
TheGenesisversesshowcontinualretaliation,buteachactofretaliationisequal:abruiseforabruise—nomore,noless.
Revenge,however,isnotaretaliationofequalaction,butapromisetocommitanactionthatcreatesgreatersufferingthanthesufferinginflictedupontheseekerofrevenge.
Therefore,byvowingrevenge,MontresorhasvowednottorepayFortunatoforthebruises,buttomurderhim,anactfarworsethananyofthebruisesinflictedbyFortunato.
Montresor'sactionwillupsetthebalanceandendthestrugglebetweentheimagesofthesnakeandthefootbyremovingtheheelpermanently.
Montresor'sfamilycrestisacentralimagewhichallowscriticstoread"Amontillado"asanallegoricalstory.
However,whileDonaldPearce'sessaydoesbrieflydealwithMontresor'sfamilycrest,hedoesnotplacenearlyenoughemphasisonthecrest'simportanceincharacterizingMontresorasMephistophelean.
Pearcewrites,"[Montresor's]coatofarms(doubtlessinventedonthespot)containsahumanfootbeingbruisedattheheelbyasatanicserpent"(449).
Pearcedoesrecognizetheimportanceofthebiblicalallusion.
Hedescribesthecrest'ssnakeas"satanic"andevenincludestheGenesisversesinalaterparentheticalstatement.
Butbydismissingthecrestasaninventionofthemoment,whetherbyPoeorbyMontresor,Pearceunderminestherolethecrestplaysindepictingeachcharacter—andmoreimportantlyinsettinguptheentirestorytobeaconflictbetweengoodandevil.
ItseemsoddthatPearcewouldignoretheessentialallegoricalimageofthecrestwhenhebelievesthestorytobemorethanjustasystematicsymbolization.
Pearcewrites,"Theelementsofthescripturalparodywindthroughthetaledemonically,asthemottledstriationsinaslabofblackmarble,suggestingpowerfulbutindeterminatepatternsthathaveamythicfeel"(449).
Pearce'sobservationisrightononeaccount,Poehassetupdetailsandelementsof"Amontillado"thatcreateamythicalfeel,butbecausePearceclaimsthatthesepatternsare"indeterminate,"itisimpossibleto141Winter2017determinetowhatmythPearceisreferring.
ContrarytowhatPearcesays,thesepatternsarenotindeterminate.
ThroughacarefulexaminationofthedetailssuchasthefamilycrestandMontresor'scharacter,readerscantracethesepatternsbacktoaspecificmyth,oneofthemostinfluentialandfoundationalmythsofhumanity,thebattlebetweengoodandevil.
Montresoristhevengeful,satanicsnakeandFortunatothefoolish,prosperousfoot;butmanycriticshavealsoverysuccessfullyinterpretedMontresor'screstintheoppositemanner.
PearcewasoneofthefirstcriticstoseetheconnectionbetweenMontresorandthedevil,andothers,suchasJayJacobyandThomasPribek,supportthisreading.
However,GrahamSt.
JohnStott,whoreads"Amontillado"as"anexplorationofthedarknessintheheartofCalvinism'sGod,"writes,"ifMontresorisGod'sagentthenheisnottheserpentbutthefigurewhoseheelbruisestheserpent'shead—intheChristiantradition,Christ"(85).
Inhisreading,StottnotonlyalignsMontresorwiththefoot,buthealsoassertsareadinginoppositiontoPearce's,insteaddeclaringMontresortheChristfigure.
TheseopposinginterpretationsofthecrestanditseffectsonMontresor'sandFortunato'scharacterspresentreaderswithanambiguouscrest.
However,ratherthancreatinganunclearreadingofMontresor'scharacter,theambiguouscreststrengthensMontresor'sconnectiontothedevil.
Thedevilthrivesonuncertainty;hemakesmoralsseemambiguousandundefined.
Also,attimes,MontresorseemslikeaChristfigure,areadingsupportedbyPhilipPittmanandothercriticswhoseeMontresorasthefoot.
Sincethebeginningoftime,thedevilhasbeenenticinghumanstotrusthimbypretendingtobegoodorChrist-like.
Forexample,inSecondCorinthiansPaulwarnsthepeoplethatSatancanappearasan"angeloflight"(2Cor.
11.
14).
Poehassuccessfullycreatedadevilishcharacterthatconfusesreadersandcriticsalike.
CriticscannotcharacterizeMontresorbyjustoneofthecrest'simages,andreaderscanfindanabundanceoftextualevidencetosupportMontresor'sroleasbothadevilandaChristfigure.
Thus,bycreatingMontresor'screstasanambiguousimage,withuncertaintybeingthedevil'sprimarytool,PoefurtheralignsMontresor'svengefulsoulwiththedevil.
InadditiontostrengtheningMontresor'sconnectiontothedevil,theambiguouscrestalsocuesreaderstoview"Amontillado"asastoryofdoubling.
Theambiguousnatureofthecrestsetsupasituationinwhich142Criterionthecharacterscouldembodyeitherimageofthecrest.
Atparticulartimesduringthestory,readerscanclearlyseeMontresor'slinkwiththeserpent.
Atothertimes,theycanclearlyseeMontresor'slinkwiththeheel.
AndwhilethisstrengthensMontresor'sdevilishidentity,italsocomplicatesMontresor'scharacterbyprovidinghimwithalinktobothsidesofthebiblicalconflict.
Likewise,becauseMontresorandFortunatoaredoubles,Fortunatoisnotsimplytheprosperousheel.
Pittman'sessayprovidesexcellentevidencetoshowthatthisstorydepictsFortunatoasadevilishcharactercompletewithapridefulheartandflashingeyes(329).
ThisreversalofrolescreatesafluidrelationshipbetweenthecharacterizationsofbothMontresorandFortunato,theimagesonthecrest,andtheseimages'allegoricalcounterparts—theforcesofgoodandevil.
PoeestablishesthedoublingbetweenMontresorandFortunatothroughajumbleofechoingandre-echoing,whichrevealsMontresor'scomplexcharactertothereader.
ThemostprominentexampleofdoublingappearstowardstheendofthetextwhenMontresorechoesFortunato's"loudandshrillscreams"(Poe1262).
Montresorsays,"Irepliedtotheyellsofhimwhoclamored.
Ire-echoed—Iaided—Isurpassedtheminvolumeandinstrength.
Ididthis,andtheclamorergrewstill"(Poe1262).
Amidsttherattlingchainsandthecontending"shrillscreams,"Poecreatesanimageofthesupernatural,evenofhell.
Fortunato'sscreamsarethescreamsofadamnedsoul,andMontresorechoesFortunato'sscreamsbecausehe,too,isadamnedsoul.
Inthisinstance,Montresormovesawayfromstrictlytheserpentsideoftheallegoryandrevealsaveryhumanemotion:remorse.
Montresorcriesoutinagonyashelamentsassumingtheidentityofnature'savenger(thesnake)andfollowinginthefootstepsofthedevil.
Fortunato'sscreamsecho—ordouble—Montresor'ssoul.
However,Montresor'sscreams"surpassed[Fortunato's]involumeandstrength"indicatingthatMontresorsufferstheworsefate,afatemorepotentandlastingthanFortunato'ssuffocation.
OnecouldevensayMontresorsuffersfromaguiltyconsciousashebemoansnottheacthehascommittedagainstFortunato,butthefatehehasascribedtohimself.
Becausereadersdonottypicallyassociatethedevilwithguiltandremorse,Montresormovesawayfromthesnakeandbecomestheheel,amorehumanandsympatheticcharacter.
ThetextfurtherrevealsMontresor'shuman-likecharacterthroughhisactions;MontresormaytellthereaderthatmurderingFortunato,orendingtheheel,istheoutcomehewants,buthisactionsreveal143Winter2017histruedesires.
WhileMontresor'sactofechoingFortunato'scriesprovidesevidencethatMontresorandFortunatoaredoubles,italsoforeshadowsMontresor'sfinalwishes.
Montresorwantsto"echo"theinjuriesofFortunatowithmorestrengthandvolume,ultimatelycausingFortunatotogrow"still"orsilentandendthestrugglebetweengoodandevil.
However,thefinalbrickpresentsreaderswithanotherstory.
Poewrites,"Thereremainedbutasinglestonetobefittedandplasteredin.
Istruggledunderitsweight"(1262).
ThislastbrickrepresentstheweightofMontresor'sactions.
IfMontresortrulywantedtocompletethismurderandremovethefootentirely,hewouldhaverushedtoplacethefinalbrickandtofinishthetaskwithexcitementandzeal,justashebuilds"thesecondtier,andthethird,andthefourth"(Poe1262)inquicksuccessionandwithnodifficulty.
Additionally,Montresorsays,"Iforcedthelaststoneintoitsposition"(Poe1263).
Thetextoffersnoevidencetosuggestthattheotherbrickswerehardtofittogether,indicatingthatMontresorhadtoforcehimselftoplacethefinalbrick,whichwouldcompletehisrevengeandendtheallegoricalconflict.
Yetdespitethishesitation,thereaderdoesnotdoubtthatMontresorenjoyswatchingFortunatosuffer.
Montresorevensays,"during[thefuriousvibrationsofthechain],thatImighthearkentoitwithmoresatisfaction,Iceasedmylabors"(Poe1262).
Inthisinstance,MontresorstopsworkinginordertogainpleasurefromFortunato'ssuffering.
Butcausingtheheeltosufferisonlyabruise,notanactofrevenge.
Thetextclearlyshowsthatfinishingthewall,orcompletingthemurder,makesMontresoruneasy.
He"hesitated[and]trembled"(Poe1262);his"heartgrewsick"(Poe1263).
Thesearenottheactionsofastone-coldkillerandaselfishdemon,buttheactionsofaselfishmanfearingthefateofhisownsoul.
Montresor'sactionsduringFortunato'sfinalmomentsmakeMontresormorehumanandnotasintimatelylinkedtothedevilasbefore.
Montresor'sandFortunato'slastexchangepresentsthereaderwiththenext,andfinal,caseofdoubling.
MontresorechoesFortunato:"'Letusbegone.
''Yes,'Isaid,'Letusbegone.
''FortheloveofGod,Montresor!
''Yes,'Isaid,'fortheloveofGod!
'"(Poe1263).
Devoidofhismurderouszeal,MontresorcanonlyechobackFortunato'spleas.
Montresor'shesitationsrevealhistruedesires:tobesavedfromthispainandtorment,tonotkillFortunato,tomaintainthebalancebetweengoodandevil.
Butsincehisconnectionwiththedeviloverpowerstheseotherwishes,Montresor144Criterioncannotreversehisactionsandthisreduceshimtoanecho.
Andjustasanechoresonatesandlingers,Montresor'ssufferingalsoresonatesandlingerslongafterFortunatosuffocates.
Indeed,withthefinalwords,"inpacerequiescat"(Poe1263),Montresorissuesforthapleafortheremovalofhisownsufferingsothathecanfinally"restinpeace.
"Whilestillahorrificrevengetale,Poe's"TheCaskofAmontillado"takesonnewcomplexitywhenexaminedinlightoftheMontresorfamilycrest'sallegoricalimagery.
ThisimageryshowsMontresor'salignmentwiththedevil,theancientandbiblicalstrugglebetweengoodandevil,andthestory'sambiguousinterpretation.
Although"Amontillado"presentsreaderswithastoryinwhichMontresor'sevilacttriumphsovergood,bytheendofthetale,Montresorisnotjustanotherselfishdevil.
Throughdoubling,Montresor'scharacterhasevolved;hedoesnotwanttodestroyFortunatoentirely.
Poe'spresentationofaremorsefulandveryhuman-likedevilgivesanewtwisttothetimelessstrugglewhichbeginstobreakdowntheboundariesbetweenwhoisgoodandwhoisevil.
TheambiguousrelationshipthatPoecreatesbetweengoodandevil,justliketherelationshipheestablishesbetweentheimagesofthecrestandthecharacters,showsreadersthatMontresor'scharacterisalsoambiguousandultimatelyundefinable.
Perhapsitisthismessage,ratherthanFortunato'smurder,whichcharacterizes"TheCaskofAmontillado"asoneofPoe'smostgruesometales.
145Winter2017WorksCitedTheBible.
AuthorizedKingJamesVersion,OxfordUP,1997.
Harris,KatherineM.
"IronicRevengeinPoe's'TheCaskofAmontillado.
'"StudiesinShortFiction,vol.
6,no.
3,1969,pp.
333–35.
Jacoby,Jay.
"Fortunato'sPrematureDemisein'TheCaskofAmontillado.
'"PoeStudies,vol.
12,no.
2,1979,pp.
30–31.
Pearce,Donaldetal.
"TheCaskofAmontillado.
"Notes&Queries,vol.
1,no.
10,1954,pp.
447–49.
Pittman,PhilipM.
"MethodandMotivein'TheCaskofAmontillado.
'"TheMalahatReview,vol.
34,1975,pp.
87–100.
Poe,EdgarAllan.
"TheCaskofAmontillado.
"Tales&Sketches,Vol.
2:1843–1849.
EditedbyThomasOlliveMabbott,HarvardUP,1978,pp.
1256–1263.
Poe,EdgarAllan.
"Tale-Writing—NathanielHawthorne.
"Godey'sLady'sBook,1847,pp.
252–56.
Pribek,Thomas.
"TheSerpentandtheHeel.
"PoeStudies,vol.
20,no.
1,1987,pp.
22–24.
Rocks,JamesE.
"ConflictandMotivein'TheCaskofAmontillado.
'"PoeStudies,vol.
5,no.
2,1972,pp.
50–51.
Stepp,Walter.
"TheIronicDoubleinPoe's'TheCaskofAmontillado.
'"StudiesinShortFiction,vol.
13,no.
4,1976,pp.
447–53.
Stott,GrahamStJohn.
"TheCaskofAmontillado.
"TheExplicator,vol.
62,no.
2,2004,pp.
85–89.
146Criterion147Winter2017ContributorsEmilyButler-ProbstisagraduatestudentattheUniversityofColorado,BoulderwithadeeppassionforstudyingtheworksofHermanMelvilleandAmericanRenaissanceliterature.
Sheisafirst-yearMastersstudentinherprogramwheresheisfocusingherresearchon18thand19thcenturyBritishandAmericanliterature.
Emily'sinterestinstudyingAmericanRenaissanceworks,andMoby-Dickinparticular,hasledtomultipleconferencepapersandanUndergraduateHonorsThesisthatfocusesonMelville'suseofAhab,Ishmael,andothercharactersinMoby-Dicktopersonifycomplexepistemologicalvalues.
MeganClarkisinherjunioryearatBYU.
SheismajoringinEnglishwithminorsinEditingandArtHistory.
ShelovesBritishliterature,puns,andMexicanfood.
Shehopestopursueacareerineditingaftergraduation.
HannahE.
DegniscurrentlyfinishinguphersenioryearatBYUwithamajorinEnglishandaminorinCommunications.
SheservedaLDSmissioninLima,PeruandlovestoskiandspeakSpanish.
Aftergraduation,she'slookingforwardtomovingtoD.
C.
topursueacareerindigitalmarketingandsocialmedia.
MorganDanielswasraisedinSalado,Texas.
AsanEnglishmajorwithminorsinbothEditingandArtHistory,Morganhasdevelopedherloveforvisualarts,museums,andliterature.
Whennottouringmuseumsorparticipatinginabookclub,Morgancanbefoundtakingspontaneousroadtripsanddaydreamingaboutfutureinternationalexpeditions.
AftergraduationinApril2018,MorganplanstopursueherMaster'sdegreeinpublishinginordertofulfillherlifelongdreamofworkinginaninternationallyacclaimedpublishinghouse.
148CriterionKatieFrancomisagraduatingseniorstudyingEnglishTeachingandItalian.
SheisfromWashingtonStateandthuslovestherain,nature,andthecolorgreen.
SheiscurrentlystudentteachingatLonePeakHighSchoolandhasplanstobeginherteachingcareerinthefall.
RileyHaackeisinhersenioryearasanEnglishmajorandSociologyandInternationalDevelopmentminor.
ThissummershewillbeinterninginPangasinan,PhilippinesasaprogramevaluatorforLiahonaChildren'sFoundationworkingwithmalnourishedyouth.
AftergraduationshehopestojointhePeaceCorpsandpursuegraduatestudiesinInternationalDevelopmentworkingonbehalfofwomen'srightsandeducation.
McKayHansenisajuniorstudyingEnglish,withminorsinSpanishandEditing.
Heenjoysimprovcomedy,pianoaccompaniment,andofcoursereadingandwriting.
HehopestobecomearesearchprofessorofliteratureinordertofurtherexploretheimpactoftheRenaissanceandtheReformationonspiritualexperienceandunderstandings.
AlexandraMaloufhasdelusionsaboutmakingartforaliving.
SheisanEnglishmajorwhospendsherweekendspracticingwildernesssurvival,photography,andswingdancing.
ElizabethPeekisanEnglishmajorinhersenioryearatBYU.
Shelikestoreadandwritepoetryandcreativenonfiction.
AftergraduationinApril,sheplanstobuildherpoetryportfolioandworkforayear,whileapplyingtoMFAprogramsincreativewriting.
ScottPeeplesisProfessorofEnglishattheCollegeofCharleston.
Hehaswrittennumerousarticlesonnineteenth-centuryAmericanliteratureandpublishedtwobooksonEdgarAllanPoe—EdgarAllanPoeRevisitedandTheAfterlifeofEdgarAllanPoe.
HecurrentlyservesontheeditorialboardoftheEdgarAllanPoeReviewandisaconsultingeditorforPoeStudies.
GenevievePettijohnisanEnglishTeachingmajorwithaMusicminor.
SheiscurrentlyworkingasanEnglishTAatBYUIndependentStudy,andshevolunteersinProvoschoolsthroughY-Serve.
AudreySaxtonisanundergraduateatBYUwithamajorinEnglishandminorsinbothLatinandWomenStudies.
ShecurrentlyworksattheUniversityWritingCenterandhopestocontinueherstudiesofliteratureatthegraduatelevel.
BrittanyTwiggwasbornandraisedinSwayzee,Indiana,andsheisaseniorEnglishandWritingdoublemajoratIndianaWesleyanUniversity.
WiththerecentadditionofaJournalismminor,shehasgrowninterestedinnewsreportingandnarrativejournalism.
AftergraduationinApril,shewillmarryherbestfriend,Kole,andplanstobeginhercareerasafreelancewriter.