victoriousstealthy

103'SUPREMEAMONGOURVALUABLES':WHALETEETHTABUA,CHIEFSHIPANDPOWERINEASTERNFIJISTEVENHOOPERSainsburyResearchUnit,UniversityofEastAngliaAtabua,auluniweimamiiyauThewhaletoothissupremeamong[theheadof]ourvaluablesThisstatementwasmadeduringawide-rangingconversationinMay1978withTevitaSoroofNaikeleyagavillageonKabaraIslandinLau,easternFiji.
Hewasanelderinanon-chieflyheraldclaninNaikeleyaga,andhadlongexperienceofFijiancustomaryprocedures.
Ihadaskedhimaboutthesignificanceoftabua,spermwhaleteeth,piercedateachendfortheattachmentofacord(Fig.
1),whichIhadseenpresentedonnumerousformaloccasionsinLauduringthepreviousyear(andhaveseenpresentedonmanyoccasionssince).
Tevitawentontoexplain,"Thetabuaisachieflything.
Itistheirvaluable,thechiefs.
Theydecideaboutit.
Thetabuaistheirvaluable.
"Healsoobservedthatmoney(ilavo)wasaEuropeanthing,whereastabuawasFijian,andifaFijianwasengagedinanyseriouspurpose,thenitwouldbeappropriatetotakethereatabua.
AnyonefamiliarwithFijianculturalpracticewillbeawarethattabuahavehighvalue.
1Theyarepresentedwithspeechesongreatstateoccasionsandduringexchangesinvolvingkin,suchasatweddings,mortuaryritualsandreceptionsforhonouredguests(Fig.
2).
Theyarealsoofferedwhenmakingaspecialrequestorentreatingforgivenessforsomemisdemeanour.
Giventheculturalimportanceoftabua,andtherelativelylimiteddiscussionofthemintheanthropologicalliterature,thisarticlehasthreemainaims:(i)toprovideanaccountoftheirrecentuseinFiji,(ii)toassessthehistoricalevidencefortheirusesincetheearly19thcentury,and(iii)toanalysewhytheywereandareconsideredhighlyvaluableandsuitablefortheimportantrolestheyhaveplayedinFijiforover200yearsandpossiblylonger.
MyarticlecomplementsthatbyFergusClunieinthisvolume,whichconsiderstheroleofwhaleteethinTongabeforeChristianconversionintheearly/mid-19thcentury,afterwhichtheyhavefeaturedverylittleinTonganculturalactivities.
ThisdiminutioninsignificanceinTongaisincontrasttoFijiwheretheirusehasincreasedandtheynowserveasthepre-eminentvaluable(iyau),addinggravitastoanyformaloccasion.
'SupremeamongourValuables'104AfullreviewofreferencestotabuaintheFijiliteraturecannotbeattemptedhere.
Sahlins(1978,1983,2004:34-35)andThomas(1991:65-82,110-21,189-200)providethemostcomprehensivediscussionstodateoftheculturalandhistoricalsignificanceoftabua,butmostauthorsmentiontheirimportancewithoutattemptinganalysis.
Forexample,Thompson(1940:125)givesanexplanatoryglosstotheeffectthattheyare"importantobjectsofceremonialexchange"andLegge(1958:7)describedatabuaasanFigure1.
A19th-centurypresentationspermwhaletooth(tabua)withacoircord;length18.
5cm(tooth).
AcquiredbySirArthurGordon1875-80.
MAA1918.
213.
69.
(Photo:MuseumofArchaeologyandAnthropology,UniversityofCambridge.
)105StevenHooperFigure2.
JoeliVakarau,onbehalfofthehostclan,Muanaicake,presentingatabuawithmats,barkcloth,cottonclothandbottlesofscentedcoconutoiltoparticipantsatafinalmourningceremony(vakataraisulu),Uduvillage,Kabara,October1977.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)…articleofgreatimportanceintheexchangeofgifts…,whoseceremonialsignificanceendoweditwithasocialvaluefarinexcessofitscashprice.
Thegiftofawhale'stoothplacedupontherecipienttheobligationtoassistthedonor;anyrequest,whetherforthehandofabride,forassistanceintimeofwar,fortheforgivenessofanoffence,orforanyotherfavour,wouldbeaccompaniedbyatooth,andtheforceoftherequestwouldbeenhancedthereby.
Leggewaswritingaboutthe1858-1880period,but,apartfromthewarreference,hisdescriptionholdsgoodforthe1950sand,indeed,today.
Roth(1953:96-106)providedanoverviewoftheiruseuptothemid-20thcentury,whileHocart,thegreatethnographerofFiji,wrotesurprisinglylittleaboutthemthatwasanalytical,thoughheobservedtheywere"valuedaspotentpresents"(1929:99)andusedasofferingsin"ceremonial[s]clearlyreligious'SupremeamongourValuables'106inorigin"(1952a:102).
FijianwriterssuchasNayacakalou(1975,1978)andRavuvu(1983,1987)provideusefuldescriptiveaccountsandgeneralstatements,thelatterexplainingthattheyare"thehighestsymbolofrespect,deference,loyalty,goodwill,acceptance,recognitionandevensubmission,whichanindividualoragroupmayoffertoanother"(Ravuvu1987:22).
Fromanearliergeneration,DeveToganivalu(1918:9)wrote:"[W]hales'teethwerethepropertymosthighlyprized,andchieflyproperty;everythingwasobtainable(orpossible)bythemwhichthechiefssettheirmindson,alsothedesiresofthepeopleofthelandwereobtainablebythem.
"Rokowaqa(1926-:38)namedtabuainalistofvaluablesthatincludedshellsandotheritemsmadeofivory.
Amongrecentwritings,Arno(2005)hasdiscussedtheminthecontextofan"economyofsentiment",VanderGrijp(2007)hasreviewedcommercialcontextsoftheiruseandTomlinson(2012)hasanalysedtheparadoxoftheirinvolvementinChristianattemptsattranscendenceonKadavu.
Letmebegintoaddtothesestudiesbyconsideringfirsthowtheyareused.
RECENTTABUAUSEINFIJIMyfirstexperienceofseeingtabuainactioninFijiwasinFebruary1977,whenastatereception(veiqaravivakavanua)washeldbeforealargecrowdatAlbertParkinSuvaforQueenElizabethII,thenheadofstateofindependentFiji.
Amongotherpresentations,asequenceoffourtabuawasofferedtotheQueen,withspeechesbyfourmendressedindecoratedbarkcloth,theirupperbodiesglisteningwithscentedcoconutoil.
AftereachpresentationspeechtheQueenreceivedthetoothandpassedittoherFijianherald,whomadeaspeechonherbehalf.
Afterthis,kava(yaqona)waspresentedandmixedinalargecircularwoodenbowl(tanoa).
TheQueendrankthefirstcupandherheraldthesecond.
Thiswasfollowedbyapresentationoffood—afeast(magiti)callediwaseniyaqona—andfinallytheQueenmadeaspeechfullofappreciativesentimentsaboutherreceptionandherwishesforFijitoflourish.
Ilaterlearnedthatthiskindofstatereceptionwasastandardisedprocedureforhonouringthoseofhighstatus,especiallyvisitinghighchiefs,Fijianandnon-Fijian.
Veiqaraviisatermwithverypositiveconnotationsinvolvinghosting,servinganddoinghonour.
Itisacompoundofthewordqara(toserve,eventoworship);veiqaraviimpliesbeinginanactiveandrespectfulrelationshipwiththepersonorgroupbeingserved.
TabuapresentationGrandpublicoccasionsofthissortarenot,however,howmostFijiansexperiencetabua.
Theymostregularlyappearduringinter-clanexchangesatweddingsandfirstbirthdayritesforafirst-born,duringvisitsbetweenkin107andafteradeath.
Fijiansarebornintoexogamousclans,andthemaintenanceofactiveandproductiveaffinalrelationsbetweeninter-marryingclansisregardedasessentialtotheconductofhealthyculturallife.
Adeathisnotonlyadeeplypersonallossforcloserelatives,italsoaffectsthedeceased'snatalclanandotherclansconnectedbymarriage,leadingtoaseriesofexchangeswhichactivateandgivematerialexpressiontothe'pathwaysofkinship'(wakoloniveiwekani)betweenaffinalclans.
MostpartsofeasternFijihavepatrilinealinheritance,andinLauwhenamandieshisnatalclanusuallytakeresponsibilityforarrangementsashostsor'ownersofthedeath'(itaukeinimate).
Whenamarriedwomandies,virilocalpost-maritalresidencemeansthatthehusband'sclanusuallyactashostsduringmortuaryrituals.
Thiswasthecaseontheafternoonof23August1978,whenLuisaPaeadiedunexpectedlyinNaikeleyagavillageonKabaraIslandinsouthernLau.
ShehadbeenbornintoMatasoataclaninUduvillageonKabaraandhadmovedtoNaikeleyagain1936whenshemarriedMaikeliKotobalavu,amanofNaivotavotaclan,oneoftwoclansofchieflystatusinthevillage.
Widelylikedandrespected,Paeawasanexpertinthedecorationofstencilledbarkcloth(masikesa)andherfinelycutstencilswereindemandallovertheislandandbeyond.
Duringthelateafternoonenvoysconveyedthemelancholynewsofherpassingtotheotherthreevillagesontheisland.
Intheeveninggroupsbegantoarrivetopaytheirrespects,takingnoheedofthedarknessorthelonganddifficultpaths.
ClosefemalerelativesgatheredintheupperpartofPaea'shousebehindaTongan-stylebarkclothscreen,havingpreparedherbodyonaspecialbedoffinematsandstencilledbarkcloth,withasheetofTongan-stylebarkcloth(gatuvakatoga)tocoverher.
Theoldvesiwood(Intsiabijuga)postsofthehouseshehadlivedinallhermarriedliferoseupfromthesoftmatting,andthedimkerosenelightbarelypenetratedtheshadowsbeyondthetimbersoftheroof,whereherfishingnetstillhungacrossanancientbeam.
Asthewomenwailedbehindthescreen,menremainedoutsidedrinkingyaqonawithseriousformality,twoofthemperiodicallyenteringthehousetoattendtothecondolencepresentationsofvisitingmourners.
Anatmosphereofsolidarityandcommonpurposeprevailedthroughoutthenight,asthecommunityseemedtocloseranksagainstthisattackuponitsvitality.
Inall,28presentationsofcondolencetabua(calledireguregu)2weremadethatnightandthefollowingmorningonbehalfofthevillagesandclansofKabara,andbynon-KabaranresidentssuchastheheadofthelocalMethodistChurch,thenurseandsomevisitorsfromnearbyislands.
Thefirstdelegationfromoutsidethevillagearrivedabout9p.
m.
,agroupofclosekinfromTokalauvillagesometwomilesdistant.
OncetheywereseatedinthelowerStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'108partofthehouse,amurmuredrequesttomakeapresentationvakavanua'inthemanneroftheland'wasassentedtobyoneofthetwomensittingfacingtheminfrontofthebarkclothscreen.
Hewasactingas'herald'(matanivanua)fortheothermanwhobelongedtothehostNaivotavotaclan.
TheleaderoftheTokalaudelegation,IsireliRarawa,easedforwardsonhisknees,cradlingtwotabuainhislefthand,theircordsinhisright.
Hisvoicefalteringwithemotion,hebegantospeak,hisbodymovinggentlybackwardsandforwards,hishandsliftingandloweringthetabuatoemphasisehiswords:Inthechieflymanner,sirs,toNaikeleyaga,toallthechieflyhousefoundationsinthechieflyvillageofNaikeleyaga,andespecially,sirs,toyouourchiefs,totheTuiKabara,oftheclanofNaivotavota.
ThepeopleofTokalauwereathome.
Thechieflyenvoyarrivedthere,sentbecauseoftheserioustragedywhichtouchesusall,sirs,thisevening.
Theyremainedthere,buttheyjustcouldnotbeatease.
Asyoucanwitness,thelandisdarkanditislateatnight,buttheyhavecomeheretoyou,thechiefsofNaikeleyaga.
Itisnotaneasytaskformetoexpresstoyouthepurposeofthistabua.
ThechiefsofTokalauknowverywellthat,withrespecttoyouthechiefsofNaivotavota,yourtragedyistheirtragedy,yourweepingistheirweeping,yourdistressistheirdistress.
Thisiswhytheyhavetravelledalongthecoasttocomehereonthisdarknight,itistheirearnestdesiretoshowthemselvesheretoyou….
Aweightytragedy,achieflytragedy,atragedyofkinshiphastouchedourwholeislandofKabarathisevening.
Theywerenotabletostayaway;theywishedtocometoappearbeforeyouourchiefsofNaikeleyaga.
ThistoothwhichIhold,asyouknow,thistoothisthecondolenceofthegentlemenandladiesofTokalautoyou,sirs,thechiefsofNaikeleyaga,especiallytotheclanofNaivotavota,atthehousefoundationofSavena[Paea'shousefoundation].
Theyknowwellthetragedywhichassailsus.
Thereforetheywishtoappearhere,accordingtochieflycustomandbecauseofthechieflyenvoythatcametothem….
Theyknowthatthistabuaissuitableforthemtoappearwithbeforeyouthisevening.
Youbeholdit,itissmall,poorly-soundingitspresentation;itisrequestedthatthisbeforgiven.
ThetabuaisoffereduptoyouourchiefsofNaikeleyaga,particularlytothehousefoundationSavena,thatitmaybecorrect,sirs,andaccepted.
IsirelipassedthetwotabuatoJiosefateVolauca,aseniormanofNaivotavota,whoclappedhishandsresonantlywithcrossedpalmsbeforereceivingthem.
Hebeganinaquietvoice:Ah,Ireceive,sirs,thetabua,thechieflytabua,thetabuaofkinshipwhichhaveappearedalongthechieflypathwayfromTokalau.
Itisreceivedinthespiritofthanksgiving:thatwemayremainhealthy,thatourresponsibilitiesbefulfilled,thatGodmaybejust,andfirmmayremainourkinshipcustoms.
Effective,beittrue.
109Hethenpassedtheteethtohisherald,JoneMateofValenikatoclan,whoraisedthetwotabuatohisnoseinasniffinggestureandthenspokeatgreaterlength:Ah,Itakeupthechieflytabua,thetabuareleasedinthechieflymannerfromthesacredvillageofTokalau,fromallthehighhousefoundations.
YouhavecomealongthecoasttonightbecauseoftheweightytragedythatpressesuponthevillageofNaikeleyaga,likewiseonthemtheclanNaivotavota.
Achieflydelegation,inthemannerofkinship,hascomeashorethisevening.
Thetabua,thecondolencefromthecentreofthechieflyvillageofTokalau,fromallthehousefoundations,likewisefromtheladies,fromthechildrenthatliveunderitsprotection,fromtherehavecomemagnificenttabua,offeredtothevillageofNaikeleyaga,totheclanofNaivotavota,whoarebeingmournedwithonthisnight….
Theircalloftragedy,callofdistress,theirvoiceshavebeenheardandyouhavecomeheretothemtonightaskin.
ThetabuaarebeheldandgivenuptoheaventhatthelovingGodmaybeholdthem,thatweallmaybeblessed,thatdeathmayrecede,thatinfectioussicknessesmayrecede,thatchieflycustomsbefirm,andthickbethebloodofkinshipinallfuturetimes.
Allpresentthencalledoutinunison,Mana,edina,'Effective,beittrue',followedbyamuduoandfourclapsinunison,thenduoandtwoclapsinunison,followedbyrandomclappingandwordsofthanks,afterwhichthevisitorswithdrew.
3Thisspeechsequencehasbeengivenatlength,thoughabridged,toconveysomethingoftheemotionalintensitythatcanaccompanytabuapresentations.
EspeciallypoignantwasthespeechbytheleaderofthedelegationfromPaea'snatalclan,whicharrivedfromUduvillagejustaftermidnight.
Theyhadwaitedforthemoontorisetoguidethemontheirfive-milewalkupthecoast.
Thecondolencespeechesmadebythem,andbyTokalauandLomajivillagevisitorslaterthefollowingmorning,allexpressedthesamegeneraltheme:distressatbereavementandtheirwishtocometodemonstrateintheappropriatewaytheircontinuingrespectforthebondsofkinshipwhichlinkedthemwithNaivotavotaclanandNaikeleyagavillage.
InpresentingthecondolencefromtheBeteclanofTokalau,theirspokesmanstressedthebloodlinksbetweenthetwogroups:Iweepforthebloodofkinship,thechieflybloodwhichflowsaway….
Weweredistressed,wewept,werememberedtheimportanceofthebloodofkinshipfromthepast,fromlongago,rightuptoourlifetimes….
Weareboundtogether,sirs,bythechieflybloodwhichlinksNaivotavota,thehousefoundationofSavena,andalltheotherchieflyhousefoundations.
Youbeholditanditissmall[thetabua],itisnotgoodenoughfortheblood,thechieflybloodthatflowsaway.
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.
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StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'110Ontheseoccasionstabuabecomethefocusofpowerfulsentimentswhicharetransferredinphysicallyembodiedformbythepresentertotherecipients.
Thereisadynamicperformativedimension,asthebodyofthepresenterandthetoothmoveforwardsandbacktoemphasisethesentimentsexpressed.
Theimportanceoftheoccasionisalsoenhancedbytheuseinspeechesofhonorificvocabulary,includingthetermkamunagafortabua,whichmaybetranslatedas'treasure,greatvaluable'.
ThiswasthecaseinthecondolencespeechesforPaea.
Ingeneraltalkatoothonacordistabua,butinformalspeechesitiskamunaga.
(Insubsequenttranslationsthistermwillbeleftasspoken,andnottranslatedastabua.
)Thus,duringpresentation,atabuaisapubliclywitnessedvehiclefortheprofoundexpressionandtransferofwishes,hopes,requests,allegiance,invocationsandblessings,whicharesometimesexplicitlystatedtovodokina'getaboard'thetabua,vodobeingthewordusedforboardingacanoe,nowadaysanykindofboat.
StructureofspeechesThestructureandformofthemanydozensoftabuaspeechesthatIhavewitnessedinLauishighlyconsistent,asisthestatus,actualorputative,ofthethreespeakerswhomakethem.
Wherepossible,thepresenterandfirstrecipientshouldbefromclansofchieflystatus(turaga),andthesecondrecipientfromanon-chieflyclanofheraldstatus(matanivanua).
Ifthepresenterisaveryhighchief,thenaheraldmaymakethetabuapresentationonhisorherbehalf,actingasthechief'smouthpiece.
Thispracticeisconsistentwiththemoregeneralcustomofparticularclansundertakingparticularroles.
IntheKoroSeachiefdomsofeasternFiji,villagesarecomposedofseveralpatrilinealexogamousclanswithdifferentstatuses,whichmaybechiefs,priests,heralds,gardeners,fishermen,navigators,carpenters,etc.
Thesestatusesaremanifestedmostregularlyinaritualdivisionoflabour.
Thereisalsoabroadbinarydistinctionbetweenchiefs(turaga)andnon-chiefs/landspeople(vanua).
Whenritualtasksareundertakenseniormembersofdifferentclanswilltakeonspecificroles,suchasthedivisionofacommunalfishcatch(chiefs),thedivisionofafeast(landspeople),thepresentationoffirstfruits,feastsandyaqona(landspeople),andthepresentationanddivisionofvaluables,includingtabua(chiefs).
Withrespecttotabua,thegreatestvaluable,itismembersofchieflyclanswhoshouldpresentandreceivethemwithspeeches.
4Chieflyclansinvillagesmayormaynotbeconnectedbycommonancestrytotheeminentchieflyclans(originallyofforeignorigin)ofmajorchiefdomsinFijisuchasBau,Rewa,CakaudroveandLau,buttheirmembershave111StevenHooperresponsibilitiesandplayrolesexpectedofchiefsthroughoutFiji.
Whenno-onefromachieflyorheraldclanisavailableforatabuapresentation,thenparticipantswillassumetherolesofchiefandheraldinorderforittobedoneproperly.
Ifaritualprocedureisdeemednecessary,arrangementscanbeflexibleandanyoneavailablecantakeanappropriaterole.
Asportsteamontourmaydesignatethemanagerorcaptaintotaketheroleofchiefforritualpurposes,whethertheybelongtoachieflyclanornotintheirownchiefdomorvillage.
Ritualspeechmakersalsowillbechosenbecauseoftheiroratoryskills,knowledgeoftitlesandfamiliaritywithhonorificvocabulary,suchaskamunaga.
5Titlesandnotpersonalnamesareusedinformalspeechesbecausethepeopleinvolveddonotactasindividualsbutasinstantiationsandembodimentsoftheirclan,villageorchiefdom,andindeed,asshallbearguedlater,oftheirancestralgod.
ThespeechstructureoftabuapresentationislargelythesamethroughoutFijiandhasbecomestandardisedasafundamentalprocedureinnationalculture.
Theformoftabuaspeechescanbesetoutasfollows:I.
Presenter(turaga,ofchieflystatus)—atlengthiTowhompresented,usinghonorifictitlesiiFromwhompresented,usinghonorifictitlesiiiNatureandoccasionofpresentationivPresentationisinadequateandsmall;forgivenessrequestedvOffereduptoseniortitleofrecipients(byimplicationtotheirancestors/gods)II.
Recipient(turaga,ofchieflystatus)—briefiFromwhompresented,usinghonorifictitlesiiTowhompresented,usinghonorifictitlesiiiNatureandoccasionofpresentation(optional)ivReceivedwiththanksandapprovalvGivesblessings,invokesChristianGodandcallsforbeneficialthingstooccurIII.
Recipient'sherald(matanivanua,ofnon-chieflystatus)—atlengthiFromwhompresented,usinghonorifictitlesiiTowhompresented,usinghonorifictitlesiiiNatureandoccasionofpresentationivPresentationislarge,magnificentandreceivedwiththanksvGivesblessings,invokesChristianGodandcallsforbeneficialthingstooccur'SupremeamongourValuables'112StatustabuapresentationsThismodelsequencewasillustratedduringamajorveiqaravivakavanua'statereception'offeredtotheparamountchiefofLauatthemeetingoftheLauProvincialCouncilatNaikeleyagavillage,Kabara,on5May1980.
Theparamountchief,RatuSirKamiseseMara,bearerofthetitlesTuiNayau,SauniVanuaandTuiLau,waschairmanoftheLauProvincialCouncilandatthattimePrimeMinisterofFiji.
TuiNayauwashisseniortitle,theoneusedbyLauans,sowillhenceforthbeusedhere.
Beforethebusinessofthemeetingbeganaseriesofofferingswasmade,lastingoveranhour,involvingthepresentationbyKabaransofacoconut-leafmat(tabakau),somecoconutsonastalk(ivono),asequenceoftabuapresentations(seebelow),ayaqonaroot(isevusevu),someyaqonaspeciallymadeandservedtoTuiNayau(yaqonavakaturaga),andfinallyafeast(iwaseniyaqona)ofcookedporkandrootvegetables.
TuiNayaurespondedwithspeecheswhenhereceivedeachtabuaandattheendofthepresentationshemadealongerspeechcalledvakatatabu'sacredpronouncement'.
InhisvakatatabuheexpressedpositivesentimentsabouttheKabaranhosts,gavebenedictions,invokedGod'sblessing,calledforprosperityandappealedforwisediscussionsduringthemeeting.
TheritualsequencewasclosedwithashortappreciativespeechbyaKabaran,calledulivinivakatatabu.
6Thefourtabuapresentationsmadeduringthestatereceptionwerecalledcavuikelekele'pullinguptheanchor'(infactdonethepreviousnightonboardship),qalovi'swimming'(outtoinvitetheguesttoland),luvanitawake'loweringofthepennant'andvakamamaca'drying'.
Thesewerethesamefourtabuapresentations(thoughnotthesamewhaleteeth)thathadbeenmadetotheQueenthreeyearspreviouslyinSuva.
Thesetabuapresentations,andothersdescribedbelow,areclassifiedbymeas"status",asdistinctfrom"kinship",becausethespeechesmadereferencenottobloodandkinship,buttothereciprocalstatusrelationsbetweenKabaraandtheparamountchief,thepoliticalanddiplomaticcharacterofwhichwasaffirmedbypledgesofallegiance.
Inthiscontextanyexistingkinshiprelationswereasecondaryconsideration.
Whatwasdesiredfromtheparamountchiefwastheconferringofblessingsonthepolity.
7AlthougheachofKabara'sfourvillageshaschieflyclansinthecontextofvillageritualactivities,thevillagesofNaikeleyagaandTokalaueachhavetwoclanswhoareconsideredtobedescendedfromfamousimmigrantchiefswhoarrivedinantiquity,settledinvariouspartsofFiji,marriedwomenoftheautochthonouspopulationandproduceddescendantswhotodaycomprisethegreatchieflyhousesofFiji.
TheclanoftheparamountchiefofLauandthefourchieflyclansonKabaraalltracedescentfromtheseoriginalimmigrantchiefs.
Duringthe1980statereception,seniormenofthefourKabarachieflyclanseachpresentedatabua.
113Toillustratethekindofsentimentsexpressed,Igiveanabridgedversionoftheiqalovi'swimming'tabua.
Thisappearstobe,andtohavebeeninthepast,themainpresentationepitomisingallegiance.
ItwasmadebyKevueliBuluofNaivotavotaclan,theeffectivechiefofKabaraanditselectedrepresentativeontheLauProvincialCouncil.
BuluwaseligiblebybirthinachieflyclantobeinstalledintheseniortitleTuiKabara,butbecauseofrivalclaimsinotherchieflyclansandalackofagreement,theleadersoftheKabaralandspeople(vanua)hadnotinstalledaTuiKabaraforseveralgenerations.
8Aftertheinitialpresentationsofthematandthecoconuts,acallof"A,oi,oi"wentupfromtheKabarans,whichwasechoedbyTuiNayau'stwoheralds.
ThenBulustoodup,strodeforwardandkneltinfrontofTuiNayau,alargedark-colouredtabuainhislefthand,itscoircordinhisright.
Hisvoicefirm,Bulubegan,"Inthechieflymanner,sirs,tomyBigHouse",towhichTuiNayau'stwoheraldsrespondedbycallingout,"A,oi,oi,atabualevuea['abigtabua'],wooo",thelastworddeliveredinacrescendo.
Thecall"A,oi,oi"wasexplainedasaformoftamaoracclamation,anhonorificcallmadewhenapproachingachief,usedwhenatabuaappearsforpresentationonacelebratoryoccasion.
Chiefsandtabuaaretherebyaccordedthesamerespect.
BulucontinuedwithaforcefulspeechwhichfollowedthestructureoutlinedinIabove.
Althoughrespectful,hespokeinamannerthatcouldbedescribedasyaloqaqa'bold-spirited'becauseKabaraholdsthehonouredstatusofbati'warriors,border'totheTuiNayau.
Youfollowed,sir,thepathwayherewiththenoblechiefsofLau.
Youarenowsecure,sir,onyourcragofrock[ucunivatu—honorificself-deprecatingterm],andwenowpresenttheiqalovi,sir,toyouthismorning.
Thekamunagaishereastheiqaloviforyou….
Weusuallysay,sir,thatKabaraispoor,butwearenowwealthy,sir,onaccountofyourdecision[toholdtheProvincialCouncilonKabara].
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Youbehold,sir,thekamunaga.
Ifitbesmall,letitbeforgiven.
Ifthespeechconcerningitsoundsbadly,letthatbeforgiven.
Toolong,sir,isthespeechofthekamunaga,offereduptoday,thatitmaybecorrect,sir,andaccepted.
Whenhehadfinished,BulustoodupandplacedthetabuainthehandsofTuiNayau,whoreplied(Fig.
3):Itakeholdofthekamunaga,thechieflykamunaga,thekamunagaaccordingtothecustomsoftheland.
Akamunagahere,offeredupbyyouourpeopleofKabara,fromtheTuiKabaraandfromyouthebarkcloths[titleholders]ofthelandwhoattendatourreceptiontoday.
ItisoffereduptotheChairmanoftheCouncil,tothegentlemen,thechieflyrepresentatives[electedmembers]oftheProvincewhohavearrivedheretoday,therepresentativesfromtheGovernment[Matanitu],theLand[Vanua]andtheChurch[Lotu].
KamunagaStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'114oflife,kamunagaofpermanence;mayourgatheringbeblessed,bewellmadeitsdecisions,andmayourLandofKabarabeprosperousforever.
Effective,beittrue.
TuiNayauthenpassedthetabuatohisherald,PeniVakaruarua,holderofthetitleMatakiCicia,whoamplifiedTuiNayau'ssentiments.
WhendiscussingtheeventafterwardswithKabarans,itwasfeltthatthewholeveiqaravi,whichhadbeenasourceofanxietymixedwithconfidencebeforehand,hadgoneoffwell.
Thespeecheshadbeengood,thehonouredFigure3.
TuiNayau,RatuSirKamiseseMara,receivingtheiqalovitabuaatthestatereception,Naikeleyagavillage,KabaraIsland,Lau,5May1980.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)115guests(vulagidokai)hadbeenwellfedandentertained.
Morecrucially,TuiNayauhadexpressedhimselfwell-pleasedwithKabara'sgu'energy,commitment'inhostingthewholemeeting,feedingtheguestsandpayingthemgreatrespect.
Kabarahadenhanceditsreputation,andtheblessingsandapprobationoftheparamountchief,elicitedbythepresentationoftabuaandothermarksofrespect,hadbeenreceivedwithsatisfaction.
Achief'swordsaremana'effective',manabeinganefficacyofdivineoriginlinkedtocausation,sopronouncementsmadebyaparamountchief,betheyblessingsorcurses,willcometopass.
Statustabuapresentationscanalsobeonanationalscale.
Forexample,atameetingatSomosomoinJuly1986oftheGreatCouncilofChiefs(anadministrativeorganisationofcolonialorigin,dismantledbythecurrentregime),all14FijianprovincesmadeamajorpublicpresentationandpledgeofallegiancetotheGovernor-General,RatuSirGeorgeCakobau,VunivaluofBau.
Onetabuawasheldbythemainspeakerandavulo(abunchoftentabua)washeldbyeachofthe14bearerskneelingbehindhim(Fig.
4).
Thetabuahadbeensuppliedbytheprovincialoffices,andafterpresentationtoStevenHooperFigure4.
Onetabua,plus14vulo(bunchesoften)beingpresentedtotheGovernor-General,RatuSirGeorgeCakobau,VunivaluofBau,attheGreatCouncilofChiefsmeeting,Somosomo,Cakaudrove,June1986.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)'SupremeamongourValuables'116theGovernor-Generalmostwereredistributedamongtheprovinces.
Whenministersorothergovernmentadministratorsmakevisitsbeyondthecapitaltheyarelikelytoberespectfullyreceivedvakavanua'inthemanneroftheland,inFijianstyle'bylocalcommunitieswithawelcomingtabua.
Statusrelationsbetweenchiefsandpeoplemayalsobepredicatedonancientkinshiprelations,especiallybecauseinpre-Christiantimespolygamousparamountchiefshadmanywivesdrawnfromwithinandbeyondtheirrealm,establishingimportantaffinalconnectionswiththeirownsub-chiefdomsandexternalchiefdoms.
Theselinksthroughwomen,oftenexpressedas'pathways'(wakolo/sala),permittedbrothers-in-lawtocalluponeachotherformutualassistance,whiletheoperationofvasurightsmeantthatthechildrenofamarriage,especiallyachieflyone,couldhaveaccesstotheirmother'sbrother'sresources.
ThemissionaryDavidCargillobservedin1835thattheTuiNayau,RokoTaliai,hadmanywives,34ofwhomwerelistedbyRichardLyth(1850-51:61).
Cargillopinedthat,"Ifeartheprincipalobstacleinthewayofhisconversionishisreluctancetopartwiththem"(1977:70),perhapsappreciatinghowthosewiveslockedTuiNayauintoimportantaffinalrelationsofaveryextensivekind.
Anotherstatus-typetabuapresentationisisoro'entreaty',whereatabuaisgivenbysomeonewhohascommittedamisdemeanourinrelationtothehealthofthechiefdomandwhowishestoentreatforgiveness.
Thistabuacanbeknownasmatanigasau'pointofthearrow'ormatanimoto'pointofthespear',nameswhichindicateformermethodsofentreaty.
Arecentexampleofa(failed)matanigasauwasanattemptin2001byrepresentativesoftheGreatCouncilofChiefstopresentonetoRatuMara,TuiNayauandPresidentofFiji,whohadbeenforcedfromGovernmentHouseduringthepreviousyear'spoliticalcrisis.
Whenhebecameawareoftheirintentionshesaidhecouldnotacceptthetabuaandtheissueremainedunresolved.
Inthepast,isorowasanactofobeisanceafterdefeat,whenabasketofearthandawomancouldalsobeofferedtothevictorwitharequestforlife,sincepoweroverlife,andprosperouslife,wasattributedtothevictoriouschiefandmanifestedinthewordsofforgivenesswhichitwashopedwouldtherebybeelicited.
Statustabuamayalsobepresentedbychiefstotheirpeopletoacknowledgespecialservices.
Thesetabuamaybecalledivakatale'return'oriqaravi'facing'(implyingareciprocalgift),andspecifickindsofiqaraviareiluvanimoto'removing(afish)fromthespear',iculamataniika'needlefromtheeyeofthefish'andisereserenidali'untyingtherope'(fromaturtle).
Forexample,inLauIwastoldthatturtlesandcertainlargefish,suchassaqa'gianttrevally'(Caranxignobilis)anddonu'coraltrout'(Plectropomusleopardus),shouldnotbeeatenprivatelybutbetakentothechief,whoshouldreciprocatewithatabuaandothervaluables,suchasamatorsheetof117Figure5.
IlaitiaLeduaofUduvillage,Kabara,presentingatabuaasathanksgiving(vakavinavinaka)onbehalfoftheKabaradelegationattheMethodistChurchconferenceatTubou,Lakeba,July1980.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)barkcloth.
Tabuaarealsogivenbychiefsonotheroccasionsinrecognitionofservices,includingiluvanivesa'removingofdanceornaments'afteramajordanceperformance,ivodokiniwaqa'boardingofthecanoe'whenacanoeiscompletedandiqusiniloaloa'wipingoffblackpaint'tothosereturningfromasolevu'ceremonialexchange'(insteadofasinthepasttoasuccessfulStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'118returningwarparty).
IwitnessedaiqusiniloaloainMay1980whentheKabaradelegationreturnedfromamajorceremonialexchangeatRewa.
House-building,likecanoe-building,isalsoanoccasionfortabuapresentation.
On7July1977thenewlybuiltMethodistchurchinTokalauvillage,Kabara,wasformallyhandedovertothevillagebythemasterbuilder,amanfromVitilevu.
Separatefromhiscashsalary,thebuilderreceivedatabuaasidolanivale'openingofthehouse',plusmanyothervaluablesandafeastfromthechiefsandpeopleofTokalauinrecognitionofhisgreatlabour,whichhadtakenovertwoyears.
MethodistChurchmeetingsarealsooccasionsfortabuapresentationbecausethesegatheringsinvolvevisitsbyguestdelegates.
Appropriaterespectfulbehaviourisexpectedbetweenhostsandguestsandtowardsseniorchurchmembers,whoaretreatedaschiefswhethertheyhavethatstatusbybirthornot.
InJuly1980representativesoftheKabaraMethodistChurchtravelledtoTubou,Lakeba,fortheannualregionalmeetingandchoir-singingcompetition.
Kabaransmadeavarietyoftabuapresentationsduringthetrip,includingtochurchofficialsasvakavinavinaka'thanksgiving'forhostingthemeeting(Fig.
5).
Tabuawerealsogiventorelativesasraiibulubulu'seeingthegrave',inhonourofclanmemberswhohadpassedawayrecentlyandforwhomithadnotyetbeenpossibletopresentcondolencetabua(ireguregu).
Othertabuapresentationsbychiefs,orrepresentativesofpolities,betheychiefdomsorvillages,includebutabuta,aninitiatinggifttospecialistcarpenterstobeginworkonacanoeorahouse,andikerei'requesting'ofsomeotherenterpriseorservice,whichinthepastincludingikereiniivalu'requestingofassistanceinwar'.
Inter-chiefdomtabuatransactionscanalsobeoccasionedbydynasticmarriagesandalliancesthroughwomen.
Thisisanareawhere"status"tabuapresentationsoverlapwith"kinship"ones.
KinshiptabuapresentationsNowadayskinship(veiwekani)andritesofpassageprovidethemostfrequentoccasionswhentabuaarebroughtoutfromtheirsecurestorageintheprivateupperpartofahouse.
Relationswithaffinesareregardedasparticularlyimportantand'heavy'(bibi),sentimentsexpressedrepeatedlyduringformalspeechesandineverydaytalk.
Youngpeopleareregularlyremindedthatwakolovakaveiwekani'pathwaysofkinship'arefoundationaltosocialandculturallifeandareneglectedattheclan'speril.
GeographicalandclimaticconditionsinislandgroupssuchasFiji,especiallyinremoteislands,canstillmakepopulationsperiodicallyvulnerabletodroughtandfoodshortages,soeventhoughFijihasacasheconomy,thereremainsastrongethosthatsurvival,physicalandcultural,isprimarilydependentonthemaintenanceofactiveandproductivekinrelations.
119Asseenearlierwiththecondolencespeechesafteradeath,kinshiptabuapresentationscanbeintenselyemotional.
Thesameappliestothoseconnectedtomarriage,whentheemotionsareofadifferentorder.
Amarriageinvolvestwokeytabuapresentations,thoughadditionaltabuamaybeusedas'decoration'(iukuuku)forotherexchangesthattakeplaceiffamilieswithampleresourcesareinvolved.
However,essentialtoFijianmarriageritesinpresent-dayLauaretheilakoviorilavenitikina'proposal'forthehandofthewoman,presentedbytheman'sside,andtheitatauvaki'farewelling'ofthebridepresentedbythewoman'sside.
IsireliRarawa,ofTokalauvillage,Kabara,discussingthemarriageofhissonin1978,explainedtheimportanceofbothtabua.
Thisthing,the'proposal'tabua,isaveryimportantvaluableforthefatheroftheman.
Theproperprocedureforusisthatthemostimportantvaluable,thebest,betakenastheproposalforthewoman.
Thisisthereason.
Thewomanisapersonandsheliveswithherfatherandmother,andthismeansthatthebestthingsshouldbetaken,sothatshemaycomehereandbemarriedtomyson.
ThefatherandmotherofthewomanwillseethisandtheywillknowthatIamsincereaboutthemgivingawaytheirchild.
…The'farewelling'ofthewoman,thisisthemostimportantthing.
Thelifeofthewomanistherebyfarewelled/entrustedtotheman'speople.
Themeaningofitisforthemtolookafterher,loveher,attendtoherandgiveherthethingssheneeds.
Thewomanisleavingherfather;thelife/welfareofthewomanbecomestheresponsibilityoftheman'srelatives.
ShortlyafterthisdiscussionaweddingtookplaceinTokalau.
ThebridecamefromUduvillageandtwosides(taba)wereformed,thatofthebrideandthegroom,bymembersofUduandTokalauvillagesrespectively.
Aseriesofexchangestookplacethroughouttheday,duringwhichthebrideandgroomwererepeatedlyrobedanddisrobedinnewbarkclothandescortedbackandforthbetweenthehousesusedastheirrespectiveheadquarters.
Thewomenofeachsideusedthemliterallyasvehiclestofacilitateinter-clanexchanges.
Theclimaxwaswhenthebridewasbroughtforthelasttimetothegroom'shouseandthefarewellingtabuawaspresented.
Herfather,hermotherandallhervillagerelativeswouldmaketheirwaybackdownthecoasttoUdu,butshewouldremain.
Thegroom'ssidewerewaitingintheirhousewhenawhispercamefromoneoftheladieswhohadaclearviewoutofthelowerdoor.
"They'recoming.
"Backswerestraightened,cigarettesputoutandthebride'spartyentered,ledbytheirherald,thechiefofUduandthebride'sfather.
Thebride,Tagi,infinelystencilledbarkclothandglisteningwithscentedcoconutoil,wasleduptobeseatednexttothegroomonadaisofdecoratedmatsandbarkclothprovidedbyladiesofbothsides.
WhenallStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'120weresettled,crowdingthehouse,thechiefofUdu,IlaitiaLedua,theneasedforwardontohiskneesandheldoutafinelargetabua,cradlingitinhislefthandandliftingitoccasionallyasifassessingitsweight.
Hespokefirmlybutwithemotion,moisteningtheeyesofmanypresent.
Afterthepreliminaryreferencestotitles,hecontinued:Firstly,sirs,Iholdbeforeyouakamunaga.
Thekamunagahere,sirs,youknow,firmlyestablishedinpresenttimes,isnotanewkamunaga,itisanancientkamunaga.
Ithasbeenpresentedmanytimessincethetimeofourforefatherswhohavepassedaway,anditistheirpaththatwefollowhere.
Itisheldherebeforeyouagainthisevening.
Wearenotdispirited.
Werejoice,forweknowthatwearebringinghereanendofacordthatourchiefswhohavefallen[died]havekepttiedtogetherbetweenValelevuandVanuamasi[namesofhousefoundationsofthetwosides].
Secondly,Tagiisherepresentedtoyou.
.
.
.
Thirdly,herlifeishere.
Iknowthatwhenachildisbroughtupinahousehold,no-onecantellwhereshewilleventuallybesettled.
Thisevening,sirs,werejoice,wegivethanks,forweknowthatTagiwillbeprotectedandcaredforandthatourancientkinshipbondswillremaintied….
Hereisthepropervaluable,inthepropermanner.
Weighty,sirs,isthespeechofthevaluablewhichisofferedbytheeldersofherclan.
IspeakonbehalfofUduvillageinthebeliefandconfidencethateverythingwillbecarriedout,asweknowitwill.
Iknowthatmywordswillbeheededand,asthepresentationiscarriedout,soitiswitnessed.
Toolengthy,sirs,isthespeechofthekamunaga,offeredupinthechieflymannertoValelevu,thatitmaybecorrectandaccepted….
Theseniormanonthegroom'sside,IsireliBuli,receivedthetoothwith:Itakeintomyhandsthekamunaga,akamunagaacceptabletous,amagnificentkamunaga,akamunagawhichhasreopenedthedoortoValelevu.
Maythickbethebloodofkinship.
MayChristianityprosperandmayallthosewhocometoValelevubecaredforinallfuturetimes.
Effective,beittrue.
Allpresentcalledoutthelastwords(mana,edina)inunison,andIsireliBulipassedthetabuatohisherald,IsireliRarawa,whoclappedsoftlybeforehetookit,broughtituptohisnoseinasniffinggesture,andspoke:Itakeupthekamunaga,thekamunagareleasedinthechieflymannerfromyouthechiefsofUdu,fromthechiefTuiUdu,fromthechief'sassistantsoftheclanofMuanaicake[bride'sclan],fromthesacredhousefoundations,thegreathousefoundation,fromherparents,fromherbrothers,fromhergrandmothers,indeedfromeveryoneatthechieflyvillageofUdu.
AkamunagaisbroughtuptoTokalau,tothechiefsofTokalau,broughtuptothehousefoundationValelevu,thehousefoundationoccupiedbythechiefslinkedbythebloodofkinshipwithUdu….
Thistoothisaweightytooth.
Thereason,sirs,isthatachildfromwithinachieflyvillageisbeingfarewelledthereby.
Weknowwell,sirs,that121ourchiefsaretiedwiththosewhocomefromUduandhavecometoValelevu.
Wealsoknowthenewpaththatfollowstheoldpath.
Womenhavegonetoyou,theyhavebeencountedasbelongingtoUdu.
ThechildrenofValelevu,sirs,areboundtogetherwiththebloodfromUdu.
Itisasifthepathwayhadbecomeovergrown,butnowitisbeingre-established….
Kamunagaoflife,thatwemaylive.
Kamunagaoffirmness,thatfirmlyestablishedmaybeyourchieflybloodofkinshipatUdu,andatTokalau,atthehousefoundationValelevu.
Kamunagaalsoofhonour,thathonourablemaybeourchieflykinshiprelations,thatwemaygotooneanotherinaccordancewiththecustomsofourforefathers.
Ipraytoheaventhatblessingsmaydescendonus,thatourlivesbefirm,thatGodonhighbejustandthatthechildrenofUdubesuccessfulgardenersinallfuturetimes.
Effective,beittrue.
Thelastwords,Mana,edina,wererepeatedbyallpresent.
Thesentimentsexpressedinthesespeechesneedlittleamplification.
Thevalueofthebondsofkinshipbetweenclansandvillages,forgedbywomenwhomarryoutandbearchildren,isexpressedthroughavividimageryofconnectingpathways,bindingtiesandunitingbloods.
Morepowerfulstill,complementingtheverbalimagery,isthetabuaitself,silentbearerofallthesepotentsentiments,passingfromhandtohand,andclantoclan.
Ihaveseennumeroussimilartabuapresentationsatweddings,funerals,firstbirthdaysoffirstbornandaffinalvisits,suchasonebetweenUduvillageandMoceIslandin1978.
TheUdupeopleneededplantingmaterial,whichcouldbeobtainedfromaffinalrelativesonthefertileislandofMoce,some35milesdistantbycanoe.
TheUdudelegationtookseveraltabuaandwoodenkavabowls,whichonarrivalwerepresentedasraiibulubulu'seeingthegrave'inrespectofrelativesonMocewhohadpassedawaysincethelastvisit.
AfterafewdaystheMocerelativesrespondedwithbasketsofplantingmaterialfortheUduvisitors.
Althougheveryoneknewaneedforcropshadtriggeredtheexpedition,itwasalwaysreferredtoasavisittoraiibulubulu.
Elopement(veitubaitaki)isanotheroccasionthatdemandsthedeploymentoftabuaifhonouristobesatisfied.
Elopementisregardedasaveryseriousmatterbythefamilyofthegirl,andthereisonlyoneappropriatemethodbywhichthefamilyoftheboycanresolvethecrisisandmakereparation—presentationoftabuaas'theburying'(ibulubulu),whichisineffectatypeofisoro.
Tabuacanbegreatcoolersofangerandontheseoccasionsarebestbroughtintoactionwithoutdelay.
InKabaraanelopementtookplaceinUduvillage.
Afterlatenightconfusion(retrospectivelyhilarious)duringwhichthecoupleranawaytotheboy'shouse,theboy'sparentsassessedthesituation,establishedthattheteenagersintendedtogetmarried,anddecidedtoapproachthegirl'sparents,whowerenearneighboursandaffinalkin.
Afewdayslatertheboy'sfathertoldmethestory:StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'122SoIsaidtomywife,"Mere,pleasebringthetabuathatareinthatbox,sowecangotoJone[girl'sfather]todothe'burying'andcarryoutthecustomaryprocedure.
"Meretooktwotabua—weonlyhadtwotabuainourhouse.
Isaid,"WiththesetabuaIshallgoanddothe'burying'andalsopresentthe'proposal'inthecustomarymanner.
"Sowewenttogether.
Yes,itwaslateatnight,butwedidn'twaittillnextday.
Withthissortofproblemyouwanttotaketheswiftestroutepossibletosortitout,because,ifyoudelay,herfatherorbrothersorsomeoneelsewillhear,anditwillcause—ifnocustomaryprocedureisdonetosetthingsright—itwillcausesometrouble.
Because,accordingtoFijianstandardsintheolddays,thiswasaninsultingact.
AccordingtoFijianstandards,elopementisconsidereddisrespectful.
Yes.
Afterthis,wewentstraightawayandweenteredthegirl'shousetogether.
…JonelookedatusandrealisedthatUnawasatourhouseandthatweweregoingtohimforaparticularreason.
IsaidstraightawaytoJone,"Jone,ourformalvisitfacesyou"[standardwordspreliminarytoapresentation].
WhenJoneheard'ourformalvisit'heknewstraightawaythatUnawaswithus.
UpspokeJone,"Willyouwaitplease,letustalkfirst….
"However,evenafterthistalk,mymindwasnotatease,becauseIwantedthecustomaryproceduretobedone,andthereasonisthatsheisaspecialchildtoherparents,andinthemorningitwouldbeheardaboutifweonlydiscussedthattheyoungpeoplebemarried,andnocustomaryprocedurewasdone.
Therearesomeinthevillage,andsomeinthechiefdom,whowillbeinclinedtocriticiseus,andsoIwanttoabidebythecustomaryproceduresoftheolddaysthatareusuallydoneinthesecircumstances.
Ifithappensthatacouplegetupandrunawaytogether,thenthecustomaryprocedureshouldbedone.
SoIthenpresentedourtabuatoJone,reckoningthemas'burying'and'proposal'.
IfIhadhadtentabuaIwouldhavetakenallten,becauseIknowthatpeoplearegreaterthantabua,peopleareimportant.
Butwehadonlytwotabua,sowepresentedthemtogetherasour'burying'andour'proposal'AfterthatJonetookholdofthemandreceivedthem.
Havingcompletedthatproperly,Jonethenbroughtoutanothertabuaandpresentedittousasourreciprocalgift(iqaravi)onaccountofourformalvisit.
But,asfarasIcanjudge,itwasn'tcorrectforJonetopresentanothertabua.
Therearetypesofcustomaryprocedurethatwhencompletedshouldbereciprocated,andtherearecustomarypresentationsthatwhencompletedarefinished—adiscussionconcludesthematter.
Tome,forthecustomaryprocedurethatwewenttoperform,itwasnotcorrectforittohavebeenreciprocated.
Anyway,wewerereciprocatedandwerespectedthat,wereceivedthetabua,andwhenthatwasfinishedwehadadiscussionaboutthemarriagearrangements.
Thisaccounthasbeengivenatlengthbecauseoftheinsightsprovidedintothesignificanceoftabuaforafamilyofnon-chieflystatuslivinginaremotevillage.
Tabuaareregardedasessentialtotheeffectivefunctioningofculturallife;theyhaveapotencythatiscapableofbringingaboutdesiredeffects.
123Tomovefromthemicrocosmtothemacrocosm,thefinalexamplestobeprovidedofcontemporarytabuauseinakinshipcontextrelatetolargeceremonialexchanges(solevu)connectedtotheparamountchiefofLau.
Thefirstrelatestohischildren'srelationshiptotheirmother'speople,thesecondconcernshisownmortuaryritual.
InMay1980,shortlyaftertheProvincialCouncilmeetingonKabara,severalhundredLauanstravelledtoRewa,wheretheywerejoinedbyhundredsmorewhowereresidentonVitilevu.
TheyandtheirclansandvillageshadallproducedvaluablesandfoodtotaketoRewatoparticipateinalarge-scaleceremonialexchangecalled'thetakingofchildren'(kaumatanigone).
Thisisaritualcarriedoutatclanorchiefdomlevelwhenthechildrenofamarriage,whoarenormallyresidentatthefather'splace,aretakenformallytotheirmother'snatalclan,orchiefdom,andpresentedtogetherwithvaluablestotheirmother'sbrothers,withwhomtheyhavethespecialvasurelationship.
Untilthisritualisdoneitisnotconsideredappropriateforchildrenofamarriagetoexercisetheirvasuprivilege,whichallowsthemtotakepropertyandinotherwaystakeadvantageoftheirmaternalkin,especiallythemother'sbrothers.
Atthe1980eventtheeightchildren(intheirteensandtwenties)ofRatuMara,paramountchiefofLau,andRoLala,paramountchiefofRewa,werebeingtakentoRewatobepresentedformallytotheirmother'speople.
Giventhehighstatusoftheparents,andtheextensivereachofthechiefdomswhichtheyled,theresourcestheycouldcountonweresubstantial.
ThewholeofLauparticipatedwithenthusiasmbecausedespitetheworkinvolvedinmakingvaluablessuchascanoes,kavabowls,mats,barkcloth,coircordandscentedcoconutoil—allthingsclassifiedasiyau—asolevuisanexcitingtimewhenpeopletraveltomeetupwithrelatives,catchuponnews,stayupallnightdancinganddrinkingyaqona,andgenerallyhaveamemorabletimethatcontrastsstronglywiththeusualrhythmofvillagelife.
Inmyexperienceofthisevent,ithadthecharacterofanexcitingthree-dayfestivalduringwhichtheresourcesofbothchiefdomsweremobilisedinahighlypublicway,andforwhichlargequantitiesoffoodandusefulobjectswerecreatedandexchanged.
Vitilevu-basedLauans,withlimitedaccesstovillageresources,contributedcashtobuymodernvaluablessuchaskerosene,washingsoapandboltsofcottoncloth,andtopayfortransport.
Spacedoesnotallowacomprehensivetreatmentofthisevent,buttheroleoftabuawillbebrieflyhighlighted.
Atthecorewasasimpleritual,theparticipantsformingtwosidesastheydoatawedding.
Thefather'ssidepresentthechildrentotheirmother'ssidewithtabuaandothervaluables(iyau).
Themother'ssideactashostsandreciprocatethevaluableswithafeast(magiti).
Aftertheexchangethechildrenreturntotheirnatalhome,StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'124theirlinkswiththeirmother'sclanhavingbeenpubliclyacknowledgedandcelebrated.
However,whenbothfatherandmotherareparamountchiefs,'thetakingofthechildren'isanoccasionthatpromptschiefdom-wideparticipationinasolevu,andwhatKevueliBuluofKabaradescribedtomeasa'battleofabundance'(ivalusautu).
Onsuchoccasionsmembersofneitherchiefdomwishtobedefeated(druka)—reputationsareatstake.
Accordingly,everythingisdoneonagrandscale,andatRewain1980astheeightchildrenwereledacrosstheceremonialgroundonabarkclothpathway,eachholdingafinetabua,theywerefollowedby19meneachholdingavulo,'abunchoftentabua'(Fig.
6).
Afterthisvanguardcamebearersofvastquantitiesofdecoratedmats,severalenormous80-metre-longbarkcloths,thousandsofmetresofcottoncloth,hundredsofbottlesofscentedcoconutoil,dozensofdrumsofkerosene,over170woodenkavabowls,severalwoodengongsandthreefully-equippedsailingcanoeswiththeirsailsup(Fig.
6).
EverythingwaspresentedwithaspeechtothewaitingRewansbyTevitaLoga,aseniortitleholderofLau,holdingalargedeephoney-colouredtabuaofobviousgreatage.
ThetabuawasreceivedwithaspeechbytheVunivaluofRewa,Figure6.
TheeightLauan'children',elaboratelydressedandholdingtabua,areescortedacrosstheceremonialground(rara)onalongbarkclothpathwayontheoccasionofthe'takingofthechildren'(kaumatanigone)toRewa.
Numerousvaluables,includingbarkcloths,woodenbowlsandthreecanoeswiththeirsailsuparereadytobecarriedbehindthem.
Naililili,Rewa,May1980.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)125Figure7.
TheeightLauan'children'standbeforetheirmother'srelativesastabuaarepresentedontheoccasionofthe'takingofthechildren'(kaumatanigone).
Lauanvaluables,includingbarkcloth,drumsofkeroseneandwoodenbowlsarepiledbehindthem.
Naililili,Rewa,May1980.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)whothenpassedittohisheraldfortheusuallongerspeech.
9IntheafternoontheRewansreciprocatednotonlywiththeexpectedfeast,consistingofvastquantitiesofrootcropsandpigs,turtlesandcows,butalsowithlargequantitiesofvaluables,including30tabua,mats,barkcloth,cottonclothandthreelaunches,onewithanoutboardengine,tomatchthethreeLauancanoes.
Eachsidesubsequentlydivideditsspoilsamongallthosesub-chiefdomswhohadcontributed,andthetabuawerelikewisemostlyredistributedanddispersedamongthosewhohadattended,withthechieflyfamilieskeepingthefinestexamples.
Tabuainthesequantitiesarerarelyseen,thoughaswillbeapparentshortly,suchnumberswerealsoamassedinthe19thcentury.
LargenumbersoftabuawereagainseeninMay2005atTubou,Lakeba,whenthefinalmortuaryritual(vakataraisulu)wascarriedoutforRatuMara,paramountchiefofLau,whohadpassedawaythepreviousyear.
Vakataraisulumeansthe'allowingof(normal)clothes(aftermourning)'andisanexchangethatcanbeheldforanyonewhosesurvivingrelativeswishtoundertakeitandtherebyhonourtheirdeceasedrelative.
Thiscanbeatthevillagelevel,involvinglimitednumbersofpeopleandmodestStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'126quantitiesofvaluables,or,whendoneatthechiefdomlevel,itcaninvolvethewholechiefdomandotherchiefdomswhowishtoexpresskinship(aswellaspolitical)solidarity.
RatuMara,bornin1920,wasthemosteminentFijianofthesecondhalfofthe20thcentury.
ParamountchiefofLausincehisinstallationin1969,hehadalsobeenamemberofthecolonialLegislativeCouncil,andthenPrimeMinisterandPresidentofindependentFiji.
Athisfinalmortuaryritual,besidesadelegationfromTongaheadedbyPrincessPilolevu,38delegationsfromalloverFijicametopresenttabuaandlargequantitiesofvaluables,similartothosepresentedatRewain1980.
Thevaluableswerebroughtontotheceremonialgroundandpiledupbeforealargecylindricalmemorialimage(lawanimate)madeofmanythousandsofmetresofcoircordwoundroundawoodpostmadebythepeopleofCiciaIsland.
Theimagewasdressedinbarkclothinchieflyfashion,withaturbanofsmokedbarkcloth(masikuvui),andwasthefocalpointofthepresentations;dozensoftabuaeventuallyaccumulatedarounditsbase(Fig.
8).
Figure8.
Leadmourners,eachwithatabua,standbeforethememorialimage(lawanimate)ofTuiNayau,RatuSirKamiseseMara,astheirrelativespileuplargebarkclothsandothervaluablesatthevakataraisulu(allowingnormalclothes)finalmourningceremonyforthedeceasedchief,May2005.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)127Onceallthepresentationshadbeenmadetotheimageandtothehostclan(ofthedeceasedchief),everythingwasputawayforredistributionthefollowingday,whenallthevaluables,includingthetabua,wereassembledontheceremonialgroundandpresentedbythehoststotheguests(Fig.
9).
Theywerethensortedintonumerouspilesallocatedtothecontributingdelegations,carebeingtakentoavoidthesameitemsbeingreturnedtothosewhobroughtthemandtodistributeislandvaluablestourbanparticipants,andviceversa.
Tabua:quality,quantityandchangeTheforegoinghasdemonstratedthattabuaareusedinFijionawiderangeofoccasionsforavarietyofpurposes,butitshouldbeemphasisedthatthenamesofthetabuarefertotheoccasionortheritualprocedure,ratherthantothetabuaitself.
Anothertypeofvaluablecanbepresentedontheseoccasionsifatabuaisnotavailable.
Obviously,alltabuaarenotthesame.
Theydifferinsize,shapeandcolour,dependingontheageandsexofthespermwhalefromwhichtheycame,thepositionofthetoothinthejawandthedegreetoFigure9.
Theheapoftabua,priortothepresentationanddistributionofallvaluablestoparticipantsatthevakataraisulu(allowingnormalclothes)finalmourningritualforTuiNayau,RatuSirKamiseseMara,May2005.
(Photo:StevenHooper.
)StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'128whichtheyhavebeenworked,smoked,oiledandpolished.
Itisgenerallystatedthatifatabuaisneeded,thenonewillsuffice,butonsomeoccasionsmorethanone,andevenhundreds,arepresentedatthesametime.
Intheory,size,colourandqualitydonotmatter;inanemergencyanytabuawilldo,aswasthecasewiththeelopementatUdu.
Butassessmentsoftheresourcesofdonorsarealsomadeonthebasisofthequalityandquantityoftabuaoffered.
Individualorgroupprestigeisatstakewhentabuaaretransacted,andpeoplewillendeavourtoavoidaccusationsofbeingdravudravua'poverty-stricken'orvakaloloma'pitiable'bynotonlyproducingatabuawhenrequired,butalsobyproducingmorethanone,orahigh-qualityone,whencircumstancespermit.
AtthestatereceptionforTuiNayauatKabaraonlyonetoothwasappropriateforeachnamedpresentation,butitneededtobealargeandhandsomeone.
Additionalteethwereavailable,butwerenotconsiderednecessary.
However,whencompetitiveexchangestakeplace,largenumbersmaybetemporarilyaccumulatedfordistributiontodemonstrateaccesstoresources.
Largequantitiesofothertypesofvaluablesandfoodaresimilarlydeployed.
Asthe"supreme"valuable,thestrategicdeploymentoftabuanotonlybringsprestige,itisalsointendedtoelicitchieflyblessingsandapprobation.
Qualityisalsoafactorintabuaassessment.
Foranaturalwhale'stoothtobecomeatabuaappropriateforaprestigiousoccasion,itneedstohavebeenscraped,polished,oiledandthensmokedoverafireofsugarcane(dovu)andCordylineroots(masawe,Lauanqai).
10Thisgivesthetootharich,darkreddishpatinawhichcanbemaintainedbyoilingandprotectionfromlight.
Teethofthiskind,especiallyiflarge(over20cminlength),areveryhighlyregarded.
Tocompletethetransformationofatoothintoatabuaacord,usuallymadefromsquare-plaitedcoconuthuskfibre(magimagi),isattachedthroughasmallholeateachend.
Someexampleshavecordsofsquare-plaitedpandanusleaf.
Manyteethincirculationnowarerelativelysmall,theirshapelittlemodifiedandtheircolourpale;somehaveanoldpieceofropeforacord.
Thesearenotregardedassuitableforprestigiousoccasionsbecausekeenjudgementsofqualityarestillmadeabouttabua,bothintheselectionforspecificoccasionsandbyobserversatpresentations.
Duringthe20thcenturytherewasanincreaseintherangeofoccasionswhentabuacouldbepresented.
Inmy1978conversationwithTevitaSoro,IobservedthatalthoughIhadfrequentlyseentabuapresentedwithotherthingsclassifiedasvaluables,suchasmats(yaba),barkcloth(masi,gatu),scentedcoconutoil(waliwali)andcottoncloth(isulu),Ihadalsoseenthempresented,includingbyTevitahimselfasanon-chieflyherald,withafeast(magiti)ofpigandrootvegetables.
Isaidthatheandothershadtaughtmethatvaluablesandfeasts(iyauandmagiti)weredistinctcategorieswith129distinctritualproceduresappropriatetothem,presidedoverbychiefsandnon-chiefsrespectively.
Sowhywasatabua,whichhehaddescribedasachieflyvaluable,presentedtogetherwithafeastbyanon-chiefTevitarepliedthatthevaluables/chiefandfeast/non-chiefdivisionofrituallabourwastrue,andthatwhenhewasyoung(hewasbornaround1900)afeastwouldhavebeenpresentedwithonlyacoconutleaf,beingathingoftheland,byamemberofthevanua(theland,i.
e.
,notachief).
Headdedthatnowadayspeopleusetabuaasadecoration/ornament(iukuuku)whenpresentingafeastandonotheroccasions.
Itappearsthatincreasingavailabilityoftabua,andtheirlinktostatusgenerally,hasresultedinthemnowbeingusedtodecorateandenhancetheprestigeofanyoccasion.
Accesstotabua,oracquisitionofthem,isnolongerrestrictedtothoseofchieflystatus,butisgovernedbytwothings—activeparticipationineventsduringwhichtabuaflowbetweengroups,orresorttoapawnshopandcashpaymentifonecannotbeborrowedfromkin.
IlaitiaLedua,anelderofUduvillage,confirmedthedistinctionbetweenrequiredandoptionaloccasionsfortabuause,thelatternowbeingquitefrequentbecausetabuawerenumerousandpeoplewishedtodemonstratetheirampleresources.
Hesaid,"Formerly,whenafeastwasdone,thefeastalonewaspresented,the'leaf-trayoftheland'(draudraunivanua),athinginthemanneroftheland.
Onlyrecentlyhasatabuabeenpresentedwithit.
Itisjustthedecoratingofit.
Itwasn'tlikethatbefore.
"SowhatwasitlikebeforeWhatarethehistoricalconditionsthathaveledtothehighvalueandproliferationoftabuaForhowlonghavetabuabeendeployedinFiji,andbywhomThenextsectionwilldiscusswhatisknownoftabuasincethearrivalofEuropeansintheregion.
TABUAINHISTORYPolynesiansdidnothuntwhales,butarchaeologicalevidenceandcollectionsmadeby18th-centuryvoyagersinthePacificshowthatislandershadaccesstospermwhaleteethandwhale-bonefromoccasionalstrandings.
PolynesiansinTonga,Hawai'i,NewZealandandelsewheremadeneckpendantsfromwhaleivory,examplesofwhichwerecollectedduringCook'svoyagesin1768-80(Kaeppler1978a,2009;Skinner1974:45-98).
Thiswasbeforeivoryteethofvarioussortswereimportedfromoutsidetheregion(seebelow).
AlthoughCookcalledatVatoainsouthernLauduringhissecondvoyagein1774,nolandingwasmadeandlittleinformationwasgathered.
However,CookandothercrewmembersmetFijiansinTongainthe1770sandacquiredseveraldistinctivelyFijiantypesofartefactsthere,includingclubs,spearsandbowls(Kaeppler1978a:226-28,237,239;2009:173-74,179-84).
In1777,WilliamAndersonadmiredthecraftsmanshipofthingshewastoldwereStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'130ofFijianorigin,"whichhaveallacastofsuperiorityintheworkmanship"(Beaglehole1967:959).
Notabuawerereported,butseveralTongan-styleitemsinlaidwithivoryormadefromitwereobtainedinTonga,includingfigurependants(Kaeppler1978a:207-8;2009:164,174-75;Neich2007).
TheexistenceofthesefiguresandotherwhaleivoryitemsindicatesthativoryhadhighvalueinTonga(confirmedinClunie'sessayherein),anditisfromTongathatthefirstpublishedreferencetoFijianinterestinwhaleteethcomes.
WilliamMariner,awrecksurvivorwholivedinTongafrom1806to1810,reportedTonganfrustrationatthedifficultyofobtainingFijiansandalwoodwithwhichtoperfumetheircosmeticcoconutoil.
Heobserved:TheFijipeople,demandingagreaternumberofaxesandchiselsforagivenquantityofwood,theseimplementsaregrowingveryscarceattheTongaislands,andplentifulatFiji.
BeforetheTongapeopleacquiredironimplements,theyusuallygavewhales'teeth,gnatoo[ngatu;barkcloth],matsforsails,andplatt[coircord];butwhales'teethareexceedinglyscarce,andtheotherarticlesaretoobulkyforreadyexportation.
Thestingofthefishcalledstingraywasalsooccasionallygiven.
Anotherarticleofexchangeisaparticularspeciesofshell,whichtheyfindonlyatVavaoo,andisalsoscarce.
(Martin1818v.
1:322)Hereisevidencethatwhaleteeth,acquiredlocallyorimportedfromTonga,werehighlyvaluedinFiji.
MarineralsogivestwoexamplesofwhalestrandingsinTongathatresultedintheextractionoftheteethformanufactureintoornamentsandforburialinthefoundationofahousewhichwastobe"consecratedtosomegod"(Martin1818v.
1:298-302).
Sandalwoodandbêche-de-mertradersAmongtheearliestwrittenrecordsmadebypeoplewhoactuallyinteractedwithFijiansinFijiarethoseprovidedbythesandalwoodtraderswhospentseveralmonthsatatimeonthecoastofwesternVanualevuintheearlyyearsofthe19thcentury.
SeveralaccountswerepublishedbyImThurnandWharton(1925),includingthatofRichardSiddonswho,referringtotheperiod1809-15,recountedhowhetried,butfailed,tosavethelifeofawidowfromstrangulationbyofferingawhaletooth,"whichIknewtobemorevaluedtherethangold"(Siddons1925:169).
WhethertheincidentrecordsSiddons'ownexperienceorwasappropriatedfordramaticeffect(othertradernarrativesgivesimilaraccounts)isimmaterial;hisobservationonthevalueofwhaleteethringstrue,especiallywhensetalongsideotherevidence,includinghisown.
Helaterrecorded:131Oneofthemostextraordinarycircumstancesamongthemis,theexcessivevaluetheysetuponlargeteeth,suchasthoseofthewhaleorseaelephant[walrus].
Sothatpersonsgoingtoprocuresandalwoodfromthemgenerallytakewiththemasmanyoftheseteethastheycanprocure.
Theprincipalthingstheybarterforareaxes,knives,orrazors;buttheywillgiveasmuchwoodforonelargetooth,asforfiveorsixaxes.
Thisregardtheyputuponlargeteethisthemoreextraordinary,astheydonotseemtomakeuseofthem,exceptasornaments.
Whenanative,bypurchaseoranyothermeans,becomespossessedofalargetooth,hehangsitupinhishouse,andforthefirstfewdaysscarcelyceaseslookinguponitandadmiringit.
Hefrequentlytakesitdown,andrubsitwithaparticularkindofleaf,andpolishesit;someofthemalmostforamonthcontinuetolabouruponit.
ThevesselsfromPortJackson[Sydney]usuallycarriedtheteethofthewhaleorseaelephant;butsomevesselsfromIndiacarriedelephants[sic]teeth,whichtheycutintopieces,andmadeintheshapeofotherteeth.
These,beingverylarge,wereconsideredofthegreatestvalue,andprocuredvastquantitiesofsandalwood.
Sogreatanaccountwassetuponthem,thatsomechiefsactuallycamefromislandsmorethanahundredmilesdistanttoseethem.
(Siddons1925:174-75)11WilliamLockerby,asandalwoodtraderresidentinwesternVanualevuin1808-9,relatedthatthelocalchiefTuiBuahadbeen…presented[byanothertrader]withabrasslacedhat,withabrasscrown,buthewouldmuchratherhavehadawhale'stooth,thatbeingthemostvaluablearticleamongthem.
Theyhangthemabouttheirnecksongreatfestivals,andgivethemwiththeirdaughtersinmarriage—astheirmarriageportion—inshort,hewhoispossessedofaquantityofthem,thinkshimselfextremelyrich.
(Lockerby1925:25)ALockerbymanuscriptinSalementitledDirectionsforFegeeIslands,writtenabout1809-11,isevenmoreemphaticconcerningthevalueofwhaleteeth.
Hewrote:…theArticlesofTraidtopleastheNativesareIvoryIronWorksuchasTools….
Beadstheyareveryfondof—WhiteShels&Cloth…howeverIvoryistheMostVallableArticleMadeintheformofaWhalesToothandthoseofthemthatispossessdofanyofthemlaysthemupasgraetrichesasporshensfortheirDaughters&MakingpeacewiththeiroffendedSupirursetc.
(Dodge1972:184).
Lockerbythenprovidedanon-alphabetical"vocaboulary",forwhichthefirstitemis"IvoryTamboo",asignalofitsprimaryimportanceandalmostStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'132certainlytheearliestwrittenreferencetotabuainFiji.
Somewhatastounding,withrespecttotherelativevaluesinplay,ishisfurtherstatement:"ApieceofIvorywt[weight]aboutonelb[pound]isworthtwotonsof[sandal]wood.
"LaterinthedocumentLockerbyprovidesadditionalevidencethatteethweresometimespre-cutbytradersintosections:"Ivorymadeintheformofwhaletooth…400lb.
willmake2000teethfor[from]1lb.
to1os.
[ounce:c.
28gm]each.
"Headdsthat"IvoryofanyDescripshinisgood",includingpiecesofChinesefansandivory-handledknives(Dodge1972:184-87).
ThesuperordinatevalueofivorytoFijiansatthattimecanhardlybemoreplainlyput,anditislittlewonderthattraderswerecuttingupteeth,perhapsliterallyintosmallerdenominations,giventhecolossalvalueofasingletooth(whichfromanadultwhalecanweigh1-2pounds).
Astradeincreased,andsuppliesofteethwererelativelyeasilyobtainedbytradersfromwhalerscallingatPortJackson(Sydney)andRotuma,itislikelythatwholeteethweremoregenerallytraded.
AtthistimeSamoanandTongancanoe-buildingspecialistslivinginFijibegantocutthemintosectionsforuseasbreastplatesandotherregalia(seebelow).
By1809wholeteethwereclearlyingreatdemandandLockerbyrecordshisfrustrationsatachiefrefusingtoaccept"ironwork"forsandalwood,demandingforitalargetooththatLockerbydidnotpossess.
Giventheusefulnessofmetaltoolsforcanoe-andhouse-building,thissuggeststhatnorthernandeasternFijimustbythenhavebeenfloodedwithsufficientquantitiesof"ironwork",whereaswholewhaleteethwerestillrelativelyscarce.
Earlytraderswerenothingifnotsensitivetolocaltradingconditions.
TheSydneyGazetteandNewSouthWalesAdvertiser,no.
272,for19March1809containsanentrythatshowshowquicklytheyhadrealisedthesignificanceofwhale'steethforthesuccessoftheirenterprise:"[S]ameday(15th)arrivedthebrig'Fox',CaptainCox,withbetween13and14,000skinsand190whale'steeth,whichareofconsiderableimportanceinourtradetotheFeejees"(ImThurnandWharton1925:200).
EvidencethatlargenumbersofwhaleteethcontinuedtobetakentoFijibytradingshipsisprovidedbyWilliamCaryinhisaccountofthewreckofthebêche-de-mershipGlideatMacuatain1831,whenabout80teethwerelostafteraFijiantriedunsuccessfullytogetthemashoreinablanket(Cary1928:69).
BythistimeteethwerespreadingthroughouteasternFiji.
AfterbeingwreckedinthewhalerOenoatVatoain1825,CaryspenttimeatLakebaundertheprotectionofTuiNayau,whosemusketshecleanedandrepaired.
HeaccompaniedTuiNayauonanexpeditiontoBau,recallingthatmessengers"weredispatchedtoeverypartoftheisland[Lakeba]toinformthedifferentchiefsthatthekingwasgoingtoAmbow,andthattheymustsendallthecoconutoil,tappah[barkcloth],andwhales'teeththeycouldproduceforpresentstothekingofAmbow"(Cary1331928:26).
Alittlelater,WilliamEndicott,whowasalsoaboardtheGlide,wrotethatin1829atBuaBayinVanualevu,the"principalarticlesoftradeweremuskets,ammunition,whales'teeth,irontools,beadsandornaments"(Endicott1923:25).
Sailorswhobecamebeachcombersquicklyunderstoodtheplaceofwhaleteethinlocalvaluesystems.
JohnTwyning,whowasshipwreckedin1829ontheMinervaReefandmanagedtogettoLakeba,wroteaninformativeaccountofhistimeinFiji.
HerelatedhowononeoccasionhecloselyavoidedserioustroubleafterherenegedontheexchangeofalargewhaletoothwithTuiNayau.
Onlytheintercessionofanotherchiefsavedhislife(Twyning1850:46-47).
Later,moresensitivetolocalprotocols,hedescribeshowheandafellowsailordecidedtobuildaboat.
"Wewenttothekingandpresentinghimwithamusketandawhale'stooth,askedhispermissiontobuildaSchooner.
Hegavehisconsentfreely,andpromisedtosupplyuswithprovisionsduringitsconstruction"(Twyning1850:52).
ThisarrangementseemstocorrespondtothatwhichTuiNayaumadewithTonganswhowantedtobuildcanoesfromthefinevesiwood(Intsiabijuga)ofKabara(whereTwyningbuilthisschooner)andonotherLauislands.
Twyningwrote:ThekingofLakemboderivesconsiderableadvantagefromthistimber,inpermittingtheinhabitantsoftheFriendlyandotherislandstobuildcanoesinhisdominions.
Hesuppliesthepersonsbuildingthemwithprovisionsduringthetimetheyareconstructing,andreceivesinreturnmuskets,hatchets,whale'steeth,kavaroots,andothersucharticlesasareeitherusefulordesirabletohim.
(Twyning1850:96)Twyningprovidesuswithperhapsthefirsteye-witnessaccountofwhatFijiansactuallydidwiththese"MostVallable"teeth,andhowtheyusedtabuainimportantrituals.
HewaspresentduringavisittoLakeba(c.
1832-33)byTanoaVisawaqa,exiledVunivaluofBau,inafleetof21warcanoes.
ThevisitappearstohaveinvolvedTanoa'sinstallationasTuiLevuka(TwyningerroneouslywritesTuiLakeba),atitleinthegiftoftheLevukapeopleresidentonLakebawhowereformerinhabitantsofBau.
Onthisoccasion,Tanoawas…attendedbytwopriestswhoweretoconducttheceremony.
Basketswereplacednearhim,filledwithrollsoftapper[tapa]cloth,sennett[sennit/coircordage]balls,andwhale'steeth,whichweretobepresentedtohim.
Thewhale'steeth,werebythepriestshungonallpartsofhisbody;onhisneckandarms,andinsuchprofusion,thathestaggeredundertheweightofthem….
Hesoonfreedhimselffromtheburden,andlettheteethfallfromhisarmsintothebaskets,andattheendoftheceremony,hedistributedtheserichesamongsthischiefsandwarriors.
(Twyning1850:55)12StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'134TwyningwasinLauformorethantwoyears,andhelaterwrotethatwhaleteethwere"importantarticlesamongthenativesoftheFeejeeIslands,whonotonlyusethemasmoney,butpaythemakindofreligioushomage"(Twyning1850:46).
ThisisoneoftherareinsightsamongearlyvisitorstoFijioftheritualandreligioussignificanceoftabua.
FormostEuropeanstabuawere"ornaments"andakindofmoney—fortraderstheonlylogicalexplanationforthevalueattributedtothem.
Twyning,however,wasanastuteobserver,realisingthattherewasmoretotheladingoftheVunivalu'sbodywithtabuathanamonetarytransaction.
MissionarysourcesCriticalreadingoffirst-handobservationscontainedinmissionaryjournals(separatefromtheiroftendisapprovinggeneralisations),canprovideinsightsintopre-ChristianFijianpracticesandconcerns.
ThefirstEuropeanmissionariestoliveinFijiweretheMethodistsWilliamCrossandDavidCargill,whoarrivedinLakebafromTongain1835(twoTahitianshadprecededthem).
Overthefollowing20yearstheywerejoinedbyseveralotherswhosettledinornearthemainchieflycentresofeasternFiji,surmisingthatiftheycouldconvertthechiefsthepeoplewouldfollowenmasse.
TheybecamefluentinFijianandsomeofthem,includingThomasWilliams,JohnHuntandRichardLyth,tookanactiveinterestinwhatwouldnowbetermedFijianculture.
Theywerecertainlyintentondiscreditingbehaviourofwhichtheydisapproved,buttheyalsopossessedagenuinespiritofenquiry.
Theedited1840-53journalsofThomasWilliams(1931)were,withothersources,thebasisforhisinfluentialbookFijiandtheFijians(1858).
ThesejournalsprovidearichsourceofinformationonFijiatthattime,includingtheuseoftabua.
Otherpublishedandunpublishedmissionarysourcesamplifytheseaccounts.
13ThemissionariesnotonlyobservedtheuseofwhaleteethamongFijians,theywerealsoobligedtodeploythemintheirrelationswithFijiansasameansofachievingtheirevangelicalaims,influencingchieflypoliticsandobtainingfoodsuppliesandotherassistance.
ThequarterlystockaccountsofCrossandCargillonLakebashowtheyhaddifficultyinkeepingasupply,whileothertradeitemsremainedinsurplus.
For1837-38therearethefollowingentries,"September1837:Received48;Expended38.
December1837:Onhand13;Expended13.
March1838:Onhand15;Expended15.
JuneandSeptember1838:Onhand—none;Expended—none"(Accountbooks1835--).
ThomasWilliamsandhiswifearrivedatLakebaon11July1840andoneofhisfirstdutieswastopayhisrespectstotheparamountchief.
"ItwaslateintheeveningbeforewecouldsparetimetovisitTuinayautheKing;butitwasevidentthatarazor,andespeciallyalargewhale'stooth,presentedtohim,rendereduswelcomevisitors"(Williams1931:8).
Thefollowingyear135WilliamsandhisfellowmissionaryJamesCalvertattemptedunsuccessfullytopersuadeTuiNayaunottotakeaChristianwomanfromOno-i-Lauinapolygamousmarriage.
On23March1841hewrote,Thepropertywhichwepresentedonthe19thorthereaboutstoredeemJemaimaTovowasreturnedtoday.
Bro.
C.
[Calvert]andmyselfsupplied19whales'teeth,deal[timberplanks],1largecedarboxandanewfowlingpiece;tothistheOno[Christian]peopleaddedagoodrollofcynet[coircord],threefinematsandfourwhales'teeth.
.
.
.
TheOnopropertywasdetained.
(Williams1931:24-25)Thefactthat23teeth,agunandothervaluableswererefusedprobablyindicatesthegreatimportancetoTuiNayauofthismarriage,andalsoperhapstheplentifulavailabilityofwhaleteethby1841.
Theuseoftabua,withvaryingsuccess,whenpetitioningchiefstosparethelivesofwidowsortorescueChristianwomenfrompolygamousmarriageswasregularlyreportedbythemissionaries.
AtSomosomoon25September1844WilliamssuccessfullyentreatedTanoaVisawaqa,VunivaluofBau,tospareawomanfromstrangulationafterthedeathofherhusband(1931:291),buttabuaprovedlesseffectiveon22September1849whenheaccompaniedRichardLythtoBau"topresentalargesixgallonpot,andthreewhales'teethtoTanoawitharequestthatheallowMary,adaughterofRatuMelewholatelylivedwithMrLyth,toremaininVewa[Viwa].
.
.
.
Hissuitwasunsuccessful"(1931:500).
Theseepisodesshowthattabua,althoughpowerful,werenotirresistible,andotherfactorssuchasexistingalliancesorcommitments,temporaryplentifulsupplyandtheexigenciesofpoliticscouldweighmoreheavilyinthedeliberationsofachieflyrecipient.
Anunsuccessfulpetitioncouldleadtothereturnoftabua,thoughnotalways,asinthecaseoftheOnoChristianswhomayhavebeenregardedasimpertinentbyTuiNayau.
NowadaysFijiansdescribetherefusalofapetition,onceatabuahasbeenaccepted,asrequiringthereturnofanothertabuaasidiriki(breaking),ineffectreturningmatterstothestatusquoante.
Thismaybeamatterofcourtesy,becauseitisclearthatifchiefsareangry(cudru;inhonorificlanguagetokawale'sittingidle')thentheymayeitherrefusetoreceiveatabuaornotreturnitoncepresented.
Inthepastatabuacouldbeofferedbyarivalpartytobika'pressdown'or'crush'onealreadypresented,andthusneutralisetheearlierrequest.
Whetheratabuawaspresentedfromapositionofweaknessorstrengthcouldalsoinfluencetheoutcome.
So,asidefromthemissionarieshavingmixedfortunesintheirtabuaofferingstochiefs,forFijianssuchmattersalsocouldbeinthelapofthegods.
Withthisinmind,themissionariesgiveregularaccountsoftabuabeingofferedbyFijianstopetitiondivineassistanceintemporalmatters.
JohnHuntwitnessedapropitiatoryritualin1840atthetempleinSomosomoonTaveuniatwhichtheexecutivechiefTui'ila'ilapresentedcoconutsandaStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'136tabuatothepriesttodiscovertheprospectsforanimpendingwaragainstVuna,achiefdomatthesouthernendoftheisland.
Prospectsweredeclaredgood,andthewarwasindeedwon,leadingtosubmissionbytheTuiVunaandthepresentationofatabuaandabasketofearthtoTui'ila'ilaasisoro'entreaty',beggingclemency,whichwasgrantedintermsoflives,ifnotofproperty(Williams1931:223-27).
On6November1845Williamsnotedthat"aquantityoffoodandtwowhales'teethwerepresentedtoMainatavasara[theprincipalgodofSomosomo]toensuresuccessinananticipateddescentuponatownintheNatewadistrict"(1931:328).
Thepersuasivepoweroftabuawasnotlostonthemissionarieswho,perhapsoutofnecessity,turnedablindeyetotheexplicitlyreligioususeofthembyFijianswhoenthusiasticallyembracedtheiruseintheirown,adapted,religiouspractices.
Williamsrecounts(1931:520)how,atthededicationofthenewchapelatTilivainBuaon24April1850,"MydearlittleJanewithherbrothersWillandBenaccompaniedbyMrMoore'slittleboy,tookeachalargewhale'stooth,andpresentedthemtoRaEsekaiaasthesubscriptionsofMrsWilliamsandthemselves.
"Ataceremony,whichclearlytooktheformofasolevu,withhostsandguests,convertsandheathensalikemakingofferings,tabuaweretransferredbackandforth,culminatingwhenRaEsekaia…tooktheteethpresentedbymychildrenandMrsWilliamsaddingsixoreightsmallerones,androsetoanswerRaJioje[whohadjustpresentedseveraltabua],whichhedidwithspirit,welcominghimandallourfriends;thankingGodforHisministers,forthechapelandforwhattheysawthatday.
ItverymuchseemsasiftheFijiansinvolvedwereadaptingindigenouspracticetotheperformanceofthenewreligion.
Fijianchiefscouldbepresentedwithtabuaonmoreprivateoccasions.
On15November1845WilliamswasinTui'ila'ila'shouseinSomosomowhenayoungwomanwasbroughttohimbyherrelatives,priortoherbeingsenttoBauaspartofTui'ila'ila'songoingattemptstoenlistBau'ssupportforhiswarwithNatewa.
Shewasoiledandhadonanewliku[skirt],andherneckwasadornedwithanecklaceofwhales'teeth.
Shehadtwowhales'teethinherhands.
TheseshegavetotheKingonapproachinghim.
TheKingreceivedher.
.
.
and,asshesatathisfeet,heranoveralistoftheirgods,andfinishedbyprayingthat'thegirlmightliveandbringforthmalechildren.
'Hethencalledforamusketwhichhepresentedtotwomalerelativesoftheyoungfemalerequestingthemnottothinkhardlyofhishavingtakentheirchild:itwasconnectedwiththegoodofthelandinwhichtheirinterestaswellashiswasinvolved.
.
.
.
Tuilailanextproceededtotakethenecklacefromherneck.
(Williams1931:329)137Hereisareferencetowhaleteeththathavebeenmodifiedinto"ornaments",thoughthisterminadequatelyencompassestheroleandpowerofteeththathavebeentransformedintovisuallystunningbodyadornments.
Giventheyusuallyadornedchiefs'bodies,"regalia"mightbeabetterterm.
Ontheoccasiondescribedabove,thegirl'sbodywasusedasavehicleforthetransfertoTui'ila'ilaoftabuaandanecklace,equivalentvaluableswhich,alongwithher,weredestinedforBau.
ItisnotablethatTui'ila'ilamadeaspeechsimilarinformtothosemadebyTuiNayauin1980,referringtotitles("alistoftheirgods")andfinishingbycallingforpositivethingstooccur.
ThefollowingyearTui'ila'ila'seffortsinrelationtoBauborefruit,thoughhegotmorethanhebargainedforintermsofthedepredationsof3,000lingeringBauanvisitors.
Ultimatelyhisstrategydidnotproducethelonged-forcrushingofNatewa,andhisownresourcesweresubstantiallydepleted,notonlybyhisobligationsashost,butalsobyseveralyearsofsendinginducementstoBauintheformofcanoes,coircord,barkcloth,womenand"hundredsofwhales'teeth"(Williams1931:347).
ThomasWilliams,whowitnessedtheBauvisit,wroteanexceptionalaccountofthestatereceptiongivenbyTui'ila'ilaforCakobauinJune1846,whichwasnotdissimilarinitsfundamentalelementsfromthe1977and1980statereceptionsdescribedearlier.
Williamsrecorded:Onthe19th[June]Tuilailaandabout40ofhisheadmenwentonboardacanoeandsailedtoVunatoperformtheceremonyoftakinguptheanchors(cavuelieli[cavuikelekele])whichisonlyaeuphemismfortakingpropertytotheBaupeople.
Heandhismen.
.
.
presentedalargebaleofclothand50whales'teeth.
ThakombauspenttheSabbathatVuna,andonthe22ndcameuptoSomosomo.
Thefleetconsistedof66doublecanoesand16single.
.
.
.
Theyhadbutlittletimeonshorebeforethegalove[qalovi:'swimmingouttoinvitegueststoland']wasperformed.
ThiswasdonebyformallypresentingtheBaupeoplewith100largemasis[barkcloths],anumberofsmallonesand20whales'teeth.
(Williams1931:347)WilliamsattendedthemajorreceptionthatTui'ila'ilaputonforCakobauthefollowingday.
Afteragrandmilitaryparadebythevisitors,"Tuilailatookabout100whales'teethonhisshoulderstowardsThakombau;stooped,kneeledandmadehisspeech".
LaterCakobaupresentedTui'ila'ilawithasingletabua,offeringassurancesofhelpagainstNatewa(Williams1931:349-50).
TheseaccountsaresufficienttodemonstratehowtabuaplayedamajorroleinfacilitatingstrategicrelationshipsbetweenchiefdomsinFiji,andhowchiefsdeployedthemnotonlyinpropitiatinggodsbutinpropitiatingfellowchiefs,whowereequivalenttoandembodimentsoftheancestralgodsonStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'138whosebehalfthetabuawerereceived.
Tabuaalsoweredeployedalongsideothervaluablessuchasbarkclothandmats,canoesandcoircord,andwomeninestablishingandmaintainingaffinalrelationships.
AsSahlins(1983,2004:221-44)hascomprehensivelyargued,relationsthroughwomenwerevitaltostrategicalliances,ifsometimesproblematicthroughtheenthusiasticexerciseofvasuprivileges.
Tanoa'sfavouritewife,AdiTalatoka,wasfromSomosomo(Cakobau'smotherwasfromBau),anditwasatSomosomothatTanoatookrefugeduringhisexilefromBauinthe1830s,aswellasatRewa,wherehewasvasu.
TanoaalsohadstronginterestsinLau,regardedasasourceofgreatvaluables,especiallycanoes,andinFebruary1843WilliamsrecordedhowTuiNayausenttoBauan"immensenewcanoe,15largepackagesofnativecloth(somemarked)andagreatquantityofmosquitoscreens(about150),7largeballsofcynet[coircord],10whales'teethoffrom1lb.
to4lb.
weightandthefavouritedaughteroftheKing".
InMayofthesameyear,Tanoa'sson,Cakobau,inquestofanothermassivecanoestillunfinishedonKabara,paidTuiNayauavisit,presentingquantitiesofbarkcloth,spears,clubs,animmenserootofyaqonaand20whale'steeth,thesepresentationsaccompaniedbyadancethat"hadquiteawarlikecharacter".
Thiswasamenacinggift,andthefollowingdayTuiNayaupresentedCakobauwithquantitiesofbarkcloth,yaqona,afeastandatabuaasanentreaty(isoro),withaspeechwhichbeggedforgivenessfortheslowprogressonthecanoeandpromiseditscompletion(Williams1931:145,163-65).
InJuly1851CakobauwasbackagainonLakeba,whenRichardLyth(1850-51:85-89)witnessedathree-speechsequencethatparallelsexactlytheA-Cstructureoutlinedabove.
TuiNayauaroseandapproachedTuiViti[Cakobau]withastringofwhale'steeth(10innumberonthisoccasion).
Holdingtheseinhishandhemadethefollowingspeech[LythgivesitinFijian:itisaisoro,thattheymightliveandCakobaubepatient,etc.
].
TuiVitithenstoodandreceivedtheteethatTuiNayau'shand[LythgivesitinFijian:CakobauexpressedwishesthattheLauansmightlive,theirlandbefirm,andthatanyonewhomovedagainstthemshoulddie,finishingwith"Mana"].
Hisretinueaddeidinaandclaptheirhands.
TuiViti'smata-ni-vanuathenstandsforthtotakethebundleofteethandmakesthefollowingprayertothegods[LythgivesthislongerspeechinFijian,whichinvokednamesofgods,calledforlifeandafairwindforthereturntoBau].
LythfinisheshisaccountwiththeobservationthatthebarkcloththatwaspresentedwiththetabuawasafterwardsdividedupbyCakobau'schiefs:"[T]hechiefdoesthisnotthematanivanua—hisworkistodistributeorapportionfood.
"Hereisclearevidencefortheritualdivisionoflabour,139mentionedabove,inwhichchiefsareresponsibleforpresentinganddividingupvaluablesandlandspeopleareresponsibleforpresentinganddividingupfeasts.
Aswellasoccasionsofstateinvolvingeminentchiefs,themissionariesalsomentionthefrequentuseoftabuabychiefsforkinshippurposes.
DavidCargillwitnessedavakamasiinitiationceremonyatNasaqalauvillageonLakebain1835whenayoungclassificatorysonofTuiNayauwascircumcisedandclothedinspecialbarkcloth.
Preparationsforthefeasthadbeengoingonfortwoweeksand"[w]hales'teethwereingreatrequisition"(Cargill1977:70-71).
InOctober1839,afterCargillhadtransferredtoRewa,heattendedthedeathofoneoftheking'sbrothersandwitnessedasequenceofireguregucondolencetabuapresentationswhich,althoughthespeechesareclearlyabridged,isstrikinglysimilartothosedescribedaboveforKabarain1978.
Eachtribepresentsawhale'stoothtothedeceased.
Thistoothissuspendedbyastring,andwhilstthechieforprincipalspokesmanofthetribeisholdingitinhishand,hepronouncesthefollowingoration:[Fijiantext]'Thisisourofferingtothedead;wearepoor,andcannotfindriches;thisisthelengthofmyspeech.
'Allthepersonspresentreturnthanksbyclappingtheirhandsandthenthekingorachiefofrankreplies,—'Aimumuduiaimate'—'theendofdeath',thepeoplesimultaneouslyrespond,Mana,—edina:—'letitbeso;—itistrue.
'(Cargill1977:151)Cargill's"thisisthelengthofmyspeech"ishistranslationoftheself-deprecatory"abalabalavunoquvosa"(toolongismyspeech),anexpressionstillheardtoday.
Manyotherexamplesoftabuausecouldbeprovidedfrommissionarysources.
However,forthepresentitissufficienttonotethat,besidestheirowndirectparticipationintheritualeconomyoftabua,themissionariesprovideampleevidenceforthecirculationoflargenumbersofwhaleteethduringthe1830sto1850s,referringbothtotheirreligiouscharacterand,whentransformedintoregalia,theiruseasadornmentsforchieflybodies.
Other19thand20thcenturysourcesVoyagers,travellers,colonialadministratorsandresearchers,FijianandEuropean,havealsoleftvaluableaccountsoftabuauseinthe19thand20thcenturies.
Thesereportscorroborateandextendtheaccountsprovidedbytradersandmissionaries.
CharlesWilkes,commanderoftheUnitedStatesExploringExpeditionthatvisitedFijiin1840,wellunderstoodthevalueoftabua,though,havingseenspermwhalesintheKoroSea,hecouldlessunderstandwhyFijians,"whovaluewhales'teethsohighly,shouldhavedevisednomeansoftakingtheanimalthatyieldsthem,althoughitfrequentstheirseasforthreeorfourStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'140monthsintheyear"(Wilkes1845v.
3:194).
OnfirstmeetingTuiLevuka,Wilkeswrote:"Asiscustomary,Iatoncegavehimapresentoftwowhale'steethandtwofathomsofredcottoncloth,withwhichhewaswellsatisfied,clappinghishandsseveraltimes,whichistheirmodeofexpressingthanks"(p.
47).
TeethwerealsogiventoTanoaandtoTuiCakau(pp.
58,299).
WilkesnotedthatwhalershadbeencallingatKadavu,providingadditionalsuppliesofteeth.
In1838thenotoriousRewachiefVeidoviobtained50whaleteethbyransomfromthecaptainofthewhale-shipNimrod(p.
138;Derrick1950:70-71).
Wilkes'sobservation,"Awhale'stoothisaboutthepriceofahumanlife"(p.
103),willinformlaterdiscussion.
LieutenantWalterPollardofHMSBramblewaswitnesstotheongoingdramaoftherelationshipbetweenCakaudrove(Somosomo)andBau.
InJuly1850hewasatBauwhenavisitwaspaidby500-600"Somo-Somopeople",accompaniedbyMa'afuandover100Tongansinalargedoublecanoe.
Thehostsprovidedvastquantitiesoffood,towhichthevisitorsrespondedwithenormousquantitiesofvaluables,especiallybarkcloth.
Asafinale,"Theoldchief[Tui'ila'ila]thenwalkeduptotheBaupeoplewithabundleofwhales'teeth,Ishouldthinkfromeightytoahundredpoundsweight,andapparentlyasmuchashecouldcarrywithbothhands,anddeliveredthemtotheorator,whoreceivedandmadeanorationoverthem,whichIwastoldwaspresentingthemtothegods"(Erskine1853:297).
Tabuacouldalsobeusedinlesspublic,morestealthyways,forinstancetoprocureamurder.
Inthe18thcenturythefirstTuiNayau,Niumataiwalu,waskilledatOno-i-Lau,ablackstonetabuahavingbeensuppliedbyBauforthepurpose(Brewster1937:43-49,Hennings1918,Reid1990:10;tabuamadeofmaterialsotherthanwhaleivorywillbediscussedbelow).
In1867atabuawentaheadoftheReverendThomasBaker,sealinghisdeathatNabutautauintheinteriorofVitilevu(Brewster1922:25-31).
ThiskindofcontractkillingwasalsoresponsibleforthedeathoftheBauanlabourrecruiterKoroiiLatikauinRain1873,andKaplan'sanalysisofNavosavakadua'sresistancemovementinRa—his"waroverreligion"againstBauanandBritish/Christiancolonialinterference—showshowNavosavakadua,thoughofpriestlyratherthanchieflydescent,tappedintothepoweroftabua.
Areliablesourcein1885reportedthatheamassedandpresented400whale'steethatasolevuathisvillageofValelebo(Kaplan1995:19-22,87).
Numerousfurtherinstancesoftabuapresentationcouldbegiven(Hocart1929:70-75;Nayacakalou1975:54-55;Spencer1941:13,26;vonHügel1990:70;Wallis1851:passim),buttheyfollowpatternssimilartothosealreadydescribed.
Theyalldealwithwhaleteeththataretransactable,whosepowerliesintheirdistributionnotintheirretentionandwhoseeffectivenessisactivatedbytheirdeploymentinstrategicsituations.
Thesetabuadonot141nowadayscarrywiththemaspecificidentity,nameortransactionhistory,norissuchinformationprovidedinpresentationspeeches.
Forexample,whenIwaspresentatLakebainMay1978duringpreparationsforthestatereceptionoftheGovernor-GeneralofFiji,RatuGeorgeCakobau,VunivaluofBau,TuiNayaucalledforthalargeTongan-stylebasketwhichcontainedseverallargehoney-colouredtabua.
Ashedrewthemfromthebasket,heandhisprincipalheralds,MatakiCicia,MatakiBauandTuiTubou,discussedtheirrelativemeritsintermsofsizeandcolour.
Atnostagewasreferencemadetotheirparticularhistories—onlytheirvisualqualitiesandtheirsuitabilityforthefourmajorpresentationsinprospect.
Thomas(1991:67)insistedthat"pasttransactionsarenotrememberedandinnoway[bore]uponthe'weight'ofatabua.
Thesearticleshavenohistories.
"However,thisisunlikelytohavealwaysbeenthecaseandtheanalysisoftabuacannotberestrictedtothetransactableexamplesalone,howevernumerousandfrequenttheiruse.
Indeed,thereisahighlyimportantcategoryoftabuathatdoesnot,orshouldnot,move.
Thesearenamedandtheirhistoriesarevitaltotheirvalueandtothepeoplewhopossessthem.
Quain(1948)calledthem"heirloom"tabua(IamunawareofaspecificFijiantermforthem),andtheymaybecharacterisedasinalienable(Weiner1992).
Inanycase,theyprovideamajorcluetothesourceofthevalueandpowerofthosethataretransacted.
Heirloomwhale'steethBecauseheirloomtabuaareseldomseenandkeptcloselyguardedtheyhavelargelyescapednotice,butsome19thcenturysourcesandthe1930sresearchofBuellQuain,inparticular,providesubstantialevidencefortheirexistenceandimportance.
Itislikelythatinpre-Christiantimestheywerewidespread,butwiththearrivalofChristianitymanymayhave"leakedout"intotheflowoftransactabletabuaorintoethnographiccollectionsandbecomedissociatedfromtheirspecifichistories.
OneoccasionwhenthismayhavehappenedwasrecordedbyBaronAnatolevonHügelon4December1875,whenhewasstayinginNadrogaandwellstockedwith"trade".
AgoodredtabuacameinfromNaditoday.
Itwassometimebeforetheowner,anoldman,letoutwhathehadcomeabout.
Afteralongramblingconversationheproducedfromthefoldsofhisisulu[skirt-likeclothwrap]thetabua,mostcarefullywrappedinmasi[barkcloth].
Hedidnotatallapproveofmyhangingituponthewallwithmyothertreasuresandevidentlywishestokeepdarkhishavingpartedwithit.
Nodoubtithasahistory…whatthathistorymaybeIhavenotmuchchanceoffindingout.
(vonHügel1990:224)StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'142Anearlyreferencetonon-circulatingheirloomteethisfoundinthepapersofReverendJamesRoyce.
FromKadavuIslandon6December1859,hewrote:ThismorningtheKadavugodwasbroughttome.
Ithadbeenkeptsecrettillthepresenttime;thegodisnomoreorlessthanafinewhale'stooth,andbyappearanceandreportavenerablefellow.
ItsnameisTakei,fromtakelo,crooked,beingcurvedlikethenewmoon;itissaidtohavebeenthegodoffood,andalwaystodwellinthelandofplenty.
(Royce1855-62:277)14Thefollowingyear,inAugust1860,BertholdSeemannwasshownwhathereferredtoasthe"crownjewels"atNamosi,Vitilevu.
Theywerekeptinawoodenbox,andcarefullywraptupinsoftpiecesofnativeclothandcocoa-nutfibre.
Therewereamongthemalargewhale'stooth,highlypolished,andquitebrownfromrepeatedgreasing,anecklacemadeofpiecesofwhales'teeth,thefirstthatevercametothesemountains,andafinecannibalforkintheshapeofaclub.
(Seemann1862:187).
OthertabuahavebeennotedonVitilevu,includingalargecompositeexamplefromNaitasiri(seeFig.
3inClunie'sessay),andtwobearingthetitlesAdiWaimaroandTuiWaimaro,whichtaketheformoffigures;theAdiWaimarofigurewasconstructedfromseveralsectionsofwhaleivory(Larsson1960:29-32,Parke1997).
Withrespecttothesetwofigures,Larsson(1960:116)notedthattheyheld"inthemselvesthewelfareofthegroupofpeoplewhosevu[ancestors]theywereandthisconcernedthehigh-bornlineofthiskingroup".
These,andthedouble-figurehookimagefromNadi,namedNalilavatu,"thedoublewifeof…theChiefGodofNadi"(Larsson1960:27),arecarvedinTonganstyle,suggestinganultimateorigininTonga(Fig.
10).
AnelephanttusktabuawiththetitleTuiNasavusavuhasalreadybeenmentioned(note11below).
Theevidenceforheirloomteeth,andaTonganconnection,isevenstrongerinVanualevu.
BuellQuainprovidedthemostcomprehensiveaccountofheirloomtabua,basedonhis1935-36researchinLekutu,inlandVanualevu.
Thechieflytitle-holderwascustodianoftheancestraltoothTuLekutu("KingForest"inQuain'stranslation),that"containedwithinitselftherightofkinglyauthority",andfurthermore,to"maintainproperrapportwiththeancestorswhocontrolledtheregion'sfertility,thekinglyofficehadtobeheldbyahereditarymemberofthechieflycaste"(Quain1948:190).
Chieflyleadersofothervillagesalsoheldhereditarytitledteeth,andQuaindistinguishedhereditaryteeth,suchas"KingForest",which"embodiedthepower"ofLekutu'sgreatestancestors(1948:223),fromanonymoustabuaofthetransactablekind,theexchangeofwhichhedescribedfrequentlyin143hisexcellentstudy.
Transactableteethwereexpectedtoflowinwardsandoutwardsasindicesofprosperity,bothforthetransactorsandthechiefdomgenerally,whereasheirloomteeth,closelyconnectedtothefertilityofthelandandembodyingdivineancestors,couldonlybetransferredtonewcustodianshipwithinthechieflyclan.
Figure10.
Double-figurehook,carvedfromaspermwhaletooth,knownasNalilavatu;height12.
2cm.
FoundinNadi,westernVitilevuandacquiredbySirArthurGordonin1876(seeLarsson1960:27-28,HerleandCarreau2013:55-56);MAA1955.
247.
(Photo:MuseumofArchaeologyandAnthropology,UniversityofCambridge.
)StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'144Heirloomteethhavetitlesandareineffectembodimentsofancestralgods,passeddowntosuccessiveholdersofchieflytitleswhothemselvesembodydivineancestors.
AlsoonVanualevu,Hocart(1952b:238)notedatitleinWainunu,BuliMuanaicake,associatedwithatoothcalled"TheLand"(NaVanua),presentedtothetitle-holderoninstallation.
Inthiswaywhaleteethandthebodiesofchiefswererenderedequivalent.
Itisprobablethatthetransactableteethwhichbecamesoplentifulinthe19thcenturyweretreatedasdistributableversionsofheirloomteeth,participatinginaritualeconomyofsacrificewheresubstitutesforthecorebodyweredeployedinchief-to-chief,andthusgod-to-god,exchanges.
QuainandHocartnotedtheinfluenceofTongainmanypartsofVanualevuandeasternFiji,andparallelsforteeth-as-godscanbefoundinTonga,asClunieasserts(herein).
Onereferencewillsufficetomakethepoint.
VisitingTongain1850,ReverendWalterLawrytriumphantlyrecorded:[O]nthedaythatTungilotued[convertedtoChristianity],allthegodsthatcouldbefoundweresecured.
…OfthesegodsthefirstinrankandpowerisFeaki[Fekai],thefountain-headofalltheminorgods.
Thisisalargewhale'stooth,whichhasnotfallenunderthegazeofmortalmenfromtimeimmemorial.
(Lawry1851:35)OntheroleofTongaandteethsupply,thebeachcomberWilliamDiaper(aliasJohnJacksonor"CannibalJack"),authorofanarrativeofhislongsojourninFiji,gaveaplausibleobservationontheoriginof"red"teethor"tambua-damu".
Hewrote:[They]areusedasmoney,thoughnotexactlyasourmoney,therebeingnocertainvalueputonthem;butinthatcountry[Fiji]theyareinvaluable,aslifeanddeathdependonthecirculationoftheseteeth,andespeciallytheredones.
Iusedtoconsiderthedifferencebetweenthewhiteandtheredteeththesameasbetweenourshillingsandsovereigns,estimatingthenumberofwhitewhales'teeththroughouttheFeejeestobetwentytimesasmanyastheredones.
Theredteeth,whichhavebecomeredbyfrequenthandlingandoilingforanumberofyears,theyalwaystoldmewerebroughttotheFeejeesbytheTongans,bywhomtheywerefirstintroduced,andfromwhomalsotheylearnedtheartofbuildingthelargedoublecanoes.
(Jackson1853:439)ThisinsightmayindicateadistinctionbetweenanoldersupplyofteethfromTonga,workedtobesymmetricalinshape(calledtabuabulibyTatawaqa[1914:2]andClunie[herein]),subjecttointensesmokingandoiling,versusthebulksuppliesofrawteeththatbegantobeobtainedfromtradersatthebeginningofthe19thcentury.
Itislikelythatinthe18thcenturyorearlier,impressivelarge"redteeth",sourcedfromTonga,became,liketheoutsider145chiefswhoheldthem,theembodimentofancestorgodsinmostofthepolitiesoftheKoroSeaandeasternFiji(seeSahlins1981andfurtherdiscussionbelow).
Thesewerekeptinkatonitu'foundationbaskets',likelytobeTongankatomosikakaorkato'alu,similartotheoneIsawatLakebain1978.
ThoughTonganinvolvementwithwhaleteethwanedafterthemid-19thcentury,KingGeorgeofTongastillsawfittopresentCakobauwithalargetoothinakatomosikaka,bothofwhichwerelaterpresentedbySirEverardimThurn,aGovernorofFiji,totheBritishMuseum(Fig.
11).
Figure11.
Presentationwhaletooth(tabua/tapua)andbag(katomosikaka),presentedbytheKingofTonga,GeorgeTupou,toRatuSeruCakobau,VunivaluofBau,probably1850s-1870s;length21.
0cm(tooth).
AcquiredbySirEverardimThurn,GovernorofFiji1904-10;BritishMuseum,Oc1920.
0322.
33andOc1920.
0322.
34.
(Photo:TheTrusteesoftheBritishMuseum.
)Myth,etymologyandpreviousincarnationsTheoccurrenceofwhaleteethinmythissurprisinglylimited.
MythisaproblematicareabecauseinmostcasesmythswerenotrecordeduntilafterChristianevangelismhadintroducedbiblicalandotherelements,includingknowledgeofglobalgeography,withwhichindigenousaccountsbecamemixed.
Twomythsfeaturingtabuahavesurvived.
Thefirst,writteninEnglishandrecordedinthe1870s,hasbeenanalysedbySahlins(1983:72-78)andThomas(1991:69-75).
15Inbrief,astrangercalledTabuaappearsfromoverseasontheNadrogacoastandsucceedsinobtainingthedaughtersofStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'146thelandthroughamiraculousruseinvolvingthesubstitutionofwhaleteeth(thevalueofwhichheknew,butwhichwereunknownlocally)forfourofhisownteeth,whichhesaidhehadplantedandhadgrown.
Theteeth,calledtabua,aregivenasbrideprice.
Themythisentitled"HowFijiansFirstBecameCannibals",sincethestorycloseswithastatementaboutshipwreckedvoyagersbeingeaten,butitencapsulatesmanyotherfoundationalissuestodowithstranger/local,sea/land,male/femaleandvaluables/food,withanunderlyingemphasisontheimportanceoftheexchangeofcategoricallydifferentthings.
Itisnotablethatexchange,througharuse,alsoisathemeofthesecondmythinvolvingwhaleteeth,recordedbyBrewsterinhighlandVitilevu(Roth1953:96-97).
Inthisstory,theancestoroftheNadraupeople,TuiTaladrau,meetsamancarryingabasketoftabuaand,byatrick,switchesitwithhisownbasketoffoodandmakesoffwithit.
TheuseofatrickasanexchangemechanismisawidespreadthemeinFijianmyth,andherethevaluables-for-foodexchangeisclearlycentral.
Roth(1953:97-99)undertookareviewoftheetymologyoftabua,citingHazlewood'ssuggestedlinktothecollarbone(1850:131-32)andfavouring,asdidHocart(1929:99),anassociationwithtabu'sacred,marked,restricted'.
RothnotesBrewster'sinformationaboutexamplespreviouslymadeofbuawood(Fagraeaberteriana),leadingtocontentiousrationalisationssuchasbua-ta(bua-'cut',hencetabua).
However,theVitilevuuseofbuawoodfortabuaissupportedbyEmosiTatawaqa(1914:1),andthereisapolisheddarkbrown(andtherefore"red")woodentabuaintheFijiMuseumthatdoesnotlookofrecentmanufacture(seeClunieFig.
6herein).
Withrespecttoalternativematerialsusedfortabuainthepast,IhavealreadymentionedthestonetabuausedtoobtainthemurderofNiumataiwalu.
Inaddition,earlysourcesrecordthatatabuanamedvatunibalawa,'stoneofthepandanus',wasburiedwithchiefs,tobethrownatapandanustreeenroutetotheotherworld(Hazlewood1850:170).
Thetermvatu,foranivorytabua,isstillheardoccasionallyinpresentationspeeches.
Certainshellsarealsorecordedashavingbeenusedastabuainthepast.
EmosiTatawaqa(1914:2)stated:Thoseneartotheseaorlivingonthecoastusedas'tabua'acertainsea-shellcalledthe'cava:'thisisasea-shellwhichisthesameasthe'Aivaoqo'ortheshellcalledthe'Mua-ni-waqa.
'Whenoneoftheseshellswasfound,itwaswellsunned,thattheouterskinmightfalloff;whentheskinhadfallenaway,thesurfaceofitwasabrightred,like,perhaps,theappearanceofaredtoothofawhale.
DeveToganivalu(1918:8)added:147Itissaidthattherewasasea-shellwhichwastheirpropertyinancienttimesbeforewhales'teethreachedhere;anditwasusedasthetabuaforwomen,forwar,forfeasts,etc.
ThenameofthatshellinsomeplacesistheSauwaqa;thenameatBauisCava.
InalettertothecolonialadministratorKennethAllardyce,Toganivalu(1913)alsoobserved:Theirformertabuawasaspeciesofshell,namedsauwaqa,alongshellandpointedattheend,someareverylong,aboutaspaninlength[c.
20-25cm]andthebodyiscolouredredandyellow.
Thiswastheirprizedvaluableintheolddays,asa'proposal'foragirl,a'condolence'forthedeadandasameansofturningenemyvillages[intoallies].
However,whenwhale'steethwerebroughttoFijitheydiscardedtheshellandusedwhale'steethinitsplace.
SomeoftheoldhousefoundationsatBauwerelevelledinRatuCakobau'stime,about1874,andsomesauwaqawerefoundthereandtheelderssaid,'Thesearetheprizedvaluablesofformertimesbywhichvillageswereturnedandpeoplewerekilled.
'Thereappearstobesomeconfusionintheliteratureaboutthespeciesidentityofsauwaqaandcavashells,ifindeedthosetermsappliedtoasinglespecies.
16Nevertheless,itisclearthatcertainshellswerehighlyvalued,especiallyonesclassifiedasred,includingthesovui(Spondylus)andthebulikula(goldencowry,Cypraeaaurantium;seeClunie1986:158-59).
Clunieexplainsbelowthatothershellssuchasbulilekaandciva(pearlshell)werealsohighlyvalued,andHazlewood(1850:133)recordsasaying"Atabuaetakaemuri,abulilekanakamunagalevu"(thewhaletootharoselater,thebulilekawasthegreatvaluable[before]).
So,foreasternFijiapictureemergesofmaterialsassociatedwiththeseabeingformerlydeployedaspowerfulvaluables,alongsideitemsmadefromlandproducts,includingwoodssuchasvesi(Intsiabijuga)andprobablybua(Fagraeaberteriana).
LaterdevelopmentsBytheearly19thcentury,skilledcanoe-buildersofSamoanandTonganancestrywerealreadysettledineasternFiji,workingintheserviceofchiefsoftheKoroSeachiefdoms,especiallyTuiNayauinLau,who,asdetailedabove,wasobligedthroughacombinationofinducementsandthreatstosupplyBauandCakaudrovewithlargedoublecanoes.
ThesecraftsmenhadmetaltoolsofEuropeanorigin,includingaxes,saws,chiselsandfinedrills,whichallowedthemtocreatecompositeformsofivoryregaliabasedonsimplerpre-metaltypes.
Spacedoesnotpermitdiscussionofthisdynamicdevelopment,butineffectchiefssponsoredtheproductionofwhatmightberegardedassuper-tabuaintheformofbreastplatesandnecklaces,bothforpublicdisplayonStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'148Figure12.
RatuTanoaVisawaqa,VunivaluofBau,wearingacompositebreastplate(civavonovono)madeofwhaleivoryandpearlshell.
EngravingbyRawdon,WrightandHatchafteradrawingbyAlfredAgateoftheUnitedStatesExploringExpedition,1840.
(Wilkes1845v.
3:fp56.
)149theirbodiesandasbarelyresistibleofferingstoallies.
Tanoa,determinedtomakeabigimpressionwhenfirstvisitingtheAmericancommanderWilkesatLevukain1840,arrivedina100-footcanoeof"magnificentappearance…ornamentedwithagreatnumber(twothousandfivehundred)oftheCypraeaovulashells;itsvelocitywasalmostinconceivable"(Wilkes1845v.
3:54).
ThefollowingdayhewentaboardtheVincennes,wearingalargeturbanofwhitegauzybarkclothand"onhisbreast,hangingfromhisneck,heworeanornamentmadeofmother-of-pearl,tortoise-shell,andivory,not[sic–transcriptionerror]veryneatlyputtogether,andaslargeasadinner-plate,(calleddivandina);onhisarmshehadshellarmlets,(calledygato,)madeofthetrochus-shellbygrindingthemdowntotheformofrings"(Wilkes1845v.
3:56,punctuationasinsource).
Itishardtoimagineamorevividexpressionofsea-relatedpowerthanthatconveyedthroughtheembellishmentofTanoa'scanoeandhisownbody.
TheartistAgatemadeasketchofTanoa(Fig.
12)whichenabledClunie(1983)toidentifythebreastplateasthatlateracquiredbythefirstgovernor,SirArthurGordon(Fig.
13).
ItwasalmostFigure13.
Compositebreastplate(civavonovono)ofwhaleivoryandpearlshell(thetriangularsegmentthatresemblesturtleshellisactuallydarkpearlshell);width28.
0cm.
AcquiredbySirArthurGordonin1875-80,probablyfromRatuSeruCakobau,VunivaluofBauthesonofRatuTanoaVisawaqa(Clunie1983);MAAZ2730.
(Photo:MuseumofArchaeologyandAnthropology,UniversityofCambridge.
)StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'150certainlyreceivedfromTanoa'sson,Cakobau,possiblyasanofferingthroughGordontoQueenVictoria,who,fromaFijianpointofview,wasthenthemostpowerfulchiefonearth.
Wilkeswouldalmostcertainlyhavelikedtoacquireitin1840,ashecollectedmuchelse,butitemsmadeofivoryseemnottohavebeenacquirableatthattime.
AtSomosomoinDecember1842ThomasWilliamshadseenTuiCakauwearinga"largewhale's-tooth-mountedbreastplatehungroundhisneck",whilethreeyearslater,whenTuiCakau'sbodywasbeingpreparedforburial,hisheadwas"turbanedinascarlethandkerchiefsecuredbyachapletofsmallwhitecypra[bulileka],ashellhighlyvaluedinFeejee.
Ofthesamekindofshellwerehisarmlets,andhisneckwasadornedwithawhale'stoothnecklace,radiatedandslightlycurvedsoastogiveitspointsaninclinationupwards(Williams1931:134,313).
Thistypeof"split-tooth"whaleivorynecklacewithcurvingpointsispossiblywhatwascalledwasekasekabyToganivalu(1918:8)—"whales'teethwhichtheTongancarpenterssawedintosmallpieces,andthenstrungthemtogetherfornecklets"(Fig.
14).
TheFigure14.
Necklace(wasekaseka)ofpolishedsplitwhaletoothsectionsonaplaitedcoirneckcord;width32.
0cm.
AcquiredbyAlfredMaudslay1875-80;MAA1931.
203.
(MuseumofArchaeologyandAnthropology,UniversityofCambridge.
)151associationofivorynecklaceswithchieflybodies,inlifeandindeath,isconfirmedbyWilliams(1931:200),whosawoneonacorpseatachieflyburialatSomosomoinOctober1843,andbyareferencetodisplaysintheFijiMuseumwheretwoivorynecklacesarelisted:Thesewerefashionedfromwhales'teeth,andwereburiedwithRatuTanoa(fatherofRatuCakobau)atBau.
Duringthediggingofanewgravein1930,thenecklaceswerediscoveredandhandedovertotheMuseumbythelateRatuPopeSeniloli,RatuCakobau'sgrandson.
(Anon1946:15)Itemsofregaliaconstructedofwhaleivory,sometimesincombinationwithshell,werefindingtheirwayalloverFijibythemid-19thcentury,aschiefsoftheKoroSeaattemptedtoextendtheirnetworksbymakingalliancesandwagingwar.
TheFijiMuseumhasabreastplatethatwaspresentedbyCakobautotheRokotuiWaimaroasakanibula,agiftmadeforsparingCakobau'slifefollowingadefeatinoneoftheNasorovakawaluwars,probablyintheearly1850s(Clunie1986:164-65).
Inthe1860sand1870sasubtleyetprofoundshiftappearstohavetakenplaceinthedeploymentoftabuaandregaliamadefromwhaleivory.
Beforethistime,thesupplyofteethhadbeenalmostexclusivelyoneway,fromTongansandEuropeansintoFiji,supplementedbyoccasionallocalsourcesfromstrandedwhales.
FewitemsmadeofwhaleivorywereacquiredbyEuropeancollectorsbeforethe1860s,indicatingreluctanceonthepartofFijianstopartwiththem.
ThevirtualabsenceofwhaleivoryinthecollectionsinSalem(fromearlytradersbefore1850),Paris(fromDumontd'Urville1820s-30s)andtheSmithsonianInstitution(fromWilkes1840)bearsthisout.
However,aconcatenationofcircumstancesappearstohaveinfluencedashiftinpracticesandattitudesonbothsidesinthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury.
WithincreasedEuropeansettlementinthe1860sand,especially,thearrivalofcolonialadministratorsinthe1870s,Fijiansbegantodeploytabuaandwhaleivoryregaliainrelationtothesenewgovernmentchiefs,whoseemedamenabletotheircharms.
ThisdeploymentwasbyformalpresentationorviatheoperationsofanascentcuriomarketbasedinLevuka,partlypromptedbyanintroducedtaxregime.
TheEuropeans,ledbyGovernorGordonandstimulatedbythepresenceoftheavidyoungcollectorBaronAnatolevonHügel,becameobsessiveandcompetitivepurchasersofFijianethnologicalmaterialofallkinds,includingthatmadeofwhaleivory.
GovernmentHouseatNasova,Levuka,resembledamuseum,andmuchofthatmaterialisnowinCambridgethankstovonHügelbecomingthefoundingcuratoroftheMuseumofArchaeologyandEthnologytherein1884,andpersuadinghisGovernmentHouseassociatesandtheirdescendantstodonatematerial(HerleandCarreau2013:98-105).
Gordonrelishedhisparticipationin"tabuaStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'152culture",receivingpropitiatoryofferings,includinga'swimming'tabua(iqalovi)atBauinDecember1879(Gordon1912:138),anddistributingnewinsigniaintheformof"stavesofoffice—verylongpolesofvesiheadedandornamentedwithwhale's-toothivory"tonewlyappointedRoko,whowerekey(andchiefly)Fijianadministratorsinhissystemofindirectrule(Gordon1897:209).
Thesestavesappearedtoechotheappearanceofhigh-statusstaffsandclubs,liberallyinlaidwithsegmentsofwhaleivory,whichFijianchiefsdistributedasdiplomaticgifts—includingtotheGovernor(seeHooper2006:269forasplendidivory-inlaidclubgivenbyCakobautoGordon).
ForthefirsttimetabuaandmanyotherobjectsmadeofwhaleivorybegantoflowoutofFiji.
ThissituationwascompoundedbythewidespreadconversionofFijianstoChristianity,whichrenderedproblematicthepossessionofobjectsthathadheathenassociations,andbythecessationofwarfare,whichreducedtheneedfordiplomaticgiftstosecurealliances.
Europeans,previouslythesourceofsupply,nowbecamerecipientsofteethinthecourseoftheiradministrativedutiesandintheirquesttocollect"traditional"artefacts.
Museumstore-roomsaroundtheworldnowholdevidenceofEuropeansacting,fromthe1870s,notassuppliersoftabua,butasrecipients.
Thisoutflowoftabua,probablycombinedwithincreasinguseofthembynon-chieflyFijiansthroughoutthecountry,ledtoanactualorperceiveddrainonsuppliesduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,accentuatedbygiftstoAmericanservicemenstationedinFijitowardstheendoftheSecondWorldWar.
ThecolonialofficerandethnographerKingsleyRothconsideredtheywerebecomingscarceinthe1930s(1953:106)andtohelpremedythisperceivedshortage,theBritishadministrationimportedabout400spermwhaleteethinthemid-1950sfromScotland—alegacyofthewhalingindustry.
AdiLadyMaraiaSukunadescribedtheprocessofscraping,smokingandoilingsheandotherladiesusedtotransformtheserawteethintotabua.
TheywerethenputintocirculationthroughoutFijiviatheProvincialoffices(Rothn.
d.
).
TABUAINCULTUREWhatmightbegleanedfromthisaccumulationofinformation,ancientandrecent,heapeduplikesomanytabuabeforethereaderSofar,Ihaveresistedanalysisinordertoallowthematerialtobeassembled,butIamnowreadytotrytoanswerthequestion,"Whywhaleteeth"Whatisitthatmotivatesavillagertoreachfortabuawhenarelativediesorhissonrunsoffwithsomeoneelse'sdaughterWhatisitthatdrovechiefstostaggerundertheirweightinmajorpublicrituals,andwhywerecertainteethpreservedasfoundationaltothewelfareofthepolityItwillnowbeapparentthatpartoftheansweristhattheywereoriginallyconsideredtoembodyancestraldivinepowerandwereusedasaneffectivemechanismformanagingandchannellingdivine153powerforhumanpurposes.
WiththearrivalofChristianityandacceptanceofJehovahasthesuperordinategod,theancestralpowerembodiedintabua,andforwhichtheywereawaqa'vehicle',hasbecomemuted—implicitratherthanexplicit—thoughstillculturallysignificant.
ButhowdoesthispowerworkandwhatareitsoriginsandassociationsHereIaddresstheseissuesbyinvokingtheimportanceofequivalenceandsubstitution,andbyemphasisingtheroleofsacrificialexchange—offeringsforblessings—thatunderliescultural/religiouspracticenotonlyinFijibutglobally.
Whaleteeth,chiefsandgodsCertainthemeshaveemerged,amongthestrongestbeingtheexplicitassociation,intestimonyandinpractice,betweentabuaandchiefs.
AsTevitaSoroexplained,"Thetabuaisachieflything.
Itisexclusivelytheirvaluable,thechiefs"(Atabuaakavakaturaga.
Odratouiyaugaaturaga).
Andby"chiefs"hemeantthechieflyclansthatholdseniortitlesinmanypartsofFiji.
ButwhoarethechiefsWhataretheircharacteristicsIhavediscussedthismatterindetailinanearlieressay(Hooper1996).
Here,asasupplementtothe"stranger-king"analysisofMarshallSahlins(1981),IprovideanaccountgivenmebyIlaitiaLeduaofUduvillageonKabarain1978,whenheexplainedthatthecurrentformofLauansocietywasbasedontheincorporationofimmigrant'chiefs'(turaga)byautochthonous'landspeople'(vanua).
Whenthereisalandandtheyhavetheirchief,orcustomaryleader,ifagreaterchiefcomesalong,hewillleadthem.
Thethingthatwillbedone—thechiefwillmarryawomanoftheland.
Intheirmarriage,whentheyhaveoffspring,hewillbechiefintheland.
Formerlytheladies,thefirst-bornladies,weretheoneswhomarriedthechief….
Ifaladyismarriedtoachiefwhohasarrived,gardeninglandwillbegiventothechief….
Itispossibleforthechief[leader]ofthelandtogiveallthegardeninglandtothechiefwhohascomebysea….
Everythingishis.
Thefirstfruitscanbedone—thenwillcomethefirstfruitsoftheearthtothechiefandthelady,becausetheirchild,whentheirchildisborn,willbethegreatchiefinthisland.
Because:themother—theland;thefather—thechief….
Sothethingswhichcomefromtheseathechiefwillbring,thevaluablesofthechief.
TevitaSorowasevencleareraboutthischiefs/landspeopledistinctioninritualprocedure,signalledandembodiedinspecificthingsofseaandlandorigin.
Hesaid:Atthedistributionofvaluables,itisnotpossibleforusthelandspeopletogoanddistributethem.
Thechiefs,theywilldistributethevaluables.
Thefeastisours,athingofthelandspeople.
Formerly…ifafeastwastakenandplacedbeforethechiefs,wewouldjusttakealongacoconutleaf,ortheleafofsomeStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'154treewewouldtakealonginourarms.
Yes,thatwasourcustomarything.
Wewouldnotbeabletotakeatabua.
Iftherewasnoyaqonawewouldjustbearinourarmsaleaf….
Onlythechiefs,theywouldholdoutatabuaforus.
Thisistheproperancientprocedure….
Yes,thetabuawedidn'tpresent,thelandspeople.
Itistheirvaluablethechiefs.
SpacewillnotallowafullanalysisofwhatSahlins(1978:1)hascalleda"systemofobjects"as"theconcretedimensionofasystemofofferings:tothegodsor,whatisthesame,topriestswhomthegodstemporarilyinhabit,andabovealltochiefs,whoarebydescentsuccessorsandinstantiationsofgods".
However,itcanbeemphasisedthat,certainlyintheKoroSeachiefdoms,tabua,andprobablysauwaqa,bulilekaandothershells,suitablyredorreddened,playedakeyroleinthissystemastheprimeembodimentofchiefs/godsinportableform.
Tabuaandchiefsmayberegardedasequivalent,theformermetonymicallystandingforthelatter,andpossiblyvice-versa,sincebothareculturallyconstructedartefactsofexternaloriginthatembodyorenshrineancestralgodsandcanbedeployedtoensureprosperity.
Itisclearthatwhaleteetharequintessentially"sea"thingsofforeignorigin,fromTongaor,latterly,fromEuropeans.
Coastalpeopleknewtheycamefromacolossalleviathanoftheseasthat,liketurtleandhuman,breathesair.
Teetharenotmade,theyarrive,likethechiefsinthefoundationmythofsociety.
Andnotonlyisthehonorifictermforthechief'sbodykulinitabua'skinofthewhaletooth',bothbodyandtoothareculturallytreatedinequivalentways.
Consideringfirsttheheirloomteeth,theyaresmoked,oiledandkeptwrappedinbarkcloth,usuallywithinspecialcontainers.
Thisismuchasthechief'sbodyistreated,whenatinstallationandonotherritualoccasionsthechiefwearsaturban,bodywrappingsandtiesofredsmokedbarkcloth(masikuvui),andisliberallyoiledwithscentedcoconutoil.
Thechief'sdwellingisaspecialhousewhich,aswithchieflycanoesandwithtemples,iselaboratelydecoratedwithcowryshells—valueditemsfromthesea.
Transactableteeth,alsosmoked,oiledandtiedwitha"red"coircord,derivetheirpotencyfrombeingequivalenttoheirloomteethandchiefs'bodies,butinaformthatcanserveassacrificialofferings.
Theyareportable,arehandledbychiefsandcanbeladeninquantityonchiefs'bodiesandadaptedasbodyornaments.
Theevidenceforthetabua/chiefassociationiscompelling,asistheevidenceforthechief/seaassociation.
Itmaybeseeninthedistributionofritualtasksandonchieflymausolea,crowdedwithconch-shelltrumpetsthatwereblownduringtheinitialmourningperiod—humanwailingbeingtabu.
Thisseaoriginoftabua,besidestheirdesirablevisualcharacteristics,providesthelogicoftheirappropriatenesstofulfiltheirimportantcosmologicalworkaschief/godequivalentsinsacrificialrituals.
155Withrespecttotherelationshipbetweenchiefs(turaga)andgods(kalou),Hocartandothers,includingthemissionaries,referredtotheirequivalence.
ThomasWilliamswrote(1858:233),"thereisverylittledifferencebetweenaChiefofhighrankandoneofthesecondorderofdeities.
Theformerregardshimselfverymuchasagod,andisoftenspokenofassuchbyhispeople,and,onsomeoccasions,claimsforhimselfpubliclytherightofdivinity".
Hocartconsideredthatachief,consecratedthroughinstallation,wasequivalenttoagod,observing(1952b:26):"Ifreverenceanddevotionarerequired,asawellasabeliefinthesupernatural,tomakeupreligion,thenthetruereligionoftheFijiansistheserviceofthechief.
"Thecomprehensivereviewandanalysisofthechief/godrelationshipbySahlins(1978:13-22,1983:77-79),takenincombinationwiththeothersources,leaveslittleroomfordoubtabouttheequivalenceofturagaandkalou.
Butifachiefisanembodimentofagod,whatisagodWhataretheattributeswhichdeterminethisdesignationGodsarepersonages,usuallyancestral,whothroughtheoperationofmanaorsau—powerofdivine,nothuman,origin—areattributedwiththeabilitytobringabouteffectsintheworld.
Theseeffectscanbewonderfulorterrible,andtheworkofreligionasaculturalpracticeistomanagedivinepowerforhumanbenefit.
Humanshavecreatedartefactsandproceduresthroughwhichtochannelandmanipulatethisineffablepowerand,intheFijicase,amongtheprincipalartefactscreatedforritualdeploymentarechiefsandtabua.
Specifictechniquesareusedtotransformappropriateraw"bodies"intoculturalartefacts,embodyingdivinityinmaterialform,throughwhichexchangerelationshipscanbeestablishedwithgodstotapintodivinepower.
Worship,materialisedthroughofferingsoftime,skillandthings,suchasvaluablesandfeasts(whicharesacrificialsubstitutesforthesacrifier),isinessenceanexchangerelationshipbetweenhumansandgodsinwhichofferingsaremadeinreturnforblessings.
Theclosingcommunalchantingof"mana,edina"atpresentations,utteredbyparticipantswhoembodytheirtitleddivineancestors,ensurestheefficacyoftheprocedure.
Numerousexampleshavebeencitedoftabuabeingofferedasameansofelicitingchieflyblessingsforlifeandprosperity.
Religion,inHocart'sterms"thequestforlife",isatafundamentallevel,beneaththeextraordinaryculturalelaborationsthataremanifestedglobally,aprofoundlypracticalmatter.
ForFijians,asothers,cropsneedtogrow,sicknessneedstobeovercomeandthelandneedstobeprosperous—theFijianwordforwhichissautu,lit.
'power/chiefstanding/established'.
Ifthechiefisactive,dispensingmanablessings,abundancewillfollow.
Acrucialmechanismforachievingsautuissacrifice,andFijiansacrificialsubstitutiontakesthreeforms.
Menproduceandpresentfeastfoods,notablyrootcrops,womenproduceandpresentsoftvaluables(barkcloth,matsandscentedcoconutoil),andchiefsandtheirassociatedspecialistsofforeignStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'156originproduceandpresentgreatvaluables,notablytabua,canoesandyaqonabowls.
Inthepast,asSahlins(1983)hasshown,substituteswerenotalwaysused,and"cookedmen"and"rawwomen"tooktheirplaceinsacrificialrituals,butthelife-givingpotencyofthechief/godseemsusuallytohavebeenembodiedinasubstituteartefactsuchasatabua—sometimesinmanyofthem.
Thomas(1991:71)consideredthattabua"canbesubstitutedforwomenbecauseofthedivinepowertheyembody",whichisalegitimatereadingoftheirroleinaffinalexchanges,butthetabua/womanassociationseemsnottobeprimary.
Theyarecomparablebutdifferentembodimentsofpower,andtheprimarysubstituteartefactsofwomen'sreproductivepowerarethecorevaluablesbarkclothandmats,madebythem,regardedasequivalenttotheirbodiesandusedtocaptureandcontrolexternalchieflypotency(seeSahlins1981:116-19).
HowdoesequivalenceandsubstitutionworkinritualpracticeForHawai'i,ValerioValeri(1985:301)proposedthatcertainthings—trees,birds,feathers,'ie'ievines—couldbe"particularisations"ofdivinity,materialmanifestationsofdivinepotencythatwereamenabletohumanaction,notablyinthemanufactureofgreatvaluablessuchascloakswhichperformedkeyrolesinsacrificialrites.
ThemechanismbywhichsuchequivalencecanworkhasbeentheorisedbyAlfredGell(1998)inhisdiscussionoftheagencyofart(forwhichreadvaluables),whereheproposesthatartobjectsaresubstitutesforpersons,andtheyderivetheirpowerandvalue,andtheiragency,fromthisconsubstantialassociationwithsignificantpersons,whethergods,kingsorartists.
MauriceGodelierdedicatesawholechapterofTheEnigmaoftheGift(1999)tothetopicof"SubstituteObjectsforHumansandGods",inwhichhearguesforthecrucialroleofsubstitutioninexplainingthelogicofvaluables,boththosethatmoveandthosethatdonot.
Afterlistingseveralexamplesofcirculatingvaluables,hewrites,"thesearticlesarealltoavaryingdegreesubstitutesforhumanbeings",buthegoesontoconsider"sacredthings,which,farfrombeingsimplesubstitutionsforpersons,arethemselvesseenaspersons,butsuperhumanones"(Godelier1999:100).
Asidefromtheissueofwhata"simple"substitutionis,andwhata"superhuman"personis,hisanalysisprobesperceptivelyatthenatureofthegift/sacrificeanditsrelationshiptosacredobjects,personsandgods.
ForFiji,thereisacomparablenetworkofassociativeequivalencesandsubstitutionsinvolvinggods,chiefs,heirloomvaluablesandtransactablevaluables,notablytabua,whichbearonthesetheoreticalpropositions.
ButsuchontologicalissuesarenothowFijiansusuallyexpresstheirthinkingabouttabuanowadays.
ForFijians,tabuaarelinked,throughlongcustomaryuse,toappropriateandeffectivewaysofdoingthingsvakavanua'inthemanneroftheland',inawaythatshowsrespecttoone'skinandone'sseniors.
157Thefactthattabuacouldbecharacterisedasportable"godparticles",derivingtheirintrinsicpotencyfrombeingmaterialisationsofdivinity,isnotrelevantwhensomeonehasdiedoramisdemeanourneedstoberesolved.
Whatisrelevantinthesecircumstancestodayisthatthereisaculturallyapprovedandfamiliarwaytodealwithsucheventsthatiseffectiveandenhancesorrepairsthereputationoftheactorsinvolved.
Tabua,asembodimentsofrespect,performthisrole.
Thisstateofaffairsislikelytoremainthecaseforaverylongtime.
BertholdSeemann,atNamosiin1860,wrotethatthechief,Kuruduadua,"onseeingushandlingsomemoney,expressedhisastonishmentthatweshouldprefercoinstowhale'steeth.
Wetoldhimnotmanyyearswouldelapsebeforehewouldchangethatopinion,buthethoughtthattimewouldprobablynevercome"(Seemann1862:188).
Theywereprobablybothright,becausehowevermuchFijiislockedintotheglobalcasheconomy,itseemsunlikelythattabuawilleverbediscarded.
Mana,edina.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThehospitalityandassistanceofFijianssince1977iswarmlyacknowledged,especiallythepeopleofKabarainLau,whereIlivedforovertwoyears(mostly1977-79and1980).
Forspecificinsightsintoanddiscussionsabouttabua,IwouldliketothankTevitaSoro,KevueliBulu,IsireliRarawa,IlaitiaLedua,JoeliVakarauandFilipeVulaono.
IamalsogratefulfordiscussionsonFijianmattersovermanyyearswithFergusClunie,MarshallSahlinsandPaulGeraghty.
IwouldliketothanktheJPSeditorsandtwoanonymousreviewersforhelpfulcommentsandsuggestions.
Thisessayhaslongbeeningestation,buthascometofruitionasaresultoftheFijianArtresearchproject(www.
fijianart.
sru.
uea.
ac.
uk).
NOTES1.
Theresearchuponwhichthispaperisbasedhasbeenconductedsince1977.
IhavespentoverthreeyearsinFiji,mostlyinLau,easternFiji,andparticularlyonKabaraIsland.
BecauseofthisemphasisonresearchineasternandcoastalFiji,Iamawareofthehazardsofmakinggeneralstatementsaboutthewholecountrywhenwritingaboutmatters"Fijian".
Fijiwas,andis,linguisticallyandculturallydiverse,notablybetweeneastandwest,andbetweencoastalandinteriorregionsofthetwomainislands(whichisnotbestexpressedasaMelanesian-Polynesiandistinction).
ThispaperrefersmainlytowhatArthurHocart(1952b:8)calledthe"KoroSea"chiefdomsofeasternFiji,notablyBau,Rewa,LauandCakaudrove,sogeneralisationsmadehereabout"Fiji"needtotakethisintoaccount,becausesomegeneralstatementsmaynotapplytowesternandotherpartsofthecountry.
StevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'1582.
Thepresentationcalledireguregucanbetranslatedliterallyas'sniffing'.
Touchingwiththenoseandsniffing,whetherachief'shand,orwhenreceivingatabua,oronthecheekwhengreeting,isahighlyrespectfulgesturestillpractisedtodayinFijiandelsewhereinPolynesia.
3.
ManahasbeendiscussedwidelyinOceanicliterature,forexamplebyFirth(1967)andShore(1989).
InFijiitimpliesanefficaciouspowerofdivineoriginthatcanbringabouteffectsintheworld(Hooper1996:254-60).
Dinameanstrueorgenuine,andedinameans'itistrue'or'itisconfirmed',hencethetranslationhereas'Effective,beittrue',toconveytheinvocationthattheblessingsutteredshouldcometopass.
Amuduoandduoarerespectfulacclamations,thelatterusedinBauasthetama,therespectfulcallwhenapproachingachief.
4.
Fordiscussionofthesestatusesandcategoricaldistinctions,seeHooper(1996:243-46).
InFijithereisalsoanimportantdistinctionbetweenguestsandhosts(vulagianditaukei).
Thisinfluencesbehaviourandresponsibilitiesateventsandisalsoappliedtodistinguishchiefsfromlandspeople,theformerregardedasofforeignorigin(withseaandskyassociations)andthelatterautochthonous(withlandassociations).
5.
Forexample,thecondolencetabuaspeechforPaeafromtheTokalaudelegationwasmadebyIsireliRarawa,whobelongedtothebete'priest'clanatTokalau,andnottooneofthetwochieflyclansthere.
Becauseoftheurgencyoftheoccasion,andamemberofachieflyclannotbeingavailableorwellenoughtomakethenocturnaljourney,Isireliundertookthetaskbecausehewasagiftedspeakerwhonormallyactedasaherald.
6.
Vakatatabumeans'speech'inchieflyhonorificlanguage.
SeeHooper(1982:112-22)forafullaccountofthisstatereceptionforTuiNayau,whichincludedanadditionaltabuapresentationcalledrova'race'.
RovainLauisaracebyyoungmenofthevisitingparty,whopursuelocalwomenwavingbarkcloth,oneofwhomhidesatabua.
Whoeverfindsthetabuaisfetedasvictorandkeepsthetabuaandbarkcloth.
Onthisoccasiontheracewasnotrunbecausethevisitorsarrivedafterdark,soatabuawaspresentedatthestatereception.
TheracewasrunatRewawhentheLauanchildrenweretakentherelaterthatmonth(seebelow),ayoungLauanmanfromMoceIslandgettingthetabuafromtheRewaladiesinmockflightacrosstheceremonialground.
7.
Thereisnoclearlyexpressedindigenousdivisionbetweentabuapresentationsthatareoccasionedbystatusrelationsorbykinrelations,butthereiswhatmightberegardedasacontinuum,with"state"presentationsatoneend,suchasthoseperformedfortheparamountchiefatKabara(wherethestatusrelationshipbetweenthepartieswasmadeexplicit),and"kinship"presentationsattheother,suchasthoseatweddings,deathsandotherritesofpassage(whereaffinal/kinrelationsaremadeexplicit).
8.
InstallationintoFijianchieflytitlesinvolvesaselectionprocessfromeligiblecandidates(belongingtochieflyclans)byleadersofnon-chieflyclans,whoalsoareresponsiblefororganisingtheinstallationritual.
Thisvariesfromplacetoplace,butcoreproceduresareofferingacupofyaqona,tyingonbarkclothandgivingaforthrightspeechonthedutiesofchiefship.
Tabuamaybepresented159insomeinstances,asnotedshortlyintheinstallationofTuiLevuka.
Thereisageneralsensethatachiefdomishealthierandhasmoresolidarityifithasaninstalledchief,althoughuninstalledstrongleaders,suchasKevueliBuluonKabara,maytemporarilyremedythesituation,beingafocusfor,andgeneratorof,theproductivecapacitiesofthechiefdom.
AtthemomentinFijitwoofthemajorchiefdoms,BauandLau,havebeenwithoutaninstalledparamountchiefforanumberofyears.
9.
TevitaLogaheldthenon-chieflytitleVaka,buthewasawell-knownbroadcasteronRadioFijiandaskilledorator(seeNote5).
BecausetheparamountchiefofRewa,theRokoTuiDreketi,wasthemotherofthechildren,theroleofseniormaleonthemother'ssidewastakenbythesecondmajortitle-holderofRewa,theVunivalu.
10.
Clunie(1986:178)describedtheprocesswiththeseingredients,asdidAdiLadyMaraiaSukuna,whosupervisedthesmokingoftabuainthe1950s(Hooper1982:90).
Hocart(1929:99)mentionstheuseofturmeric.
Someteethinusetodayhaveanorange-colouredglazewhichmaybecommercialvarnishorkauripineresin(makadre)ofthekindappliedtoclaypots.
Whatevertheingredientsused,theintentionwasalwaystorenderthetoothdamudamu'red',atermwhichappliestothecolourspectrumfrompinktodarkbrown.
11.
Roth(1953:100)mentionsadeep-colouredelephanttusktabuawiththetitleTuiNasavusavuhesawandphotographedinNamosi,probablyinthe1930s(HerleandCarreau2013:fig4.
3).
Tabuamadeofelephantandwalrusivoryareoccasionallyfoundincollections(Roth1938:pl.
XV)and,ifcut,canbeidentifiedbecauseofthedistinctiveinternalpatterns.
12.
TheproceduredescribedbyTwyningisvalidatedbyanaccountprovidedaround1910toHocart(1929:69-70)oftheinstallationofCakobauasTuiLevuka(probablyabout1860).
Four-hundredtabuaweresaidtohavebeenpresentedtohimbytwoLevukans,successivelyhunginbunchesonhisoutstretchedarms.
13.
TheStateLibraryofNewSouthWales(MitchellLibrary)inSydneyholdsextensiveMethodistmissionaryarchives,notableamongthemthewritingsofWilliams,Lyth,Hunt,Cross,Cargill,Calvert,Jaggar,MalvernandHazlewood.
FrenchCatholicmissionariesarrivedinFijiinthe1840s,andtheytoohaveleftextensiverecords.
14.
MatthewTomlinson(2012:215),towhomIamindebtedforthisreference,goesontoanalysetheimplicationsofthesurrenderofthistoothforthelocalpeople.
15.
TheoriginalisintheStanmorepapersintheMuseumofArchaeologyandAnthropologyatCambridge.
AsThomasnotes(1991:224)thestatusofthismythisnotentirelysatisfactorybecausethereisnoFijianversionandtheplaceandcircumstancesofitstransmissionareuncertain.
16.
Hazlewood'sdictionaryidentifiessauwaqaas"theJavanmurex,highlyprizedonthenorth-eastcoastofVanuaLevu"(1850:321),whileHocart(1952b:201)wastoldinMacuata,Vanualevu,thatbeforewhaleteethwereintroducedFijians"usedashellcalledsauwangga,whichislikeacowry,onlypointedatbothends,likeaconch,butsmaller.
"Capell'sdictionary(1941:187),citingtheFrenchmissionaryNeyretasasource,givessauwaqaas"ashell-fishofafineStevenHooper'SupremeamongourValuables'160redcolour,asmallerkindofyaga.
Itwasanofferingtothekalou[god]nextinvaluetoatabua.
"ForyagaisgivenPteroceraandLambisspeciesofshellfish(p.
285),whicharetypesofspiderconch,andforcavaisgiven"ashellfishConusmarmoreus,usedformerlyasatabua.
"(p.
27).
Formua-ni-waqaCapell,citingtheMethodistmissionaryHeighway,gives"ashell-fish,Murextenuispina"(p.
150).
Roth(1953:98)consideredthatsauwaqawereTerebrashells,probablybasedonToganivalu'sdescription,andhealsomentionsTrochusshells.
Itisaconfusingpicture,worthyoffurtherresearch.
ABSTRACTThisarticledrawsonrecentethnographicresearchandonrecordsandobservationsfromtheearly19thcenturyonwardstodemonstratethegreatimportanceoftransactabletabua'modifiedwhaleteeth'inFijianculturallife.
Itarguesforadistinctionbetweenthesepost-contacttransactabletabuaandheirloomtabuaofgreaterantiquity,butsuggeststhattheroleofthelatterasembodimentsofpre-Christiangodspartlyaccountsforthehighvaluestillaccordedtotransactabletabuaandtheircloseassociationwithchiefs.
Keywords:Whaleteeth/tabua,Fiji,chiefship,ritualpresentation,exchange