会海japanese50m咸熟

JapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsinJapaneseElementaryandJuniorHighSchools*-AComparisonwithKoreaFocusingontheJapaneseLanguage(kokugo)Subject39)40)RobertJ.
Fouser**Ⅰ.
IntroductionⅡ.
BackgroundInformationontheJapaneseEducationalSystemⅢ.
ForeignStudentsinJapaneseSchoolsⅣ.
ForeignChildrenandtheJapaneseasSecondLanguage(JSL)CurriculumⅤ.
Conclusions:ImplicationsforKoreaⅠ.
IntroductionTheincreaseinthenumberforforeignersinJapanduringthe1990sand2000screatednewdemandsforeducationasthenumberofforeignchildren*Thispaperwassupportedbythe2010AnnualResearchGrant(2010)fromtheKoreanLanguageEducationResearchInstituteatSeoulNationalUniversity.
Theauthorisdeeplythankfulforthesupport.
**Professor,DepartmentofKoreanLanguageEducation,SeoulNationalUniversity.
E-mail:fouser@snu.
ac.
kr30027attendingJapaneseschoolsincreased.
Thenationalcurriculumwas,andstillis,designedwiththemonolingualandmonoculturalassumptionthatthechildrenandtheirparentsareJapanese.
ThisnaturallyassumesthatchildrenwillbeexposedtotheJapaneselanguageathomeandthattheywilllearnthecomplexJapanesewritingsystemthatmakesuseof2,136officiallyrecognizedChinesecharacters.
Foreignchildren,definedaschildrenwhoseparentsarebothnotnative-bornJapanese,however,findthemselvesinadifferentpositionbecausebothparentsarenotnativespeakersofJapaneseandhavevaryinglevelsofproficiencyintheJapanese,particularlyinChinesecharacters.
ThelackofJapaneselanguageinputathomethusmakesitmoredifficultforforeignchildrentoacquireliteracyinJapaneseatthesamerateasJapanesechildren,whichinturncreatesnewchallengesforteachers,particularlyteachersofJapaneseasanationallanguage(kokugo).
Inthispaper,Iwillinvestigatevariousmeasurestakenbyteachers,schools,andeducationalauthoritiesinJapantomeetthecomplexneedsofforeignchildrenintheschoolssystem.
IwillthendiscusstherelevancyofthesituationinJapanforKoreawheretheissueofforeignchildreninKoreanschoolshasbeenlargelyignoredasattentionhasbeenfocusedon"multiculturalfamilies"inwhichoneparent,usuallythefather,isanative-bornKorean.
ThepaperwilldispensewithadetaileddiscussionofteachingofKoreantochildrenofmulticulturalfamiliesbecausetheseissuesarebeyondthepurviewofthepaper.
AsthepopulationofforeignersinKoreacontinuestodiversify,thenumberofforeignchildrenattendingKoreanschoolswillincrease,whichwillcreatenewchallengesforteachersandschools,particularlyinthedevelopmentofliteracyskillsinKorean.
AninvestigationofthesituationinJapanwillofferinsightintowhatpossibleJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
301measuresKoreamighttake(oravoid)todealwithsimilarissues.
Thediscussioninthepaperislimited,however,byalackofprimaryresearchinbothcountriesontheoutcomesofeducationalefforts,particularlyovertime,forforeignchildren.
Ⅱ.
BackgroundInformationontheJapaneseEducationalSystemBeforelookingatforeignchildreninJapaneseschools,backgroundontheJapaneseeducationalsystemandtheforeignpopulationinJapanisinorder.
ThisdiscussionwillprovideacontextforunderstandingrelevantissuesrelatedtoforeignchildreninJapaneseschools.
1.
TheJapaneseEducationalSystemResponsibilityforeducationinJapanisdividedamongthreelevelsofgovernment:thenationalgovernmentrepresentedbytheMinistryofEducation,Culture,Sports,andScienceandTechnology(referredtoasMEXThenceforth),prefecturalgovernments,andlocalgovernments(thediscussioninthissectiondrawsheavilyonMEXT,2006andMEXT,2008).
MEXTisresponsibleforsettingthenationalcurriculumwhichallapprovedschools,whetherprivateorpublic,mustfollow.
MEXTalsodistributesnationalgovernmentfundsforeducationtoprefecturalandlocalgovernments.
MEXTisalsoresponsibleforapprovingtextbooks,aprocessthathascreatedcontinuouscontroversywithKoreaandChinawithrespect30227tohistorytextbooks.
TextbooksthathavenotbeenapprovedbyMEXTcannotbeusedinsubjectclasses.
Attheprefecturalandlocallevels,boardsofeducationadministerschoolsystems.
Boardsofeducationandlocalschoolsarefreetodeveloptheirowncurriculumbyusingspecialperiodsnotdevotedtosubjectsinthecurriculum.
Theschoolsystemisdividedintothreelevels:elementary,juniorhighschool,andhighschoolasshowninFigure1.
Elementaryisforsixyearsandjuniorhighschoolandhighschoolareforthreeyearseach.
Japanesechildrenarerequiredbylawtoattendelementaryandjuniorhighschoolandtherearenoschooltuitionfeesforpublicschools.
Highschoolisnotrequired,and96.
3%ofstudentsattendedhighschoolin2009(MEXT,2011a).
Allstudentspaytuitionfeestoattendhighschool,thoughtpublicschoolschargelessthanprivateschools.
Tertiaryeducationconsistedof406two-yearcollegesand733four-yearcollegesanduniversitiesin2009(MEXT,2011a).
AsinmanyAsiancountries,highschoolsandfour-yearcollegesinJapanarerankedhierarchicallybasedonhistoricalreputationsandentranceintoprestigiousinstitutionsishighlycompetitive.
Inrecentyears,anumberofeliteprivateschoolshavedevelopedcommoncurriculumsforjuniorandseniorhighschooltohelptheirstudentsbemorecompetitiveinuniversityentranceexaminations.
JapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
303Figure1.
OrganizationoftheSchoolSysteminJapan(Source:MEXT,2006)TheJapanesenationalcurriculumfocusesonabroadeducationinanumberofsubjects.
Thecurriculumisrevisedeverytenyearsonaverage,andthecurrentcurriculumisbasedonrevisionsin2008and2009(forhighschool)(MEXT,2008a,2008b).
Asinmanyothercountries,literacyinthenationallanguage,Japanese,occupiesanimportantplaceinthecurriculum,particularlyattheelementaryschoollevel.
Japaneseoccupiesmorethanathirdofschooltimeinthefirsttwoyearsandmorethanafourthinthenexttwoyears,thusdominatingthefirstfouryearsofschool.
Thefollowingtablegivesthetimeallotmentsforthecurrentelementaryschool30427curriculum.
Table1.
TimeAllotmentsbyGradeforElementarySchool123456SubjectsJapaneseLanguage306315245245175175SocialStudies7090100105Mathematics136175175175175175Science90105105105LifeEnvironmentStudies1021050000Music687060605050DrawingandHandicrafts687060605050Homemaking/Family00006055PhysicalEducation1021051051059090MoralEducation343535353535ForeignLanguageActivities00003535PeriodsforIntegratedStudy0070707070SpecialActivities343535353535Total850910945980980980ThetimeallotmentforSpecialActivitiescanbeusedforvariousschoolorclassactivities,oraddingadditionalclasshourstoothersubjects.
ThetimeallotmentforPeriodsforIntegratedStudycanbeusedforactivitiesrelatedtosubjectsthataretobetaughtthroughinterdisciplinaryactivities.
TheForeignLanguagesubjectisdesignedforactivitiestointroducestudentstoEnglish.
OfficiallylanguagesotherthanEnglishmaybetaught,butthecurriculumadvisesschoolstoconsiderthejuniorhighschoolcurriculum,inwhichEnglishisdefactorequired,whenchoosingthelanguage.
JapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
305Thejuniorhighschoolcurriculumhassimilarsubjectsastheelementaryschoolcurriculum,buttimedevotedtoJapaneselanguageisnoticeablylower(MEXT,2008b).
Indeed,timeallottedforJapaneseinthethirdyearfallsbelowthatallottedforforeignlanguage(English),andanumberofothersubjects,suchasmathematics,science,andsocialscience.
Thefollowingtablegivesthetimeallotmentsforthecurrentjuniorhighschoolcurriculum.
Table2.
TimeAllotmentsbyGradeforJuniorHighSchool123SubjectsJapaneseLanguage140140105SocialStudies105105140Mathematics140105140Science105140140Music453535Art453535HealthandPhysicalEducation105105105IndustrialArtsandHomemaking707035ForeignLanguage140140140MoralEducation353535PeriodsforIntegratedStudy507070SpecialActivities353535Total101510151015HighschoolisnotrequiredinJapan,asnotedearlier,andthecurriculumthusdiffersfromtheelementaryandjuniorhighschoolcurriculums.
Therearealsoanumberofspecializedhighschoolsthatfollowspecialistcurriculums.
Unlikeelementaryandjuniorhighschool,Japaneseistaughtinanumberofsubjectsinhighschool,andtherangeofsubjectoffering30627differsaccordingtothecharacterofthetypeofhighschool.
AdetaileddiscussionofthehighschoolcurriculumwillbeomittedbecauserelativelyfewforeignersattendJapanesehighschools,animportantpointthatwillbeaddressedlaterinthispaper.
ChildrenofforeignerslivinginJapanhavetherighttoattendJapanesepublicschoolsatanyage.
UnlikeJapanesechildren,theyarenotrequiredbylawtoattendschool.
Privateschoolshavetheirownadmissionstandardsandprocedures.
Foreignchildrenarenotchargedtuitionfeesforpublicelementaryandjuniorhighschool,andtheypaythesamefeeforpublichighschoolasJapanesestudents.
Internationalschools,whichfollowcurriculumsofvariousforeigncountries,arenotofficialapprovedbytheMEXTandarethusbeyonditsjurisdiction.
TheseschoolstypicallychargemorethanprivateschoolsinJapan.
Korean-languageschoolsrunbytheChōsenSōren,thepro-NorthKoreanresidentsassociation,fallintothesamecategory,though,unlikeinternationalschools,manyuniversitiesrecognizehighschooldegreesasequivalenttodegreesfromregularJapaneseforuniversityentranceprocedures(studentswhograduatefrominternationalschoolsareadmittedthroughspecialadmissionprocedures).
2.
TheJapaneseLanguageCurriculumAsdiscussedabove,Japaneseasanationallanguage,orkokugo,receivesthegreatesttimeallotmentinelementaryschoolandisacoresubjectinjuniorhighandhighschooleducation(informationforthissectioncomesfromtheofficialcurriculumasdescribedinMEXT,2008a,2008b).
Thecurriculumisdividedintoelementary,juniorhigh,andhighschool.
TheJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
307statedgoaloftheelementaryschoolcurriculumisasfollows(MEXT,n.
d.
):"TodevelopinpupilstheabilitytoproperlyexpressandaccuratelycomprehendtheJapaneselanguage,toincreasetheabilitytocommunicate,todeveloptheabilitytothinkandimagineandsenseoflanguage,todeepeninterestintheJapaneselanguage,andtodevelopanattitudeofrespectfortheJapaneselanguage.
"Goalsforthejuniorandseniorhighschoolcurriculumsaresimilarinthefocusondevelopingliteracyandnationalidentity.
"ThemainfocusoftheelementaryschoolisonteachingbasicChinesecharactersthatarerequiredforminimalliteracyinJapanese.
TheJapaneselanguagecontainsalargenumberofChinesecharacters,ofwhich2136areofficiallyapprovedforuseinpublicdocuments.
Bytradition,themediaandpublishersfollowtheseguidelines,whichmeansthatliterateJapaneseadultsneedtoknowalmostallofthecharactersonthelist.
Thelistofofficialcharacters,orjōyōkanji,isorganizedintoalistof939charactersforeachgradelevelofelementaryschool,withtheremainingcharacterstobelearnedinjuniorandseniorhighschool(MEXT,2008a).
Themostfrequentlyusedandeasiesttowritecharactersaretaughtinelementaryschoolandalistofcharacterstobetaughtineachgradeisgiveninthenationalcurriculum.
Textbooksandteachingmaterialsfollowthelistcarefully.
Thefollowingtableshowsthecharactersintroducedateachgradelevelinelementaryschool.
30827GradeNo.
Characters180一右雨円王音下火花貝学気九休玉金空月犬見五口校左三山子四糸字耳七車手十出女小上森人水正生青夕石赤千川先早草足村大男竹中虫町天田土二日入年白八百文木本名目立力林六2160引羽雲園遠何科夏家歌画回会海絵外角楽活間丸岩顔汽記帰弓牛魚京強教近兄形計元言原戸古午後語工公広交光考行高黄合谷国黒今才細作算止市矢姉思紙寺自時室社弱首秋週春書少場色食心新親図数西声星晴切雪船線前組走多太体台地池知茶昼長鳥朝直通弟店点電刀冬当東答頭同道読内南肉馬売買麦半番父風分聞米歩母方北毎妹万明鳴毛門夜野友用曜来里理話3200悪安暗医委意育員院飲運泳駅央横屋温化荷界開階寒感漢館岸起期客究急級宮球去橋業曲局銀区苦具君係軽血決研県庫湖向幸港号根祭皿仕死使始指歯詩次事持式実写者主守取酒受州拾終習集住重宿所暑助昭消商章勝乗植申身神真深進世整昔全相送想息速族他打対待代第題炭短談着注柱丁帳調追定庭笛鉄転都度投豆島湯登等動童農波配倍箱畑発反坂板皮悲美鼻筆氷表秒病品負部服福物平返勉放味命面問役薬由油有遊予羊洋葉陽様落流旅両緑礼列練路和4200愛案以衣位囲胃印英栄塩億加果貨課芽改械害街各覚完官管関観願希季紀喜旗器機議求泣救給挙漁共協鏡競極訓軍郡径型景芸欠結建健験固功好候航康告差菜最材昨札刷殺察参産散残士氏史司試児治辞失借種周祝順初松笑唱焼象照賞臣信成省清静席積折節説浅戦選然争倉巣束側続卒孫帯隊達単置仲貯兆腸低底停的典伝徒努灯堂働特得毒熱念敗梅博飯飛費必票標不夫付府副粉兵別辺変便包法望牧末満未脈民無約勇要養浴利陸良料量輪類令冷例歴連老労録5185圧移因永営衛易益液演応往桜恩可仮価河過賀快解格確額刊幹慣眼基寄規技義逆久旧居許境均禁句群経潔件券険検限現減故個護効厚耕鉱構興講混査再災妻採際在財罪雑酸賛支志枝師資飼示似識質舎謝授修述術準序招承証条状常情織職制性政勢精製税責績接設舌絶銭祖素総造像増則測属率損退貸態団断築張提程適敵統銅導徳独任燃能破犯判版比肥非備俵評貧布婦富武復複仏編弁保墓報豊防貿暴務夢迷綿輸余預容略留領6181異遺域宇映延沿我灰拡革閣割株干巻看簡危机揮貴疑吸供胸郷勤筋系敬警劇激穴絹権憲源厳己呼誤后孝皇紅降鋼刻穀骨困砂座済裁策冊蚕至私姿視詞誌磁射捨尺若樹収宗就衆従縦縮熟純処署諸除将傷障城蒸針仁垂推寸盛聖誠宣専泉洗染善奏窓創装Table3.
ElementarySchoolChineseCharactersbyGradeLevelJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
309層操蔵臓存尊宅担探誕段暖値宙忠著庁頂潮賃痛展討党糖届難乳認納脳派拝背肺俳班晩否批秘腹奮並陛閉片補暮宝訪亡忘棒枚幕密盟模訳郵優幼欲翌乱卵覧裏律臨朗論BecausethesecharactersarethemostfrequentintheJapaneselanguage,knowledgeofthemiscriticalfordevelopmentofliteracyinJapanese.
Japaneselanguageclassesthusspendalargeamountoftimeonteachinghowtoreadandwritethecharacters.
Masteryofcharactersintroducedineachgradeiscriticaltosuccessinothersubjectsbecausetextbooksintroducethecharactersinaccordancewiththeofficialjōyōkanjilist.
ThecurriculumforJapaneselanguagedescribestheobjectivesandcontentsofinstructionfortwogradeslevel(first-secondgrade,third-fourthgrade,fifth-sixthgrade).
Theobjectivesaredescribedingeneralterms,whereasthecontentsaremorespecificterms.
Thecontentsaredividedintothreemainsections:speakingandlistening,writing,andreading.
Aseparatesectionon"traditionallanguageandcultureandcharactersoftheJapaneselanguage"concludeseachdescription.
ThissectionoffersalistofrecommendedwaystoincludemetaknowledgeofJapaneselanguageandcultureinJapaneselanguageclasses.
Thedescriptionofthecurriculumconcludeswithageneraldiscussionofteachingmethodsand,asappendix,thelistofChinesecharacters.
Thecurriculumforjuniorhighschoolissimilartotheoneforelementaryschoolwithtwoimportantexceptions.
First,descriptionsaregivenforeachofthethreeyears,ratherthanagroupingofyears.
Second,nolistofChinesecharacterstobelearnedineachgradelevelisgiven.
Instead,thecurriculumrecommendsthatstudentslearn250-300charactersfromtheofficialjōyōkanjilistinthefirstyearandanother300-350inthesecond31027year.
Forthethirdyear,furtherChinesecharacterstudyfromtheofficiallistisrecommended,butthenumberofcharactersisnotspecified.
ThelackofalistofChinesecharactersallowsformorefreedominchoosingreadingmaterialfortextbooksandclassactivities.
Thehighschoolcurriculumdiffersconsiderablybecause,asmentionedearlier,highschoolisnotrequiredbylawandwastraditionallyseenasthehighestlevelofeducationachievedbythemajorityofthepopulation.
Thehighschoolcurriculum(MEXT,2009a)consistsofsixsubjects(thenumberofcreditsgiveninparentheses):GeneralJapanese(4),JapaneseExpression(3),ModernLiteratureA(2),ModernLiteratureB(4),ClassicalLiteratureA(2),ClassicalLiteratureB(4).
Thepresentationofthecurriculumisthesameasforjuniorhighschool,butorganizedbysubjectinsteadofbyyear.
ReferencetotheteachingofChinesecharactersissimilartothatofthethirdyearofjuniorhighschool.
Recommendationsofspecificworksfortheliteraturesubjectsarenotgiven.
Thecurriculumfromelementaryschoolthroughhighschoolmakesnomentionofchildren,foreignorotherwise,whoarelearnersofJapaneseasasecond.
ThisisperhapsnaturalgiventheJapaneseculturalandlinguisticcontext,butitdiffersfromdescriptionsofnationallanguagecurriculums,suchasthoseforEnglishinmanystatesoftheUnitedStates,thatdiscusstheneedsofsecondlanguagelearners.
JapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
311Ⅲ.
ForeignStudentsinJapaneseSchools1.
ForeignersinJapanAsof2009,thepopulationofforeignersinJapanstoodat2,186,121,whichrepresentsaslightdecreasefromthehistoricalpeakin2008.
Formostofthe20thcentury,KoreanswerethelargestgroupofforeignersinJapan,butChinesebecamethelargestgroupin2007.
KoreansbegantoliveinJapanasJapaneseimperialismtighteneditsgripontheKoreanpeninsulainthelate19thcentury(forbackgroundonKoreansinJapan,orzainichiKoreans,seeRyang&Lie,2009).
Numbersincreasedafterannexationin1910,butthemostdramaticincreasetookplaceduringthe1930sasKoreanlaborerswenttoJapanaspartofthewareffort.
LargenumbersofKoreanswererepatriatedimmediatelyafterWorldWarII,butpoliticalturmoilontheKoreanPeninsulacausedmanytostay,formingtherootsofthezainichiKoreancommunityofthetoday.
Inrecentyears,manythird-andfourth-generationKoreanshavetakenoutJapanesecitizenshipreducingthenumberofKoreansinstatisticsonthenumberofforeignersinJapan.
Inrecentyears,KoreansfromSouthKoreahavesettledinJapaninlargernumbers,creatingtheterm"newcomer.
"TheChinesebeganlivinginJapaninthelate19thcenturyandtheirnumbersgrewduringthe20thcentury,butataslowerpacethantheKoreanpopulation(forbackgroundonChineseinJapan,seeMaher,1995).
AnumberofChinesefromTaiwanwenttoJapanwhileTaiwanwasunderJapanesecolonialrulefrom1895-1945.
TheChinatownsinYokohamaand31227Kobehavetheirrootsinthisperiod,whereastheChinatowninNagasakihasitsrootsinasmallChinesetradingpostduringtheEdoPeriod.
LikeKoreans,manyChineseinJapanwererepatriatedafterWorldWarII,butenoughstayedtomaintainavisibleChinesecommunityinJapan.
Inrecentyears,thenumberofChinesehasincreasedrapidlyasmorestudentsgotoJapan.
ThenumberofChinesestudentsemployedinJapanesecompaniesisalsoincreasingasJapan'seconomictieswithChinadeepen.
AnotherimportantgroupofforeignersisethnicJapanesefromBrazilandSouthAmericancountries(forbackgroundonJapanese-BraziliansinJapan,seeRoth,2002).
AstheJapaneseeconomyboomedinthe1980s,thegovernmentallowedethnicJapanese,mostlyfromBrazil,toworkinfactoriesinJapan.
ThoughethnicallyJapanese,manyJapanese-BraziliansaremixedwithotherethnicgroupsinBrazilandspeaklittleornoJapanese.
ThepopulationofothergroupsofforeignersinJapanissmaller.
EuropeansandNorthAmericansareconcentratedinTokyoandotherlargecities.
Inthe1980sand1990s,anumberofwomenfromthePhilippineswenttoJapantomarrymeninruralareaswhohadtroublefindingJapanesebrides.
Inthe2000s,thenumberofforeignersfromvariousAsiancountriescontinuedtoincreasewiththeincreaseinthenumberofforeignstudents.
Figure2showschangesinforeignpopulationsince1986.
Asisthecaseinmanycountries,foreignersareconcentratedinlargecities.
KoreansandChinese,particularly,areconcentratedinTokyo,Osaka,Nagoya,andFukuoka.
EuropeansandNorthAmericansareconcentratedinTokyoandYokohama,withsmallerpopulationsinOsaka,Kobe,andKyoto.
Japanese-Braziliansareconcentratedinmajorindustrialcities,manyofwhichareontheoutskirtsofmajormetropolitanareas.
JapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
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313Figure2.
ChangesinForeignPopulationinJapansince1986(Source:Wikipedia)ForeignerslivinginJapanbelongtoanumberofvisacategoriesdependingontheiroriginandtypeofactivityinJapan.
Japanfollowsjussanguinisdefinitionofcitizenship,whichmeansthatitgivescitizenshipbasedonheritageandnotplaceofbirth.
KoreansandChinesewhoseancestorswenttoJapanduringthecolonialperiodaregiven"specialpermanentresidence,"thoughtheyarefreetoapplyforJapanesecitizenship.
OtherforeignerswhohavelivedinJapanforalongtimemayapplyfora"permanentresidence"visa.
MostforeignershavevisasofvariousperiodofdurationrelatedtotheiractivityinJapan.
Takentogether,theorigin,status,anddistributionofforeignersinJapanhasimportantramificationsfordiscussingforeignchildreninJapaneseschools.
Theforeignpopulationisdiverse,butconcentratedinarelatively31427smallnumberoflocations.
Differentforeigngroupstendtolivetogether,whichmeansthatschoolswithinaparticularlocalitywillhavevaryinggroupsofforeignstudents.
Thecombinationofdiversityofbackgroundsandgeographicalconcentrationmakesitdifficulttodevelopasimpleone-size-fits-allapproachtoteachingforeignchildreninJapaneseschools.
2.
ForeignChildreninJapaneseSchoolsThepopulationofforeignchildreninJapaneseschoolsreflectstheoverallpopulationofforeignersinJapan,butwithseveralnotableexceptions.
ThenumberofforeignstudentsinJapaneseschoolsrosefrom18,585in1999to28,445in2008(MEXT,2009b).
Thefollowingtableshowsthedistributionofforeignchildrenbylanguagein2008(MEXT,2009b):Table4.
ForeignStudentsinJapanbyNativeLanguageElementaryJuniorHighHighSchoolTotalPortuguese45.
2%31.
2%11.
6%39.
8%Chinese14.
1%31.
8%46.
9%20.
4%Spanish13.
5%10.
9%11.
2%12.
7%Tagalog11.
3%12.
5%15.
5%11.
8%Vietnamese3.
3%3.
2%2.
9%3.
3%Korean2.
9%3.
9%4.
1%3.
2%English2.
4%1.
4%0.
8%2.
1%Other7.
2%4.
9%7.
1%6.
7%TotalNumber19,5047,5761,36528,445ThenumberofstudentsfromEuropeanandNorthAmericanbackgroundsJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
315ismuchsmallerthanthepercentageofsuchresidentsintheoverallforeignpopulation.
Ingeneral,EuropeansandNorthAmericanslivinginJapanhaveahigherincomeandmanysendtheirchildrentointernationalschools.
Othernationalitygroups,however,oftenhavealowerincomeandthuslittlechoice,buttosendtheirchildrentoJapaneseschools.
StillothersmaybemorecommittedtoraisingafamilyinJapan,thusfindingJapaneseschoolsmoreattractivethaninternationalschools.
Inadditiontochangesinthecompositionofforeignstudents,anotherinterestingtrendobservedintheabovetableisthedeclineinnumberofstudentsinjuniorhighandparticularlyhighschool.
Himeno(2003)speculatedthathigherlevelsofproficiencyinChinesecharactersamongChinesestudentshelpedthemtopassentranceexaminationsforprefecturalhighschool,whereasstudentsfromotherbackgroundshavemoredifficultyandendupgoingtolower-levelschools,part-timehighschools,internationalschools,andinsomecases,droppingoutoftheeducationsystementirely.
Exceptforsomehighlyprestigiousprivatehighschools,prefecturalhighschoolsattractcollege-boundstudentsandrequireaspecialexaminationforforeignstudents,whichisdifficultywithoutproficiencyinChinesecharacters.
Ⅳ.
ForeignChildrenandtheJapaneseasSecondLanguage(JSL)CurriculumSupportforforeignchildreninJapantakesplaceatthreelevelsof31627government:MEXT(nationalgovernment),prefecturalboardsofeducation,andlocalboardsofeducation.
Asdiscussedabove,theMEXTdevelopsthenationalcurriculumandotherpoliciesregardingeducation.
Italsoprovidessupportforlocaleducationalinitiatives,andsupporthasbeengiventoinitiativestosupportforeignchildreninschools.
Prefecturalboardsofeducationareresponsibleforadministeringthecurriculumandprovidingsupporttoschools,andanumberofprefectureshavetakentheleadindevelopingmaterialsandteacherdevelopmentprogramsrelatedtoforeignchildren.
Finally,localboardsofeducationhavetakentheleadinorganizingschoolstohelpforeignchildrenmoreefficiently.
Thus,allthreelevelsoftheJapanesegovernmenthaveaddressedtheneedsofforeignchildreninschoolstovaryingdegrees.
Itmustbenoted,however,thatgovernmentactivityappliesonlytopublicschools;privateschoolsarefreetodevelopprogramsastheywishaslongastheyfollowthenationalcurriculum.
Theroleofprivateschoolsisgreateratthehighschoollevel,where29.
6%ofstudentsattendprivateschools.
Bycontrast0.
4%ofelementaryschoolstudents,and6.
7%ofjuniorhighstudentsattendprivateschools(MEXT,2006).
1.
JSLCurriculumMEXTinitiativesregardingforeignchildrenhavefocusedonthefollowingareas:developingacurriculumforJSLinstructionwithintheregularnationalcurriculum,teacherdevelopmentprogramsforJSLteachers,supportingthedevelopmentofJSLmaterials,developingguidebooksforparentsinanumberofdifferentlanguages,supportingthedevelopmentofmodeleducationalprograms,supportingthehiringofschoolcounselorswhoJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
317speakstudents'nativelanguage(MEXT,2009b,2011b).
ThissectionwillfocusontheJSLcurriculumbecauseofitsimportanceasthefirstnationaleffortincurriculumdevelopmenttoaddresstheneedsofforeignchildren.
In2003,MEXT(2003a,2003b)developedaJSLcurriculumforelementaryschoolandjuniorhighschoolthatfocusedonhelpingforeignchildrenattainthenecessarylevelofproficiencyinJapanesetofollowsubjectstaughtintheregularcurriculum,ormanaburyoku,or"powertolearn.
"Theelementarycurriculum(MEXT,2003a)isorganizedaround"activityunits"infourcurricularareas:Japaneselanguage,socialstudies,mathematics,andscience.
EachsubjectareahasadescribedgoalofJSLeducation.
ActivityunitshelpteachersteachthenecessaryJapaneselanguageskillsforthegivensubjectareabyfocusinggrammaticalpatternsandexpressionsusedinthoseareas.
"Activityunits"aredevelopedaround"activitycards"thatcontainJapanesegrammaticalpatternsandexpressionsnecessaryforparticipatinginparticularactivities.
ThecardshelpteacherscheckJapaneseabilityofstudentswhilegivingthemconcretelinguisticitemstoteachstudentsifnecessary.
Thefigureshowsanexampleofanactivitycard:Ofinterestisthattheactivitycardsfocusongrammaticalpatternsandexpressionsratherthanonvocabulary.
ThisisdesignedtohelplinkthelanguageusedinactivitieswithwhatstudentslearninspecialJSLclasses.
Apartfromregularsubjects,theJSLcurriculumalsocallsforspecialinstructioninJapaneseasasecondlanguage.
TheamountofJSLinstructionwouldmostlikelyvarydependingonthelevelofJapaneseability,buttheoverallgoalofthecurriculumisintegrateforeignchildrenintoregularsubjects,sothetimeforspecialinstructionwouldmostlikelybereducedaschildrenacquiremoreJapaneselanguageskills.
31827Figure3.
ExampleofaJSLactivitycardThejuniorhighschoolJSLcurriculum(MEXT,2003b)followsthesameprinciplesastheelementaryJSLschoolcurriculum,butfocusesmorecloselyonlinkingJSLinstructionwiththesubjectbeingtaught.
Insteadof"activitycards,"teachersuseworksheetsthatcontainglossesofChinesecharacterpronunciationsinhiragana.
AlistofimportantvocabularyforeachisgiveninsevenlanguagescommonlyspokenbyforeignchildreninJapan.
InadditionalgoalsfortheJSLcurriculumaregivenforthefollowingsubjectareas:Japaneselanguage,socialscience,mathematics,science,andEnglish.
ThedevelopmentoftheJSLcurriculumisaresponsetoproblemsthatdevelopedfromkokusaikyōshitsu,or"internationalclassrooms,"thatisolatedforeignstudentsintoJSLclasses.
Theseclassesweredevelopedbeginningin1992asthenumberofforeignchildrenbecamenoticeableinJapaneseJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
319schools;anyschoolwithatleastfiveforeignstudentscanrequestaJSLteacher.
Theproblem,ofcourse,isthat80%ofschoolshavefewerthanfiveforeignstudents,andcannotcreatean"internationalclassroom"(Himeno,2003).
AccordingtotheJapaneseGeneralInstituteforNationalEducationandCulture(citedinHimeno,2003),86%of"internationalclassrooms"separateforeignstudentsfromJapanesestudents.
AnotherproblemisthattheclassesfocusonJSLattheexpenseofregularsubjects81%ofclasstimeisspentonJapanese,andonly14%onregularsubjects(Himeno,2003).
Kojima(2009)conductedanin-depthsurveyofforeignstudentsinschoolsinthecityofYamatoinKanagawaPrefecturewhichboardersTokyo,andfoundthatteachersarefrustratedwith"internationalclassroomsbecausetheyareviewedas"extra"tothemainactivitiesoftheschools.
Kojima(2009)alsoreportedthatteachersemphasizedtheimportanceofaccomplishmenttohelpstudentsdevelopself-confidencetoovercometheirfeelingofisolationresultingfromasenseofalienationinJapanesesocietyandlowerlevelJapaneselanguageskills.
DespiteeffortsliketheJSLcurriculum,integratingforeignstudentsinJapanesehasnotbeeneasy.
Ogawa(2001)discussedproblemsfacingforeignstudentsfromtheperspectiveoftheneedtopreservetheirnativelanguageandculturesoastoreducestressinlearningandhelpthemdevelopamorepositiveattitudetowardlearningJapaneseandparticipatinginJapanesesociety.
Todoso,teachersfluentinvariousnativelanguagesofstudentswouldneedtobehired.
Todate,however,native-languagemaintenancehasreceivedalmostnotattentioninofficialcirclesbecausetheemphasishasbeenondevelopingproficiencyinJapanese,astancethatmirrorssimilarofficialstancesinotheradvancednationswithlargemigrantandimmigrant32027populations.
2.
OtherSupportProgramsAsmentionedabove,MEXThasalsofocusedonteacherdevelopmentprogramsforJSLteachers,supportingthedevelopmentofJSLmaterials,developingguidebooksforparentsinanumberofdifferentlanguages,supportingthedevelopmentofmodeleducationalprograms,supportingthehiringofschoolcounselorswhospeakstudents'nativelanguage(MEXT,2011b).
TheseformsofsupporthavedevelopedadhocasawarenessoftheproblemsthatforeignchildrenfaceinJapaneseschools.
Muchofthissupporttakestheformofcompetitivegrantstoprefecturalandlocalboardsofeducationtodevelopprogramsandhirestaffinrelevantareas.
Prefecturalandlocalboardsofeducation,however,haveinitiatedprogramsbeforeMEXThasbecomeinvolved,andsomeofthesehaveappliedforsupportlater.
OneofthemostactiveareasisdevelopingJSLmaterialsandannotatingmaterialsusedinregularsubjectstomakethemmoreaccessibletoforeignstudents.
ThisneedisrelatedtodifficultyofacquiringproficiencyinChinesecharactersandhenceliteracyintheJapaneselanguage.
TheproblemwithliteracyisparticularlydifficultinJapaneselanguageandsocialstudies(particularlyhistory)subjects.
Todealwiththisissue,someprefecturalandlocalboardsofeducationhaveannotatedtextbooksorhaveprovidedtranslationsofthetextbooksinseverallanguagesthatarecommonintheforeignstudentpopulation.
ManyofthesematerialsarefreeandavailableontheInternet.
OnesuchexampleissupplementarymaterialsforJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
321JapaneseLanguage,SocialStudies,Mathematics,andSciencedevelopedbytheSaitamaPrefecturalBoardofEducation(Saitama-kenKyōikuIinkai,2006).
ThematerialscontaintranslationsofJapanesetermsandexpressionsintoChinese,English,Portuguese,andSpanish.
TheyalsocontainguidesforteacherstoJapaneseexpressionsusedindailylifeandcommonclassroomlanguage.
AsnotedintheprecedingdiscussionontheJSLcurriculum,manyforeignstudentsinJapaneseschoolsreceivespecialJSLeducation.
Prefecturalandlocalboardsofeducationhavealsoproducedmaterials,manyofwhichareusedforspecialJSLclasses.
TheTokyoMetropolitanBoardofEducationhasdevelopedasetofmaterialsin22languages(Tōkyō-toKyōikuIinkai,1993-2009).
ThefollowingfigureshowsanexampleoftheKorean-languageversionmaterials.
Figure4.
SampleofKorean-LanguageMaterialsUsedinExtraJSLClassesinTokyo32227Anumberoflocalnon-governmentalorganizationshaveformedtohelpforeignstudents.
Themostcommonformisaprefectural-basedNPO(non-profitorganizaNPOsareregisteredwithaslegalentitieswithprefecturalgovernments.
OneexampleofanNPOisthe"NPOHamamatsuForeignChildrenEducationSupportOrganization.
"ThegroupgivesJSLtutorialclassesatseveralelementaryandjuniorhighschoolsinthecityofHamamatsu,acityinShizuokaPrefecturewithalargepopulationofmigrantworkers,mostlyBraziliansofJapanesedescent.
Thegroupalsorunsnative-languagemaintenanceclassesinPortuguese,Spanish,andVietnamese(http://www.
ac.
auone-net.
jp/~tomo2/index.
htm).
tion).
Onthenationallevel,theAssociationforJapanese-LanguageTeachingsponsorsshort-termteacherdevelopmentprogramstotrainteacherstoteachJSLclassestoforeignstudents(http://www.
ajalt.
org/).
Together,theeffortsoflocalboardsofeducationandNGOgroupsarelinkedmorecloselywithlocalneedsandofferinterestinginsightintotheproblemsthatschoolsandcommunitiesfaceinintegratingforeignstudentsintoschoollife.
V.
Conclusions:ImplicationsforKoreaTheRepublicofKorearatifiedtheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChildin1991.
Article28oftheConvention(UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,1989)statesthat"StatesPartiesrecognizetherightofthechildtoeducation,andwithaviewtoachievingthisrightprogressivelyandonthebasisofequalopportunity…,"thusguaranteeingforeignchildrenJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
323inKoreatherighttoaneducation.
LikeJapan,theKoreangovernmentdoesnotrequireforeignchildrentoattendschool,butitgivesthemtherighttodoso,providedthattheygetpermissionfromtheprincipaloftheschool.
Itmustbeemphasizedhere,thatchildrenof"multiculturalfamilies"are,inmostcases,Koreancitizens,andarethusrequiredtoattendtoschoolthroughtheendofthemiddleschool.
ThediscussionherefocusesonchildrenwhoseparentswerenotborninKoreaandwhousealanguageotherthanKoreanathome.
Todate,therehasbeenlittlediscussionintheliteratureonforeignchildreninKoreanschools.
Jo(2002)discussedforeignchildrenininternationalschoolsinSeoul,butmadenoreferencetochildreninKoreanschools.
Inrecentyears,Koreahasexperiencedanincreaseinthenumberofforeignchildren,creatingsimilarchallengestotheonesthatJapanhasbeenfacing.
ThelowerlevelliteracyskillsonthepartofforeignchildrenmakesitdifficultforthemtokeepupwithKoreanstudents.
KnowledgeofChinesecharactersisnotrequiredtobecomeliterateinKorean,butthelackofKoreanlanguageinputathomeandsupportfromparentswithvariableKoreanlanguageskillsputsforeignchildrenatadisadvantage.
Theheartofproblemisthatforeignchildren,liketheirparents,areviewedastemporaryresidentsofKorea.
Childrenofmulticulturalfamilies,bycontrast,areviewedaspermanentmembersofthecommunitybecauseoneoftheirparents,usuallythefather,isKorean.
Tofillthegap,special"alternativeschools"(daeanhakkyo)forforeignchildrenhavedevelopedinrecentyears.
InSeoul,theJiguchonKukjeElementarySchoolopenedinMarch2011,andisthefirstschoolinsuchalternativeschoolinSeoul(Kim,2011).
Itisopentoforeignchildrenandchildrenofmulticulturalfamilies.
32427Atpresent,foreignchildreninSeoulandotherselectedareasofKoreahaveaccesstothreetypesofschools:expensiveInternationalschools,freeregularKoreanschools(uptomiddleschool),andfreeorinexpensivealternativeschools.
ThesituationinKoreanowmirrorsthatofJapaninthatforeignchildrenhaveasimilarsetofchoices.
InJapan,governmentpolicyhasfocusedonimprovingJapanese-languageeducationforforeignchildrenattendingregularJapaneseschools.
InternationalschoolsarenotunderthejurisdictionofMEXTandgovernmentpolicymakeslittlementionofthem.
AlternativeschoolsarealsonotunderthejurisdictionoftheMEXT,butreceivemorevaryingdegreesofsupportfromprefecturalandlocalgovernments.
Theproblemforalternativeschools,ofcourse,isthattheyareoutofthesystemandareessentiallyinsecure.
Childrenwhoattendthemaredefactotakingthemselvesoutofthesystemandthusriskbecomingmembersofanundereducatedunderclass.
Arudou(2007),forexample,notedthat20-40%ofBrazilian(mostJapanese-Brazilian)childrenarenotattendingschool,andthatthelackofeducationandlackofliteracyinJapaneselimitswhatchildrencandoandthatmanydriftintotheunderclass.
Theimportantquestion,then,iswhychildrenandtheirparentstakethemselvesoutofthesysteminthefirstplaceArudou(2007)andKyodoNews(2010)havenotedanumberofreasons,buttwoappeartobethemostprominent:languagedifficultiesandalienation.
ParentsandchildrennotethatlearningJapaneseisdifficultandthatforeignchildrenhavetroublecompetingwiththeirJapaneseclassmates.
Asdiscussedearlier,thelargenumberofChinesecharactersexacerbatesthisproblem.
ThesenseofalienationcomesfromhowotherJapanesestudentsinteractorrefusetoJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)andforForeignStudentsin.
.
.
325interactwithforeignstudentsinclass.
Rumorsofbureaucraticnegligenceandbullyingspreadrapidlyintheforeigncommunity,creatinganegativeimageofJapaneseschools(Johnston,2008).
NegativeexperienceswithandperceptionsofJapaneseschoolscreateasituationinwhichalternativeschoolsaretheonlypracticalchoiceavailabletoforeignchildren.
Todate,policiesrelatingtoforeignchildreninJapanesehaveaddressedtheproblemoflanguagethroughthedevelopmentofJSLandrelatedprogramsdiscussedabove,buttheyhaveyettoaddressthemoredifficultproblemofalienation.
ThissituationoffersimportantinsightforeducatorsinKoreabecauseitunderscoresthedifficultyofintegrating"peopleofdifference"intoculturallyhomogeneousschools(foradiscussiononvariousminoritiesinJapaneseschools,seepapersinTsuneyoshi,Okano,&Boocock,2010).
Todate,Korea'seffortsregardinglanguagehavefocusedonKoreanlanguageteachingformulticulturalfamiliesinwhichoneparentisKorean.
Effortstodealwithalienation,thoughnotyetadequate,havealsofocusedonchildrenofmulticulturalfamilies.
ThefocusonmulticulturalfamiliesinKoreahasleftforeignchildrenoutofthedebate,butithasalsopavedthewayforaddressingthemoredifficultissueofalienation.
Asthenumberofforeignchildrencontinuestogrow,Koreawillbeabletoapplyexperiencesfromeffortstosupportmulticulturalfamiliestosupportingforeignchildrenandtheirparents.
KoreacanlearnmuchfromJapanindevelopingKSLprogramsforforeignchildrensothattheycansucceedinKoreanschools.
Japan,however,canlearnfromKoreaindevelopingaframeworkforaddressingthedeeperissueofalienation.
Forresearchersandeducatorsinbothcountries,therelationshipbetweenlanguageskillsandalienationneedsfurtherresearch.
Do32627lower-levellanguageskillscausealienationIfso,towhatextentAnd,fromtheoppositeperspective,doesalienationcontributetolow-levellanguageskillsFindinganswerstothesequestionswillhelppolicymakerstargettheireffortsmoreeffectivelytohelpforeignandmulticulturalchildrensucceedinschooland,bydoingso,improvetheirlifechances.
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()'JSL(2).
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''.
[]2,,,,33027AbstractJapaneseasaSecondLanguage(JSL)forForeignStudentsinJapaneseElementaryandJuniorHighSchools-AComparisonwithKoreaFocusingontheJapaneseLanguage(kokugo)SubjectRobertJ.
FouserTheincreaseinthenumberforforeignersinJapanduringthe1990sand2000screatednewdemandsforeducationasthenumberofforeignchildrenattendingJapaneseschoolsincreased.
ThelackofJapaneselanguageinputathomethusmakesitmoredifficultforforeignchildrentoacquireliteracyinJapaneseatthesamerateasJapanesechildren,whichinturncreatesnewchallengesforteachers,particularlyteachersofJapaneselanguage(kokugo).
Inthispaper,Iinvestigatedvariousmeasurestakenbyteachers,schools,andeducationalauthoritiesinJapantomeetthecomplexneedsofforeignchildrenintheschoolssystem.
ThepaperfocusedparticularlyonthedevelopmentoftheJSLcurriculumtohelpforeignchildrendeveloplanguageskillsneededinimportantschoolsubjects.
IthendiscussedtherelevancyofthesituationinJapanforKoreawheretheissueofforeignchildreninKoreanschoolshasbeenlargelyignoredasattentionhasbeenfocusedon"multiculturalfamilies"inwhichoneparentisanative-bornKorean.
[Keywords]Japaneseasasecondlanguage(JSL),foreignchildreninJapaneseschools,kokugo,multiculturalfamiliesinKorea,foreignchildreninKoreanschools