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REVIEWOpenAccessIndicatorsandtoolsforassessingsustainabilityimpactsoftheforestbioeconomyJaakkoKarvonen1*,PradiptaHalder2,JyrkiKangas2andPekkaLeskinen1Abstract:Thesustainableuseofrenewableresourceshasbecomeanimportantissueworldwideinthemovetowardsalessfossil-fuel-intensivefuture.
Mainstreammethodforfulfillingthisaimistoincreasetheshareofrenewableenergyandmaterialstosubstitutefossilfuelsandtobecomefullyindependentfromfossilfuelsoverthelong-term.
However,theenvironmentalsustainabilityofthisendeavorhasbeenquestioned.
Inaddition,economicandsocialsustainabilityissuesarealsomuchdebatedtopicsinthisparticularcontext.
Forestresourcesareoftenthoughttocontributepartiallytoachievingaso-called"carbon-neutralsociety".
Inthisreview,wediscusssustainabilityissuesofusingforestbiomass.
Wepresentseveralsustainabilityindicatorsforecological,economicandsocialdimensionsanddiscusstheissuesinapplyingtheminsustainabilityimpactassessments(SIAs).
WealsopresentanumberoftoolsandmethodspreviouslyusedinconductingSIAs.
WeapproachourstudyfromtheperspectiveoftheFinnishforestry;inaddition,variousaspectsregardingtheapplicationofSIAsinabroadercontextarealsopresented.
Oneofthekeyconclusionsofthestudyisthatalthoughsufficientdataareavailabletomeasuremanyindicatorsaccurately,theimpactsmaybeverydifficulttoassess(e.
g.
impactofgreenhousegasesonbiodiversity)forconductingaholisticSIA.
Furthermore,someindicators,suchas"biodiversity",aredifficulttoquantifyinthefirstplace.
Therefore,amixofdifferentmethods,suchasMulti-criteriaAssessment,Life-cycleAssessmentorCost-BenefitAnalysis,aswellasdifferentapproaches(e.
g.
thresholdsandstrong/weaksustainability)areneededinaggregatingtheresultsoftheimpacts.
SIAsareimportantinsupportingandimprovingtheacceptabilityofdecision-making,butacertaindegreeofuncertaintywillalwayshavetobetolerated.
Highlights:Forestbioeconomyinvolvesarangeofmultidimensionalimpacts.
Avarietyofmethodsexisttoassessandevaluatesustainability.
Socialsustainabilityisthemostcase-specificdimensiontoassess.
IndicatorsusedinSIAsneedcase-specificconsiderations.
Moreconsistencyisneededregardingtheconceptandterminologyofsustainability.
Keywords:Forestbioeconomy,Sustainability,Indicators,Impactassessment,DecisionsupportIntroductionClimatechangeisoneofthemostsignificantthreatsfacingtheworldtoday,andmitigationofithasbeenrecognizedasanissuerequiringurgentandextensiveactionsonthepartoftheglobalcommunity.
AttheParisClimateConferenceinDecember2015,195coun-triesadoptedthefirst-everuniversal,legallybindingglobalclimateagreement.
Theyagreedtotakeglobalmeasuresinorderto"puttheworldontrack"andtoavoiddangerouseffectsoftheclimatechangebylimit-ingglobalwarmingtowellbelow2°C.
Amongthepro-posedmeasures,animportantissueistotransformourcurrentfossilfuel-basedenergygenerationsystemstoasustainableandrenewableenergy(RE)-basedsystemsbyusingso-called'carbon-neutral'alternatives.
AccordingtotheIEA(2015),morethan80%oftheglobalenergydemandismetbyfossilfuels,whilethecurrentsupplyofREisinsufficienttomeetthatdemand.
Atthesametime,therearewidespreadconcernsoverthedepletionoffossilfuelreservesandthusnewsourcesarebeingexplored(CielakandGaj2014).
Itisnecessary*Correspondence:jaakko.
karvonen@ymparisto.
fi1FinnishEnvironmentInstitute,Yliopistokatu7,80100Joensuu,FinlandFulllistofauthorinformationisavailableattheendofthearticleTheAuthor(s).
2017OpenAccessThisarticleisdistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution4.
0InternationalLicense(http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.
0/),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedyougiveappropriatecredittotheoriginalauthor(s)andthesource,providealinktotheCreativeCommonslicense,andindicateifchangesweremade.
Karvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2DOI10.
1186/s40663-017-0089-8toincreasethesupplyofenergyproducedfromvariousREsourcesinordertoavoidanenergy-scarceworldduetothefastdepletionoffossilfuels.
BiomassisoneoftheREop-tions.
Currently,usingbiomassaloneisnotsufficienttosubstituteallthefossilenergy.
Planetaryboundariesforfood,biodiversity,cleanwaterandfreshairhavealsobe-comemattersofseriousconcern(Helinetal.
2014;Mancinietal.
2015).
Vialand-useandland-usechangebiomasspro-ductionformaterialsandenergymaycompeteoverplanet-aryboundarieswithfoodproductionandperhapsnegativelyimpactbiodiversityandtheavailabilityofcleanwaterandfreshair.
Hence,itisimportanttomakecertainthatREandmaterialsmadeofbiomasswillnotbecomeathreatforexampletofoodandwateravailability.
Forestsareexpectedtoplayanimportantroleinmovingtowardsafossilfuel-freeandlow-carbonsociety,especiallyincountriesrichinforests(Helinetal.
2014).
Woodisare-newablebiomass,whichhasaspecialstatusincomparisontoothertypesofREbecauseitiseasiertostore,canbeusedassuchorconverteditintosolid,liquidandgaseousproducts(Akhtarietal.
2014;Morianaetal.
2015).
Inaddition,woodisusedinconstructionandforproducingpulpandpaperandmanufacturingfurniture.
Itcanalsobeconvertedintoarangeofothergoodswithavarietyofusessuchashydrogels,reinforcementpolymersandresorcinol-formaldehyde(Morianaetal.
2015).
Allthesemaysubsti-tutefossilresourcesinthefutureandthusscienceissearchingfornewmethodstoimprovetheefficiencyofusingwoodforvariouspurposes(Silveiraetal.
2015).
ReviewOurreviewaimstoexplorethemostimportantandrele-vantsustainabilityindicatorsandimpactassessmentmethodstosupportdecision-makinginaforest-basedbioeconomy.
Aforestbioeconomyisunderstoodasanactivityutilizingwoodandothernon-woodproducts(e.
g.
,berriesandmushrooms)obtainedfromforestsorsidestreamsofforestbiomassfromotherindustrialac-tivities.
Forestbioeconomyalsoincludesforestryrelatedoperationssuchasharvesting,transportingandrefiningofforestbiomass.
Sustainabilityisconsideredbyusasacombinationofenvironmental,economicandsocialcon-ditions.
WeapproachedthetopicfromaFinnishper-spectivemainlyforthreereasons.
InfirstinstancetheFinnishgovernmentisaimingforgreateruseofforests(Suomenbiotalousstrategia2014;Sipil2015)andforestindustrieshavemadesignificantinvestmentsinFinlandsomeofwhichareunderconstruction(e.
g.
MetsGroup2015)andothersareplannedbutnotyetdecidedupon(Finnpulp2015;Kaidi2016).
Forexampleinnekoskiabiofactoryisunderconstructionwhichaloneisanin-vestmentworthabout1billioneuros,willincreasean-nualwooduseby4.
3millionm3,createssome1500newjobsintothevaluechainandisexpectedtocontribute500millioneurostonationalincome(MetsGroup2015).
Itsimpactsaresignificantlypositiveontheeconomyandemploymentbutitswoodconsump-tionwillcausestressesontheforestecology.
Therefore,thereisanurgentneedforassessingthesustainabilityimpactsofthisdevelopment,especiallyifalltheinvest-mentsplannedweretoberealized.
Secondly,forestshavelongbeenanessentialpartoftheFinnishnationaleconomyrepresentingover20%ofitsexportsin2013(OfficialStatisticsFinland2014a,b).
Finally,social,eco-logicalandeconomicconditionschangedrasticallyaroundtheglobeandwithinadefinedcontextwecandiscussthesustainabilityindicatorsmorein-depth.
Toassesssustainability,multidimensionalimpactas-sessmentsfordecision-makingareneeded(Kangasetal.
2015).
Especially,thereisaneedforamethodologytoconductconsistent,holistic,reliableandrealisticlifecyclesustainabilityimpactassessments(LCSIA)aboutforestuseinaframeworkconsideringeconomic,eco-logicalandsocialdimensions(3D)tosupportdecision-makingandtodeveloppolicies.
Itisalsoimportanttoprovidetoolstoweighprioritizedviewpoints,attributesoraspects,aswellasthedimensionsofsustainability.
Weexpectedthatsomeindicatorswouldbedifficulttomeasureandindirectvariablesandmodelsareneededtoincludesomeindicatorsinsustainabilityim-pactassessment(SIA)methods.
Weexpectedthatsomeindicatorswouldbestronglyinterlinkedbetweendi-mensionsandthatonesuchindicatorcouldprovideinter-dimensionalinformation.
Byidentifyingthesetypesof"driver"indicators,itmaybepossibletosim-plifytheassessmenttask.
Lastly,weexpectedthatwitharathersmallnumberofindicatorsitwouldbepossibletoconductaSIA,capableofgivingreliable,under-standableandcomprehensiveresultsofsustainabilityoftheforest-basedbioeconomyinFinland.
Thepapercontinuesasfollows.
First,weintroducetheconceptofsustainabilityinthecontextofforestryandthethreemaindimensionsofsustainability.
Afterthis,wediscussindividualindicatorsofecological,economicandsocialdimensionsonebyone.
Afterpresentingtheindicators,weintroduceseveralmethods,whichhavebeenusedinSIAs.
Lastly,wediscussthefindingsofourinvestigationandthepaperendswithourconclusions.
DefiningandassessingsustainabilityofforestryAsearlyasthe21stcenturyBC,Chinapaidattentiontosustainabilityinforestmanagement.
Sincethenithasbeensubjecttomanydefinitionsandviewpoints(MacDickenetal.
2015).
Sustainabilityinforestryusedtofocusonsustainabletimberyield;however,morere-centlyithasadoptedamultidimensionalapproach(Tuomasjukkaetal.
2013a).
Insuchamultidimensionalapproach,social,ecologicalandeconomicdimensionsKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page2of20(the3Ds)aresimultaneouslyconsidered.
Somehavealsoextendedtheconcepttospiritualandculturaldimensions(MCPEF1993;Leskinenetal.
2012).
TheMinisterialConferenceontheProtectionofForestsinEurope(MCPFE)hasdefinedsustainableforestman-agementinitsHelsinkiResolutionin1993asfollows:"Thestewardshipanduseofforestsandforestlandsinaway,andatarate,thatmaintainstheirbiodiversity,productivity,regenerationcapacity,vitalityandtheirpotentialtofulfill,nowandinthefuture,relevantecological,economicandsocialfunctions,atlocal,national,andgloballevels,andthatdoesnotcausedamagetootherecosystems.
"(MCPEF1993).
Theextendedviewoversustainabilityisprobablyduetotherecognitionofthelimitedandconstantlydimin-ishing,yetincreasinglyover-exploitednaturalresourcescausingecologicalstresswithdetrimentalimpactsontheenvironment.
SomeresearchershaveconcludedthattheanthropogenicconsumptionhasalreadyreachedthebiophysicallimitsoftheEarth(seeMancinietal.
2015).
Therefore,assessingsustainabilitytoensurethatEarthwillbeabletosupportitsdiverselifeformsinthefuturehasbecomecriticallyimportant.
Unsustainabilitymayresultfrom(over)emphasizingonedimensionovertheothers(Klooster2010;Villamagnaetal.
2013;Kopnina2016)andthus,consideringthe3Dapproachbecomesessential.
Somerecentstudiesontheforest-basedbioec-onomyanditsmultidimensionalimpactscanbefoundforexampleinHeinkandKowarik(2010),denHerderetal.
(2012),Leskinenetal.
(2012),CamberoandSowlati(2014)andJppinenetal.
(2014).
Utilizationofforestsmaybeperceivedvariouslybydifferentstakeholdersmakingsustainabilityanambigu-ousconcept(Kangasetal.
2015).
Asidefromextremeconsiderations(e.
g.
fromanenvironmentalactivistorutilitarianviewpoint),theoverallimpacts,valueprefer-encesandstakeholderengagementwill,ingeneral,affecttheacceptanceofusingforests(Haatanenetal.
2014).
However,thisacceptancemaynotguaranteesus-tainabilityif,forexample,generalacceptanceleadstotheconsiderationofonlyshorttermbenefitswhileneglectinglong-termperspectives(Sverdrupetal.
2006).
Therefore,itisimportanttoestablishobjectivesrationallyaswellastoprovidescienceandknowledge-basedinitialassessmentsaboutsustainabilityinordertoexcludeun-sustainableoptionsfrompossiblealternatives.
ThethreemaindimensionsofsustainabilityTheeconomicdimensionofsustainabilityisperhapstheeasiestonetocomprehendbecausemoneyaseco-nomicmeasureiscommonlyunderstoodas"themorethebetter"(exceptforcosts).
Economistsmaytrytoquantifyallvalues(fromalldimensions)intoasinglemeasure;however,thismaybeimpossibleorundesir-ableinsomecases(Hall2015).
Economicsareembed-dedinSIAandarewithoutadoubt,animportantpartofsustainability,forexample,ineffortstooptimizere-sourceallocation(Hall2015).
Sometimes,adecisionmaybemadesolelyforeconomicinterestsandgoals;however,sinceEarthresourcesarelimited,economicprioritiesshouldstaywithintheplanetaryboundaries(JaneiroandPatel2015).
Discountingisacommonprac-ticeineconomicsalthoughtherelationbetweentimeandmoneyhasbeenarguedasethicallyproblematic(Hall2015)andisthusaquestionablepracticeinSIAs.
Ecologicalorenvironmentalsustainabilityreferstoimpactsandchangesintheenvironment(e.
g.
biodiver-sity,landuse,soilandwaterconditions)causedbyanthropogenicactivities(Villamagnaetal.
2013).
Eco-logicalsustainabilityisconnectedtotheconceptoftheecosystemservices(ES)whichcanbeconsideredasthecoreofsustainability,referringtothecapacityorqual-ityofallthatnatureprovides(e.
g.
air,watersoil,woodandfood)(Villamagnaetal.
2013).
Thus,theESdefineswhatresourcesareavailableontheplanet.
TheESapproachprovidesawaytounderstandthetrade-offsassociatedwiththemanagementofnaturalresources(Villamagnaetal.
2013).
Human-causedstressonEarthisalreadyatanunsustainablelevelandtherefore,weneedtofindmoresustainablewaystousenaturalre-sources(Ernst2012;Mancinietal.
2015).
Socialsustainabilityhasbeenstudiedlessthaneco-nomicorecologicalsustainability(AcevedoTiradoetal.
2015).
Inaddition,thesocialdimensionisperhapstheleastuniversallyapplicableandAcevedoTiradoetal.
(2015)statethatsocialsustainabilityismostmeaningfulwhenbeingassessedatregionalornationallevels.
Forexample,incomeishardlycomparableinaglobalframe,giventhatanincreaseofoneeuroperweekinsalaryhasadifferentmagnitudeofimpactdependingonarefer-encedsalarylevel.
Poverty,malnutrition,inequality,aswellasothersocialissuesreachtheirextremesindevel-opingcountries(AcevedoTiradoetal.
2015),whereassuchsocialproblemsseemtoberatherinsignificantindevelopedcountries.
However,supportforuniversalso-cialindicatorsisfoundinthereviewbyJrgensenetal.
(2007)onsocialsustainability.
InterlinkeddimensionsClassifyingsustainabilityinindividualdimensionsischallenging,formanyimpactsareinterlinkedandover-lapping.
Multidimensionalapproachesallowustoexam-inehowanimpactononedimensionisreflectedinotherdimensions.
Forexample,ifweexpectanincreaseingrossdomesticproduct(GDP)(economic),wemayexpectimpactsonwell-being(social)aswellasontheKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page3of20useofnaturalresources(ecological).
Therefore,amulti-dimensionalapproachisessentialforoverallsustainabil-ityassessment.
Sustainabilityhasbeenapproachedfrommanyangles,suchascompensation,thresholdsandstrongorweaksustainability(seeAyresetal.
2001;DeMareetal.
2015;JaneiroandPatel2015).
Theverycon-ceptofsustainabilityhasalsobeencriticizedforitsanthropocentricity(seeKopnina2016).
Itisimportanttonoticethattheconditionsinallthe3Dsdovarybetweenlocations-yet,someimpactshaveaglobalreach(i.
e.
globalwarmingandtrade).
Thus,howsustainabilityismeasuredandevaluatedisalwaysacase-sensitivetaskandnotleastduetodifferingcommunity,culturalorop-erationalreasons.
DatasearchOursearchforindicatorswasconductedthroughdatabasesearchesintheWebofScience.
Thekeywordsincludedsustainab*,forest*,indicat*,social*,environment*,ecolog*,econom*andbiodiversity*.
Thesekeywordswereusedbothindependentlyandincombinations.
Duringthesearchforimpactassessmenttools,keywordssuchasmulti-criteriaanalysis(MCA)lifecycleassessment(LCA),materialflowanalysis(MFA),sustainabilityimpactassess-ment(SIA),environmentalextendedinput-output(EEIO),input-output(IO),lifecyclecosting(LCC)andenviron-mentallifecyclecosting(ELCC)wereused.
Sometimes,asearchforindicatorsresultedinfindingpapersdiscussingSIAtoolsandviceversa.
Wealsofollowedcitationsandreferencesprovidedintheliteraturewhenitwasconsid-eredmeaningful.
Inaddition,somelegislativeandstatis-ticalinformationwereobtaineddirectlyfromofficialadministrativeinternetsites(e.
g.
FinlexDataBankandOfficialStatisticsFinland).
SustainabilityindicatorsoftheforestbioeconomyEcologicalindicatorsInforestry,ecologicalsustainabilityisaffectedbyanumberoffactorswhichareeitherdirectlyorconse-quentiallyrelatedtoothers(CamberoandSowlati2014).
Werestrictedourlisttothefollowingindicatorspresentedbelow,whichweconsideredthemostim-portantonesformaintainingthecapacityandqualityofthoseecosystemservices(ES)relatedtoforestry.
Inpractice,theForestActofFinland(Metslaki1996)definesthelegalstandards,whichforestownersandoperatorshavetotakeintoconsiderationinforestryoperationstoensuresustainability.
Forexample,theForestAct(Metslaki1996)includesseveralkeyhabi-tatstobepreserved.
However,sincesustainabilityisanambiguousconcept,wearguethattheActaloneisnotsufficienttoensuresustainabilityofFinnishforests.
Forexample,activeforestmanagementandforestfiresup-pressionhavemadeforestfiresrareinFinland,whichhavebeenshowntothreatenfire-associatedandsaproxylicspecies(Koukietal.
2012).
Secondly,therangeofthepro-tectedareasmaynotbeenoughtopreservethesites.
Fi-nally,increasedwooduseandchangesinthetypeofwoodindemandmaychangeforestmanagementschemestoo(Caoetal.
2015a,b)causingotherecologicalimpacts.
GreenhousegasesPerhapsamongthemostimportantecologicalindicatorsofbioeconomyarethegreenhousegases(GHGs)ortheaggregationofdifferentGHGsunderthetermofglobalwarmingpotential(GWP)(IPCC2014;Levasseuretal.
2012).
DevelopedcountrieshavecommittedtotheKyotoProtocoltodecreasetheirGHGemissionsin1998(UNFCCC1998).
Sincethen,theEuropeanUnion(EU)hassetitsowntargetstomiti-gateclimatechangebydecreasingGHGemissions(EUregulationNo525/2013;DecisionNo406/2009/EC2009).
GHGsareperceivedasthreatsduetotheirroleinclimatechange(orglobalwarming)andanthropogenicGHGemissionsintotheatmosphereasthemaincauseofit(IPCC2014).
Theconsequencesofextremeweatherevents,risingsealevelsandlossofbiodiversitymayhavesevereconsequencestobothhumansandnature.
GHGisanindicator,whichisrelativelyeasytomeas-ure,tosomeextentevenaccurately.
Inforestry,majornon-renewableGHGemissionsareduetotheuseoffossilfuelsduringextraction,transportingandprocess-ingofrawmaterials,productdelivery,utilizationanddisposal(CamberoandSowlati2014).
Oncethe(fossil)inputsareknown(e.
g.
inenergyplants),thetotalGHGcalculationisarelativelysimplemathematicaltask.
MoredifficultwouldbetoestimateindirectGHGemis-sions,suchasemissionsfromsoilsduetochangesinsoilactivity(Levasseuretal.
2012).
Thedebatecontinuesoverwhethercarbonemissionsfromrenewableoriginsshould,asiscommon,becon-sidered'carbonneutral'andinwhichtimeframe(McKechnieetal.
2011;Czeskleba-dupont2012)orshouldsomeotherapproachesbeconsidered(Pawelziketal.
2013).
Inthecarbon-neutralapproachtheGHG(orcarbon)emissionsemittedfrombiomasscombustionareomittedinGHGcalculationsbecausetheyareas-sumedtobeboundby(re)growingvegetationformingacarbonneutralcirclewherethetotalamountofGHGintheatmosphericcycleisnotincreasing.
However,acqui-sitionofbiomassdoesincludefossilinputs(e.
g.
fuels)andtheimpactoftheGHGemissionsfromcombustionofbiomassandfossilfuelsare,inprincipal,thesameinrespecttotheirclimateimpacts.
Therefore,thetotaloftheimmediateGHGemissionsmaybehigherforbio-massthanforfossilfuelsperunitofenergyproduced.
Inashorttimeframethismaybeproblematic,consideringtheunderlyingclimatechangemitigationgoals.
Never-theless,biomassitselfdoesnotincreasethetotalamountKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page4of20ofcarbonintheatmosphericcycleandhenceinthelongrunallthefossilfuelssubstitutedbybiomassresultsinlesscarbonintheatmosphereandthereforemitigatesglobalwarming.
InternationaleffortsforGHGmitigationarealreadyagreedupon,theParis2015Agreementbeingthelatestamongthem.
TheGHG-indicatorcontributestothegeneralaimtowardsclimateneutrality.
Inaddition,GHGisaglobalsustainabilityindicatorandinterlinkedwithmanyfactors,suchasfossilfueluse.
MuchofthedataneededtocalculatetheemissionsofGHGsisderivablefromnationalstatistics.
Allthesame,fur-therprecisionforallocationisstillpossiblewithoper-ationalleveldata(e.
g.
fuelconsumptioninprocesses)andintheabsenceofsuchdatawehavetorelyonestimates(e.
g.
carbonsinkandsubstitution).
TheGHGvaluemaybegiveninabsoluteterms,orinamoreillustrativemanner,suchasthecarbonfootprint(Mancinietal.
2015).
However,assessingtheimpactsoftheGHGswithcertaintyisfarfrompreciseandmoreresearchisneededonthatpart.
Moreover,someskepticismamongpeoplepersistsconcerningclimatechange,itscausesandimpacts.
FossilfueluseFossilfueluseisawell-suitedindicatorforsupportingdecision-makingfrommanyperspectives,giventhatitisunderstandable,accountableandlinkedtomanydimensionsofsustainability(seePawelziketal.
2013).
Forexample,substitutionoffossilfuelswithforest-basedalternativescanprovidemuchinformationaboutGHGsandtheeconomy(denHerderetal.
2012)andpresentedinbothabsoluteterms(volumeandmon-etaryvalue)andinrelativenumbers,suchassharesinnationalconsumptionortrade.
Limitingfossilfueluseisaneffectivewaytomitigateclimatechange.
Inaddition,utilizationandextractionoffossilresourcesincreasesthenumberofenvironmentalhazards,suchasoilspills,morethanproducingrenewablefuelsdo(Ernst2012).
Fossilfuelusecouldbeusedasanindicatorincorpo-ratedinGHG;however,duetothecentralroleoffossilfuelsinmanyotheraspectsofsustainability,itismoreinformativeifmeasuredseparately.
InFinlanddataaboutfossilfuelusearereadilyavailablefromtheOfficialStatisticsofFinland(2016a).
ForreasonsofGHGcal-culationandpricefluctuation,volumetricvaluesmaybeprioritizedeventhoughmonetaryvaluesarealsoveryinformative.
Moredetailedinformationisstillneededforcalculatingtheratesofsubstitutionforusingwoodinsteadofitsfossilcounterpartsinitsvari-oususes,especiallyconsideringrecyclingandcascadeuses,nottomentionanynewinnovations.
FineparticleemissionsFineparticleemissionshavead-versehealtheffects.
TheNationalInstituteforHealthandWelfare(THL)inFinlandestimatesthatexposuretofineparticlescausesmoreenvironment-relatedharmonhealththanalltheotherenvironmentalfactorscom-bined(THL2016).
Fineparticles(particleslessthan10micrometers(μm)indiameter)intheairarisefromanumberofsourcessuchasfromwoodandoilcombustion,forestfiresandtraffic(Ohlstrmetal.
2000;Lambergetal.
2011;Ferranti2014).
Formsandformationoffineparticlesintheairvaryinsize,chemicalcompositionandbytheirbehaviorintheatmosphere(Ohlstrmetal.
2000).
Theirphysiochemicalattributesandtoxico-logicalriskswerefoundtodiffersignificantlydepend-ingonthefuelandthecombustiontechnology(Ohlstrmetal.
2000;Lambergetal.
2011).
Anumberofvariablesandattributessuchascombustionprocessconditionsandpractices,aswellasthequalityoftherawmaterialusedaffectthecompositionofemissionsreleased(Ohlstrmetal.
2005).
ArecentreportbyTHL(2014a)showsthatthereisno'safelevel'offineparticleemissionsandarguesthat'safe-levels'aremoreofapoliticalstatementthanthatofascientificallyprovenfact.
Thequantitiesoffineparti-clesintheairaremeasurableinabsolutetermsandweshouldapplyaprecautionaryapproachandprefermin-imizingparticleemissionswhilewaitingformoreaccur-atestudiesabouttheirimpacts.
Duetolegislatedregulations(e.
g.
EUdirective2015/2193;Finnishlaws750/2013and936/2014),fineparticleemissionsdataarereadilyavailableinmanycases.
WatercontaminationPossiblecontaminationorde-cliningqualityofwatersourcesareofglobalconcernandshouldnotbeneglected(Pawelziketal.
2013).
Watercontaminationmayhaveimpactsonhealth,re-creationandbiodiversity.
However,waterprotectionmeasures(watertreatment)maybringoneconomicburdens.
InFinland,groundwaterandwaterinlakesandstreamsisabundantandmuchattentionisdevotedtoprotectthesewatersources.
Eutrophicationisonemajorthreattosurfacewatersandthemainpollutantscausingitarephosphorusandnitrogen.
Theactualimpactsofthepollutantsendingupinwatercoursesmaybeassessedinanumberofways(Pawelziketal.
2013;Tattarietal.
2015).
WaterpollutionfromFinnishfor-estsislargelytheresultfromrunoffsafterfinalcut-tings,ditching(mostlymaintenance)andfertilizations(Tattarietal.
2015).
Manyuncertaintiesareinvolvedintheirmeasurements,leadingtoquestionsabouttheirac-curacy,althoughseveralstudieshaveprovidedsomevaliddataandtheiractualimpactsmaybecalculatedinanum-berofways(Pawelziketal.
2013;Tattarietal.
2015).
Karvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page5of20IndustrialprocessesinvolveusingchemicalsandtheirimpactonthepHandecotoxicologyinwatershouldberecognizedandassessed.
InFinland,legislationdefinessomestandardsonwateruseandqualitymonitoring(Finnishlaw(1040/2006)).
Ingeneral,industrialopera-torsinFinlandarerequiredtoconductenvironmentalimpactassessmentinordertoobtainpermissionfromthedesignatednationalauthoritiestocarryouttheirbusiness(Finnishlaw468/1994).
Legislation(e.
g.
Finnishlaw,(1022/2006))alsosetsstandardsandlimitationsonthequalityofdisposedwater.
EnvironmentalpermitsandapplicationsareaccessibletothepublicinFinland(www.
ely-keskus.
fi)and,therefore,themostimportantcontaminantsinwaterdisposalfromindustrialactivitiescanbeaccountedfor.
Suchdataallowestimationofwaterprotectionneeds,whichisfacilitatedbyappropri-atelegislationinFinland;however,thismaynotbethecaseinmanyotherpartsoftheworld.
Incomparisontoharvestingbiomass,fossilfuelextrac-tion,especiallyoildrilling,causefarmorewatercontam-inationrisks,suchastheDeepwaterHorizondisasterin2010.
LanduseandlandusechangeLanduseandlandusechange(LULUC)andindirectlandusechange(ILUC)aremajorissuespertainingtothetropicswherenaturalforestlandsareconvertedtoagriculturalorotheruses,whichmayaltertheenvironmentpermanentlyandsometimesdrastically(Hendersetal.
2015).
SinceloggedforestareasinFinlandarepracticallyalwaysregenerated,suchchangesdonotcauseanypermanentlandusechange(LUC)impacts.
Thusinthecontextofforestry,LUCconcernsshouldbeaddressedusingappropriatecriteriaanddonotrequirededicatedindicators.
Operationsonforestlandleadtochangesinlandcoverandsoilconditions.
Intensivelandmanagementsuchasremovingvegetation(e.
g.
finalcuttings)exposesterrainstowaterandwindinducederosion.
Particularlyerosionisacriticalecologicalprobleminareaswithsteepslopes.
Erosionrisksaremuchdependentonsitespecificfactors;however,currentmethodsforassessingsuchriskaresomewhatlimited(Pawelziketal.
2013).
InFinland,operationssuchasditchingofpeatlandandmaintenanceofditchesaswellaspreparationofsoilforreforestationcancauseerosion,whichcouldbepre-ventedbywaterprotectionmethods(Haahtietal.
2014).
Ingeneral,soilerosionisnotregardedasasignificantprobleminFinnishforests.
Soilproductivityisanotherissuedebatedinforestry,especiallyduetothepracticeofintensiveforestbio-massuse(e.
g.
byfurtherharvestingloggingresidues),whichincreasesnutrientremoval(Thiffaultetal.
2014).
However,theseimpactsaredifficulttoassessandnoteasytogeneralizeduetovaryingsitespecificconditions(Thiffaultetal.
2014).
InFinland,minimumstandardsforforestresiduestobeleftatasitehavebeendefinedintheFinnishForestAct(Metslaki1996)sothatthesiteproductivityisnotsignificantlyaffected.
Therefore,siteorsoilproductivityismoreofacriterionthananindicator.
However,morestudiesareneededtoassessitslong-termimpactsonsiteproductivity.
BiodiversityInadditiontoclimateimpacts,biodiversityisprobablyoneofthemostimportantindicatorstotakeintoaccountinSIA.
Biodiversityisamajorglobalgoalinnatureconservationandhasbeenassessedusinganumberofmeasures,suchasendangeredspecies,spe-ciesrichness,habitatindices,populationvarieties,genepools,deadwoodandhabitatquality(HeinkandKowarik2010;Filyushkinaetal.
2016).
However,onlyafewbio-diversityindicatorshavebeenempiricallytestedagainstthecriteriaforwhichtheywerepurportedlychosen(HeinkandKowarik2010).
BiodiversityisrelatedtoES(oristheverybaseoftheES)andchangesinbiodiver-sityresultinchangesintheES(FIBS2015).
Policyschemesoftentargettoensuresustainableuseofre-sourcesandpreservebiodiversity(GeijzendorfferandRoche2013)andgiventhispointofviewtheyalsoaimtosecuretheESs.
Finnishlegislationonforestmanagement(Metslaki1996)specificallyreferstosomekeyhabitatstobeprotected,anddemandstooverseetheregenerationofloggedsitesinordertopreservebiodiversity.
Specificimpactsofindividualfactorsonbiodiversityarenotalwayseasytoanalyze.
Moreover,stakeholdersmayhavedifferentperceptionsandpreferencesregard-ingtheimportanceofflora,faunaandabioticfactorsofbiodiversity,makinganindicatorofbiodiversitydifficulttoassessinthedecision-makingprocess.
Thisproblemcouldbeavoidedbyusingtheareaofprotectionasaproxy(Caoetal.
2015a)toavoidtheriskoflosingbio-diversityduetolackofunderstandingaboutecosystemfunctions.
Ourcurrentknowledgeofecosystemfunc-tionsandbiodiversityhaslargegapsandincludesimper-fectinformation.
Therefore,precautionshouldbeadvocatedandmorestudiesonbiodiversityareneededbeforeoperationalbiodiversityassessmentsarereliablyappliedinSIAs.
EconomicindicatorsEconomicprofitabilityisacriticalmeasureforinvest-mentstotakeplace.
Relevanceofdifferenteconomicindicatorsmayvaryamongprivate,companyandna-tionalleveldecision-makers.
Thefollowingsectionintroducesfewcommonindicatorsandanumberofimportantaspectsofeconomicsustainabilityingeneralanddescribeshowtheycanbeusedforassessingtheforest-basedbioeconomy.
ThevalueofproductionbytheFinnishforestindustrywasalmost20billioneurosKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page6of20(Metstilastollinenvuosikirja2014)andcontributedap-proximately20%ofallindustrialsalesin2015(OfficialStatisticsofFinland2016c).
Thus,itisclearthatfor-estryhasasignificanteconomicroleinFinland.
GrossdomesticproductGrossdomesticproduct(GDP)hasbeensuggestedasaneconomicindicatorinanumberofstudies(Solow1993;denHerderetal.
2012;Hall2015).
Itisanimportantindi-catorofeconomicactivityanditalsoindicateswell-being;however,GDPasanindicatorhasitsownlimitations(Solow,1993).
Moreover,therelationshipbetweenGDPandwell-beingand/orethicshasnotbeenfullyaccepted;aproblemasarises,forexample,inthequestiontowhatextentanincreaseinincomeorwealthcangeneratereal-lifesatisfactionandbeequallyshared(Feschetetal.
2013).
Inthisrespect,itisalsoimportanttonotethateconomicgrowthbasedonincreasingconsumptionofresourceswilleventuallycollidewithplanetarylimitations(Mancinietal.
2015).
Nevertheless,thereisastrongrelationshipbe-tweenGDPandnationalwelfare,especiallyiftheinitiallevelofGDPhasbeenlow(Feschetetal.
2013).
GDPisawidely-appliedindicatorofoveralleconomicactivityandeconomicdataisreadilyavailablefromna-tionalaccounts.
Theforestsectorcontributedover4%toFinnishGDPin2011(Metstilastollinenvuosikirja2014).
However,insomecountiesthisshareisover12%implyingthattherelativeimportanceofforestryshouldbeassessedregionally.
GDPiscalculatedinthreeways,usinganoutput,expenditure,orincomeapproach(seeEurostat).
GDPisaglobalbenchmark,reflectingthewell-beingofanation.
Inaddition,itisdirectlylinkedtogrossnationalvalueadded(GVA)asdiscussedbelow.
GrossandlocalvalueaddedGrossvalueadded(GVA)(seehttp://ec.
europa.
eu/eurostat)andlocalvalueaddedLVA(e.
g.
denHerderetal.
2012)areindicatorsprovidinginformationabouthowmuchtheproductionchainaddstothevalueofrawmaterialswhenprocessedintofinalsalesproducts.
GVAisneededtocalculateGDPandbothareoverlappingindi-cators.
WhileGVAdescribestheeconomiccontribu-tioninbroaderterms(e.
g.
asasectorinnationalaccounts),LVAisfurtherrestrictedtodescribeimpactsonalocal(community)level.
In2013theforestsectorcon-tributed6billioneurostoaddedvalue(Metstilastollinenvuosikirja2014).
DenHerderetal.
(2012)definedLVAasthesumofconsumerpricesandsubsidiesdeductedbytheproductioncostsandaddedallforest-basedmaterialssub-stitutingfossilfuelstoLVA,giventhatFinlandhasnodomesticfossilfuelsreserves.
Virtanenetal.
(2001)presentedthe(economic)importanceoffisheriesindif-ferentregionsinFinlandandasimilarapproachispos-sibletobeappliedinforestry.
Thedataoncostsofproductionandproductsmay,however,bedifficulttovalidate.
Forexample,toLeskinenetal.
(2012),bio-refinerydatawerenotavailableforrea-sonsoftradesecrets.
SuchalimitationintheavailabilityofdatamayreflectnegativelyontheoverallsuccessofaSIAandpreventtheapplicationofvalue-addedasanindi-cator.
Furthermore,marketprices,costsofproductionanddeliveryallhaveanimpactonthisindicator.
ValueaddedisespeciallyimportantwhenconsideringGDPandprofits.
RegardlessofsomeuncertaintiesinvolvedinGVAand/orLVA,theyaretheessentialpartsofGDPandtradeprovidinginformationaboutthedistributionofeconomicimpacts.
TradeTheannualgrossvalueofforestindustryproductioninFinlandhasbeenaround20billioneurossince2010(ForestIndustries2016).
Approximately11.
5billioneurosofthevalueofthisproductionisexported,con-tributingover20%toallindustrialexportsofFinland.
Hence,itisclearthattheforestsectorisaveryimport-antpartoftheFinnisheconomy.
Inadditiontowoodproducts,forestbiomasswasusedtogenerate340PJofenergyin2013,whilethetotalen-ergyconsumptioninFinland(includingtransportfuels)was1360PJ(Metstilastollinenvuosikirja2014).
ThesenumbersshowthatmuchoftheelectricityandallthefossilfuelsusedinFinlandareimported,whichmakesFinlandverydependentonforeignenergy.
Theenergytradehasasignificanteconomicimpact:thetotalvalueofallimportedenergyproductswas7.
8billioneuros,whilethevalueofexportsamountedto3.
7billioneurosin2015,resultinginanegativenettradebalanceof4.
1billioneuros(OfficialStatisticsofFinland2016a).
Muchofourwoodbasedenergyisgeneratedfromindustrialsidestreams.
Thus,inFinlandincreasedindustrialuseof(domestic)woodcouldimprovethetradebalancebyin-creasingexportsandsimultaneouslysubstituting(en-ergy)imports.
Thechangeintheimport-exportratiowouldbeagoodindicatornotonlyforpolicymakerstouse,butalsoofinteresttothegeneralpublicwhentheyconsidersupportingdomesticproduction.
Tradeformsasignificantpartofthenationaleconomyandtrade-relatedstatisticsarewelldocumentedinFinland,makingtradeaready-to-useindicator.
However,marketpricesarenotstableandmayfluctuatesignifi-cantly,whichshouldbeconsideredwhenapplyingtradeindicator.
Inaddition,tradeinformationisrelatedtobothGDPandGVA.
SocialindicatorsFollowingLehmannetal.
(2011),thesocialdimensionhasfivemaincategoriesofstakeholders:workers/em-ployees,localcommunities,society(nationalandglobal),Karvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page7of20consumersandvaluechainactors.
Thesecanbefurtherbrokendownintosubcategories(e.
g.
workingcondi-tions),whichcanbemeasuredbyindicators(e.
g.
exces-sivehoursofwork).
SimilarcategorizationofindicatorsintoimpactcategoriescanbefoundinJrgensenetal.
(2007)).
However,somemethodologicalandpracticalrestrictionsinintegratingsocialindicatorstodecisionmakingdoexist(Lehmannetal.
,2011).
Forexample,issuesofsocialdimensionareperhapsthemostcase-specificonesandshouldbechosenaccordingly.
Yetsite-specificdatadoesnotnecessarilysecuredataac-curacyanditispossibletomodifygenericdatatotakesitesandlocationsintoaccount(Jrgensenetal.
2007).
Finlandhasbeenrankedamongthetopnationsintheworldinhavinggoodsocialconditions(seeSocialPro-gressImperative2016)andalowlevelofcorruption(TransparencyInternational2015).
Nevertheless,therearestillanumberofsocialissuesinFinland,whichcouldbefurtherimproved(seeYLE2008).
Forexample,income(equityanddistribution)andworkinglifeissuesresultinginvariousconsequencesareconstantlydebatedinFinland.
Inaddition,indirectsocialdeterminantssuchasthenationaleconomyandsecuritymaybeespeciallyinterestingatthenational(policy)level.
Globallyrele-vantsocialissuesshouldnotbeneglectedeither,becausemanyFinnishcompaniesoperateglobally.
Nationalsupplysecurityandself-relianceNationalsupplysecuritycanrefertoself-relianceinmat-tersofenergy,raw-materialsorfood.
Inenergysecurity,thetraditionalconceptaddressesavailability,affordabil-ityandsafetyoffuelsandservices(Knox-Hayesetal.
2013).
Wehavecategorizedthisundersocialdimension;however,itsmeasureshaveconnectionstoenvironmen-talandeconomicdimensionsaswell.
Finlandhasnodomesticfossilfuelreservesandthus,theFinnishenergysectorreliesheavilyonimports:in2015,oil,naturalgasandcoalconstitutedrespectively24,6and8%oftotalenergyconsumption.
Inaddition,20%ofelectricityconsumedinFinlandwasimportedin2015(OfficialStatisticsofFinland2016b)Thus,thereisaclearrelationinFinlandbetweenself-relianceandtheuseofimportedenergy.
ThisrelianceonimportedfossilfuelsexposesFinlandtotherisksofpriceandsupplyin-security.
Inaddition,importersofelectricityandfossilfuelsaremajorplayersinFinnishtrade.
Dependenceonimportedfossilfuelsandelectricitycouldbepartiallyloweredwithforestbiomass.
Thus,inthecontextofthisstudy,supplysecurityandself-relianceisseenasoneofthetopissuestowhichtheforestbioeconomymaycon-tributeinFinland.
Moreover,thecurrentcombinedcap-acityofdomesticandimportedelectricitywillunlikelybeabletosatisfythepeakloaddemandifcoldwinterconditionsoccurtogetherwithpoorhydropowergeneration(lowwaterlevels)intheNordiccountries(Huoltovarmuuskeskus2016)highlightingtheimport-anceofdomesticenergygeneration.
FinnishEnergyhasfoundthatthattheFinnsfavorre-newableandlessenvironment-stressingenergysourcesandthattheyarewillingtopayfortheseattributes(ET2015).
Knox-Hayesetal.
(2013)havefoundthatconsid-erationsforenergysecuritygloballyareinfluencedbygender,age,demography,socioeconomicpositions,levelofeducationandmanyotherfactors.
Thisprob-ablysuggeststhatunderstandingthe"bigpicture"inenergyproductionanditsimpactsvaryglobally.
Numberofmeasures,suchaschangesindomestic/importedfuels,energyandothergoods,couldbeusedwhenassessingthisindicatoronanational(policy)level.
However,meaningfulthismeasureisintheeyesofthepublicandneedsaquestionnaire-basedstudyforevalu-atingbroadpublicacceptance.
EmploymentEmploymenthasbeenlistedasasocialindicatorinanumberofstudiesandtheforestrysectorhasstrongem-ploymentimpacts(denHerderetal.
2012;Leskinenetal.
2012;Tuomasjukkaetal.
2013a).
Acommonbeliefisthatforestry-relatedenvironmentalprotectionham-perstheeconomy,whereasBezdeketal.
(2008)arguethatthisbeliefisuntrue.
Jobcreationincludesdirect,in-directandinducedjobcreation(DaltonandLewis2011;HarsdorffandPhilips2013).
Therefore,anaccuratenumberofjobsbeingcreatedoverallmaybedifficulttoassess(DaltonandLewis2011;HarsdorffandPhilips2013).
Employmenthasmanyimportantfunctionsforwell-beingasemploymentcreatesincomeandincomeen-ablesaccesstomanyfunctionsofsocialwell-being.
Inaddition,increasedincomesresultinincreasedfiscalfundsviataxation(thenationaleconomy).
Theamountofdirectjobsshouldberelativelysim-pletocalculatewhileindirectjobcreationcouldbedifficulttoassessaccurately.
However,thereareinput-outputtechniquesavailableformeasuringindirectim-pactsofemploymentonthewell-beingofindividualsandtheeconomyatthenationallevel(e.
g.
Bezdeketal.
2008).
Thenumberofemployeesneededisalsomuchdependentontechnologiesandpracticesused.
Therefore,caselevelsystemknowledgeisessentialforthepreciseevaluationoftheemploymentimpacts.
Accidentsandwork-relateddiseasesManycountrieshavepaidattentiontooccupationalacci-dentsforoveracenturyandthenumberofaccidentsatworkhasbeendecreasing(Hmlinenetal.
2009).
How-ever,indirectwork-relatedhealthissuessuchascancerandrespiratorydiseasesmayhavebeenunderestimatedKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page8of20(Hmlinenetal.
2009).
Spillemaeckersetal.
(2004)pro-posedaquantitativehealthandsafetyindicatortobebasedonstatisticalsourcesandlistseveralindicators(e.
g.
training,auditingandformalworkpolicy)tomeasure"occupationalhealthandsafety".
InFinland,good,precisestatisticaldataareavailable:forexample,in2013,theoffi-cialstatisticsaboutwork-relatedaccidentsamountedto134666cases(OfficialStatisticsofFinland2013).
Thenumbersshowthatabout6%oftheworkforcesufferedsomeoccupationalaccident.
Thecostsofaccidentstoasocietymaybesignificant.
Forexample,theFinnishInstituteofOccupationalHealth(2011)reportedthatthecostsofworkrelatedaccidentsanddiseasesin2000amountedtoover4billioneuros,whichis3%oftheFinnishGDP,andaonethree-dayabsencefromworkcostsabout5000euros.
Therefore,accidentsshouldnotbeforgotteninSIAs.
Inothercontexts,wherecostsofanaccidentfallentirelyonaworker,theimpactchangesfromsocietytotheindividualandshouldbeaddressedac-cordinglyinSIAs.
Indicatorsormeasurestopreventoccupationalacci-dents(e.
g.
Spillemaeckersetal.
(2004)maybedifficulttoevaluate.
However,someforestryrelatedjobsmaybemoreaccidentprone(e.
g.
transportandmanufac-turing)thanothers,althoughprecisedatamaybediffi-culttoextractfromstatistics(seeInternationalLabourOrganizationILO2008;OfficialStatisticsofFinland2013).
Wemayuseaveragevaluesbysectorstoesti-matethenumberofaccidentsandapplythoseinSIAstogetapproximatefigures.
Forexample,usingthe6%riskofoccupationalaccidentsitcanbeestimatedthatthe1500newjobscreatedbythenekoskiinvestmentwillresultinabout90occupationalaccidentsannually.
Nevertheless,itisobviousthatmorein-depthstudiesareneededforhigherprecisionlevelcalculations,espe-ciallyoverlongtimehorizonsonlatentwork-relateddiseases.
Humanhealthandwell-beingHealthandwell-beingisanoverallandcombinedresultofmanyfactorsfrommanyeconomic,environmentalandsocialaspects.
Onemethodusedtoassesstheim-pactoftheeconomyonhealthistostudytherelation-shipbetweenGDPandlifeexpectancy(LEX).
Feschetetal.
(2013)referredtostudiesmainlysuggestingthatalthoughanincreaseinincomeandGDPwouldleadtoanincreaseinhealth(intermsofLEX),afteracertainlevelthosewouldnotfurtheraddtoLEX.
Thus,thelevelofincomeofanindividualcontrastedwiththegenerallevelofincomemaybebetterindescribingwell-beingwhenGDPishigh(Feschetetal.
2013).
Theenvironmentisimportantforhealthandwell-being.
Ingeneral,thepublicunderstandstherisksfromexposuretoenvironmentalpollution(e.
g.
fineparticles,smoking,radon,noiseandUV-radiation),itdoesnotfol-lowthatpeoplebehaveaccordingly(THL2014b).
Aswell,notalltheimpactsarewell-known(e.
g.
ofnoise,THL2014c).
Changesinhealthoftenneedtimetobe-comerealizedandevena10-yearperiodmaybetooshorttoobservealltheimpacts(Feschetetal.
2013).
Weconcludethatthegeneralhealthhasadirectcon-nectiontowork-relatedaccidentsanddiseasesasdis-cussedearlier.
Therefore,healthandwell-beingatworkandinlifeingeneralmaybecombineddependingonthescopeofastudy.
Healthisalsoaneconomicissuebecausepoorhealthisafinancialburdentosocietyandthereforealsoaneconomicissue.
Tosumup,well-beingandhumanhealthisdifficulttoevaluate.
NeitherGDPnorLEX,oranyothermeasurableindicatorhasbeenfoundreliableassuch.
Still,itisanimportantfactorinsociety.
EquityEquitybetweenpeopleisacriticalcomponentofsocialsustainability(Stanton2012;AcevedoTiradoetal.
2015;)andoneofthekeymatterstorecognizewhencombattingclimatechange(UN2015).
Thelevelofequityamongpeoplevariesgreatlyaroundtheglobe.
Therefore,regionalcontextsshouldbeconsidered.
Equitycanbeunderstoodbroadlyasshared,equalrights,rulesandresponsibilitiesbetweenallindividualsinasocietyor,alternativelynarrowlyconsidering"only"wealthandincome(seeStanton2012).
Stanton(2012)alsoarguesthat,althoughincomedistributionmaybeaninsufficientmetricofequity,itisstillbyfarthebest-measuredcomponentofequityforbeingassociated,forexample,withbetterenvironmental,healthandeduca-tionoutcomesandrobustoverallsocialcapital.
Wewouldalsoarguethatcorruptionisaglobalthreattobothequityandsustainability.
However,inFinland,cor-ruptionisnotamajorissueandTransparencyInter-nationalhasscoredFinlandamongtheleastcorruptnationsformanyyears(TransparencyInternational2015).
Aswell,laborconditionscanbeharshandex-ploitativeinmanycountries.
Inthisregard,ifincreaseduseofwoodinFinlandweretomovejobsfromlabordiscriminatingcountriestoFinland,laborconditionsshouldimprove.
Anotherquestionishowjoblosseswouldimpactthepeopletherewherethejobsweretakenfrom,giventhatgloballyoperatingFinnishforestcompaniesworkforequity,forexamplebyimprovinglaborconditions,butallemployersmightnotdothesame.
Problemsrelatedtoequityinabroadersensemaydif-ferconsiderablybetweendevelopedanddevelopingcountries.
Forexample,inFinland,manyimportantequityfunctionssuchasaccesstohealthcareandeduca-tionareeitherfreeorcostsarecompensatedbytheKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page9of20governmentandalsoaccessible(andevencompulsorytoacertaindegree)toeverycitizen(TheSocialInsuranceInstitutionofFinland,2016;Finnishconstitution,731/1999).
In2015,Finlandwasrankedasthe3rdmostequalnationamongthe145countriesaccountedforbytheWorldEconomicForum(2015).
Allthesame,therearesomeinequityissueseveninFinland,suchasthathighjobpositionsaremostlyoccupiedbymen(Eurostat2016)andunequalincomedistributionsbetweengen-dersandamongpeopleingeneralarearealityinFinland(OfficialStatisticsofFinland2014c).
Severalmethodstoassessincomedistributionamongcitizenshavebeenconsidered,forexamplebyChampernowne(1974),whoconsideredtheGini-indexasasuitableindicatorinin-comeinequalityassessment.
CalculationoftheGini-coefficientneedssalarydatawhicharestillmoreorlessatabooinFinland.
AccesstotaxationdatawouldallowacomprehensiveuseoftheGini-coefficient,butthatin-formationiscommonlyavailabletotaxofficialsonly.
Inthecontextofthisstudy,salaryandtheequaldis-tributionofprofitsandincomealongthewholechainofactors(e.
g.
theforestbioeconomyproductionchainfromforestownerstopulp/papermills)couldworkasanapplicableandrelevantindicator.
Inthisway,equity(development)couldbeassessedandknownanticipated(positive)developmentshouldresultinhigheroverallacceptanceofadecision(socialsustainability),butthiswouldbepossibleonlyifincomedataweremadeopenlyavailable,whichisrarelythecase.
Imperfectin-formationaboutsalariesmakeincomebasedequitydevelopmentuncertain.
But,laborunionsinFinlanddosetrecommendationsonsalarylevelsfordifferentjobswhichcouldbefurtherusedtoassesstheincomelevelsfollowinganyproject.
CapacityandfreedomNussbaum(2011)discussedmanybasichumanrightsandcapabilityissues(e.
g.
freedomofassociation,freechoiceofoccupationandpoliticalliberty).
Manyofthesemayseemtobedistanttopeopleincountrieswheretheabilitytodoortobecomesomethingismainlyrelatedtodisposableincomeandavailabletimebutnotwithgenderorethnicalstatusasinmanyotherlocations.
Aboriginalpeople(e.
g.
SamipeopleinnorthernFinland)areaspecialcaseofcapacityandfreedomtoconsiderindecision-makingtomaintaintheircultureandsociety.
Ingeneral,employmentandincomedictatemostis-suesofcapacityandfreedom.
However,whileincomeisonlyinstrumentallyimportantforfreedom,someincomethresholdsmaybesettoassessfreedomandcapacity(Hall2015).
Thus,theimpactofemploymentandin-comecouldbesetasthresholdcriteriaforminimumstandardsinsalaryandemploymentcreationwhenap-pliedinSIA.
However,participation(seenextsection)mayimprovethefeelingofcapacityandfreedomexperi-encedamongpeople.
ParticipationSustainabilityandgeneralacceptabilityofadecisionmaybeimprovedbyinformationdeliveryandopportunitiesinparticipation.
Strongpresumptionsandattitudes,suchasthatjobsarelostduetoenvironmentalprotection(Bezdeketal.
2008),mayresultinsupportingsub-optimaldecisions.
Toavoidtheseissues,informationshouldbeaddressedinanunderstandablewayanddecisionsshouldbebasedonverifiedinformation.
Transparencyandparticipationarebothessentialindecision-makingtoavoidpublicdistrusttowardsdeci-sionmakers(DrewandNyerges2004;Fenster2006),fightingagainstcorruptionandindefendingdemocraticprinciples.
Finlandhasalongtraditioninparticipationofstake-holdersindecision-makingandpolicy-processes(LindstadandSolberg2012).
Stakeholderparticipationisanimportantpartofsustainableforestmanagement,sinceplanningproblemsinforestryoftenincludemul-tiplecriteriaandpreferencessetbymanystakeholdersand/ordecisionmakers(Kangasetal.
2015).
Publicparticipationispossible,amongothers,viameetings,workshops,tours,newsletters,interactiveinformationnetworksandsocialmedia.
Planningcasesthatincludemultiplestakeholdersmayfacedifficultiesduetoconflictingviewpointsandprefer-ences.
Kangasetal.
(2015)listtheaimsofparticipationinforestryasfollows:1.
"Increaseawarenessofforestryissuesandmutualrecognitionofinterests.
2.
Gatherinformationandenhanceknowledgeonforestsandtheiruse.
3.
Improveprovisionofmultipleforestgoodsandservices.
4.
Stimulateinvolvementindecision-makingand/orimplementationprocess.
5.
Enhanceacceptanceofforestpolicies,plansandoperations.
6.
Increasetransparencyandaccountabilityofdecision-making.
7.
Identifyandmanageconflictsandproblemstogether,inafairandequitableway.
"Basedontheselistedaimsofparticipation,wearguethatanactivemulti-lateralparticipationprocessshouldbeacriterionforsustainabledecisionmaking.
Rural-urbandevelopmentMigrationfromruraltourbanareasisanongoingdevel-opmentresultingfromchangesinsocietalstructuresKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page10of20andpublicpreferences,whicheventuallydrivepeopletopursuejobs,educationandhigherlivingstandardsfromurbanlivelihoods(Rye2006).
Thedisappearanceofruraljobsandtheconsequentialdepopulationofruralareasfurtherdiminishesthecapacityofruralareastoprovidetheservicesandfulfilltheneedsoftheremainingruralpopulation(Stockdale2004).
However,depopulationofruralareasisnotalwaysadesiredcourseofdevelopmentandout-migrationfromthecountrysideisoftenconsid-eredasnegative(Rye2006).
Thisisbecausemanyofthepeoplemovingtourbanareaswouldprefertoliveinthecountrysidebutseethisasimpossibleduetoalackofjobsandservices(Stockdale2004).
Therefore,rural-urbandevelopmentreflects,tosomeextent,thecapacityandfreedom-indicator.
Rural-to-urbanmigrationcanalsobeusedtoindicatetheimpactsofdecisionsonsocialconditionsandhealthofruralareas.
Forexample,jobcreationisacriticalfac-torforruraldevelopmentandifforestsweretobeuti-lizedmoreintensively,newjobswouldbecreatedinruralareassincethisrawmaterialismostlylocatedinruralareas.
Inaddition,processingfacilitiesareoftenlo-catedclosetothesourceofrawmaterialforlogisticrea-sons.
Hence,decisionsfosteringtheforestbioeconomycouldplayaroleinrevitalizingandmaintaininginhab-itedruralareas.
AssessingjoblocationsispossibleandwewouldencourageassessingruraldevelopmentinSIAwithruraljobcreation.
IndicatorsummaryBasedonthediscussionsofar,wehavecompiledthein-dicatorswerecommendforconsiderationwhenasses-singsustainabilityoftheforestbioeconomy(Table1).
Wehavecategorizedandgivenexamplesofunitsandconnectionsaswellasdatasourcesforeachindicator.
TheindicatorsprovidedinTable1arewidelyapplic-ablewithinmanycontexts,includingthoseoutsidetheforestrysector.
However,someofthese(e.
g.
biodiversity)maybedifficulttoassess.
WedonotthinkthatallthecriteriainTable1mustbeappliedineveryassessmenteventhoughmanymayimprovethevalueofinforma-tionintheSIAsignificantly,especiallyregardingaccept-ancebythepublic.
ToolsforSIASIA(in3Dformat)canbedescribedasaprocess-basedapproach,assessingsustainabilityimpactsconnectedtoprocessedmaterials,whichbecomesatoolforcompar-ingalternatives(Tuomasjukkaetal.
2013b).
TheaimofSIAistoprovidequantifiedresultsofimpactsfromvari-ousdimensionsresultingfromanoperation.
However,asdiscussedearlier,itisnotpossibletostateeverythinginquantitativeterms.
Thus,qualitativeapproachesmayalsobeneeded.
Wefirstneedtomeasureandquantifytheimpactofeachindicatorandthenevaluatethere-sults.
Evaluationofresultsofanindicatorcanbecon-ducted,forexample,byusingindicatorweightsandprioritiesaccordingtotheinformationprovidedbythedecisionmakersandstakeholders.
Finally,weightedvaluescanbeaggregatedtoobtainanoverallpictureofthesustainabilityimpactsofeachalternative.
Thedeci-sionmakercanthenchoosethebestrankedalternativebasedontheanalysis.
Manytoolsandmethodsandtheircombinationshavebeenpresentedforassessingsustainability.
Ina3D-SIAformat,weneedtoconsiderthatthevariableswemeas-urevarygreatlybetweendimensions,whilethecomplex-ityincreasesiftheissuebecomesamulti-stakeholdercase.
Moreover,regionaldifferencesacrosstheglobe(e.
g.
inculture,practiceorsite)makeitimpossibletogeneralizetheassessments.
Forexample,the"best"op-tionmayleadsimultaneouslytopositiveimpactsonsomeandnegativeimpactsonotheraspectswhichthevariousstakeholdersmayevaluatedifferently.
Typically,thereisnomethodthatcouldberegardedasthe'best'or'the-one-and-only'inanyassessmentcase.
Instead,amixofmethodsisoftencalledfor(Kangasetal.
2015).
Beforeweightingandaggregation,wefirstneedtomeasureindividualindicatorsandtheirimpacts.
Inthefollowing,weintroduceseveralmethodsusedinimpactassessments.
Weemphasizethatnoneoftheseissuitedtofullyassessallindicators.
Thetools/methodspre-sentedbelowarethemostcommononesfoundintheindicatorrelatedliterature.
Additionally,somedetailedinformationabouttoolsandmethodswereobtainedbyfollowingthereferencescitedintheliteratureorusingespeciallytoolnamesaskeywords.
Table2attheendofthissectionsummarizesthetools,theirorientations,strengthsandweaknessesandexamplesofextensionsandcombinationswithothertools.
Cost-benefitanalysisCost-benefitanalysis(CBA)estimatesabenefitattainedviamonetaryvalues,butcanalsoincorporatenon-monetaryvalues.
CBAhasbeencriticizedforbeinglim-itedindemocratic(Sderbaum2015)andethical(Hall2015)considerations.
Hall(2015)hasconsideredCBAsuitableforitspracticalbenefits,giventhatitisbasedonmonetaryunitsandthepossibilityforitbeingusedtogetherwithotherapproaches.
CBAworkswellinassessingmonetaryvalues,whichisitsstrengthssinceeconomicevaluationassuchisobjective-orientedandsuitableforpolicy-makingcases.
CriticismrelatedtotheCBAapproachhasemergedduetothechallengesinmonetizingallinputsandoutputsand/oroutcomes.
Inaforestrycontext,recreation,non-woodgoodsandscenicbeautyareexamplesofvaluesdifficulttoevaluateineconomicterms.
Therefore,supplementarymethodsKarvonenetal.
ForestEcosystems(2017)4:2Page11of20maybeneededforincorporatingvaluesforintangibleandnon-monetaryfactorsinCBA(Prokofievaetal.
2011).
Ifnon-monetaryvaluesareincorporatedinCBA,itmayalsobeconsideredamulti-criteriaanalysis(MCA,introducedbelow)tool.
Input-outputandenvironmentallyextendedinput-outputanalysisInput-Output(IO)analysisisatoolwhereaninput(aresource)isconvertedintosomeoutput(aproduct)andtheinterdependenciesbetweenthevarioussectorsoftheeconomyareassessedfortheirimpacts(Leontief1966).
Forexample,theinputofwoodtoasawmillresultinginoutputsfromthesawmillmaybeadirectpartoftheforestrysector,althoughitutilizesinputsfromothersec-torssuchasenergyandtransportation.
Naturally,otherinputs(e.
g.
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