iconic57vvv.com

YALEUNIVERSITYNewHaven,CTIT'SNOJOKE:TheUseofHumorbyPresidentialCandidatesfromKennedytoTrumpandthePathtoPowerThroughOne-Liners,TalkShows,andTweetsAthesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeoftheBachelorofArtsinPoliticalScienceByAbigailBesslerAdvisedbyProfessorWalterShapiroApril20172TableofContentsINTRODUCTION.
Page3THEORIESOFLAUGHTER.
Page7"WhatisitsnaturePage7"WhatisitssourcePage8"ShouldanoratorwanttostiruplaughterPage10"TowhatextentPage13"IntowhatcategoriescanthehumorousbedividedPage13A(BRIEF)HISTORYOFPRESIDENTIALELECTIONHUMOR.
Page14JohnF.
KennedyandthePoliticsofPersonality.
Page15Richard"SockIttoMe"Nixon.
Page18RonaldReaganandtheArtoftheOne-Liner.
Page19RossPerotandBobDole:TooFunnytoBePresidentPage22Bushv.
GoreandtheInfluenceofLateNightShows.
Page25Election2008:HumorintheInformationAge.
Page29HUMORINTHE2016PRESIDENTIALELECTION.
Page32TakingTrump(Jokes)Seriously,NotLiterally.
Page33DonaldTrump'sStand-UpComedy.
Page36TheTraditionalHumorofHillaryClinton.
Page40WhyTrump'sJokesWonOut.
Page42CONCLUSION…Page45BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Page47APPENDIXA.
Page53APPENDIXB.
Page65APPENDIXC.
Page663IntroductionOnOctober21,2016,onedayaftertheirfinaldebateandatthetail-endofanastycampaign,DonaldTrumpandHillaryClintonwalkedintoNewYork'sWaldorfAstoriaforanightof"lighthumor"and"civility.
"1,2TheoccasionwastheAlfredE.
SmithMemorialFoundationDinner,anannualwhite-tiefundraisersupportingCatholiccharitiesthathasfeaturedhumorousspeechesfrompresidentialcandidatessince1960.
3TrumpandClintonenteredtheballroomfromseparatesides,findingtheirseatswithoutshakinghands.
4Waitingtoheartheirremarkswerethegala'sattendees—1,500ofNewYork'selite—aswellasatleast10.
3millionviewerstunedinathomeviaCNN,FoxNews,andMSNBC.
5,6Trumpwasupfirst.
Hebeganwitharareself-deprecatingjoke:whenhandedthemicrophone,hequipped,"Andit'sworking,"referencinghisclaimofafaultymicrophoneafteronecaughthimsniffingconstantlyduringthedebates.
7,8Helandedafewgoodlines:[Complainingaboutmediabias]"MichelleObamagivesaspeech,andeveryonelovesit.
It'sfantastic.
Theythinkshe'sabsolutelygreat.
Mywife,Melania,givestheexactsamespeech,andpeoplegetonhercase!
AndIdon'tgetit.
Idon'tknowwhy.
""Wecanactuallybeciviltowardeachother.
Infact,beforetakingthedais,Hillaryaccidentallybumpedintome,andsheverycivillysaid,'Pardonme.
'AndIverypolitelyreplied,'LetmetalktoyouaboutthatafterIgetintooffice.
'"91"The72ndAnnualAlfredE.
SmithMemorialFoundationDinner.
"TheAlfredE.
SmithMemorialFoundation.
.
2CardinalTimothyDolan.
"AlSmithDinner.
"Cardinaldolan.
org.
August14,2012.
.
3SethAmbramovitch.
"AlfredE.
SmithDinnerGagWriteronClinton-TrumpRoast:'TheRulesDon'tApply.
'"TheHollywoodReporter.
October20,2016.
.
4SamSanders.
"AtAlSmithDinner,DonaldTrumpTurnsFriendlyRoastInto3-AlarmFire.
"NPR.
.
5MarkLungariello.
"Atdinnertogether,Trumpgetsboos;Clintonlessso.
"USAToday.
October20,2016.
.
6A.
J.
Katz.
"10.
3MillionWatchHillaryClintonandDonaldTrumpatAlSmithDinner.
"Adweek.
October21,2016.
.
7"ReadtheTranscriptofDonaldTrump'sSpeechattheAlSmithDinner.
"Time.
October21,2016.
.
8JessicaRoy.
"DonaldTrumphasthesnifflesagain"LosAngelesTimes.
October9,2016.
.
9"ReadtheTranscriptofDonaldTrump'sSpeechattheAlSmithDinner.
"4Butasthespeechwenton,Trumplostthecrowd.
Hegotbooswhenheasked,"Hillaryissocorrupt,shegotkickedofftheWatergateCommission.
HowcorruptdoyouhavetobetogetkickedofftheWatergateCommission"10Andagain,whenheheavy-handedlyjoked,"Hillarybelievesit'svitaltodeceivethepeoplebyhavingonepublicpolicyandatotallydifferentpolicyinprivate…Heresheistonight,inpublic,pretendingnottohateCatholics.
"11Andagain,whenhequippedthatClinton's"beliefthatittakesavillage"madesensebecauseshe'd"takenanumberofvillages"inHaiti.
12Trumpendedwhatheconsideredthe"humor"portionofhisspeechwith,"Hillaryhasforgottenmorethingsthanmostofuswillneverever,ever,everknow"toajeeringcrowd.
13Inotherwords,TrumpdidTrump:neitherlightnorcivil.
NextupwasClinton.
Shealsobeganwithaself-deprecatingjoke:"Itookabreakfrommyrigorousnapscheduletobehere.
Andasallofyouheard,it'satreatforallofyou,becauseusuallyIchargealotforspeecheslikethis.
"14Almostallofherjokesgotatleastafewlaughs:"PeoplelookattheStatueofLiberty,andtheyseeaproudhistoryofanationofimmigrants—abeaconofhopeforpeoplearoundtheworld.
DonaldlooksattheStatueofLibertyandseesa4.
Maybea5ifshelosesthetorchandtabletandchangesherhair.
""Youlooksogoodinyourtuxes—orasIcallthem,formalpantsuits.
""TheysayDonalddoesn'thaveanypolicies…I'dactuallyliketodefendhimonthis.
Donaldhasissues,seriousissues.
Really,reallyseriousissues.
"15Clintonstucktosaferjokes,notingshe'dbethehealthiestwomanelectedpresidentinAmericanhistoryandcallingtheaudiencea"basketofadorables.
"16UnlikeTrump,shefollowedconventiontoaT.
10Ibid.
11Ibid.
12Ibid.
13Ibid.
14"ReadtheTranscriptofHillaryClinton'sSpeechattheAlSmithDinner.
"Time.
October21,2016.
.
15Ibid.
16Ibid.
5Immediatelyaftertheduelingspeechesended,cablenewspunditsandpartyleadersbeganweighingin.
17Comedianswerebroughtinforafreshperspective.
18Thefollowingday,TheDailyBeastranastorytitled,"DonaldTrump,SonofaCatholicHater,DisgracesAlSmithDinner.
"19Breitbart'sheadlineread,"WealthyNewYorkEliteBooDonaldTrump.
"20CBScalledthehumor"awkward";SlatecalledClinton'saddress"ridiculouslyfunnyandbeautifullypoignant.
"21,22Cosmomadealistofthe"ninebestzingers.
"23Clearly,thepunditclasscouldn'tfigureoutwhetherthecandidates'jokes—ortheirattemptedjokes—fellflat,landedrealpunches,orsimplyresultedinabitoftransitoryentertainmentforthosewhotunedintowatch.
The2016election,whichwouldturnintooneofthebiggestcampaignupsetsinAmericanhistory,involvedwidespreadmediainquiryintowhetherthetwocandidateswerefunny.
ArticlesaboutClintondiscussedherdifficulty"show[ing]herselfaswarmandpersonablewithasenseofhumor,"bemoanedher"completelackoffunnybone,"andgathered,"ForHillaryClinton,funnyishard.
"24,25,26WhenClintonparticipatedinsomephysicalcomedyby"dabbing"onEllen,oneheadlinebegan,"Ohno.
"27Andanall-in-allpositivestoryaboutherappearanceonSaturdayNightLiveconcluded,"Clintonisnevergoingtobeanaturalperformer.
"28Meanwhile,reportersquestionedwhetherstatementsmadebyTrumpatrallies17Katz.
18HenryGoldmanandJenniferJacobs.
"Trump'sJokesStrikeaSourToneatNewYork'sAlSmithDinner.
"Bloomberg.
October20,2016.
.
19MichaelDaly.
"DonaldTrump,SonofaCatholicHater,DisgracesAlSmithDinner.
"TheDailyBeast.
October21,2016.
.
20CharlieSpiering.
"WealthyNewYorkEliteBooDonaldTrumpatAlSmithDinner.
"Breitbart.
October21,2016.
.
21EmilySchultheis.
"Clinton,TrumptryawkwardhumoratAlSmithDinner.
"CBSNews.
October20,2016.
.
22MarkJosephStern.
"HillaryClinton'sAlSmithDinnerAddressWasRidiculouslyFunnyandBeautifullyPoignant.
"Slate.
October21,2016.
.
23GinaMei.
"HillaryClinton's9BestZingersFromtheAlSmithDinner.
"Cosmopolitan.
October21,2016.
.
24AssociatedPress.
"MeetValthebartender:HillaryClintondoesan'SNL'skit.
"ChicagoTribune.
October4,2015.
.
25AsheSchow.
"Clinton'sCompleteLackofaFunnyBoneCouldCostHerMonday'sDebate.
"Observer.
September23,2016.
.
26JoannaWeiss.
"ForHillaryClinton,funnyishard.
"TheBostonGlobe.
October8,2015.
.
27DaveHolmes.
"OhNo:HillaryClintonTriedtoDoaViralDanceAgain.
"Esquire.
January11,2016.
.
28WillLeitch.
"HillaryClintononSNLTriestoShowShe'sInOntheJoke.
"Bloomberg.
October4,2015.
.
6weremeantasjokes,fromhis"SecondAmendment"statementthatseemedtosuggestvotersshouldshootClinton,tohismessagetoRussiathatseemedtourgePutintohackClinton'semails.
29,30Slateevencompiledahow-toguide:"HowtotellwhenDonaldTrumpisjoking.
"31WhenTrump'slineswereperceivedasjokes,theywerenegativelyreviewedinmainstreamsources—onearticlesaidTrump"bombedprettyhard"atSNL,anothercompiled"5CreepyTimesDonaldTrumpTriedToBeFunny&ItCameOutDisturbingInstead,"andVulturecalledhim"ablackholeofcomedicmatterthroughwhichnohumorcouldescape.
"32,33,34Butotherthanafewruminationsbylate-nightcomedians,fewsystematicinquiriesweremadeduringthecampaignastohowandwhyClintonandTrumpusedhumor–andwhateffectithadontheirsupporters.
InthecaseofTrump,thiswaslikelybecausehebewilderedcommentatorsandcomediansalike.
MarkKatz,ajokewriterforpresidentialcandidatesfromMichaelDukakistoAlGore,reflectedtheprevailingattitudebyconcludingthatwithTrump,"Thepoliticalplaybookisthrownoutthewindow.
Alltherulesthatusuallyapplydon'tapply.
"35Inthisthesis,Iwillexaminethatclaim,determiningthatalthoughTrump'shumordiffersfromthehumorstylesofpastpresidentialcandidatesinthetypeandfunctionofhisjokes,Trump'sinclinationtogainsupportthroughentertainmentisanaturalextensionofAmericanpresidentialpoliticssince1960.
AndI'llarguethatwhileClinton'sstylemorecloselyfollowedprecedent,Trump'shumorprovedbetteradaptedtothecurrentage—makingitmoreeffective.
29NickCorasanitiandMaggieHaberman.
"DonaldTrumpSuggests'SecondAmendmentPeople'CouldActAgainstHillaryClinton.
"NewYorkTimes.
August9,2016.
.
30MichaelCrowleyandTylerPager.
"TrumpurgesRussiatohackClinton'semail.
"Politico.
July27,2016.
.
31AndrewKahn.
"HowtotellwhenDonaldTrumpisjoking.
"Slate.
July28,2016.
.
32JoshHill.
"SNLReview:WasDonaldTrumpfunny"Fansided.
November8,2015.
.
33JosephineB.
Yurcaba.
"5CreepyTimesDonaldTrumpTriedToBeFunny&ItCameOutDisturbingInstead.
"Bustle.
November5,2015.
.
34JoeBerkowitz.
"SaturdayNightLiveRecap:DonaldTrumpIsaBlackHoleofComedicAntimatter.
"Vulture.
November8,2015.
.
35Abramovitch.
7TheoriesofLaughterArguably,thestudyofhumorasameansofpoliticalpersuasioncanbetracedallthewaybackto55BCE,whentheRomanphilosopherCiceropennedDeOratore,aguideofsortstobecomingthe"IdealOrator.
"36Init,Cicerowrotethathumorcanbe"tremendouslyuseful"when"sprinkle[d],likealittlesalt,throughoutallofourspeech.
"37Heposedfivecentralquestionsconcerninglaughter:"First,whatisitsnatureSecond,whatisitssourceThird,shouldanoratorwanttostiruplaughterFourth,towhatextentFifth,intowhatcategoriescanthehumorousbedivided"38Mosthumorresearchtodaycentersaroundthesesamequestions.
Inthissection,Iwilldiscussanswersputforwardbypastandpresentscholars.
I.
"Whatisitsnature"In95CE,RomanrhetoricianQuintilianpositedthattheeffectofajest"dependsnotonthereason,butonanemotionwhichisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,todescribe.
"39Indeed,psychologicalstudiesonlaughtersincehavefoundthatjokeshaveamoreemotionalratherthanlogicaleffectonlisteners,activatingthemesolimbicrewardsysteminthebrainandinducingfeelingsofpleasure.
40Thishasanimportantimplicationforhumorasameansofpoliticalpersuasion:sincehumorinfluencesemotionalvariableslikemoodovercognitiveoneslikecomprehension,itisanespeciallyusefultoolforpoliticianshopingtodistracttheiraudiencesandrenderthemlesslikelytodisagreewiththemessageorformcounter-points.
41Researchfurthershowsthatlaughterhasaninherentlysocialnature.
Laughterallowsustoplaywitheachother,explainingwhypeoplearemorelikelytolaughwheninthecompanyof36JohnMorreall.
"HumorandtheConductofPolitics.
"InS.
Lockyeretal.
(Eds.
),BeyondaJoke:TheLimitsofHumor.
(Basingstroke,England:PalgraveMacmillan,2005)P.
63.
37Cicero.
"OntheIdealOrator.
"TranslatedbyJamesM.
May&JakobWisse.
(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001)38Ibid.
39Quintilian.
InstitutioOratoria,Book6.
TranslatedbyHaroldEdgeworthButler.
(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1921)40RodA.
Martin.
ThePsychologyofHumor:AnIntegrativeApproach.
(Oxford:Elsevier,2007)P.
941Ibid137.
8othersthanwhenalone.
42Evenjusthearingalaughcaninducepositiveemotionalarousal—aresponsethatevolutionarybiologistsciteasevidencethatlaughterwasselectivelyadvantageousinhelpingbindindividualsintobetter-coordinatedgroups.
43Theimpactofthissocialfunctionofhumoriseasytospotinpresidentialelections:evidencehasbeenfoundthattheadditionoflargeliveaudiencesatteleviseddebatessince1980hasaffectedviewers'perceptionsathome.
44Ina2007study,researchersfoundthatwhenlaughterandapplausewereremovedfromaclipofRonaldReagan'sfamouslineinhis1984debatewithWalterMondale("IwantyoutoknowthatIwillnotmakeageanissueinthiscampaign.
Iamnotgoingtoexploit,forpoliticalpurposes,myopponent'syouthandinexperience"),viewersratedReagan'sfavorabilitysignificantlylesshighly.
45Thisshowsanelementof"groupthink"inperceptionsofpoliticians'humor:votersmayfindacandidatefunnysimplybecausetheyseeotherslaughingatthecandidate'sjokes.
II.
"Whatisitssource"Therehavebeenthreetheoriesproposedtoexplainwhatmakespeoplelaugh:incongruitytheory,relieftheory,andsuperiority(or"disparagement")theory.
IncongruityTheorypostulatesthathumorstemsfrom"aviolationofanexpectation"or"anassociationoftwoelementsthat…donotbelongtogether.
"46OriginatingwithKant'sobservationthatlaughter"aris[es]fromthesuddentransformationofastrainedexpectationintonothing,"incongruitytheoryviewslaughterascomingfromtheresolution(ormakingsense)ofaperceivedincongruity.
47,48Two42Ibid5.
43Ibid10.
44AnnenbergDebateReformWorkingGroup.
"DemocratizingtheDebates.
"AnnenbergPublicPolicyCenter.
June17,2015.
.
P.
43.
45StevenFein,GeorgeGoethals&MatthewKugler.
"SocialInfluenceonPoliticalJudgments:TheCaseofPresidentialDebates.
"PoliticalPsychology,Vol.
28,No.
2.
2007.
46AnnegretBraunandSiegfriedPreiser.
"Theimpactofdisparaginghumorcontentonthefunninessofpoliticaljokes.
"InternationalJournalofHumorResearch,Vol.
26,No.
2.
May2013.
P.
250.
47DannagalG.
Young.
"TheoriesandEffectsofPoliticalHumor:DiscountingCues,GatewaysandtheImpactofIncongruities.
"TheOxfordHandbookofPoliticalCommunication.
September2014.
48Ibid.
9examplesfrompresidentialpoliticsthathighlightthissourceoflaughterareReagan's1984debatezinger,andanotherRonaldReaganjoke:atacampaigneventin1976,Reaganmadefunofgovernmentalbureaucracybyjoking,"Governmenthiresarat-catcherandthefirstthingyouknow,he'sbecomearodentcontrolofficer.
"49Playingonincongruities,Reaganwasabletoportraytheoppositionasirrationalwithoutseemingoverlynegative.
50ReliefTheorypositsthatlaughtercomesfromthereleaseoftension–viewinghumorasa"safetyvalvethatexpelsexcessenergy.
"51RelieftheoryoriginateswithFreudianpsychology,withtheideabeingthathumorcanletoutenergythatmayotherwisebecome"sexualoraggressiveenergy.
"52AnexampleofthisfrompresidentialpoliticsisJohnF.
Kennedy'snow-famousjokeatthe1958GridironDinnerinWashington:"Ijustreceivedthefollowingwirefrommygenerousdaddy:'DearJack,Don'tbuyasinglevotemorethanisnecessary.
I'llbedamnedifI'mgoingtopayforalandslide.
"53Bybuildingonwell-knowncriticismsofhimselfinthepressasbeingspoiled,andbybuildingtensionwithinthejokebyreferencinghis"generousdaddy,"Kennedyusesself-deprecationtotacklecriticismshead-on.
Tensionisdispelledthroughaudiencelaughter,andvotersareinoculatedtoresistsimilarattacksonKennedyinthefuture.
54Superiority(orDisparagement)Theory,firstconceptualizedbyThomasHobbes,viewslaughteras"atriumphantexpressionofasuddenlyperceivedsuperiority"overothers.
55Disparaginghumorattackingothersnotonlyenforcesthelaughinggroup'snegativeviewsofthedislikedgroup,butenforcestheirpositiveviewsofandidentificationwiththeirowngroup.
5649RonaldReagan.
"ToRestoreAmerica:RonaldReagan'sCampaignAddress.
"RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary&Museum.
March31,1976.
.
50JohnMeyer.
"RonaldReaganandHumor:Apolitician'svelvetweapon.
"CommunicationStudies,Vol.
41,No.
1.
1990.
P.
83.
51Young.
52Ibid.
53JohnF.
Kennedy.
"GridironDinnerSpeech.
"1958.
.
54JasonPeiferandR.
LanceHolbert.
"DevelopingaSystematicAssessmentofHumorintheContextofthe2012U.
S.
GeneralElectionDebates.
"ArgumentationandAdvocacy,Vol.
49.
Spring2013.
P.
286-300.
55BraunandPreiser.
56Ibid.
10Somehavearguedthatthetheoryevenappliestoself-deprecatinghumor,inthatbyderidingoneself,thespeakershowsenoughsocialcapitaltoaffordtoletotherslaughattheirexpense.
57Amoretraditionalformofsuperiority-generatedhumor,though,isparody.
58Oneexampleistheaudience'sresponsetoDonaldTrumpthrowingwateroverastageataTexasrallytomockMarcoRubio'ssweating.
59Inlaughing,theaudiencemembersalignthemselveswithTrumpandclaimsuperiorityoverRubio—andtheoretically,avoidbeingmadefunofnext.
Itisimportanttopointoutherethatnoonetheorycanexplainallsourcesoflaughter;asseveralacademicshavepointedout,thethreetheoriescanbeseenasfocusingondifferentaspectsofamusement.
60,61SheilaLintott,aphilosophyprofessoratBucknellUniversity,putitbest:"Wemightsaythattheincongruitytheoryfocusesonthecognitiveaspects,superioritytheemotive,andreliefthephysicalofcomicamusement.
"62Thus,onlywhencombinedcantheyexplainthepsychological,emotionalandphysiologicalsourcesoflaughter.
III.
"Shouldanoratorwanttostiruplaughter"Inshort,theanswerisafairlyresoundingyes.
Already,examplesfromReagan,JFKandTrumphaveshownhowhumorcanbeusedasapoliticalweapon:toattackopponents,inoculateoneselffromcriticism,establishone'sgoodhumor,andmore.
63Throughcomedyandwit,apoliticiancanreduceaudiencescrutinyofargumentsbyappealingtotheiremotionsandallowingthemtodiscountanymessagestheymightdisagreewithas"justajoke.
"64,65Furtherstudiesof57OwenH.
Lynch.
"Humorouscommunication:Findingaplaceforhumorincommunicationresearch.
"CommunicationTheory,Vol.
12,No.
4.
November2002.
58Young.
59TessaBerenson.
"WatchDonaldTrumpMockMarcoRubiobySpillingWateronStage.
"Time.
Feb.
26,2016.
.
60SheilaLintott.
"SuperiorityinHumorTheory.
"TheJournalofAestheticsandArtCriticism,Vol.
74,No.
4.
Fall2016.
61Morreall.
62Lintott.
63Young.
64Martin137.
65RobinNabi,EmilyMoyer-Gusé&SaharaByrne.
"AllJokingAside:ASeriousInvestigationintothePersuasiveEffectofFunnySocialIssueMessages.
"CommunicationMonographs,Vol.
74,No.
1.
March2007.
P.
29-54.
11humorhaveshownthatitcanincreasespeakers'credibility,aswellasincreasevoters'resistancetofutureattacks.
66,67Forexample,whenBarackObamajokedin2008,"Weknowwhatkindofcampaignthey'regoingtorun.
They'regoingtotrytomakeyouafraidofme.
'He'syoungandinexperiencedandhe'sgotafunnyname.
AnddidImentionhe'sblack'"itservedasaweakenedversionofpotentialfutureattacks,trainingvoterstoignoresuchcriticismslater.
68,69Thequestion,then,ishowwecanthinkofthedifferentfunctionsofhumor—thereasonsforwhichanoratormightwanttodeployajoke.
Somestudiesdividehumorinto"self-deprecatory"and"other-deprecatory"functions.
70Self-deprecatoryhumorreferstowhentheoratorlaughsathimselforherself;other-deprecatoryhumormakesfunofanothertargetthroughsarcasm,ridicule,orteasing.
71Butwhilemanyjokesfitintothisbinarycategorization,adivisioninto"self-deprecatory"and"other-deprecatory"leavesoutmanyjokes.
Forinstance,takethisjokebyGeorgeH.
W.
Bushina1992debate:"IwouldliketherecordtoshowthepaneliststhatRossPerottookthefirstshotatthepress.
Myfavoritebumpersticker,though,is'AnnoytheMedia.
ReelectPresidentBush.
'"72Thejokeisnotsomuchself-deprecatingasitismeanttoreinforceBush'spersonatovoters,solidifyinghisshtickwithamemorableline.
Ina2000papertitled,"HumorasaDouble-EdgedSword,"ProfessorJohnC.
Meyerfoundamoreencompassingframework.
73Hedividedhumorintotwobroadfunctions–UnificationandDivision–bothhousingtwosubcategories.
74UnderUnification(humormeantto66Ibid.
67PeiferandHolbert.
68KurtAndersen.
"TheHumorDeficit:McCainandObamaseemlikefunnyguys,sowhyaretheircampaignsanythingbut"NewYorkMagazine.
August18,2008.
.
69PeiferandHolbert.
70PatrickA.
Stewart.
"Theinfluenceofself-andother-deprecatoryhumoronpresidentialcandidateevaluationduringthe2008U.
S.
election.
"SocialScienceInformation,Vol.
50,No.
2.
2011.
P.
201-222.
71Ibid.
72GeorgeH.
W.
Bush.
"October19,1992DebateTranscript.
"CommissiononPresidentialDebates.
73JohnC.
Meyer.
"HumorasaDouble-EdgedSword:FourFunctionsofHumorinCommunication.
"CommunicationTheory,Vol.
10,No.
3.
August2000.
P.
310-331.
74Ibid.
12pleaseageneralaudience,includingmembersoftheoppositepartyfromthespeaker)werethefunctionsof"Identification"and"Clarification.
"75UnderDivision(humorthatservestodividetheaudience,likelypleasingonlymembersofthesamepartyasthespeakeralongwithsomeindependents)werethefunctionsof"Enforcement"and"Differentiation.
"76Myargumentwilldelvefurtherintothefourfunctions,butIwillbrieflyexplainthemhere.
InIdentification,speakersusehumorto"buildsupportbyidentifyingwiththeiraudiences"and"enhancing[their]credibility.
"77Thisincludesself-deprecation,aswellashumorthatreducestensionsinaroominordertomakeaudiencesfeelthattheyareonanequallevelwiththespeakerandthespeakeris"justlikethem.
"InClarification,speakersusehumorto"encapsulatetheirviewsintomemorablephrases"resultingin"theclarificationofissuesorpositions.
"78Thisinvolvesseekingasoundbitethatcouldgetpickedupinthemedia,orapositivelineclarifyingthespeaker'sidentity(think"AnnoytheMedia.
ReelectPresidentBush").
InEnforcement,speakers"levelcriticismwhilemaintainingsomedegreeofidentificationwithanaudience.
"79Thisinvolvesalight,wittyremarkabouttheopposingpartyorsomebadsituation,àlaReagan's"rodentcontrolofficer"line.
Finally,inDifferentiation,speakers"contrastthemselveswiththeiropponents"tomake"alliancesanddistinctions.
"80Thisistheharshestfunction,oftenonlyappealingtomembersofthespeaker'sparty.
Ofcourse,Meyer'scategoriescanoverlap,andasotherscholarshaveargued,muchofhumorcomesfromacombinationofunificationanddivision.
81Meyeradmitsthatdifferentiatinghumoralsoservesaunificationpurpose—tounifythesideofthespeakermakingthedisparaging75Ibid.
76Ibid.
77Ibid.
78Ibid.
79Ibid.
80Ibid.
81BethInnocentiandElizabethMiller.
"ThePersuasiveForceofPoliticalHumor.
"JournalofCommunication,Vol.
66.
2016.
13joke.
82Ina2016critique,twoprofessorsargued:"Itispreciselyintheambiguityofunificationanddivision–theunspecifiabilityofwhereoneendsandtheotherbegins–thatthereisaninvitationtorhetoric.
"83Butforthepurposesofexaminingpresidentialcampaigns,Meyer'sframeworkisstilluseful,showingthathumorcanserveopposingendsandallowingrhetorictobesortedintorelativelyclean-cutcategoriesforanalysis.
IV.
"Towhatextent"Cicerobelievedthatwhilehumorcouldbehelpfultoorators,itcouldalsobeadetriment.
Forexample,headvisedrulersnottojokeabout"tyrants"astheaudience"willexpectsomethingstronger.
"84Thisideahasbeenexploredmorerecentlybythemedia.
InaChicagoTribunearticle,BrownUniversityprofessorDarrellWestspokeofa"dangerincomingacrossasbeingtoofunny"asacandidatedueto"ariskthevoterswon'ttakeyouseriously.
"85(Orwon'tthinkyoutaketheissuesseriously.
)Sarcasmhasbeenhistoricallyviewedasineffectivebymakingcandidatesseem"mean-spirited";theoppositeproblemoccurswithover-useofself-deprecatingjokes.
86,87Thiswillbediscussedmorelater.
V.
"Intowhatcategoriescanthehumorousbedivided"ThoughMeyer'scategoriesofhumor'sfourfunctionshavealreadybeenlaidout,thereisonemoreimportantway"thehumorous"canbedivided:typesofhumor.
Thishasbeendonedifferentlyacrossstudies,buthereIwilluseA.
A.
Berger'stypologyofhumor,usedinmanyworksafteritappearedin1993.
88,89Bergerarguedthathumorhasa"processaspect"which82Meyer(2000).
83InnocentiandMiller.
84Morreall.
85ChristiParsons.
"Candidatecomedycanbeariskyproposition.
"ChicagoTribune.
March6,2002.
.
86Ibid.
87CharlesR.
Gruner.
"AdvicetotheBeginningSpeakeronUsingHumor.
"CommunicationEducation,Vol.
34.
April1985.
88A.
A.
Berger.
AnAnatomyofHumor.
(NewBrunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1993)89DavidM.
Rhea.
"ThereTheyGoAgain:TheUseofHumorinPresidentialDebates1960-2008.
"ArgumentationandAdvocacy,Vol.
49.
Fall2012.
P.
115-131.
14couldbe"separatedintovariouspartsandanalyzed,"eventuallysettlingon45humortypesorganizedintofourbroadcategories.
90Thecategoriesare:Language(wherehumorcomesfrom"thewordingofthecomment,"likeexaggeration,insults,irony,puns,sarcasmandsatire);Logic(wherehumorcomesfrom"theideaformedinthecomment,"likeabsurdityandmistakes);Identity(wherehumorcomesfrom"humanexperience,"likeburlesque,caricature,parody,andimpersonation);andfinallyAction(wherehumorcomesfrom"physicalornonverbalaction,"likeslapstickcomedy.
)91Again,thesecategorieswillbefurtherelaboratedonlater.
A(Brief)HistoryofPresidentialElectionHumorInordertounderstandhowDonaldTrumpandHillaryClintonusedhumor(orattemptedtodoso)inthe2016election,andinordertounderstandwhatinfluencetheirhumormayhavehadonvoters,it'scrucialtounderstandthecontextinwhichtheywereoperating.
OnElectionDay,TrumpandClintonwereaged70and69,respectively.
TheywouldbothnodoubtbeabletoremembericonicmomentsofpoliticalpopculturelikeRichardNixon's1968appearanceonRowan&Martin'sLaugh-InandRonaldReagan's"youthandinexperience"quipinhis1984debatewithWalterMondale.
Inthissection,IwillexaminejustafewofthehistoricalmomentsthatlikelyinfluencedhowTrumpandClintonseehumor'sroleinpresidentialpolitics.
InmyshorthistoryofU.
S.
presidentialelectionhumor,Ihavechosentobeginwith1960.
Thisisnotbecausepresidentsbeforethenweren'tfunny—infact,AbrahamLincolnisoftencitedasAmerica'sfunniestpresident.
92Booksarefullofhiswitticisms,andreportersinhistimecalledhisstories"side-splitting.
"93,94AndLincolncertainlyusedhumortohisadvantagein90Ibid.
91Ibid.
92BobDole.
GreatPresidentialWit(…IwishIwasinthisBook).
(NewYork:Touchstone,2001)93AbrahamLincoln.
TheWitandWisdomofAbrahamLincoln.
BobBlaisdell,ed.
(NewYork:DoverPublications,2005).
94BenjaminP.
Thomas,ed.
ThreeYearswithGrant:AsRecalledbyWarCorrespondentSylvanusCadwallader.
(Lincoln,NE:BisonBooks,1996)P.
28215campaigns:once,inadebatewithStephenDouglas,hecounteredanattackalleginghewas"two-faced"withthequip,"Ladiesandgentlemen,Ileaveittoyou.
IfIhadtwofaces,wouldIbewearingthisone"95FranklinD.
Rooseveltalsousedhumoreffectively,oncedismissingcriticismsthathisdogFalawaspamperedwithtaxpayermoneyashis"petpeeve.
"96ButIstartwith1960becauseitiswellwithinTrumpandClinton'smemories—theywereteenagers—anditwastheyearofthefirsttelevisedpresidentialdebate.
97Becauseofthatdebateandmanyotherfactors,itwastheyearthatwouldforeverchangewhatittakestowinthepresidency.
JohnF.
KennedyandthePoliticsofPersonalityGoingintotheelectionof1960,JohnF.
Kennedyfacedsomemajorissues.
HewasarelativelyunknownsenatorfromMassachusetts,upagainstamanwhohadservedunderEisenhoweranddebatedKhrushchev.
98Hewasyoung,inexperienced,andthesonofawealthy(andresented)financier.
99AndhewasCatholic,inacountrythathadonlyelectedProtestantpresidents.
100Notashortlist,butaccordingtoformerspeechwriterGeraldGardner,"Kennedymethodicallyusedhumortolaughawayeach.
"101AsGardnerpointsoutinhisbookonpresidentialhumor,Kennedy'sweakspotswereemotionalissues,notabletobetackledwithfactsandfigures,butwithcharmandwit.
LuckilyforKennedy,hehadplentyofboth:Onhisfather'sambassadorshiptoFrance:"Campaigncontributionswillnotberegardedasasubstitutefortrainingandexperiencefordiplomaticpositions…EversinceImadethatstatement,Ihavenotreceivedonesinglecentfrommyfather.
"102Onhisyouth:"[RepublicanSpeakeroftheHouse]SamRayburnmaythinkI'myoung,butthenmostofthepopulationlooksyoungtoamanwho'sseventy-eight.
"10395Morreall.
96MarvinAlisky.
"WhiteHouseWit:PresidentialHumortoSustainPolicies,fromLincolntoReagan.
"PresidentialStudiesQuarterly,Vol.
20,No.
2.
1990.
P.
378.
97"TheKennedy-NixonDebates.
"History.
com.
2010.
.
98GeraldGardner.
AllthePresidents'Wits:ThePowerofPresidentialHumor.
(NewYork:BeechTreeBooks,1986)P.
20999Ibid.
100Ibid.
101Ibid210.
102Ibid211.
103Ibid213.
16Onhisinexperience:[ReferencingKhrushchevdebate]"Mr.
Nixonmaybeveryexperiencedinkitchendebate;soareagreatmanyothermarriedmenIknow.
"104Onreligion:[AfterTrumansaidNixonvotersshould"gotohell"]"DearMr.
President:Ihavenotedwithinterestyoursuggestionastowherethosewhovoteformyopponentshouldgo.
WhileIunderstandandsympathizewithyourdeepmotivation,Ithinkitisimportantthatoursiderefrainfromraisingthereligiousissue.
"105Thesejokeswentparticularlyfarinthenewworldofthe1960campaign,whenteleviseddebatesmeantcandidatessuddenlyhadtoseemyouthfulandenergetic,andreportersbeganfocusingnotjustonthebasicsofcampaignevents(whatthecandidatesaid,howbigthecrowdwas,andwhattheweatherwaslike)butoncandidates'personalities.
106,107AsoneCBSjournalistputit,the1960campaignwasthefirsttooccurin"theageofappearances,whenthewrappingseemsmoreimportantthanthecontents.
"108InthisnewTVworld,KennedywasadeptnotjustatlookingyoungnexttoRichardNixon,butatidentifyingwithvotersthroughjoking(yet"on-message")soundbites.
109WhenaskedabouthisheroisminWorldWarII,hejoked,"Itwasinvoluntary.
Theysankmyboat.
"110Whensomeonecalledhimthe"potentiallygreatestpresident,"hesaid,"GeorgeWashingtonwasn'tabadpresidentandIdowanttosayawordforThomasJefferson.
"111WhenaskedifhewasworriedaboutgettingintoheavenifhedisobeyedthePope,hereplied,"It'snotthehereafterthat'sbrotheringme,butNovember4th.
"112Hemadefunofhisaccent,playedoffaudiencesatrallies,and(inarareinstanceofdifferentiatinghumor)comparedNixontoacircuselephant104CharlesOsgooded.
AFunnyThingHappenedontheWaytotheWhiteHouse:Humor,Blunders,andOtherOdditiesfromthePresidentialCampaignTrail.
(NewYork:Hyperion,2008).
P.
56105Gardner210.
106GregBotelho.
"ThedaypoliticsandTVchangedforever.
"CNN.
March14,2016.
.
107TimothyCrouse.
TheBoysontheBus.
(NewYork:RandomHouse,1972)P.
28.
108W.
GailHudson.
"TheRoleofHumorinJohnF.
Kennedy's1960PresidentialCampaign"(Doctoraldissertation).
SouthernIllinoisUniversityatCarbondale.
May1979.
P.
39.
109Osgood45.
110Ibid57.
111Ibid53.
112PeterM.
Robinson.
TheDanceoftheComedians:ThePeople,thePresident,andthePerformanceofPoliticalStandupComedyinAmerica.
(Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,2010)P.
127.
17grabbingEisenhower'stail.
113Withafatherwhospentmuchofhiscareeracquiringproductionstudios,it'snotsurprisingheknewthevalueofpersonality-drivenpublicity.
114Infact,Kennedywasthefirstpresidentialcandidatetosend"advancemen"beforehetraveledanywhereto"forward…possiblejokestocustomizehisstumpspeech.
"115Hisspeechwriter,TedSorensen,keptan"extensivefileofhumor,"andthelocalizedjokesKennedydeliveredgothugelaughs.
116Kennedy'shumorworkednotonlyonvotersbutalsoonmembersofthepresscorps.
InanelectionwherejournalistTimothyCrousearguesthatreportersturnedfrom"superficial,formulaicanddull"reportingtocovering"whatmakesthecampaigntick"(exemplifiedbyTheodoreWhite'sTheMakingofthePresident),Kennedywasadeptatusinghumortogetbetternewscoverage.
117Hemadetimetojokewithreporters—onereporterwhoshuttledbetweentheKennedyandNixoncampaignsremarked:"TravelingwithNixonwasachore,buttravelingwithKennedywasfun!
"118Kennedy'sbantermadereportersfeellikehisgoodfriends,tothepointthatwriterswhocoveredhimcriedastheysaidgoodbyetohimonElectionDay.
119Intheend,ofcourse,KennedywononNovember4th.
AccordingtohistorianPeterM.
Robinson,"Humorplayedalargepartinhisvictory.
"120Withself-deprecatingjokesandothermainlyidentificationformsofhumor,Kennedycouldcounterpotentialattacks,connecthimselftovotersandwinoverthemedia.
HecouldcontrasthimselfwithastoicNixon.
Andhecouldprovehiscampaignmottocorrect:ayoungpresidenthadthepowerto"reinvigorate…astagnantanddournation"and"GetAmericamovingagain.
"121Attheveryleast,hegotAmericatolaugh.
113Hudson68,76.
114Robinson126.
115Ibid127.
116Ibid.
117Crouse31,34.
118Gardner217.
119Ibid.
120Robinson127.
121Ibid.
18Richard"SockIttoMe"NixonIn1968,RichardNixonwasback.
Hewasrunningforpresident,andthistimehiscampaignclaimedhewasa"NewNixon"—mature,empathetic,likable,andevenfunny.
122Itwouldbeafeatofimagerepackagingtogethimtothepresidency,andatonepointinthecampaign,humorcameoutattheforefrontofthatrebrandingeffort.
123Fromthenon,agoodsenseofhumorbecamesomethingpotentiallymanufacturable.
In1963,NixoncameonTheJackPaarShow,wherehemetPaulKeyes,awriterfortheshowwhobecamehiscampaignjokeconsultant.
124NixondidnothavethesameapproachtohumorasJFK:hedistrustedit,viewingitasunpredictable.
125Heoncetoldanaide,"Peoplereacttofear,notlove.
"126Butby1963,withhiselectoraldefeatbehindhim,Nixonbegantoseethevalueofentertainmenttohispoliticalimage.
So,withKeyes'help,hebegantousehumor—orashistorianPeterRobinsoncallsit,a"meticulouslyregulatedillusionperformedasameanstoaforeseeableend:winningtheelection.
"127Indeed,Nixon'sentire1968campaignstaffdevotedthemselvestomarketinghimlikeaconsumergood.
HarryTreleaven,anadexecandconsultant,wrotethatNixon'shumor"canbecorrectedtoadegree,butlet'snotbetooobviousaboutit.
"128Campaignmemosassertedthatadvertisingshould"addalittlewarmth,atouchofhumor,"andconcluded,"Humorbecomesvital;itcutsthroughtheveilsoflogic,showsahumanside.
"129,130ThetruetestcameinSeptember1968.
BothNixonandhisopponentHubertHumphreywereinvitedtoappearonRowanandMartin'sLaugh-In,anewNBCvarietyshow.
131Keyes,122DanFastenberg.
"RichardNixonGoesonLaugh-In.
"Time.
July29,2010.
.
123Robinson180.
124Ibid.
125Ibid181.
126Ibid.
127Ibid.
128JoeMcGinniss.
TheSellingofthePresident.
(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1969).
P.
28.
129Ibid169.
130Ibid203.
131Robinson182.
19nowLaugh-In'sheadwriter,convincedNixontogoon.
132Nixonpre-tapedhiscameo,goingthroughsixtakesbeforehecouldsayhislinejovially.
133AndonSeptember16,ashockedaudiencewatchedhimexclaimoneoftheshow'sfamouspunchlines:"Sockittome"134AmericasawaNewNixon.
Humphrey,theVicePresidentandformerSenatorwhoturneddowntheshowbecauseitwas"beneathhisdignity,"latersaidnotgoingoncontributedtohisloss.
135RonaldReaganandtheArtoftheOne-LinerIn1984,anotherrevolutionoccurredinhowhumorwasusedinpresidentialcampaigns.
Fouryearsearlier,Americahadelecteditsfirst"Entertainer-in-Chief"—RonaldReagan,aHollywoodactor-turned-politicianwhoremainstheonlyU.
S.
Presidentwhocouldclaimheonceblewupaballoononagameshowusingatrumpet.
136Reagan,the"GreatCommunicator,"wassaidtobemorecomfortableinfrontofacamerathannot.
137ThatskillhadcertainlybeenondisplayatReagan's1980presidentialdebatewithJimmyCarterinCleveland,thefirstgeneralelectiondebateheldinfrontofalargeon-siteliveaudiencethatcouldapplaudorlaughatlineslikeReagan's"Thereyougoagain.
"138(Foracompletelistofcandidatelinesthat,whetherintentionallyornot,havegottenlaughsatdebatesfrom1980topresent,seeAppendixA.
)Butin1984,Reaganwas73yearsold,facingmountingquestionsabouthisage.
AndhisfirstdebateagainstWalterMondalewascatastrophic.
Hegotfiguresmixedup,losthiswayinargumentsanddidn'tseemmentallyalert.
139Insteadofapunchyfinalstatementlikehis1980line"Areyoubetteroffthanyouwerefouryearsago"Reaganendedhisfirst1984debatewith132Ibid.
133Ibid.
134Ibid.
135Ibid.
136"RonaldReaganonI'veGotaSecret.
"YouTube.
com.
1961.
.
137MadeleineBrandandJeremyMayer.
"HowFunnyShouldPoliticiansBe"NPR.
January29,2007.
.
138AnnenbergDebateReformWorkingGroup.
P.
22139JamesReston.
"Washington:TheAgeIssue.
"NewYorkTimes.
October10,1984.
.
20aramble.
140Hewalkedoffstageandknewimmediatelythathehadflopped.
141Mediastationswentintohighgear,bringingmentalhealthexpertsonafter-debatecoveragetoaskwhathadhappened.
142SatiristMarkRussellcommented,"He'sanactorandheactedhisage,"andReagan'sownaidescalledhisperformance"tentative"tothepress.
143,144InaTrump-likemaneuver,ReaganattemptedtodefendhimselfbyclaimingMondaleseemedyoungerjustbecausehehadwornmoremake-up.
145ThechairmanoftheRepublicanNationalCommitteeactuallyheldapressconferencesayingReagan'sperformance"wasn'tbecauseofanyphysicalormentaldeficiency.
"146Bytheseconddebate,Reaganhaddroppedsevenpointsinthepolls.
147Reaganwasgoodatjokingabouthisage.
Inhis1980campaign,hejokedaboutThomasJeffersonpersonallygivinghimadvice,andduringhissecondtermwhenHalley'scometappeared,hejested,"Oh,thereitisagain.
"148,149Soheandhisstaffknewthatajokewasthebestwaytoconfrontthefailureofthefirstdebate.
Citingresearchonagingwouldlookrehearsedandunconvincing;asRobinsonconcludes,"theonlypossibleweaponagainsttheageissuewashumor.
"150SoReaganandhisteampreparedalinefortheseconddebate,twoweekslater:"IwantyoutoknowthatIwillnotmakeageanissueinthiscampaign.
Iamnotgoingtoexploit,forpoliticalpurposes,myopponent'syouthandinexperience.
"151Anditworked.
WhenReaganusedthejokeattheseconddebate—inamomenttheactorhadnodoubtrehearsedtoensurea140"TheFirstReagan-MondalePresidentialDebate.
"CommissiononPresidentialDebates.
October7,1984.
.
141DavidWeigel.
"WhenRonaldReaganBlewaPresidentialDebateandDroppedSevenPointsinthePolls.
"Slate.
October10,2012.
.
142Ibid.
143Robinson21.
144AlexS.
Jones.
"Reagan'sHealth:HowIssueEmerged.
"NewYorkTimes.
October11,1984.
.
145Ibid.
146Ibid.
147Ibid.
148Robinson20.
149Alisky380.
150Robinson19.
151Weigel.
21deliverywithmaximumeffect—theaudiencebrokeintoraucouslaughterandapplause.
EvenMondalelaughed.
152(Later,headmittedtoPBShostJimLehrer,"Icouldtellthatonehurt.
"153)Thejokedominatedthenewsfordaysafterward.
154TheTodayShowbeganitsbroadcastthemorningafterthedebatebyreplayingaclipoftheline.
155ThewayittraveledovertheairwavesexemplifiedProfessorMichaelPfau'stheoryofa"pass-alongeffect"incommunication:amessageinitiatedononeplatform(e.
g.
adebate)caneasilydiffuseacrossmanyothers(e.
g.
newsprograms,talkshows,andmore).
156Fromthenon,Reagan'sage—onceapivotalconcern—wasnolongeranissue.
157Inasingleline,Reaganwasableto"reinvigoratehispublicpersona,reenergizehiscampaignandrecapturethepresidency.
"158Itwouldn'thavebeenpossiblewithouttelevision,amediumthathadincreasinglybeguntoelevate"snappyone-liners"thatcould"winprecioustimeontheeveningnews.
"159Anditwouldn'thavebeenpossiblewithoutReaganhimself.
AsRobinsonasserts,"Morethananyotherpresident,Reaganwasaborncomedian,anatural.
"160MeyercalledReagan'shumora"velvetweapon"forthewayheusedjokestoattackopponentswithoutturningoffvoters.
161Afterthesuccessoftheagejoke,moreandmorecandidateswouldattempttousehumorousone-linersatdebatesasavelvetweapon.
LandonParvin,Reagan'sjokewriterduringhisadministration,summarizeditbest:"RonaldReaganhaschangedthelandscapewhenitcomestohumor.
Becausepost-Reaganit'sgoingtobeexpected.
Idon'tthinkpeoplerealizehowhehaschangedwhatisgoingtobeexpectedofapolitician.
"162152Rhea(2012)P.
115.
153DavidM.
Rhea.
"SeriouslyFunny:ALookatHumorinTelevisedPresidentialDebates.
"(Doctoraldissertation)UniversityofMissouri-Columbia.
December2007.
P.
121.
154Meyer2000.
155Rhea(2012)P.
127.
156MichaelPfau.
"Thechangingnatureofpresidentialdebateinfluenceinthenewageofmassmediacommunication.
"PresentedattheAnnualConferenceonPresidentialRhetoric,CollegeStation,TX.
2003.
P.
19.
157Robinson25.
158PatrickStewart.
"Presidentiallaughlines.
"PoliticsandtheLifeSciences,Vol.
29,No.
2.
September2010.
159C.
B.
Crawford.
"AnalysisofHumorinthe1992PresidentialDebates.
"PerceptualandMotorSkills,Vol.
88.
1999.
P.
417.
160Robinson204.
161Meyer1990.
162Gardner26.
22RossPerotandBobDole:TooFunnytoBePresidentIn2012,DavidM.
Rheaembarkedonastudyofhumorinpresidentialdebates.
163Usingcontentanalysisbythreecoders,hefound242casesofcandidatehumorindebatesfrom1960-2008—meaninganaverageof12.
3casesofhumorperdebate.
164(Hiscountincludedattemptedjokesbycandidatesthatgotnoaudiencelaughter,whichmyAppendixAtabledoesnotcount.
)AndRheafoundthatwhenheplacedallofthepresidentialcandidatesonagraph—acopyofwhichcanbefoundinAppendixB—thetopjesterwasnotRonaldReagan,butRossPerot.
Perot,aTexasbillionaireandindependentwhowon18.
9percentofthepopularvoteinthe1992racewithBillClintonandGeorgeH.
W.
Bush,usedhumor41timesacrossthreedebates.
165,166RheaarguedthatPerotused"plainspoken"humor"toconnectwithvotersanddrawattentiontohiscampaign,"andhesaidthatitworked:supportforPerotdoubledfrom7percentto14percentafterthefirstdebate.
167CommunicationsprofessorC.
B.
Crawfordagreed,concluding,"Mr.
Perotwastheclearwinnerforsheerentertainmentvalue.
"168SomeclassicPerotdebatelines:[Referencinghislargeears]"Ifthere'safairerway,I'mallears.
""WhosefaultisthatNottheDemocrats;nottheRepublicans.
Somewhereouttherethere'sanextraterrestrialthat'sdoingthistous,Iguess.
""Idon'thaveanyspindoctors.
Idon'thaveanyspeechwriters.
Probablyshows.
Imakethosechartsyouseeontelevisioneven.
"169Inmyresearch,IfoundthatPerotusedidentificationhumorthemost,morethanallotherfunctionscombined.
Andyet,eventhoughidentificationhumorhasworkedsuccessfullywithothercandidates,itwasnotenoughtopropelathird-partycandidatetoanyelectoralvotes.
163Rhea(2012).
164Ibid121.
165"Electionof1992.
"TheAmericanPresidencyProject.
.
166Rhea(2012)124.
167Ibid124,127168Crawford1999.
169SeeAppendixA.
23RheaalsofoundthatBobDole,theestablishmentRepublicanPartycandidatewhofacedClintonin1996,usedhumorfrequently.
DolewasknownforhissenseofhumorwhenheservedasSenateMajorityLeader,andwasoftencalled"theSenatewit.
"170JustafewofDole'slines:"Ifyou'rehangingaroundwithnothingtodoandthezooisclosed,comeovertotheSenate.
You'llgetthesamekindoffeelingandyouwon'thavetopay.
"171"HistorybuffsprobablynotedthereunionataWashingtonpartyafewweeksagoofthreeex-presidents:Carter,FordandNixon—SeeNoEvil,HearNoEvilandEvil.
"172[Ata1996debateinHartford]"Irememberonedayonthefloor,Isaid,'Now,gentlemen,letmetaxyourmemories,'andKennedyjumpedupandsaid,'Whyhaven'twethoughtofthatbefore'"173Butagain—eventhoughhiscampaignpulledoutDole'shumoratthedebates(andsentoutapressreleaseof"DoleDebateZingers"afterwards)—itwasn'tenoughforDoletowin.
174,175Infact,asurveyoffavorabilityratingsasthe1996campaigncametoaclosefoundthatBobDolerankedas"oneoftheleastappealingmajorpartypresidentialcandidatesinalmostfourdecades.
"176SomeblamedthisonDole's"deadpandelivery"and"biting,bonedry"jokestyle,sayingitdidnottransferwellintoout-of-contexttelevisionsoundbites.
177Atleastinthedebates,however,Dole'sjokesseemedtolandjustfine:hegotmorethandoublethelaughsthatClintongotinthe1996debates.
178Thusabroaderpointmustbemade:humorcannotsinglehandedlypropelorsaveacandidate,especiallyonewhodoesn'ttugatvoters'hearts.
170DavidE.
JohnsonandJohnnyR.
Johnson.
AFunnyThingHappenedontheWaytotheWhiteHouse:Foolhardiness,FollyandFraudinPresidentialElections,fromAndrewJacksontoGeorgeW.
Bush.
(Lanham:TaylorTradePublishing,2004)P.
162.
171JesseVentura.
Sh*tPoliticiansSay.
(NewYork:SkyhorsePublishing,2016).
P.
1.
172MaureenDowd.
"LetDoleBeDole.
"NewYorkTimes.
March7,1996.
.
173"PresidentialDebateinHartford.
"TheAmericanPresidencyProject.
October6,1996.
.
174ElizabethKolbert.
"DoleCampaignWillBeBringingOutItsSecretWeapon:TheCandidate'sSenseofHumor.
"NewYorkTimes.
October4,1996.
.
175RobertDole.
"PressRelease–DoleDebateZingers.
"TheAmericanPresidencyProject.
October7,1996.
.
176"DoleAppealNearlyRecordLow.
"PewResearchCenter.
November1,1996.
.
177Kolbert.
178SeeAppendixA.
24BillClintonreachednewheightsofcandidateentertainmentinbothofhiscampaignsforthepresidency.
Heplayed"HeartbreakHotel"onsaxophoneonTheArsenioHallShowinwayfarersunglassesandabrighttie,sparkingacademicstolabelhimthefirstcandidateto"unabashedlyembraceandeffectivelyutilizetheentertainmenttalkshowstrategy.
"179Hemadecommentatorssay,"AmIsuchanoldfogeythatIthoughtthatwasundignified"and"Comeonnow,ifyoureallywanttobeelectedPresident,let'sgetserious.
"180Buthealsobenefitedfromcharmbeyondbeingabletocrackjokes,andheknewwhentoturnoffthelaughsandemotionallyconnecttovoterswithheartratherthanwit.
ThereasonClintonbeatPerotandDolecanbedistilledintoonemomentfromthe1992race,whenPerotwasaskedtorespondtoClinton'sclaimthathisrecordasGovernorofArkansasshowedhisreadinessforthepresidency:PEROT:"IgrewupfiveblocksfromArkansas.
[Laughter]Let'sputitinperspective.
[…]Ithinkprobablywe'remakingamistakenightafternightafternighttocasttheNation'sfutureonaunitthatsmall.
"LEHRER:"Whyisthatamistake"PEROT:"It'sirrelevant.
[Laughter][…]IcouldsaythatIranasmallgrocerystoreonthecorner,therefore,IextrapolatethatintothefactthatIcouldrunWal-Mart.
[Laughter]That'snottrue.
IcarefullypickedanArkansascompany,younoticethere,Governor.
"LEHRER:"Governor"CLINTON:"Mr.
Perot,withallrespect,Ithinkitishighlyrelevant.
[…]I'mfranklyamazedthatsinceyougrewupfiveblocksfromthereyouwouldthinkthatwhatgoesoninthatStateisirrelevant.
[…]Andthepeoplewhohavejobsandeducationsandopportunitiesthatdidn'thavethem10yearsagodon'tthinkit'sirrelevantatall.
"181Inthiscase,Perotgotthelaughs.
ButClintonspoketovotersandidentifiedwiththeminaseriousanddeeperway.
Studieshaveshownthatwhenvoterswatchdebates,theylookfor179MichaelParkin.
TalkShowCampaigns:PresidentialCandidatesonDaytimeandLateNightTelevision.
(NewYork:Routledge,2014)P.
1,3.
180Ibid3.
181"PresidentialDebateinEastLansing.
"TheAmericanPresidencyProject.
October19,1992.
.
25candidateswhoaren'tjustsmartorfunny,butalsoexhibittraitslikewarmth,sincerity,caringandwillingnesstolisten.
182Clintonwonhandsdown.
Bushv.
GoreandtheInfluenceofLateNightShowsTheElectionof2000wasawarwagedonlate-nighttelevision.
CandidatessinceKennedyandNixonhadgoneonentertainmentshowsduringtheircampaigns,butthe2000campaignmarkedthefirstpresidentialelectioninwhichSaturdayNightLivemayhavehadarguablyasmuchofanimpactontheelectionaseitherofthetwocandidates.
183StudiesmarktheracebetweenTexasGovernorGeorgeW.
BushandVicePresidentAlGoreasthefirstelectiontooccurinatrueageof"politainment"—withrhetoricscholarsChrisSmithandBenVoltarguingthatthe"blendingofentertainmentandpoliticalnews"createdacompletelynew"politicalinformationparadigm.
"184,185Andcertainly,BushandGore'sappearancesondaytimeandlate-nighttalkshowsin2000reachedanunprecedentedlevel.
GorerevealedhisfavoritecerealwasWheatiesonTheOprahWinfreyShow;nottobeoutdone,BushdeclaredhisloveforPB&JsandwichesandtacosonOprahaweeklater.
186,187GorediscussedEminemandNapsteratanMTV-ledstudentforum.
188OnOctober19,2000,withjustovertwoweeksleftuntilElectionDay,bothcandidatesspentanentiredaygoingonentertainmentshows:BushchattingwithDavidLetterman,GorefilminginterviewswithRegisPhilbinandRosieO'Donnell,andbothcandidatespre-recordingcameosforSaturdayNightLive'supcoming"PresidentialBash2000.
"189Slateconcludedthattheracehadbecomea"jokeoff.
"190182MichaelPfau.
"TheSubtleNatureofPresidentialDebateInfluence.
"ArgumentationandAdvocacy,Vol.
38.
Spring2002.
183ChrisSmithandBenVoth.
"TheRoleofHumorinPoliticalArgument:How'Strategery'and'Lockboxes'ChangedAPoliticalCampaign.
"ArgumentationandAdvocacy,Vol.
39.
Fall2002.
184MargaretDuffyandJanisPage.
"DoesPoliticalHumorMatterYouBetcha!
"TheJournalofPopularCulture.
2013.
P.
547.
185SmithandVoth116.
186KevinSack.
"OprahShowLetsGoreReachOuttoWomen.
"NewYorkTimes.
September12,2000.
.
187AlisonMitchell.
"FullofBanter,BushGoesOntheOprahCircuit.
"NewYorkTimes.
September20,2000.
.
188JamesGerstenzang.
"GoreRockstheYouthVoteonMTV.
"LATimes.
September27,2000.
.
189JacobWeisberg.
"Campaign2000'sJoke-Off.
"Slate.
October20,2000.
.
190Ibid.
26BushandGoreweren'tgoingontheseshowsforthefunofit.
Between1995and2000,theaverageAmericanhouseholdsawan80percentincreaseinthenumberofchannelsontheirTVsets,andarapidlygrowingnumberofvoterswerepickingentertainmentovernewsshows.
191Beforecablestartedofferingmorechoicesinthe1970s,Americanswatchingtelevisioncouldn'tavoidlearningaboutpoliticsonthefewstationsavailable—nowtheycouldchoosenottohearaboutpoliticsaltogether.
192PoliticalscientistMarkusPriorarguesthistransformationof"politicsbydefault"to"politicsbychoice"ledtoadivisionoftheAmericanpublicinto"newsbuffs"and"entertainmentbuffs.
"193Andin2000,the"entertainmentbuffs"begancommandingpoliticians'attentions.
Shortlybeforethe2000election,PewResearchCenterpollsrevealedthat47percentofpeopleaged18to29gotmostoftheirpoliticalinformationfromentertainmentshows.
194TheOprahWinfreyShowaloneboasted22millionviewersaweek,withanaudiencethatwasyounger,lesspoliticallyengaged,andmorefemalethangeneralaudiences.
195,196Pollingalsodemonstratedthatthewaytalkshowstendedto"paintanycandidateinapositivelight"boostedcandidates'likabilityamongsuchanaudience,withonestudyshowingthatpoliticallyunawarevoterswhowatchedlate-nighttalkshowsweremorelikelytovoteacrosspartylinesthanoneswhodidnotwatchlate-nightshows.
197Politicalconsultantsatthetimeagreedentertainmentshowshadthepowerto"sethowacandidateisperceivedinstone,"andBushandGore'steamsbothfoundthemeffectiveinreachingouttoyoungvoters.
198,199191MatthewA.
Baum.
"TalkingtheVote:WhyPresidentialCandidatesHittheTalkShowCircuit.
"AmericanJournalofPoliticalScience,Vol.
49,No.
2.
April2005.
P.
213.
192MarkusPrior.
"AudienceFragmentationandPoliticalInequalityinthePost-broadcastMediaEnvironment.
"FromMediaPowerinPolitics,SixthEdition.
DorisGraber,ed.
(Washington,D.
C.
:CQPress,2011).
P.
154193Ibid153.
194SmithandVoth110.
195Sack.
196Baum214.
197Ibid215,216.
198BernardWeinraub.
"Election'sBarometer:BarbsofLate-NightTV.
"NewYorkTimes.
January19,2000.
.
199SmithandVoth122.
27Ina2002study,SmithandVotharguedthatinthe2000election,"Humormutatedfromameansofdealingwithrealitytoactuallydefiningreality.
"200Whattheymeanbythisisnotonlythatthe2000candidateswentonmoretalkshowsthanever,butalsothatshowslikeSNLactuallyhelpeddefinetherace.
ThisphenomenoncanbeseenclearlyintheaftermathofanSNLparodyofBushandGore'sfirstdebate.
Intheparody,WillFerrellplaysaBushwhomispronouncessimplewords,andDarrellHammondplaysacondescendingGorewhorepeatstheword"lockbox"overandoverandtriestodelivertwoclosingstatements.
201(Infact,GoredidspendanotinsignificantamountoftimeinthefirstdebatesighingatBush'sstatements,andhedidsaytheword"lockbox"—partofametaphorabouthisplantoprotectMedicare—nolessthanseventimes.
202)Attheendofthesketch,theSNLmoderatorhasonefinalquestion:MODERATOR:"Wearealmostoutoftime,soIwillinsteadaskeachcandidatetosumupinasinglewordthebestargumentforhiscandidacy.
GovernorBush"BUSH:"Strategery.
"[Laughter.
]MODERATOR:"VicePresidentGore"GORE:"Lockbox.
"[Laughter.
]Theparodywasaninstanthit.
Clipsofitreplayedoverandoverontraditionalnewsprogramsafteritaired,takingthe"pass-alongeffect"toanewlevel.
203Whereasinitialnewscoverageofthedebatehadbeenneutral(oneheadlineread,"Inmanyvoters'minds,debatefailsinthedramadepartment"),aftertheparodythefocusshiftedtoGore's"lockbox"usageandsighing.
204Beforethespoof,Gorehada"solidlead";afterwards,Bushgainedaneight-pointlead.
205CharlieCook,200Ibid124.
201NelsonW.
PolsbyandAaronWildavsky.
PresidentialElections:StrategiesandStructuresofAmericanPolitics.
(Lanham:Rowman&LittlefieldPublishers,2008).
P.
205.
202PatrickHealy.
"Debate:WhatAlGore'sFirstDebateAgainstGeorgeW.
BushCanTeachHillaryClinton.
"NewYorkTimes.
September25,2016.
.
203SmithandVoth122.
204Ibid.
205Ibid.
28editoroftheelectionanalysisnewsletterTheCookPoliticalReport,comparedthespoofto"oniondip–sometimesitdevelopsmoreflavoronthesecondorthirdday.
"206OneofGore'ssenioradvisorslaterconfirmed:"Wehadtotrytolaughaboutit.
Butreally,ithurtus.
"207WhatsetapartBushandGore,SmithandVothcontend,washowtheyreactedtotheparody.
Bush,theyargue,"acceptedhisroleasthefoolearlyandcompletely.
"208Intelevisionappearanceshejokedaboutthedebate,"Well,alotoffolksdon'tthinkIcanstringasentencetogether.
Expectationswerelow,allIhadtodowassay,'Hi,I'mGeorgeW.
Bush.
'"209Attheseconddebate,Bushemployedself-deprecatinghumorwhenaskedaboutablunderGoremade:"Weallmakemistakes.
I'vebeenknowntomangleasyllableortwomyself.
"210Gore,ontheotherhand,"act[ed]tragicallybytryingtocoveruphisfoibles.
"211Hedidn'tmakefunofhimselfmuchinpost-debateinterviews,insteadhavinghisstaffcompilealistofmistakesBushmade.
212Then,afterhiscampaignstaffmadehimwatchtheSNLskit,Gore"overcompensated,"creatinga"disastrouschangeofpersonalityfortheseconddebate,"whichlikelymadehimseemevenlessgenuinetovoters.
213Goredidtrytousehumortoregainhisfootingneartheendoftheelection,appearingonallthemajortalkshows.
Butintheend,aPewpollfoundvotersthoughtBushhadhighercharismathanGore(47%to31%)andabettersenseofhumor(48%to34%).
214WhileBush'sreactionhadmadehimseemfoolishyethonestandwell-meaning,Gorewasjudgedbymanyas"roboticandnothavingmuchofapersonality.
"215AndwhileBush'sself-deprecatinghumormadeaudiencesidentifywithhimasa"commonman"(thuscontrasting206Healy.
207SmithandVoth118.
208Ibid119.
209Ibid123.
210Ibid118.
211Ibid126.
212Ibid117.
213Ibid123.
214"VoterPreferencesVacillate.
"PewResearchCenterforThePeople&ThePress.
May11,2000.
.
215Rhea(2012)P.
128.
29himwithwhatsomesawasthe"trickery"oftheClintonadministration),Goreappeared,asonecommunicationsprofessorputit,"likeastuffedshirtprig.
"216,217Bush's"strategery"—hiseffectiveuseofhumor—paidoff,atleastinthefinalvote,whichhewonafteraprotractedandmuchlessfunnycontest:theFloridarecountandtheSupremeCourt'sdecisioninBushv.
Gore.
Theelectionof2000wasjustthebeginning.
Laterstudiesshowedvoters'increasingattentiontocomedyshowsoverhardnewssources,andfoundthatcandidates'appearancesonlate-nightshowsincreasedvoterknowledgemorethanmorningshows.
218,219Politiciansappearedonentertainmentshowsmoreandmoretoreachouttovoters,andconsultantsknewaneffectiveparodycouldchangethecourseofacampaign.
220,221TelevisioncriticSteveJohnsonlamented:"WhatAmericaseemsdestinedtogetisaPresidentwhocan:deliveraTop10list,getmisty-eyedwithOprah,sitalongsidea'Survivor'contestantandRegis,andknowenoughnottomentionPatBooneinfrontofanaudienceofMTVkids…sautécrawfishwithEmerilLagasse,submitagedmusketsforappraisalon'AntiquesRoadshow'andGueststarasthebickeringgaycoupledowntheblockon'EverybodyLovesRaymond.
'"222Americahadofficiallyenteredintothepolitainmentera.
Election2008:HumorintheInformationAgeInhisstudyofhumorinpresidentialdebates,DavidM.
Rheasawanotabledeclineinhumoruseduringthe2008election.
223Itwasacontestwithoutprecedent:ayoung,previouslyunknownAfrican-AmericansenatorfromChicagoupagainstanestablished72-year-oldVietnamWarveteran.
BothBarackObamaandJohnMcCainhavebeendescribedashaving216SmithandVoth127.
217BrandandMayer.
218MichaelPfau,JaehoChoandKirstenChong.
"CommunicationFormsinU.
S.
PresidentialCampaigns:InfluencesonCandidatePerceptionsandtheDemocraticProcess.
"InternationalJournalofPress/Politics,Vol.
6,No.
4.
2001.
219PaulR.
BrewerandXiaoxiaCao.
"CandidateAppearancesonSoftNewsShowsandPublicKnowledgeAboutPrimaryCampaigns.
"JournalofBroadcastingandElectronicMedia,Vol.
50,No.
1.
March2006.
220Parkin3.
221EllenJeanHirst.
"Presidentialchallenge.
"ChicagoTribune.
September22,2012.
.
222SmithandVoth121.
223Rhea(2012)P.
128.
30goodsensesofhumor.
224,225Obamaissaidtobe"thefirstalt-comedypresident"withasignaturedetachedstyleandawillingnesstoappearonabsurdshowslikeBetweenTwoFerns;McCainisknownforhisfunnystoriesandsince2008hasfacedoffagainstatruepro,SNLalumAlFranken,inahumorousmock-debate.
226,227ButRheahasapossibleexplanationforthedearthofhumorinthe2008debates:negativepresscoverageofjokesduringrecentyearsandinthecampaign.
228Inlookingintothatclaim,twobroaderfactorsemergeaswell:increasingpoliticalpolarization,andthelightningfastspeedofthetravelofinformationontheInternet.
Atthetimeofthe2008election,bothMcCainandObamaknewthedangerofajokegonewrongintheageofrapidly-circulated,viralvideosontheInternet.
In2006,ex-presidentialcandidateJohnKerrygotinhugetroubleforabungledjokehemadetoagroupofCaliforniastudentsthatwasmeanttopokefunatGeorgeW.
Bushbutseemedinsteadtoinsultthetroops:"Ifyoumakethemostofit,youstudyhard,youdoyourhomeworkandyoumakeanefforttobesmart,youcandowell.
Ifyoudon't,yougetstuckinIraq.
"229Theline,whichKerrycalleda"botchedjoke,"causedahugebacklash.
PresidentBushcalledit"shameful,"addingataGeorgiaeventthatKerryowedthemilitaryanapology.
230McCainsaid,"ThesuggestionthatonlytheleasteducatedAmericanswouldagreetoserveinthemilitaryandfightinIraqisaninsulttoeverysoldierservingincombattoday.
"231Kerryendedupapologizingto"anyservicemember,familymemberorAmericanwhowasoffended.
"232Itwasanimportant224AdamHoward.
"Comedian-in-chief:Obama'sFunniestMomentsasPresident.
"NBCNews.
December26,2016.
.
225SteveBrusk.
"McCain'ssmokin'senseofhumor.
"CNN.
July9,2008.
.
226EmilyHeil.
"BarackObama,thefirstalt-comedypresident.
"TheWashingtonPost.
April25,2016.
.
227CorkGaines.
"JohnMcCainandAlFrankenfaceoffinfunnymock-NFLdebate.
"December11,2015.
.
228Rhea(2012)P.
128.
229Ibid.
230JenniferLoven.
"UproaroverKerryIraqremarks.
"NBCNews.
November1,2006.
.
231Ibid.
232JohnCochran.
"KerryApologizesas'StuckinIraq'FirestormRages.
"ABCNews.
November1,2006.
.
31lesson:inaneraofpoliticalpolarizationwhereopponentsmightuseapoorlycraftedjokeagainstyoutoappealtotheirincreasinglypartisanbases,candidatesneedtobecareful.
233Inthe2008electionitself,thereweretwonotableexamplesofjokesgonebad.
ForObama,itwashis"You'relikableenough,Hillary"lineinaprimarydebatewithHillaryClinton,ajokethatbroughtnolaughsbutinsteadcreateddaysofmediabacklash.
234ForMcCain,itwasamomentinApril2007whenaSouthCarolinavoteraskedifhehadaplantoattackIran.
Beforeansweringseriously,McCainbeganwithajoke:"YouknowthatoldBeachBoyssong,BombIran"andthensang,"Bombbombbomb,bombbombIran"tothetuneof"BarbaraAnn.
"235AlthoughinitialpressreportsincludedhowMcCainwentontogiveaseriousanswer,amateurfootageoftheeventtakenbyanaudiencemembermadeitswaytoYouTubeintheformofanout-of-context43-secondvideothatgarneredalmostamillionviews.
236,237ItwasanextremeversionofMichaelPfau's"pass-alongeffect":intheageoftheInternet,informationdiffusionhadbecomeademocratizedfree-for-allwhereanyindividualcouldeasilycirculateaclipwithnohelpfromthepress.
DemocraticopponentscalledMcCain'sjoke"dangerous"and"cavalieraboutanewwar.
"238CriticsusedittotrytoportrayMcCainasawar-mongering"loosecannon,"includingObama,wholaterquoteditinoneofthe2008debateswhenMcCainmentionedTeddyRoosevelt'smotto"speaksoftly,andcarryabigstick":OBAMA:Thisistheguywhosang,"Bomb,bomb,bombIran,"whocalledfortheannihilationofNorthKorea.
ThatIdon'tthinkisanexampleof"speakingsoftly.
"239,240233"PoliticalPolarizationintheAmericanPublic.
"PewResearchCenter.
June12,2014.
.
234DavidM.
Rhea.
"HumorinCampaignMessages.
"PraegerHandbookofPoliticalCampaigningintheUnitedStates,Volume2.
WilliamL.
Benoit,ed.
(SantaBarbara:Praeger,2016).
P.
31.
235DonGonyea.
"Jesting,McCainSings:'Bomb,Bomb,Bomb'Iran.
"NPR.
April20,2007.
.
236Ibid.
237StephenFrantzich.
O.
O.
P.
S.
:ObservingOurPoliticiansStumble–TheWorstCandidateGaffesandRecoveriesinPresidentialCampaigns.
(SantaBarbara:Praeger,2012).
P.
143238Ibid.
239Ibid.
240"PresidentialDebateatBelmontUniversityinNashville,Tennessee.
"TheAmericanPresidencyProject.
October7,2008.
.
32Thus,inthepoliticallypolarizedworldoftheInformationAge,whererivalsholdnopunchesandout-of-contextjokescanspreadeasily,humorcanpresentlargerriskstocandidates.
Itwouldbeawarningonecandidateinthe2016electionwouldheed—andanotherwouldchoosetoignorealtogether.
Humorinthe2016PresidentialElectionIntheMarxBrothers'1933movieDuckSoup,athin-skinnedjokesterwithnoexecutiveexperienceisaskedtorunacountrysufferingfromaneconomicrecession.
241Thecountryis"Freedonia,"asmallfictionalnationfacingcivilianrevolt;thejokesteris"RufusT.
Firefly,"expertlyplayedbyGrouchoMarx.
FireflyisaskedtoleadFreedoniabyawealthy,humorlesswidownamed"Mrs.
Teasdale,"playedbyMargaretDumont—anactresswhooftenactedasGroucho'sfoil.
242GrouchoandDumont'sfirstdialoguebegins:DUMONT:Aschairwomanofthereceptioncommittee,Iwelcomeyouwithopenarms.
GROUCHO:IsthatsoHowlatedoyoustayopenDUMONT:[LookingatGrouchowithwideeyes]I'vespottedyourappointmentbecauseIfeelyouarethemostablestatesmaninallFreedonia.
GROUCHO:Well,thatcoversalotofground.
Say,youcoveralotofgroundyourself.
Youbetterbeatit.
Ihearthey'regoingtotearyoudownandputupanofficebuildingwhereyou'restanding.
[…]Youknowyouhaven'tstoppedtalkingsinceIcamehereYoumusthavebeenvaccinatedwithaphonographneedle.
DUMONT:[IgnoringGroucho'sjokes]ThefutureofFredoniarestsonyou.
Promisemeyou'llfollowinthefootstepsofmyhusband.
GROUCHO:[Lookingdirectlyatthecamera]HowdoyoulikethatIhaven'tbeenonthejobfiveminutesandalreadyshe'smakingadvancestome.
243241LukeEpplin.
"WhattheMarxBrothers'DuckSoupCanTeachUsAboutTrump.
"Slate.
August21,2016.
.
242Ibid.
243LeoMcCarey,BertKalmar,HarryRuby,ArthurSheekmanandNatPerrin.
DuckSoup.
(LosAngeles,CA:ParamountProductions,1933).
.
33It'samasterfuldialogue,incorporatingallofA.
A.
Berger'shumortypes:Language("Youmusthavebeenvaccinatedwithaphonographneedle"),Logic(theabsurdityofGroucho'swisecracksasresponsetoDumont'ssolemnity),Identity(thecaricatureofarich,pompouswidowwithMrs.
Teasdale,whospeakswithanoperaticvoiceandclutchesatastringofpearlsaroundherneck),andAction(Groucho"breakingthefourthwall"byturningdirectlytowardthecamera).
Butbeyondthat,asseveralwritershavenowobserved,thedynamicbetweenGrouchoandDumontseemsstrikinglysimilartothatofanotherduo:DonaldTrumpandHillaryClinton.
244,245TakingTrump(Jokes)Seriously,NotLiterallyAlmostnoonepredictedthatDonaldJ.
Trump—therealestatemogulandex-realityTVstarwhosomehowfoundhimselftheRepublicanPartynomineeforpresident—wouldwinthe2016election.
BeforeElectionDay,everymajornewspollforecastedaHillaryClintonwin.
ReutersgaveClintona90percentchanceofvictory,theNewYorkTimesgaveheran85percentchance,andTheHuffingtonPostputheratanoverconfident98.
2percent.
246,247,248TheWashingtonPostreportedonthedaybeforetheelection,"TheoverallmapstillclearlyfavorsHillaryClinton.
"249PollstersonbothsidesoftheaisletweetedthatClintonwouldsweep,withonepollingsitepredictingshewouldwinineveryswingstateexceptIowaandOhio.
250,251NateSilver,editor-in-chiefofthestatisticalanalysissiteFiveThirtyEight,gaveClintononeofher244Epplin.
245EmilyNussbaum.
"HowJokesWontheElection.
"TheNewYorker.
January23,2017.
.
246MauriceTamman.
"Clintonhasa90percentchanceofwinning.
"Reuters.
November8,2016.
.
247JoshKatz.
"WhoWillBePresident"NewYorkTimes:TheUpshot.
November8,2016.
.
248NatalieJackson.
"HuffPostForecastsHillaryClintonWillWinWith323ElectoralVotes.
"TheHuffingtonPost.
November8,2016.
.
249ChrisCillizzaandAaronBlake.
"HillaryClintonhasenoughelectoralvotestowintheWhiteHouseinfinalFixmap.
"TheWashingtonPost.
November7,2016.
.
250JahnaviSen.
"NotOneMajorPollorAnalystPredictedTrumpDefeatingClinton.
"TheWire.
November9,2016.
.
251JessieHellmann.
"EmersonCollegePollingpredictselectorallandslideforClinton.
"TheHill.
November7,2016.
.
34most"conservative"chancesofwinning:71percent.
252Andoneop-edwentsofarastosay,"HillaryClintonwillwin.
Butwhatkindofpresidentwillshebe"253And,perhapsrelatedly,veryfewinthemainstreammediaortheRepublicanestablishmentfoundDonaldTrumptobefunny.
SomecalledTrump"entertaining"or"shocking"athisrallies,ordiscussedthe"insultcomedy"heusedwhensayingthingslike"HillaryClintongotschlonged.
"254OthersmentionedbrieflythelaughterTrumpgotfromhiscrowds,discussedhismeantweetsorquotedrallyattendeeswhoremarked,"He'sveryexciting,it'llbeveryentertaining.
"255,256ButoftenwhatTrumpsupportersconsideredjokeswerecoveredmuchmoreliterally(andnegatively)inthemedia.
AprimeexampleofthiswaswhenTrumpsaidofacryingbabyatanAshburn,Virginiarally,"Youcangetthebabyoutofhere.
"257Attherally,theaudiencelaughed.
Butlaterthatday,headlinesread:"WatchDonaldTrumpThrowCryingBabyOutofRally"and"DonaldTrumpAskedThatAMotherTakeHerCryingBabyOutOfHisRally.
"258,259ThestorybecamesoblownupthatDevanEbert,thebaby'smother,cameforwardonFoxNewstoclarify:"Iknew[Trump]wasjokingrightfromthebeginning.
Itwasgreatheprovidedthatcomicreliefforme.
"Sheadded:"Don'ttrustwhatyouhearthemediareporting.
"260ThepolarizationacrosspartisanlinesinwhatAmericansthinkconstituteshumor,seenpreviouslyintheaftermathofMcCain's"BombIran"joke,hadonlygrownwider.
252"Whowillwinthepresidency"FiveThirtyEight.
November8,2016.
.
253MartinKettle.
"HillaryClintonwillwin.
Butwhatkindofpresidentwillshebe"TheGuardian.
October27,2016.
254TessaBerenson.
"The5EssentialElementsofaDonaldTrumpStumpSpeech.
"Time.
January13,2016.
.
255BenGittlesonandJohnSantucci.
"DonaldTrumpJokesHeCould'ShootSomebody'WithoutLosingSupport.
"ABCNews.
January23,2016.
.
256JamelleBouie.
"Thegood,theBad,andtheDonald.
"Slate.
September15,2015.
.
257LisaHagen.
"MomofbabyejectedfromTrumprally:Don'ttrustthemediareports.
"TheHill.
August8,2016.
.
258"WatchDonaldTrumpThrowCryingBabyOutofRally.
"RollingStone.
August2,2016.
.
259MegAnderson.
"DonaldTrumpAskedThatAMotherTakeHerCryingBabyOutOfHisRally.
"NPR.
August2,2016.
.
[Headlinehassincebeenchanged.
]260Hagen.
35Nowthattheelectionisover,though,ithasbecomeapparenteventoliberalcritics:DonaldTrumpusedhumorasameansofpersuasion.
261Beyondmakingobligatoryappearancesonlate-nightTV(whichhedid),Trump'srallieswerefullofcomedymeanttoentertainhissupportersandattackhisopponents.
262HeteasedChrisChristie,"You'renoteatingOreosanymore.
"263HesaidofRandPaul,"Ineverattackedhimonhislook,andbelievemethere'splentyofsubjectmatterthere.
"264HeflippedhisbeltbucklebackandforthtoridiculeBenCarsonforsayingheoncetriedtostabsomeonethroughabelt.
265Herepeatedbackanaudiencemember'sinterruptingshoutthatTedCruzwasa"pussy.
"266Andfromthestart,Trumpcoinedcatchymockingnicknamesforallofhisopponents:Lyin'Ted,LittleMarco,Low-EnergyJeb,CrookedHillary,CrazyBernie,GoofyElizabethWarren.
267(Inresponse,BernieSanderscalledTrump"Mr.
Macho,"which,asPoliticopointedout,was"sortofacompliment.
"268)It'stellingthatpriortoElectionDay,themainpeopletospotTrump'suseofhumorwerecomediansandcomedywriters.
AnthonyAtamanuik,acomicwhoimpersonatedTrumpinhissets,toldEsquireinApril2016,"Ifhewasanalt-comic,DonaldTrumpwouldbeafunnyguy.
Youcouldarguethathisralliesaresortofsemi-improvisedstand-uproutines.
He'sanopenmic'erwhosomehowmadeittothetop.
"269JasonZinoman,awriterwhocoverscomedyfortheNewYorkTimes,calledTrump"flamboyantlyperformative.
"270TrevorNoahobservedmostsuccinctlyinanAugust10,2016episodeofTheDailyShow:"DonaldTrumpisastand-up261Nussbaum.
262JoeAllen.
"JimmyFallonRufflesTrump'sHair,AngerstheWorld.
"PasteMagazine.
Sept.
16,2016.
.
263"DidDonaldTrumpcallforHillaryClinton'sAssassination"TheDailyShowwithTrevorNoah.
August10,2016.
.
264Ibid.
265Ibid.
266BenMathis-Lilley.
"OK,Yeah,DonaldTrumpReferredtoTedCruzasa'Pussy'onMonday.
"Slate.
February9,2016.
.
267PaolaChavezandVeronicaStracqualursi.
"From'CrookedHillary'to'LittleMarco,'DonaldTrump'sManyNicknames.
"ABCNews.
May11,2016.
.
268JosephCummins.
"DonaldTrumpandtheArtoftheNastyPoliticalNickname.
"Politico.
June19,2016.
.
269MattMiller.
"Comedyvs.
DonaldTrump:TheGreat,HilariousBattleForAmerica.
"Esquire.
April27,2016.
.
270Ibid.
36comedian.
Youseeiteverysingletimehe'sonthestage.
Heriffs,heroasts,hedoessomeimpersonations.
He'sastand-upcomedian.
"271AtlanticwriterSalenaZitogotitrightwhensheobservedduringtheelection:"Thepresstakes[Trump]literally,butnotseriously;hissupporterstakehimseriously,butnotliterally.
"272AlthoughthequotewasoriginallyreferringtoTrump'suseofwildlyincorrectstatisticsinhisspeeches,itapplieswelltohisjokestoo.
WhenmembersofthepressheardaTrumpjoke,theyoftenconsidereditsliteralmeaning(i.
e.
Trumpwantedtokickababyoutofhisrally)ratherthantakingthepowerofTrump'sappealseriously(i.
e.
thatthejokecouldbefunnytohisaudience,orevenbeeffectiveatmakinghimseemmorelikabletovoters).
Inthenextsection,Iwillattempttodotheopposite:takeTrump'sjokesseriouslybutnotliterally,soastobetterunderstandhowhishumormayhaveinfluencedtheover62millionAmericanswhovotedforhim.
PartofthereasonTrump'sjokesweresooverlookedasaneffectivemeansofpersuasion,Iwillargue,isthatmuchofhishumor—andespeciallythelinesthatgothimthemostpressattention—differedinfunctionandtypefromthehumorofpastpresidentialcandidates.
But,I'llargue,Trump'sstylewaseffective,andhisuseofcomedywasanaturalextensionofpastpracticeintermsofusingentertainmentasacampaignstrategy.
DonaldTrump'sStand-UpComedyIna2016studyofDonaldTrump'suseofhumor—aptlytitled"TheHandsofDonaldTrump"—threelinguisticandsociologyprofessorsexaminedthe"words,gestures,repetitionsandinteractivestyle"ofTrumpthatdefinedhimas"comedic,ifalsocrudeandbawdy.
"273Thepaper,conductedbyKiraHall,DonnaGoldsteinandMatthewIngram,supportsthesame271"DidDonaldTrumpcallforHillaryClinton'sAssassination"TheDailyShowwithTrevorNoah.
272SalenaZito.
"TakingTrumpSeriously,NotLiterally.
"TheAtlantic.
September23,2016.
.
273KiraHall,DonnaGoldsteinandMatthewIngram.
"ThehandsofDonaldTrump:Entertainment,gesture,spectacle.
"HAU:JournalofEthnographicTheory,Vol.
6,No.
2.
2016.
P.
77.
37conclusionTrevorNoahcameto,justre-phrasedinslightlymoreacademicprose:"TowatchTrumpperformastumpspeechistoexperiencesomethinglikestand-upcomedy.
"274ThepaperexhibitshowTrumpdiffersfrompresidentialcandidatesofthepast:usingmoredifferentiation-thanidentification-functioninghumor,aswellasusingmuchmoreidentity-andaction-typejokesintheformofcaricatureandslap-stick.
Asseeninmyhistoryofpresidentialhumor—andinastudybyDavidRhealookingatthedistributionofthefunctionsandtypesofhumoracrosspresidentialdebatessince1960—presidentialcandidatesthroughhistorymostfrequentlyuseidentification-functioninghumor(suchasself-deprecation)andlanguage-typejokes.
275Rheafoundthatinpresidentialdebates,thedistributionoftypesofhumorwasrelativelystableacrosstime,anddistributedasfollows:276Languagehumor–71.
9%(e.
g.
thevastmajorityofjokesdiscussedinhistorysection)Logichumor–18.
6%Identificationhumor–7.
9%Actionhumor–1.
6%Healsofoundastabledistributionoffunctionsofhumoracrosstime,whichwas:277Identification–45.
9%(e.
g.
Perot's"Ifthere'safairerway,I'mallears.
")Clarification–18.
5%(e.
g.
Kerry'slineabouthistaxplan)Enforcement–17.
8%(e.
g.
Dole's"letmetaxyourmemories"jokeaboutTedKennedy)Differentiation–17.
8%(e.
g.
Perot'squipaboutArkansas)Ofcourse,thesestatisticswerejustconsideringpresidentialdebates,wherecandidatesarelikelytobemoreseriousandthereforemaybeslightlylesscausticandperformlesscaricatureorphysicalcomedythanonarallystage.
Butafterexamining56yearsofpresidentialcampaigns,Ifeelconfidentthatthisdistributiongenerallymirrorstheuseofhumorincampaignsatlarge.
Althoughpoliticianshavecertainlyusedphysicalcomedy(Goldwater,forexample,would274Ibid.
275Rhea(2012)P.
121-122.
276Ibid.
277Ibid.
38sometimespokehisfingersthroughapairofglasseswithnolensesandtellaudiences,"TheseglassesarelikePresidentJohnson'sprograms.
Theylookgood,buttheydon'twork.
"278),languagehumoraccountsformostjokesmentionedinanybookofpoliticalhumor.
Andwhilepoliticianshavecertainlyuseddifferentiationhumor(oneofMichaelDukakis'linesinadebatewithGeorgeH.
W.
Bushcomestomind:"IfIhadadollar,George,foreverytimeyouusedthatlabel['Liberal'],I'dqualifyforoneofthosetaxbreaksfortherichthatyouwanttogiveaway.
"279),identificationhumorhasdominatedpresidentialcampaignssinceJohnF.
Kennedy.
AsHall,GoldsteinandIngramshow,Trumpinsteadusedmoredifferentiation-functioninghumorthatpittedhisaudiencesagainsthisopponents(andagainstthemedia,thegovernmentandtheworldatlarge).
TrumpmadehisrallyaudiencesfeelsuperiortopeoplelikeMarcoRubioorChrisChristie,andbylaughingwithhim,"supportersareempowered"and"theirdifferenceswithrespecttosocialclassoreconomicinterestsappeartrifling.
"280Indeed,apersonaltrainerfromTexaswhosupportedTrumponcetoldSlate:"Ilovethathe'stalkingineverybodyelse'slanguage.
He'snottryingtobepoliticallycorrect—he'sjustspeakingtouslikehowwe'retalkinghere,orhowyoutalktoyourfriends.
"281InDuckSoup,whenGrouchomakesfunofDumont'sweight,ageorlooks,theaudienceiscompelledtolaughalong—afterall,Dumontdoesseemridiculous.
So,hegetsawaywith:GROUCHO:Whydon'tyoumarrymeDUMONT:Why,marryyouGROUCHO:Youtakeme,andI'lltakeavacation.
I'llneedavacationifwe'regoingtogetmarried.
Married!
Icanseeyourightnowinthekitchen,bendingoverahotstove.
ButIcan'tseethestove.
282278ArthurA.
Sloane.
HumorintheWhiteHouse:TheWitofFiveAmericanPresidents.
(Jefferson,NC:McFarland&Company,Inc.
,2001)P.
173.
279SeeAppendixA.
280Hall,GoldsteinandIngram79.
281Bouie.
282DuckSoup.
39It'sajokethatcaricaturesDumontbyreducinghertoagrotesque,overweightbody,andit'sjustthekindofjokeTrumpwouldenjoy.
Trumpfrequentlymadejokesaboutthebodilyfunctionsofhisopponentsduringtheelection,asanygoodstand-upcomicwould:fromhiscall-and-responseataMichiganrallyaboutHillaryClinton'sbathroomusebeforeadebate("WheredidshegoIthoughtshequit,Ithoughtshegaveup!
Iknowwhereshewentandit'stoodisgusting.
Wasn'tthisaweirddeal")tohissneeringcommentonCNNthatMegynKellyhad"bloodcomingoutofherwherever.
"283,284AndTrumpdidn'tjusttalkaboutbodilyfunctions,heactedthemoutandmadecaricaturesofthem:whetheritwasflailinghiswriststomockadisabledreporter,slumpinghistorsowithclosedeyestomakefunofJebBush,orwavingwateroverastagetomimicMarcoRubio'ssweating.
285(Forphotosofjustafewofthesecaricatures,aswellaskeyphotosfromthehistoryofpresidentialcampaignhumor,seeAppendixC.
)AccordingtoHall,GoldsteinandIngram,Trump'suseofsuchbodilyhumorandcaricature(i.
e.
actionandidentityhumor)puthiminthepositionofa"Rabelaisianclown":"InTrump,wefindaRabelaisiancharacterthatdeploysbawdyhumortoentertainhisaudience.
Heprovidescarnivalesquemomentsashepokesfunatothercandidates,attheirbodies,attheirfluids,attheirstiffness.
LikeRabelais,Trumpunderstandsthatcrudehumorhasthepowertobringdowntheprincelyclasses—aka,thepoliticalestablishment—aswellasanyonewhoopposeshim.
"286Trumpthusunderstoodthepowerofhumornotjusttomakehislistenerslikehimorattackhisopponents,buttobringdownanentiresocialorder.
Arguablynopresidentialcandidatebeforehim—anddefinitelynotHillaryClinton—hadespousedthatmission.
ItexplainswhyTrumpwassodifferentinhishumor'sfunctionandtype:hesoughtdifferentends.
283Hall,GoldsteinandIngram77.
284Nussbaum.
285Hall,GoldsteinandIngram73,82.
286Ibid82.
40TheTraditionalHumorofHillaryClintonHillaryClintonwentamoretraditionalrouteinheruseofhumorinthe2016election.
Andthatshouldsurprisenoone—Clinton,aFirstLadyturnedU.
S.
SenatorturnedSecretaryofState,hasalwaysbeenknownforhercaution,andsheknewtherisksofajokegonewrong.
287NotonlywouldshehavepaidcloseattentiontothebacklashagainstKerryandMcCainfortheirbotchedjokes,butsheexperiencedasimilarsituationfirst-handin2008whenshemisjudgedheraudienceandchosetoomeanofajokeagainstObamainadebate:"Liftingwholepassagesfromsomeoneelse'sspeechesisnotchangeyoucanbelievein,it'schangeyoucanXerox.
"288(Theaudiencebooed.
)AndunlikeTrumporherhusband,Clintonhasneverbeenknownforhavingparticularlygoodtimingorjoke-tellingskills.
289So,in2016,Clintondidnotattempttobeastand-upcomic.
Shefollowedthescriptsetbypastcandidates:appearingonEllento"dab,"goingonSNLtopokefunatherselfinasketch,makingappearancesonTheTonightShowStarringJimmyFallonandTheLateShowwithStephenColbert.
290Sheusedhumoreffectivelyafterafaintingincident,openingajarofpicklesonJimmyKimmeltoproveshewasingoodhealthandtellingreporters,"Theadvice,ofcourse,isjustdon'ttalkforadayortwo.
Yeah,that'snotgoingtohappen.
"291,292Shehadafewgoodattacklines,like:"[Trump]'swrittenalotofbooksaboutbusiness.
TheyallseemtoendatChapter11.
"293Clintoncertainlydidn'tmakeanyjokesaboutbodyweightorsweat.
287DanaMilbank.
"HillaryClinton,toocautiousforherowngood.
"TheWashingtonPost.
.
288M.
J.
Stephey.
"Hillary'sBotchedLine.
"Time.
August13,2013.
.
289Miller.
290TedJohnson.
"ShouldLate-NightTVHostsGrillPresidentialCandidates"Variety.
September16,2016.
.
291LisadeMoraes.
"JimmyKimmelHasHillaryClintonOpenJarOfPicklesToDemonstrateHerStateOfHealth.
"Deadline.
August23,2016.
.
292AmyChozick.
"HillaryClintonTreatsTheoriesAboutCoughingAttackWithDoseofHumor.
"NewYorkTimes.
September6,2016.
.
293BenKamisar.
"Clinton:AllofTrump'sbooks'endatChapter11.
'"TheHill.
June21,2016.
.
41Clinton'smostsupposedly"daring"momentofhumoronthecampaigntrailoccurredonSeptember22,2016,whenshewentonZachGalifianakis'absurdistfaketalkshowBetweenTwoFerns.
294Ontheshow,GalifianakisaskedClintonquestionslike,"What'sthebestwaytoreachyou,email"and"DoesIvankaevercallChelsea"295Hejoked,"I'dlovetomeetthepersonwhomakesyourpantsuits,becauseforHalloween,Iwantedtogoasalibrarianfromouterspace.
"AndClintonrespondedwithsomefunnylinesofherown,thoughmostlyplayedthe"straightwoman:thelow-key,earnest,unflashyfoilwholetstheotherguymakealltheblatantjokes.
"296Thevideowasasuccess,gettingover30millionviewsin24hours—arecordforFunnyorDie.
297ButClintonstillgotflack.
TheAtlanticpublishedapiecetitled,"HillaryClinton'sAppearanceonBetweenTwoFernsWasn'tBrave.
"298Itpointedoutthattheappearancewasentirelyscriptedandpreapproved,andthatClintonwasn'teventhefirsttogoontheshow—PresidentObamahadtestedthewatersin2014.
299WithacynicalmediathatwasmuchlessreceptivethanithadbeenwhenherhusbandplayedsaxonArsenioHall,andwiththefast-pacedturnoverofnewsontheInternet,theappearancewassoonsweptundertherug.
IfDonaldTrumpwasGrouchoMarx,HillaryClintonwasMargaretDumont.
AsNewYorkerTVcriticEmilyNussbaumobserved,"HillarymatchedthelookandthefeelofMargaretDumont:therichbitch,NurseRatched,thebuzzkill,theno-funmom,theonewhoshutthejokedown.
"300Inafightbetween"rude,rule-breakingGrouchoMarx—destroyerofelites!
"andDumont,"popculture'sprimalpearl-clutcher,"Grouchowastheclearcomedicwinner.
301294AbbyHamblin.
"JusthowfunnywasHillaryClinton'BetweenTwoFerns'"SanDiegoUnion-Tribune.
September22,2016.
.
295"HillaryClinton:BetweenTwoFernswithZachGalifianakis.
"FunnyorDie.
September22,2016.
.
296JeetHeer.
"TheInvisibleWoman.
"NewRepublic.
September23,2016.
.
297Hamblin.
298ClareForan.
"HillaryClinton'sAppearanceonBetweenTwoFernsWasn'tBrave.
"TheAtlantic.
Sept.
23,2016.
.
299Ibid.
300Nussbaum.
301Ibid.
42WhyTrump'sJokesWonOutInDuckSoup,MargaretDumont'scharacterasksGrouchoifhecouldsayafewwordsabouthowheplanstorunthecountry.
302Grouchoimmediatelyburstsintosong,joyouslybraggingabouttheauthoritarianpolicieshe'llinstitute—whichincludeprohibitionsagainstchewinggum,whistling,and"anyformofpleasure.
"Hesings:"Thelastmannearlyruinedthisplace,hedidn'tknowwhattodowithit.
Ifyouthinkthiscountry'sbadoffnow,justwait'tilIgetthroughwithit.
"Andratherthanobjecting,thecrowdseemsamused.
TheycheerGrouchoonashedipswomenintheaudience,usesatrumpettomimeafiringsquad,andboastsabouthowmuchtheirtaxeswillgoupwhileplayingajingleonaflute.
DonaldTrump'shumorwaspoliticallypersuasiveinthe2016campaigninthesamewayGrouchoMarx'shumorwasinthatscene:byentertainingaudiencesandgrabbingviewers'attention.
BenefitingfromchangesinthewayvotersconsumeinformationontheInternetandaidedbyhisoutsiderstatus,Trumptookthe"politainment"perspectivepresidentialcandidateshaveshownsince1960toitslogicalextreme:acampaignfosteredbyandsustainedonentertainment.
And,adaptinghishumortofitAmericans'increasingcynicism,Trump'scomedystyleprovedmoreeffectivethanClinton's.
Trump'shumorentertainedaudiences,decreasinghislisteners'abilitytoscrutinizehisargumentsandallowingthemtodismissanyquestionablepointshemadeas"justjokes.
"Trumpmadesuretoleave"wiggleroom,"bothforhimselftolaterclaimsomethingwasajokeandforhisaudiencetodiscountitiftheydisagreed.
303AndunlikeKerryorMcCain,whogotintroubleforthefewinstancesofhumorsomefoundcontroversial,Trump'srapidrateoftellingjokesthatgotsomesortofpressbacklashmeantopponentscouldn'tholdhimdownforanyone.
Here,302DuckSoup.
.
303InnocentiandMiller.
43Trumpalsobenefitedfromhisoutsiderstatus,sincehefeltnoqualmsaboutdestroyinghisRepublicanopponentswithnicknamesorruininghispoliticalfutureoveronegaffe.
304AcareerinrealityTVhadpreparedhimtoheightenthedramaasmuchaspossible.
EzraKlein,oneofthefewjournalistswhoadmitteditwas"undeniablyenjoyabletowatchTrump"andcalledTrump"America'smostskilledentertainer"beforehisvictory,explains:"[Trump]hastherealitytelevisionstar'sabilitytooperateentirelywithoutshame,andthatpermitshimtooperateentirelywithoutrestraint[…]Trumplivesbytherealitytelevisiontropethathe'snotheretomakefriends.
"305Trump'sclearlackofrestraintinmakingjokesandhismuchmoredivisiveapproachtohumor(throughdifferentiation-functioningandidentity-andaction-typejokes)madehimallthemorepersuasive,becausehissupporterssensedhewasforthrightandplain-speaking.
AccordingtoHall,GoldsteinandIngram,Trump'sfollowerslikedthatheseemedtruly"spontaneousandrealinsteadofscripted.
[Trumpwas]anunplannedman,evenanhonestman,whotellsithowheseesit.
"306Andinatimeofgreatcynicismaboutpolitics,whenpoliticians(likeHillaryClinton)arefrequentlyseenasscriptedandcalculating,thiswasahugeadvantage.
Trump'shumorwasalsoeffectiveingrabbingvoters'—andthemedia's—attention.
AsHall,GoldsteinandIngramconcluded,"Trumpmakespeoplelaugh,evenifthey'renotlaughingatthesamething.
"307SomelaughedatTrump'srallyjokesbecausetheyfoundhimfunny;otherslaughedathimorindisbelief.
Buteitherway,bothsideswerewatching.
AsTheWashingtonPostreported,whileHillaryClinton'scampaignattracted386minutesofscreentimeonABC,CBSandNBCbroadcastsfromJanuary1toLaborDay2016,Trump'scampaign304PeterWeber.
"StephenColbertdissectsDonaldTrump'snicknamestrategywithTrump's'chiefnicknamestrategist.
'"TheWeek.
May12,2016.
.
305EzraKlein.
"TheriseofDonaldTrumpisaterrifyingmomentinAmericanpolitics.
"Vox.
February10,2016.
.
306Hall,GoldsteinandIngram83.
307Ibid79.
44got822minutes.
308AndrewTyndall,headofanorganizationthathastrackedbroadcastnewssince1987,saidit's"unlikelythatanotherpresidentialcandidateinhistoryhasevergottenmore"on-aircoveragethanTrump.
309Thegapincoveragemakessense—newsorganizationsknewTrumpdrewviewersinmuchbetterthanHillary.
AsJackFullerexplainsinaneuroscientificanalysisofmediaintheInformationAgetitledWhatisHappeningtoNews,whenvotersarebeinginundatednotjustbyTVnewsbutalsoaconstantdelugeofpotentialstoriesonFacebooktoclickon,anynewsstorythatcanstrikeanemotionalchordgetspriorityinthebrain.
310Fullerwrites:"Emotionmakesyoupayattention.
Emotionmakesyouremember.
"311Trump'sabilitytomakevoterspayattentionthroughanyandallemotionalmeanscouldbespottedearlyon:onestudyofthe2016Republicanprimarydebatesfoundthatofallthecandidates,Trumpgotthemostboosandthemostlaughs.
312Andifthere'sonethingTrumpdidbetterthanClintoninthegeneralelection,itwasinspiringtheemotioninvotersnecessarytogetthemtopayattention.
Lookingbackoverthespanofpresidentialcandidatehumorsince1960—fromtheimportanceofpersonalityintheKennedy-Nixoncampaigntotheimpactofone-linersintheReagan-Mondalerace,totheriseofcandidatesneedingtoappearonentertainmentshowsintheBush-Goreelection—Trump'sheavyrelianceonentertainmenttosustainhiscampaignseemsunsurprising.
WhileTrumpusedself-deprecating(andotheridentification-functioning)humormuchlessthanpreviouscandidates,thisreflectednotsomuchachangeintheframeworkof308PaulFarhi.
"TrumpgetswaymoreTVnewstimethanClinton.
Sowhat"TheWashingtonPost.
September21,2016.
.
309Ibid.
310JackFuller.
WhatisHappeningtoNews:TheInformationExplosionandtheCrisisinJournalism.
(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,2010)311Ibid71.
312PatrickStewart,AustinEubanksandJasonMiller.
"'PleaseClap':Applause,LaughterandBooingduringthe2016GOPPresidentialPrimaryDebates.
"PoliticalScience&Politics,Vol.
49,No.
4.
October2016.
45politicalhumorasitshowedhowTrumpwasableto(likesomanypoliticiansbeforehim)respondtohisaudience.
JustasBillClintonrecognizedtheneedtosethumorasideinhis"Arkansas"debatemomentwithPerot,Trumpin2016sawanangryanddisillusionedpopulaceandadaptedhisentertainmentstyletothatemotion.
AsjournalistMollyBallwrote:"Alltheothercandidatessay,'Americansareangry,andIunderstand.
'Trumpsays,'I'Mangry.
'"313WesawTrump'sabilitytoadjusttohisaudienceinhisdebateswithHillaryClinton,aswell:Trumpwasmuchmoreseriousatthedebatesthanathisrallies.
314Thiswassmart,asstudieshaveshownthathumorworksbestforcandidatestryingtowinoversupportersandundecidedvoters,whilefearworksbestforcandidatestryingtowinoveranaudiencethatdoesn'tlikethem.
315Trump'sadaptationoftonetomatchtheemotionsofhisaudiencesshowsalevelofmanipulationandsavvynottypicallycreditedtohimbythemedia—orevenbyhisownvoters.
ConclusionInalengthypieceonDonaldTrump's2016wintitled"HowJokesWontheElection,"EmilyNussbaumasks:"Howdoyoufightanenemywho'sjustkidding"316Thatisthequestionpoliticalscientists,andtheAmericanpublicatlarge,mustaskourselvesnow.
Ofcourse,Trump'swincannotbeattributedsolelytohispowersofentertainment—economicfactors,angeratBarackObama'spresidency,sexism,racism,andagenuinefearamongruralvotersofjoblosstoimmigrantsand"cleanenergy"certainlyplayedapart—butTrump'sabilitytousehumortoriseoutofapackofseventeenRepublicancandidatesviaincreasednewscoverageandthensustainthatmomentumthroughthegeneralelectionshowshoweasilycandidatescannowusecomedyforpoliticalgain.
313Klein.
314SeeAppendixA.
315SoniaCapelli,WilliamSabadie,andOlivierTrendel.
"UsingHumororFearAppeal.
"RechercheetApplicationsenMarketing,Vol.
27,No.
2.
2012.
316Nussbaum.
46Abigpartofthetrendtoward"politainment"since1960hasbeenfueledbytechnology,withthe"pass-along"effectgrowingstrongerandstrongereachdecade.
First,informationdisseminatedpastitsoriginalsourceviaTVnewsshowsreplayingfootageofone-linersinpresidentialdebates.
Then,showsstartedreplayingfootageofSNLparodiesofdebates.
Then,YouTubeallowedanyonetouploadvideosofcandidatesonline.
Now,DonaldTrumpcansendoutaTweetandseeitreadinstantlybyhis20millionfollowers,circulatewidelyonnewssitesandblogsofallpoliticalleanings,andgetsharedbyhundredsofthousandsofAmericanstotheirownonlinecircles.
Inotherwords,asthespreadofpoliticalinformationhasbecomemoreandmoredemocratized,politicians'abilitytogettheirmessagesoutdirectlytovotershasincreasedaswell.
Withoutthecheckofastrongpressorpartysystem,andgiventhatcandidatesknowinformationwiththestrongestemotionalpull(likeentertainment)getsthemostshares,thatabilitycomeswitharealdangerforabuse.
AttheendofDuckSoup,GrouchoMarx'scharacterRufusT.
Fireflycreatessomuchmayhem—hiringahotdogandpeanutvendortobehisSecretaryofWarandslappinganambassadornotoncebuttwice—thata"GreatWar"breaksoutinFreedonia.
Inthefinalscene,Firefly'sarmyissuccessfulatlast,andDumont'scharacterbeginstosingtheFreedonianationalanthem…onlytobepeltedbyorangesthrownatherbymembersofherownside.
Itisanabsurdistscene,butonethatseemsvaguelyforebodinginthetimeofPresidentTrump:intheageofGroucho,allstoriesendhumorouslybutnotoneendsinpeace.
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53AppendixA:AudienceLaughterinDebatesSince1980*Note:The1960and1976televiseddebatesarenotincludedhere,sincetheywerefilmedinasmallTVstudioratherthaninfrontofalargeliveaudience.
Thelistmaybeincomplete,aslaughswerefoundviaacombinationoftranscriptsandfootage.
317I=Identification,C=Clarification,E=Enforcement,D=DifferentiationYearDebateSpeaker*WinneritalicizedHumorousRemarkFunctionofHumorTotalLaughsElectionof1980Oct.
28Cleveland,OHJimmyCarter(D)"Barbara,reluctantasIamtosayanythingcriticalaboutGovernorReagan,Iwilltrytoansweryourquestion.
"E–PlayfulacknowledgementofdebatenormsCarter=1(1E)Reagan=3(1E,2D)RonaldReagan(R)"Well,Barbara,you'veaskedthatquestiontwice.
Ithinkyououghttohaveatleastoneanswertoit.
"D–AttackingCarter'sevasionofIranquestion"Thereyougoagain.
"D–UnderminingCarter'sattacks"ButwhenIhavequotedaDemocratPresident,asthePresidentsays,IwasaDemocrat.
Isaidmanyfoolishthingsbackinthosedays.
"E–PlayfullyenforcingidentityasaRepublican,separatefrompastElectionof1984Oct.
7Louisville,KYWalterMondale(D)"…WhatdidyoudorightaftertheelectionYouwentoutandtriedtocut$20billionoutofMedicare.
Andso,whenyousay,"Thereyougoagain,"peoplerememberthis,youknow.
"D–UnderminingReagan'slineMondale=5(1E,4D)Reagan=6(1I,2C,1E,2D)"Doyouwanttogivemesomesuggestions"E–PlayfulanswertoquestionofwhatmosttheoutrageousthingReagansaidwas"Well,we'vejustfinishedalmostthewholedebate.
AndtheAmericanpeopledon'thavetheslightestclueaboutwhatPres.
Reaganwilldoaboutthesedeficits.
"D–attackingReagan'sanswers"Well,IguessI'mremindedalittlebitofwhatWillRogersoncesaidaboutHoover.
Hesaid,'It'snotwhathedoesn'tknowthatbothersme;it'swhatheknowsforsurethatjustain'tso.
'"D–attackingopponentasaliarthroughquoteRonaldReagan(R)"Iwasn'tgoingtosaythisatall,butIcan'thelpit.
Thereyougoagain.
"D–UnderminingMondale'sattacks"Igaveyoubacksomeofthattime.
"I–Tomoderator,jovialattitudetowardrules,releasingtensionOct.
21KansasCity,MOWalterMondale(D)"That'swhataPresident'ssupposedtoknow:wherethoseweaponsaregoingtobe.
Ifthey'respaceweapons,Iassumethey'llbeinspace.
"D–showingdifferenceinreasoning317Transcripts/footageobtainedfromtheAmericanPresidencyProject,theCommissiononPresidentialDebates,andC-SPAN.
54Electionof1984(con.
)Oct.
21KansasCity,MO(con.
)RonaldReagan(R)"Howanyonecouldthinkthatanysanepersonwouldbelieveyoucouldcallbackanuclearmissile…So,thankyouforgivingmeachancetostraightentherecord.
I'msurethatyouappreciatethat.
"C–ClarifyingpositiononissueSeepreviouspage.
"…commercialoutwhere[Mondale]'sappearingonthedeckoftheNimitzandwatchingtheF-14'stakeoff.
That'sanimageofstrength—exceptifhehadhadhiswaywhentheNimitzwasbeingplanned,hewouldhavebeendeepinthewaterouttherebecausetherewouldn'thavebeenanyNimitztostandon.
Hewasagainstit.
"D–Showingfalsehoodofopponent'sadcampaign"IwantyoutoknowthatalsoIwillnotmakeageanissueofthiscampaign.
Iamnotgoingtoexploit,forpoliticalpurposes,myopponent'syouthandinexperience.
"C–Clarifyingwithdeflectioninmemorableline"Well,myrebuttalisI'veheardthenationaldebtblamedforalotofthings,butnotforillegalimmigrationacrossourborder.
"E–EnforcingincongruityinreasoningElectionof1988Sept.
25Winston-Salem,NCMichaelDukakis(D)"Healsowantstospendalotofmoneyonadditionalprograms.
Ifhekeepsthisup,he'sgoingtobetheJoeIsuzuofAmericanpolitics.
"D–LinkingopponenttofantasticalsalesmanDukakis=10(1I,1C,5E,3D)Bush=15(10I,4E,1D)"25thofDecember,Mr.
VicePresident.
"E–Jokecall-backenforcingearlierBushmessup"DidIsenseadesirethatmaybeLloydBentsenoughttobeyourrunningmatewhenyousaidtherearethreepeopleonyourticket"E–JokingaboutBush'srunningmateGeorgeH.
W.
Bush(R)"Isthisthetimetounleashourone-linersThatanswerwasaboutasclearasBostonharbor.
"E–Exposing"JoeIsuzu"lineasprepared,thenironicallyusingone-linertoattackargument"…nucleardeploymentontheMidgetmanmissile,orontheMinuteman,whateveritis.
We'regoingtohaveto—theMX.
We'regoingtohavetodothat.
It'sChristmas.
"I–Showinggoodhumoraftermess-up"Wouldn'titbenicetobetheicemanandnevermakeamistake"I–Self-deprecating"It'sonlyonyellowhere.
Waitaminute.
"I–Tomoderator,releasingtensionaftercalledoutforspeakingover"We'llhaveanopportunitytoseethetwooftheminactioninafriendlyforum,wonderfulfriendlyfashionlikethis.
"I–jokingaboutVPdebate"Ihadhopedthishadbeenalittlefriendlierevening.
Iwantedtohitchhikearidehomeinhistankwithhim.
"E–TeasingatimageofDukakisintank55Electionof1988(con.
)Oct.
13LosAngeles,CA(con.
)MichaelDukakis(D)"IwontheDemocraticnominationinfifty-oneseparatecontests.
IthinkI'mareasonablylikableguy.
"C–Defendingrecord/likabilitySeepreviouspage.
"IcertainlyhopeIwillbelikedby[thepeople]onthe8thofNovember.
"I–Releasingtensionoverquestion"Youknow,Mr.
Bushhasneverappointedajudge.
I'veappointedover130,soIhavearecord.
"D–DifferentiatingrecordfromBush"Icanunderstand,afterthevice-presidentialdebate,whyMr.
Bushwouldwantnomoredebates.
"E–LightjokingaboutQuayleIthinkMr.
Bushhasusedthelabel"liberal"atleasttentimesifIhadadollar,George,foreverytimeyouusedthatlabel,I'dqualifyforoneofthosetaxbreaksfortherichthatyouwanttogiveaway.
"D–AttackingBush'spoliciesdirectly"Ididn'theartheword'liberal'or'left'onetime.
Ithankyouforthat.
"E–JokingwithBush,enforcingearliercriticism[OnBush'spolicies]"Theflexiblefreeze,somebodydescribedittheotherdayasakindofeconomicslurpee…"E–MakingfunofBush'spolicyGeorgeH.
W.
Bush(R)"Imean,he'sagainstmostdefensematters,andnowhewantstogetanarmyofJRSauditorsgoingoutthere.
"E–RevealingridiculousnatureofDukakisproposalthroughfunnylanguage"Idon'thavea[SupremeCourtnominee]listyet.
Ifeelprettyconfidenttonight,butnotthatconfident.
"I–Reminderhowwinisuncertain/atvoters'mercy[Smiling]"Justaminute.
"I–Tomoderator,releasingtensionafterbadquestion"Thatboowasexcessivelyloud.
Canyougivemefiveseconds,Bernie,outoffairnessGivemefive.
"I-Tomoderator,releasingtensionafterboos"You'restealingmyclose.
Ihadsomethingverynicetosayinthere.
"I-Tomoderator,showingjoviality"CanwestarttheclockoverIheldofffortheapplause.
"I-Tomoderator,showinghumor"SamRaybumhadagreatexpressiononthis.
Hesaidherewerealltheseintellectualsouttheregripingandcomplainingandsayingitwasnegativecoverage.
Rayburnsays,yeah,andthatguyneverranforsheriffeither.
"I–Showinghe'stryingtobeunaffectedbynegativecoverage"Iwasnotouttherewhenthatstockmarketdroppedwringingmyhandsandsayingthiswastheendoftheworldassomepoliticalleaderswere.
"D–Differentiatinghimselffromopponent"DoyouremembertheSenatorfromBostonchantingoutthereandtheridiculefactorfromthatladyfromTexasthatwasonthere"E–EnforcingaudiencememoryofDemocraticconvention56Electionof1992Oct.
11St.
Louis,MOBillClinton(D)"Ross,that'sagreatspeech,butit'snotquitethatsimple.
"D-UnderminingPerot'sintelligenceClinton=6(1I,2E,3D)Bush=13(7I,2C,3E,1D)Perot=29(15I,3C,7E,4D)GeorgeH.
W.
Bush(R)"GovernorClinton,hetalksaboutthereactiontothemarkets.
Therewasamomentaryfearthathemightwin,andthemarketswent'phwee.
'"D–AttackingClinton'seconomicplanRossPerot(I)"Well,they'vegotapoint.
Idon'thaveanyexperienceinrunningupa$4trilliondebt.
"D-SettingselfapartfromBush"Ifthere'safairerway,I'mallears.
Ah.
"I–Self-deprecatingaboutlargeears"Weoughttogetalongwithoneanother.
Ifyoucan'tgetthere,justrecognizewe'reallstuckwithoneanother,becausenobody'sgoinganywhere.
"C–Clarifyinghispoliticalpositiononbipartisanship"Numberone,ifIgetthere[toWhiteHouse],itwillbeaveryunusualandhistoricalevent…"I–Self-deprecating(unintentional)"Allthesefellowswiththousand-dollarsuitsandalligatorshoesrunningupanddowntheHallsofCongressthatmakepolicynow,thelobbyists,thePACguys,theforeignlobbyists,whathaveyou,they'llbeoverthereintheSmithsonian.
"E–EnforcingabsurdityofWashingtonD.
C.
"EverybodywillfaintinWashington.
They'veneverseenanythinghappeninthattown.
"E–Enforcingwhatwouldhappenifelected"Whentheygetoffbythemselves,theysaid,'Nobodydidit.
'"D–AttackingopponentsOct.
15RichmondVABillClinton(D)"IthinkIrememberthequestion.
"E–MakingfunofPerotfortakinglongtime"Idon'twantyoutoreadmylips,andIsuredon'twantyoutoreadhis.
"D–UsingBushlineagainsthim"Accordingtomymotherandmywifeandmydaughter,thisworldwouldbealotbetterplaceifwomenwererunningitmostofthetime.
"I–IdentifyingwithcommonmanjokeGeorgeH.
W.
Bush(R)"Idon'tknowifyousawthedebatetheothernight,sufferedthroughthat.
"I–Identifyingwithpublic"Idon'twantanybodytostampedetocutthePresident'ssalaryoffaltogether.
Barbaraissittingoverhere.
"I–Ubiquitouswifejoke;identifywithmiddleclass"Pleasedon'tsayanythingbytheWashingtonPost.
"E–UnderminingClinton'sargument"What'shappeningupthere"I–Relievestensionbyacknowledgingnoiseinaudience"IthinkifBarbaraBushwererunningthisyearshe'dbeelected.
"I–Self-deprecating"Idon'tknow.
Startingafter4years.
"C–Clarifyingopinionofwhen57Electionof1992(con.
)Oct.
15RichmondVA(con.
)GeorgeH.
W.
Bush(R)(con.
)Seepreviouspage.
minoritycouldbeelectedpresidentSeepreviouspage.
"GoodRepublicans.
"I–Identifyingselfingroup""IthinkweoweCaroleSimpsona--anybodywhocanstandinbetweenthesethreecharactershereandgetthejobdone--weoweheraroundofapplause.
Justdon'ttakeitoutofmytime.
"I–Showingjovialmoodjokingwithmoderator(Simpson)RossPerot(I)"WhosefaultisthatNottheDemocrats;nottheRepublicans.
Somewhereouttherethere'sanextraterrestrialthat'sdoingthistous,Iguess.
"E–Enforcingabsurdityofnoonetakingblame"We'llbeonagainSaturdaynight8to9o'clockonABC.
"I–Commonmanself-advertising"Idon'thaveanyspindoctors.
Idon'thaveanyspeechwriters.
Probablyshows.
Imakethosechartsyouseeontelevisioneven.
"I–Self-deprecating"Itisalongsubject;youwouldn'tletmefinishtonight.
Ifyouwanttohearit,youcangetittomorrownight.
"I–Showingawarenessofhowhetalkslong"Ifyouwanttohaveahigh-riskexperiencecomparabletobungeejumping--gointoCongresssometimewhenthey'reworkingonthiskindoflegislation,whenthelobbyistsarerunningupanddownthehalls.
Wearyoursafety-toeshoeswhenyougo.
"E–EnforcingabsurdityofD.
C.
"Yougetthejob,giveyourrelativesthejanitor'sjobat$57,000ayear,morethantheteachersmake.
Andwithluck,theycleanthecafeteriaonceaweek.
"E–Enforcingdownsideofcurrentsituation"Finallyhadtocomebacktoschool,thechickenlosthisfeathers.
That'stheonlywaywegothimback.
"I–Tellingfarmstorytoseemrelatable"I'llseeyoutomorrownightonNBC,10:30p.
m.
,11p.
m.
,eastern.
"I–Commonmanself-advertisingOct.
19EastLansing,MIBillClinton(D)[ToBush]"Youthinkit'srelevant!
"E–AllyinghimselfwithBushtoshowabsurdityofPerot"Hesaidtrickle-downeconomicswasvoodooeconomics;nowhe'sit'sbiggestpractitioner.
"D–AttackingBushGeorgeH.
W.
Bush(R)"IwouldliketherecordtoshowthepaneliststhatRossPerottookthefirstshotatthepress.
Myfavoritebumpersticker,though,is'AnnoytheMedia.
ReelectPresidentBush.
'"C–Clarifyingidentitytovoters"JimBaker'saman.
Yes,Ipleadguiltytothat.
"E–Underminingquestionaboutdiversityofcabinet58Electionof1992(con.
)Oct.
19EastLansing,MI(con.
)GeorgeH.
W.
Bush(R)(con.
)"…Lotofwomenrunningforoffice.
AsIsaidtheothernight,Ihopealotofthemlosebecausethey'reliberalDemocrats.
"E–EnforcingpartylinesinjovialwaySeepreviouspages.
"WhenImakeamistake,IsayI'msorry.
"I–Abouttime,showinghimselfasgoodpersonRossPerot(I)"IgrewupfiveblocksfromArkansas.
"I–Identifyingascommonman"It'sirrelevant.
"D–DisagreeingwithClinton,underminingArkansasrecord"IcouldsaythatIranasmallgrocerystoreonthecorner,therefore,IextrapolatethatintothefactthatIcouldrunWal-Mart.
That'snottrue.
"D–ComparingClintontosmallgrocerystoreowner"Ithoughtyou'dforgottenIwashere.
"I–Tomoderator,Self-deprecating"I'velivedtheAmericandream;I'dlikeforyourchildrentobeabletoliveit,too.
"I–Establishingpersonality"Everybodynowknowstheterriblepricethey'repayingbywaitinguntilit'sobvioustothebraindeadthattheyhaveproblems.
"C-Clarifyingpositionsimply"AndassoonasIfounditout,hewentoutthedoor.
"[Employeew/foreignaccounts]C–Counteringattack"Jim,letmenetitout.
"I–Establishingpersonality"Ihavetodoit,andnobody'scalledmeyettocomeup,Imightmention.
"I–Self-deprecating"Ijustlovethefactthateverybody,particularlyinthemedia,goesbonkersoverthetownhall.
Iguessit'sbecauseyouwillloseyourrighttotellthemwhattothink.
"E–Enforcingbadviewofmedia"Ijusthaveoneson.
SoheandIaresurroundedbywomentellinguswhattodoallthetime.
"I–Self-deprecating,commonman"I'msureI'lldoitbeforeit'sover.
"I–Jokingaboutdebaterules"Ifyou'vebeenontelevisionaboutit,youthinkyoudidit.
"E–Absurdityofpoliticians"We'llbedowninthetrenches,underthehood,workingonfixingtheoldcartogetitbackontheroad.
"I–Likecommonman,fixingcarElectionof1996Oct.
6Hartford,CTBillClinton(D)"Hisrunningmate,JackKemp,oncesaidBobDolenevermetataxhedidn'thike.
"D–AttackingopponentClinton=6(4I,1E,1D)Dole=16(6I,5C,5E)""It'ssortoftheirgoldenoldie,youknow,it'sarecordtheythinktheycanplaythateverybodylovestohear.
"E–Undermining"liberalelite"argument"Wecutthedeficit4yearsinarowforthefirsttimesincebeforetheCivilWar—Imean,beforeWorldWarII—andmaybebeforetheCivilWar,too.
"I–Showinggoodhumoraboutmess-up59Electionof1996(con.
)Oct.
6Hartford,CT(con.
)BillClinton(D)(con.
)"He'sarrangedformetospendalotmoretimewithSenatorD'Amatointhelastcoupleofyears,andsoI'mmorefamiliarwithhiscommentsthanIusedtobe.
"I–Self-deprecatingaboutWhitewaterinvestigationSeepreviouspage.
"Nocomment.
"I–PlayingalongwithDole'sjokeBobDole(R)"Well,he'sbetteroffthanhewas4yearsago.
"[ReferringtoClinton]I–GoodhumoraboutClinton"…AndImaybebetteroff4yearsfromnow.
"I–Jokeaboutwinning"Oh,yes,andyou'llbeeligible.
"C–Clarifyingtaxplanwithjoketomoderator"AndsowilltheformerPresident,yes.
"I–Good-naturedjoke,releaseoftension"Infact,whenIfelloffthatpodiuminChico,beforeIhitthegroundIhadacallonmycellphonefromatriallawyersaying,'Ithinkwe'vegotacasehere.
'"C–Makingpastfallingblunderseemfunny"Mywife'salawyer.
We'retheonlytwolawyersinWashingtonthattrusteachother.
"E–CritiquingWashingtonlawyers[Finishingsentenceafterinterruption.
]"Food.
"I–Establishingfunnyrapport,acknowledgesridiculousnessofdebate"Well,mybloodpressureislowerandmyweight,mycholesterol.
ButIwillnotmakehealthanissueinthiscampaign.
"E–Jokingabouthealthincampaign"Well,I'mreallyencouragedtoknowofyourrenewedfriendshipwithAlD'Amato,andIknowheappreciatesit.
"E–JokingaboutWhitewater"Andagain,IknowSenatorD'AmatoIthinkmayhavehadahearingortwoonWhitewater;Ican'tremember.
"E–JokinglybringingupWhitewater"Irememberonedayonthefloor,Isaid,'Now,gentlemen,letmetaxyourmemories,'andKennedyjumpedupandsaid,'Whyhaven'twethoughtofthatbefore'"E–Lightheartedjokeenforcingdifferencebetweenhimandliberals"What'sthesubjectmatter"I–AcknowledgesforgettingplaceOct.
16SanDiego,CABillClinton(D)"Iwasgoingtoapplaud,too.
"[ForDole]I–Self-deprecating,toaudienceBobDole(R)"I'vegotlotsofrelatives,andthey'regood,average,middleclass,hard-workingAmericans.
Theyliveallacrossthecountry.
They'renotallRepublicans…maybeallbutone.
"I–Establishinghimselfasliketheaudience60Electionof1996(con.
)Oct.
16SanDiego,CA(con.
)BobDole(R)(con.
)"Ithinkageisvery—youknow,wisdomcomesfromage,experience,andintelligence.
Andifyouhavesomeofeach—andIhavesomeage,someexperience,someintelligence,thataddsuptowisdom.
"C–ClarifyingpositiononageissueSeepreviouspages.
"I'mdisabled.
Ishouldn'thaveapreference.
Iwouldliketohaveoneinthisrace,cometothinkofit.
ButIdon'tgetone.
Maybewecanworkthatout.
Igeta10-pointspot.
"C–Clarifyingpositiononaffirmativeaction"IfelloffaplatformoutinCalifornia…awhileback.
BeforeIhittheground,mycellphonerang,andthistriallawyersays,'Ithinkwe'vegotacasehere.
'"C–Makingpastfallingblunderseemfunny;repeatingjoke!
Electionof2000Oct.
3Boston,MAAlGore(D)"Suitsme.
"D–JokingBushwon'twanttogointodetailsonpoliciesGore=7(3I,1C,2E,1D)Bush=18(10I,2C,2E,4D)GeorgeW.
Bush(R)"Look,thisisthemanwho'sgotgreatnumbers.
Hetalksaboutnumbers.
I'mbeginningtothink,notonlydidheinventtheInternet,butheinventedthecalculator.
"E–PokingfunatGoreplayfully"I'vebeenstandinguptobigHollywood,bigtriallawyers--whatwasthequestionItwasaboutemergencies,wasn'tit"I–Self-deprecatingOct.
11Winston-Salem,NCAlGore(D)"Forbeitfrommetosuggestotherwise.
"E–ModeratormovingonfromBush,enforcedivision"Idon'twanttojumpin.
"I–Notbreakingrules"I'vebeentryingsohardnotto.
"E–AfterBushbreaksrulesGeorgeW.
Bush(R)"SomeofthemIgotaconflictofintereston,ifyouknowwhatImean.
"C–Whenaskedaboutdad'sforeignpolicy"Twice.
"[OnGoreinterruptions]E–Keepingtrackofrules"Oh,youmeantherules.
"I–Goodrapportwithmoderator"Well,weallmakemistakes.
I'vebeenknowntomangleasyllableortwomyself,youknow.
"I–Self-deprecating"That'sthekindofexaggerationIwasjusttalkingabout"D–AttackingGore"Waitaminute.
"I–ReleasingtensionaftermeanquestionOct.
17St.
Louis,MOAlGore(D)"Highschool.
"I–Breakingrulestoaskquestionsofaudience"Youknow,someparentsareworriedaboutthosefilters,thatyou'llhavetoaskyourkidshowtoputthemonthere.
"C–JokingaboutInternet61Electionof2000(con.
)Oct.
17St.
Louis,MO(con.
)AlGore(D)(con.
)"Yes.
"I–Inresponseto6thgradeclassaskingifhe'llkeeppromisesSeepreviouspage.
GeorgeW.
Bush(R)GeorgeW.
Bush(R)(con.
)"Well,thedifferenceisthatIcangetitdone.
"D–Attackingopponent"It'snotonlywhatyourphilosophyandwhatyourpositiononissues,butcanyougetthingsdone.
"[Smiles,nodsatGorewhowasapproachingfrombehind]D–Attackingopponent"Hereyougo.
I'vegot…"I–Offersglassestoaudiencememberwhocan'treadcard"Well,he'swrong.
"D–Attackingopponent[Tomoderator]"Myturn"I–Humble"Jim,isthis…"C–Tryingtoclarifypositionbutdidn'tunderstandissue(unintentional)"Thankyouforyourquestion.
"I–Thankfulto6thgradeclass"WhenIcampaignedinarace,alotoffolksdidn'tthinkIcouldwinanything,including,bytheway,mymother.
"I–Self-deprecating"CouldIanswerthatOnereasonpeopleareskepticalisbecausepeopledon'tanswerthequestionsthey'vebeenasked.
"I–Voicinghowaudiencefeels"Forthoseofyouformyopponent,pleaseonlyvoteonce.
"I–ReleasingtensionatendElectionof2004Sept.
30CoralGables,FLJohnKerry(D)"Well,wheredoyouwantmetobegin"E–JokingaboutBushfaultsKerry=8(5I,1C,1E,1D)Bush=20(12I,5C,3E)"I'vechuckedafewtimesatsomeoftheircomments.
"I–GoodhumoraboutBushdaughters"Well,Iknow,I'velearnednottodothat.
"I–OnquestioningowndaughtersGeorgeW.
Bush(R)"Whew,that'saloadedquestion.
"I–Gettingaudienceonsideoftoughquestion"Iwon'tholditagainsthimthathewenttoYale.
There'snothingwrongwiththat.
"I–Self-deprecating"I'mtryingtoputaleashonthem.
"I–Ondaughters"Oh,I'maprettycalmguy.
"I–EstablishingethosOct.
8St.
Louis,MOJohnKerry(D)"Yes,Icertainlydo.
"I–Providingreliefafterhardquestion"Lookingaroundhereatthisgrouphere,Isuspectthereareonlythreepeoplewhoaregoingtobeaffected[bytax]:thePresident,me,andCharlie,I'msorry,youtoo.
"C–Clarifyinghistaxplan62Electionof2004(con.
)Oct.
8St.
Louis,MO(con.
)GeorgeW.
Bush(R)"Thatansweralmostmademewanttoscowl.
"I–EstablishingcalmethosSeepreviouspage.
"Keepgoing,good.
"I–Jokingwithmoderator"Youlookedatmelikemyclockwasup.
"I–Jokingwithmoderator"IownatimbercompanyThat'snewstome.
"C–Defendingattackhumorously"Needsomewood"C–ShowinghowridiculousKerryattackwas"I'mnottelling.
"[AboutVPpick]C–Punchyline"I…haven'tpickedanybodyyet.
Plus,Iwantthemallvotingforme.
"C–ExplaininglackofVPpickwithhumorline"Tryingtodecipherthat.
"E–UndermineKerry'sargument"Eitherway.
"I–Calmethos"Putaheadfakeonus.
"[Whencouldn'tfindwomanaskingquestion]I–BushjokingwithaudienceOct.
13Tempe,AZJohnKerry(D)"BeinglecturedbythePresidentonfiscalresponsibilityisalittlebitlikeTonySopranotalkingtomeaboutlawandorderinthiscountry.
"D–AttackonBush"Well,IguessthePresidentandyouandIarethreeexamplesofluckypeoplewhomarriedup.
Andsomewouldsaymaybememoresothanothers.
"I–Self-deprecating"ButIcantakeit.
"I–GoodhumorGeorgeW.
Bush(R)"YourrecordissuchthatTedKennedy,yourcolleague,istheconservativesenatorfromMassachusetts!
"E–MakingfunofKerryrecordjovially"Gosh,Isurehopeit'snottheadministration.
"C–One-linerresponsetotoughquestion"Inallduerespect,I'mnotsosureit'scredibletoquoteleadingnewsorganizationsabout—well,nevermind.
"E–Enfor2cingdoubtaboutKerry'ssources"Tolistentothem.
"I–Jokinglypowerlessinfaceofwife/daughters"Tostandupstraightandnotscowl.
"I–Self-deprecating"Fortunately,[Barbara]didn'tholdmetothatdeal,andshe'soutcampaigning,alongwithourgirls,andshespeaksEnglishalotbetterthanIdo.
"I–Self-deprecatingElectionof2008Sept.
26Oxford,MIBarackObama(D)"John,10daysago,yousaidthatthefundamentalsoftheeconomyaresound.
"[AfterLehrermakeshimsaysecondtime]I–ShowingrelatablesenseofhumorSeenextpage.
JohnMcCain(R)"AreyouafraidIcouldn'thearhim"I–Jokingwithmoderator"I'mnotgoingtosettheWhiteHousevisitorsschedulebeforeI'mpresidentoftheUnitedStates.
Idon'tevenhaveasealyet.
"C–Cleveravoidingquestion63Electionof2008(con.
)Oct.
7Nashville,TNBarackObama(D)"Mywife,Michelle,isthere,andshecouldgiveyouamuchlongerlistthanIdo.
"[Onwhathedoesn'tknowI–Self-deprecatingObama=4(3I,1E)McCain=5(1I,2C,1E,1D)JohnMcCain(R)"Notyou,Tom.
"C–Avoidingtoughquestionontreasuryappointment,jokewithmoderator"Maybe.
"E–CastingdoubtonObama'sargumentOct.
15Hemp-stead,NYBarackObama(D)"EvenFoxNewsdisputesit,and—thatdoesn'thappenveryoftenwhenitcomestoaccusationsaboutme.
"E–EnforcingattackonMcCainhumorously"Congratulations.
"[ToMcCain]I–EthosJohnMcCain(R)"Becausethere'snotenoughvouchers,therefore,eventhoughit'sworking,weshouldn'tdoit.
Igotit.
"D–AttackingObama'slogicElectionof2012Oct.
3Denver,COBarackObama(D)"…20yearsago,IbecametheluckiestmanonEarthbecauseMichelleObamaagreedtomarryme.
"I–Self-deprecatingObama=16(9I,1C,2E,4D)Romney=4(2I,1E,1D)"Ijustwanttowish,sweetie,youhappyanniversaryandletyouknowthatayearfromnowwewillnotbecelebratingitinfrontof40millionpeople.
"I–Establishinghimselfasnormalguy"Hecanhavethem,hecanhavethem.
Goahead.
"I–Abouttime,jovialethos"Goahead.
"I–Jovialethos"IfyourepealObamacare—andIhavebecomefondofthisterm,Obamacare…"C–Appropriatingtermasown"Ihad5secondsbeforeyouinterruptedme"I–Jokingwithmoderator"ThatIadmit.
"[Aboutbreakingrules]I–Self-deprecating"Pleaseelaborate.
"E–SarcasticallyjokingwithRomney"IthinkGovernorRomneyisgoingtohaveabusyfirstday,becausehe'salsogoingtorepealObamacare,whichwillnotbeverypopularamongDemocratsasyou'resittingdownwiththem.
"D–AttackingRomney"Fouryearsago,IsaidthatI'mnotaperfectmanandIwouldn'tbeaperfectPresident.
Andthat'sprobablyapromisethatGovernorRomneythinksI'vekept.
"I–Self-deprecatingMittRomney(R)"Congratulationstoyou,Mr.
President,onyouranniversary.
I'msurethiswasthemostromanticplaceyoucouldimagine,herewithme.
"I–Self-deprecating"I'vegotfiveboys.
I'musedtopeoplesayingsomethingthat'snotalwaystrue,butjustkeeponrepeatingitandultimatelyhopingI'llbelieveit.
"E–EnforcinglightattackonObama64Electionof2012(con.
)Oct.
3Denver,CO(con.
)MittRomney(R)(con.
)Mr.
President,you'reentitled,asthePresident,toyourownairplaneandtoyourownhouse,butnottoyourownfacts.
"D–AttackingObamaSeepreviouspage.
Oct.
16Hemp-stead,NYBarackObama(D)"It'sconceivablethatGovernorRomneycouldbringdowngasprices,becausewithhispolicieswemightbebackinthatsamemess.
"D–AttackingRomneyplan"Youknow,Idon'tlookatmypension.
It'snotasbigasyours,soitdoesn'ttakeaslong.
"D–DifferentiatingselfwithRomney"I'mhere.
"I–ConnectingwithmoderatorOct.
22BocaRaton,FLBarackObama(D)"YoumentionedtheNavy,forexample,andthatwehavefewershipsthanwedidin1916.
Well,Governor,wealsohavefewerhorsesandbayonets.
"D–AttackingRomney"Andwevisitedthewebsitequiteabit,anditstilldoesn'twork.
"E–AttackingRomneylightly"You'venowheardthreedebates,monthsofcampaigning,andwaytoomanyTVcommercials.
"I–Showinghe'sanormalguyMittRomney(R)"Well,that'sprobablytrue.
"[Abouttalkingtoolong]I–Self-deprecatingElectionof2016Sept.
26Hemp-stead,NYHillaryClinton(D)"WhynotYeah,whynot"E–JokingaboutTrumpblamingeverythingonherClinton=5(5E)Trump=7(1I,2C,2E,2D)"Well,justlistentowhatyouheard.
"E–EnforcingnegativeviewofTrump"Whew,OK.
"E–UnderminingTrump'sstatements"It'sagoodone,though.
Itwelldescribestheproblem.
"E–UnderminingTrumpattackDonaldTrump(R)"Ialsohaveamuchbettertemperamentthanshehas,youknow"D–Showingdifferences,unintentionalOct.
9St.
Louis,MODonaldTrump(R)"Ohreally"E–Underminingattack"No,I'magentleman,Hillary.
Goahead.
"C–Showingcalm(unintentional)"Nowshe'sblamingthelieonthelate,greatAbrahamLincoln.
That'soneIhaven't…Ok,HonestAbeneverlied.
"D–ShowingClintonnotlikeLincoln"I'mshockedtohearthat.
"[AfterClintonsayshewouldn'tbegoodleader]E–UnderminingClintonstatementOct.
19LasVegas,NVHillaryClinton(D)"MadewithChinesesteel.
"E–JokingaboutTrump'shotelDonaldTrump(R)"NobodyhasmorerespectforwomenthanIdo.
Nobody.
"C–Defendingattack,unintentional.
"Shouldhavegottenit.
"[OnEmmy]I–Ethos65AppendixB:AverageCasesofCandidateHumorPerPresidentialDebate,1960-2008318*Note:Rhea's"CasesofHumor"includecandidatehumorthatdidnotgetanylaughterfromtheaudience,unlikemycompilationinAppendixA.
318DavidM.
Rhea.
"ThereTheyGoAgain:TheUseofHumorinPresidentialDebates1960-2008.
"ArgumentationandAdvocacy,Vol.
49.
Fall2012.
66AppendixC:PicturesofKeyMomentsinPresidentialCampaignHumorJohnF.
KennedygoesontheJackPaarShow(1959)RichardNixonsays"Sockittome"onRowan&Martin'sLaugh-In(1968)RonaldReaganaddressestheageissue(1984)RossPerotlaughsduringadebate(1992)BillClintonplayssaxonArsenioHall(1992)GeorgeW.
BushgoesonOprah(2000)SNLparodiesthefirstBush-Goredebate(2000)JohnMcCainmakes"BombIran"joke(2007)67DonaldTrumpmocksadisabledreporter(2015)DonaldTrumpmakesfunofMarcoRubio(2016)JimmyFallonrufflesDonaldTrump'shair(2016)HillaryClintongoesonBetweenTwoFerns(2016)HillaryClintonmakesacameoonSNL(2016)HillaryClintonandDonaldTrumpattendtheAlSmithDinner(2016)