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JewishHistory(2012)26:327–342TheAuthor(s)2012.
ThisarticleispublishedDOI:10.
1007/s10835-012-9163-5withopenaccessatSpringerlink.
comJewishStudentsandChristianCorpsesinInterwarPoland:PlayingwiththeLanguageofBloodLibelNATALIAALEKSIUNTouroCollege,NewYork,NY,USAInstytutHistoriiPolskiejAkademiiNauk,Warsaw,PolandE-mail:naleksiun@yahoo.
comAbstractThisarticlefocusesontheantisemiticdiscoursethatsurroundedthecontroversyovertheprovisionofcadaverstomedicaldepartmentsintheSecondPolishRepublic.
Inthepagesofthestudentpressandatstudentrallies,activistsarguedthatJewishmedicalstudentsshouldbebarredfromdissectingChristiancorpses.
TheydemandedthatJewishcommunitiesprovidecorpsesfordissectiononaregularbasisasaconditionforcontinuedtrainingofJew-ishdoctors.
Thediscoursesurroundingthecadaveraffaircombinednationalistlanguagewithreligiousvocabulary,suggestingthattheaffairwasmotivatedasmuchbyreligiousconcernsasbynationalistones.
DrawingonnotionsofJewishcriminalityandarrogance,allegationsofaJewishsenseofreligioussuperiorityanddisregardforChristianvalues,andfearsofJewishexploitationofChristianstofullltheirowncollectiveneeds,thecadaveraffairplayedwithconceptsreminiscentofbloodlibel.
KeywordsAntisemitism·Autopsy·Bloodlibel·InterwarPoland·Kraków·L'viv·Medicalstudents·Numerusclausus·Vilnius·WarsawInNovember1926,representativesofCatholicstudentorganizationsatSte-fanBatoryUniversityinVilnius(Wilno,Vilna)gatheredatamassrallyin-spiredprimarilybytheirongoingconictwithJewishstudentsinthemed-icaldepartment.
Addressingtheproblemoftheshortageofcadavers—anindispensableresourcefortrainingfuturephysicians—manyspeakerscon-demnedJewsforfailingtoprovideJewishcorpsesonwhichstudentscouldperformdissection.
SpeakingonbehalfoftheacademicyouthassociationknownasRenaissance(Odrodzenie),BernardRusieckielectriedthecrowdbycastingtheissueintermsofthedangerposedbyJewstoChristianval-ues.
HearguedthattheabsenceofJewishcadaversinthedissectingroomexempliedJewisharroganceanddemonstratedtheprofoundmoraldiffer-encesbetweenJewsandChristians,andheadvocatedarmresponse:"Forus—Christians—acorpserepresentsthemajestyofdeath.
LettheJewswhohavenorespectforcadaversdissectJewishcadavers.
ButhandsoffChris-tiancadavers!
ChristiancorpsesfortheChristians!
[Chrzescijanskietrupy328N.
ALEKSIUNdlachrzescijan!
].
"1Forthisrallyingcry,Rusieckireceivedastandingova-tionfromhundredsofstudentsgatheredintheprestigiousassemblyhall.
Renaissanceandotherlike-mindedstudentorganizationsproceededtostepuptheirpressureonuniversityauthoritiesforanofcialsolutiontotheso-calledcadaveraffair,oraferatrupia.
2Theyframedtheirrequestasfairandrational,demandingthatJewishcommunitiesmustsupplycadaversforJewishmedicalstudentstodissectifthosestudentswishedtocontinuetheirtraining.
Indeed,medicaldepartmentscomplainedofthelackofcadavers,whichhinderedinstructionoffuturephysiciansindescriptiveanatomy.
Aca-demicauthoritiesappealedtorepresentativesoflocaladministrationsandtohospitalboardsforhelpinobtainingcorpsesfortheirinstitutesofanatomy.
3ByPolishlawatthattime,corpsesofindividualsofallfaithsthatwerenotclaimedbyfamilymemberswithinforty-eighthoursofofciallybeingpro-nounceddeadcouldbetransferredtouniversityclinicsforuseinmedicaltrainingorresearch.
4However,halakha,Jewishreligiouslaw,requiredthatJewishdeadbeburiedundisturbedandregardeddissectionsandautopsiesasdesecration.
5Therefore,thestipulationthatJewishcommunitiesmustpro-videanumberofcorpsesproportionatetothenumberofJewishmedicalstu-dentsmeantinpracticethatmanyJewishstudentswouldbeexcludedfrom1"Protokuwiecuogólnoakademickiegomodzie˙zypolskiejwdniu12listopada1926r.
wAuliSniadeckich"[ProtocolofthegeneralrallyofPolishacademicyouthonNovember12,1926,inSniadeckichAuditorium],LietuvosValstybesIstorijosArchyvas(henceforthLCVA;LithuanianCentralStateArchives),F.
175,Ap.
1IA,B.
171,13–19,quoteon16.
2AccordingtoRonaldModras,Renaissancewas"theoneCatholicorganizationthatcouldberegardedasactivelyopposingtheanti-SemiticnationalismofEndecja.
"TheCatholicChurchandAntisemitism:Poland1933–1939(Amsterdam,1994),387.
However,neitheralllocalbranchesofRenaissancenorallitsactivistsopposedantisemiticrhetoric.
3Seelettersfromacademicauthoritiesin1936requestingtheassistanceoflocalhospitalsandrepresentativesoflocaladministrationsinWarsaw,Kraków,L'viv,andVilniusinArchi-wumUniwersytetuJagiellonskiego(henceforthAUJ;ArchivesofJagiellonianUniversity),WLII142,Katedraizakadanatomiiopisowej,Zwokiludzkiedlaprosektorium.
AccordingtoAleksanderRosnerofJagiellonianUniversity,thecriticalshortageofcadaverswasaresultof"increasedconcernofthefamilywiththefuneral"andtheimprovedstandardoflivingofthegeneralpopulationinvillages.
SeehissecretlettertotheMinistryofReligiousAffairsandEducation,April11,1929,inibid.
4MinisterofPublicHealthWitoldHodzko,circulartoallvoivodes(provincialgovernors),January29,1923,no.
5222/23,inAUJ,SII674,˙ZydzistudencinaUJ,655.
SeealsocircularfromtheMinistryofInternalAffairstovoivodesinWarsaw,Kraków,L'viv,andVilniusandtotheCommissaroftheCityofWarsaw,September5,1930,Z.
H.
3169/30,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
3IXB,B.
151,146–47.
5Encyklopediahilchatitrefuit:Ha-rofe,ha-holeve'ha-refua,ed.
AbrahamSteinberg(Jerusa-lem,1996),s.
v.
"nituheimetim.
"SeealsoEdwardReichman,"FromMaimonidesthePhysi-ciantothePhysicianatMaimonidesMedicalCenter:ABriefGlimpseintotheHistoryoftheJewishMedicalStudentthroughouttheAges,"VerapoYerape:TheJournalofTorahandMedicineoftheAlbertEinsteinCollegeofMedicineSynagogueandRIETS3(2011):1–25.
JEWISHSTUDENTSANDCHRISTIANCORPSES329medicalinstructionorforcedoutofmedicaltrainingprograms,aresultthatwouldhavetinwellwiththegoalsofmanyright-wingstudentorganiza-tionsandpoliticalpartiesintheSecondPolishRepublic.
6HistoriansofPolish-JewishrelationshavetypicallyportrayedthecadaveraffairininterwarPoland,andespeciallythehard-lineposition,asacaseof"practicalantisemitism,"aconvenientrusedesignedeffectivelytobarJewsfrommedicaldepartmentsatPolishuniversities.
7However,analysisofthediscoursesurroundingthecontroversysuggeststhattherewasfarmoreatis-suethanmerelythebalanceofnationalandculturalhegemonywithinthena-tion'sacademicandmedicalestablishments.
Indeed,thissingle,foreseeableconictoverarestrictionthatJewishlawimposedonJewsinspiredright-wingPolishstudents,journalists,andideologuestoportrayJewsnotonlyasamenacetothecountry'spolitical,economic,andculturalinterestsbutalsoasamoralthreattoChristiansingeneral.
8Aspartoftheirperceivedstrug-gle,thestudentswhodenedthemselvesinterchangeablyas"Christian"and"Polish"soughttopreventanyexposureof"Christiancorpses"toJewishmedicalstudents.
Thediscourseprovokedbythecadaveraffairmayevenrevealafnitieswiththerhetoricofthe"bloodlibel,"atermgivencollectivelytoaccusationsthatJewishritualsmadeuseofbloodfromChristianvictims.
9Granted,Jews6Seecallsfornumerusclausus(policiesimposingquotasontheadmissionofmembersofagroup)andnumerusnullus(policiesdenyingadmissiontomembersofagroup)inWyty-cznewsprawach˙zydowskiej,mniejszoscisowianskich,niemieckiej,zasadpolitykigospodar-czej:InstrukcjawewnetrznaOddziauAkademickiegoOWP(Warsaw,1932),5;WadysawKonopczynski,Umarlimówia(Poznan,1929),98–119.
ForthecontemporarydiscussionagainstnumerusclaususseeRyszardGanszyniec,Sprawanumerusclaususizasadniczejejznaczenie:Antysemityzmakademickijakoobjawantysemityzmuspoecznego(Warsaw,1925).
7SeeSzymonRudnicki,"From'numerusclausus'to'numerusnullus,"'inFromShtetltoSocialism:Studiesfrom"Polin,"ed.
AntonyPolonsky(London,1993),359–81;AgnieszkaGrabon,Problematyka˙zydowskanaamachprasyakademickiejwokresiemiedzywojennym(Kraków,2008),163–67.
8ForageneraldiscussionoftheCatholicpressintheSecondPolishRepublicanditstreat-mentoftheJews,seeRonaldModras,"TheCatholicPressinInterwarPolandonthe'JewishQuestion':MetaphorandtheDevelopingRhetoricofExclusion,"EastEuropeanJewishAf-fairs24,no.
1(1994):49–70;AnnaLandau-Czajka,"TheJewishQuestioninPoland:ViewsExpressedintheCatholicPressbetweentheTwoWorldWars,"Polin11(1998):263–78;Dar-iuszLibionka,"Obcy,wrodzy,niebezpieczni:Obraz˙Zydówi'kwestii˙zydowskiej'wprasieinteligencjikatolickiejlattrzydiestychwPolsce,"KwartalnikHistorii˙Zydów203(2002):318–38.
9Onbloodlibel,seeCecilRoth,ed.
,TheRitualMurderLibelandtheJew:TheReportbyCardinalLorenzoGanganelli(PopeClementXIV)(London,1935);HillelJ.
Kieval,"Repre-sentationandKnowledgeinMedievalandModernAccountsofJewishRitualMurder,"JewishSocialStudies,n.
s.
,1,no.
1(1994):52–72,and"DeathandtheNation:RitualMurderasPolit-icalDiscourseintheCzechLands,"JewishHistory10,no.
1(Spring1996):75–91,and"The330N.
ALEKSIUNinthecadaveraffairwerenotaccusedofdrawingbloodfromChristianvic-timsinordertoreenactthecrucixion,orheldresponsibleforthedeathsofthosewhowerebroughtintothedissectingrooms,yetthewidespreadPolishattitudeappearstohavebeenthattheJewishcommunityprotedfromdeadChristiansbytrainingitsdoctorsattheexpenseofChristianbodies.
Afur-therinferenceformanyappearstohavebeenthatJewishmedicalstudentsandJewsingeneralderivedanunduesenseofreligioussuperiorityfromthesedenominationallybiaseddissections,aconditionthatwasperceivedtoendangerChristiandignity.
Thus,wieldingtheexampleoftheallegedlyne-fariousactivitiesofJewishmedicalstudents,Polishactivistswereinspiredbyeconomicandsocialcompetition.
Stirredbytherallyingcry"ChristiancorpsesfortheChristians!
"theycombinedmodernracialsciencewithtradi-tionalprejudicialattitudestoargueinessencethatanycontactbetweenJewsandnon-Jewswasdangerous,evenafterdeath.
BackgroundIntheSecondPolishRepublic,controversyconcerningtheprovisionofJew-ishcadaversfordissectionappearstohaveeruptedrstinVilnius.
In1921,Polishstudentactivistsdemandedacontributionof"Jewishcorpses"fromtheJewishcommunityproportionatetothenumberofJewishmedicalstu-dentsthenattendingtherecentlyreopenedStefanBatoryUniversity.
Ifthecommunityrefusedtocooperate,thestudentsthreatenedtoblocktheirJew-ishcolleaguesfromparticipatinginanatomylecturesandlaboratoryclasses.
ChristianstudentorganizationsandassociationsofPolishmedicalstudentsinWarsaw,Kraków,andL'viv(Lwów,Lemberg)madethesamedemandandpressuredJewishstudentstotakeahandinprocuringJewishcorpsesfordissection.
Theseactiviststudentschargedthatinthefaceofapersis-tentshortageofcorpses,theJewishcommunityhadunjustlymanagedtoImportanceofPlace:ComparativeAspectsoftheRitualMurderTrialinModernCentralEu-rope,"inComparingJewishSocieties,ed.
ToddM.
Endelman(AnnArbor,MI,1997),135–65;HelmutWalserSmith,TheButcher'sTale:MurderandAnti-SemitisminaGermanTown(NewYork,2002).
OnbloodlibelaccusationsandtrialsinPoland,seeMikhailSalman,"OntheQuestionoftheOriginsandFrequencyofRitualMurderTrialsinPoland,"JournaloftheAca-demicProceedingsofSovietJewry1,no.
1(1986):5–24;ZenonGuldonandJacekWijaczka,ProcesyomordyrytualnewPolscewXVI–XVIIIwieku(Kielce,1995),and"TheAccusationofRitualMurderinPoland,1500–1800,"Polin10(1997):99–140;HannaWegrzynek,"Czarnalegenda"˙Zydów:ProcesyorzekomemordyrytualnewdawnejPolsce(Warsaw,1995);MagdaTeter,SinnersonTrial:JewsandSacrilegeaftertheReformation(Cambridge,MA,2011);Jolanta˙Zyndul,Kamstwokrwi:LegendamordurytualnegonaziemiachpolskichwXIXiXXw.
(Warsaw,2011).
JEWISHSTUDENTSANDCHRISTIANCORPSES331avoidsharingintheresponsibilityforprovidingspecimens.
Astheychar-acterizedthematter,"Jewishcorpsesinthedissectingroomwerecompletelyabsent,althoughthepercentageofJewishstudentswassignicant.
"10Indeed,intheearly1920sroughly30percentofmedicalstudentsatPolishuniversi-tieswereJews,andinthatcontexttheJewishproscriptionagainstinterferingwithJewishcorpsescontributedtotheperceptionofadoublestandardwheredissectionwasconcerned.
11Medicalstudents'associations,withthesupportoflocalassociationsofChristiandoctorsandsomeuniversityfacultymembers,pressureduniversityrectorsandsenatestotakeastandontheissue.
Inresponsetothecombinationofaggressivelobbyingandfrequentviolentdisruptions,bothtolecturesandtodissectingroomprocedures,themedicalschoolsinVilnius,L'viv,Warsaw,andKrakówconsidereddistributingChristianandJewishcadaversseparatelyinordertopreservethepeaceandtoallowstudentstocompletetheircourse-work.
Moreover,Catholiccharitablesocietiesthatwereinvolvedindonatingcadaversofthepoorwhodiedundertheircarebeganstipulatingthatmem-bersofeachreligiousgroupbeallowedtodissectonlycorpsesprovidedfromtheirowncommunities.
DespiteprotestsbyJewishmedicalstudents,medicalassociations,andcommunityleaders,aswellastheJewishpress,thesegregationofbothcorpsesandstudentshadbecomeasocialrealityinsomemedicalcollegesbythesecondhalfofthe1920s.
InFebruary1924,thesenateofJanKaz-imierzUniversityinL'vivdecidedthatJewishstudentsoughttouseJewishcorpsesintheirtraining.
12InKraków,Jewishstudentsforsometimere-ceivedcorpsesonlyafteralltheChristianstudentshadbeensuppliedwithspecimens.
13InDecember1926,theacademicsenateofWarsawUniversitypassedaregulationrequiringthatJewishstudentsuseJewishspecimensfortheirworkinthedissectingroom.
Thesenatedecidedthat"studentsoftheMosaicFaith"wouldbeallowedtoparticipateinclassesattheInstitutesofDescriptiveandTopographicAnatomyandSurgeryonly"totheextentpossible"and"inaccordancewiththedeliveryofaJewishcontingent"of10"Protokuwiecuogólnoakademickiegomodzie˙zypolskiej,"13.
11SeeRaphaelMahler,"JewsinPublicServiceandtheLiberalProfessionsinPoland,1918–39,"JewishSocialStudies6,no.
4(October1944):342–46.
12SeeletterfromthedeanofthemedicaldepartmentinL'vivtothemedicaldepartmentinWarsaw,December29,1926,L.
479ex.
26/27,ArchiwumUniwersytetuWarszawskiego(henceforthAUW;ArchivesofWarsawUniversity),RP,WL2,56.
ThedocumentsintheWarsawUniversityarchivespertainingtothecadaveraffairinthemedicaldepartmentweredeemed"secret.
"13SeeletterfromthemedicaldepartmentatJagiellonianUniversitytothedeanofthemedicaldepartmentofStefanBatoryUniversity,November12,1926,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
3IXB,B.
151,181.
332N.
ALEKSIUNcorpses.
14OnNovember3,1927,themedicaldepartmentinVilniusdecidedthatcadaversweretobe"dividedproportionatelyamong[medical]studentsofvariousdenominationsandnationalities.
"15ThematterofJewishcorpsesresurfacedregularlyintothe1930sevenafteritwassettledbyindividualdepartmentsandgovernmentagencies.
16Poles,Jews,andtheUniversityCampusesThecadaveraffairwaspartofabroadercampaigninwhichCatholicmediainPoland,withthehelpofjournalistsandauthorsofpopularbrochures,leaets,andsermons,aswellasthesupportofstudents'associationsandlocalchap-tersoftheAssociationofChristianPhysicians,lobbiedforlegalmeasuresthatwouldeffectivelybarJewsfromthemedicalprofessionbyblockingtheiraccesstouniversitytraining.
17Atthistime,infact,Polishuniversitiesbe-camewhatCeliaHellerhastermed"hotbed[s]ofAnti-Semitism,"withradi-calright-wingstudentgroupsimplementingthepartialorcompleteexclusionofJewishyouthfromstudentassociationsandfraternity-rundormitoriesand14TheregulationwaspassedonDecember17,1926;seethecopyinAUW,RP,WL1,41.
ThesenaterepeatedtheargumentthatJews,bynotprovidingcorpses,wereinpracticeprivilegedinthecontextofageneralshortageofcorpses.
Itexpressedhopethattheministrywouldpassalaworderingtheprovisionofcorpsesfromalldenominations.
15JanSzmuro,deanofthemedicaldepartmentatStefanBatoryUniversity,lettertotheaca-demicsenate,November3,1927,ProtokóyposiedzenRadyWydziauLekarskiego1927–1928,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
3IXB,B.
187.
Theresolutionwaspassedonthefollowingdaybytheacademicsenate;seeMichaReicher,lettertoStanisawPigon,rectorofStefanBatoryUniversity,November16,1927,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
3IXB,B.
151,118–19.
16Inthefallof1936,themedicalfacultyatJagiellonianUniversityvotedinfavorofares-olutionthat"ChristianstudentsshouldbeassignedworkonChristiancadaverswhileJewishstudents[shouldwork]onJewishcadavers.
"SeeprotocoldatedOctober23,1936,l.
1792,inAUJ,WLII72,ProtokoyposiedzenRadyWydziau[Lekarskiego]zlatakademickich1936/37–1938/39.
Ayearlater,themedicaldepartmentdecided"tofollowthedecisionmadelastyear.
"See"Sprawaodrabianiapracna˙zydowskichzwokachbezpogrzebowychnaIIIr.
Ref.
Prof.
[Tadeusz]Rogalski,"September24,1937,l.
961,inibid.
OntheresponseoftheJewishmedicalstudentsandcommunityactivists,seeNataliaAleksiun,"ChristianCorpsesforChristians!
DissectingtheAnti-SemitismbehindtheCadaverAffairoftheSecondPolishRepublic,"EastEuropeanPoliticsandSocieties20,no.
10(2011):1–17.
TheJewishpressalsoreportedontheincidentsatdissectingrooms:see,e.
g.
,"Sprawatrupów˙zydowskich,"Chwila,January27,1924;"Echazajscwprosektorium:DeklaracjaCentrali˙ZydowskichStowarzyszenAkademickichSrodowiskaWarszawskiegowsprawieostatnichzajscwProsektorium,"NaszPrzeglad,March15,1930.
17SeeAnnaLandau-Czajka,Wjednymstalidomu.
.
.
Koncepcjerozwiazaniakwestii˙zy-dowskiejwpublicystycepolskiejlat1933–1939(Warsaw,1998),217.
JEWISHSTUDENTSANDCHRISTIANCORPSES333campaigningsuccessfullyfortheintroductionofso-calledghettobenchesde-signedtosegregateJewishstudents.
18UniversitiesatthistimealsobecamesitesofphysicalviolenceagainstJews,andsomekeyincidentstookplaceinandarounddissectingrooms—forexample,onMarch12,1930,inWarsawandonNovember9–12,1931,inVilnius.
19ContemporarycommentatorsandscholarsofPolish-Jewishrelationsdur-ingtheSecondPolishRepublichave,moreover,rightlydescribeduniversitiesasspacesinwhichnationalistscouldtestthepopularityoftheirideologiesandrecruitfollowers.
20Medicalcollegesplayedaleadingroleintheirstrug-gleagainstthesupposedJewishoverrepresentationatinstitutionsofhigherlearning.
21Christiandoctors'andstudents'associationsandCatholicmedia,politicians,andmedicalschoolfacultydecriedthedisproportionatenumbersofJewsinmedicalschools.
Asaresultoftheirefforts,medicalschoolswerethersttoadoptthepolicyofnumerusclausustolimitthenumberofJew-ishstudents.
22ThedemandthatJewishstudentsrefrainfromparticipatinginanatomylecturesunlesstheircommunitiesprovidedJewishcorpsescouldbe18SeeCeliaHeller,OntheEdgeofDestruction:JewsinPolandbetweentheTwoWorldWars(Detroit,1994),119.
19OnMarch12,1930,forexample,acrowdofstudentsfromWarsaw'sinstitutionsofhighereducationattackedJewsattheInstituteofAnatomy.
TheydraggedJewishmedicalstudentsoutofthedissectingroom,threwthemdownthestairs,andforcedthemoutofthebuild-ing.
SeveralJewishstudentssufferedseriousinjuriesasaresultoftheincident,whichendedwithananti-Jewishrally.
SeeKazimierzOrzechowski,SprawozdaniezdziaalnosciWydzi-auLekarskiegoUniwersytetuWarszawskiegowrokuakademickim1929/30(od1wrzesnia1929do31maja1930r.
)(Warsaw,1930),13–15;andtheunsignedreport"Anti-JewishOut-ragesinPoland,"April193[],YIVOArchives,RG348,f.
137.
SeealsothereconstructionoftheeventsinVilniusbyAleksanderSrebrakowski,"SprawaWacawskiego:Przyczynekdohistoriirelacjipolsko-˙zydowskichnaUniwersytecieStefanaBatoregowWilnie,"PrzegladWschodni9,no.
3(2004):575–601.
20Ina1936article,StefanCzarnowskistressedthepoliticaluseofantisemiticpropagandaonPolishcampuses;see"Zajsciaantysemickiewszkoachwy˙zszych,"inPolskalewicaspoecznawobecoswiatywlatach1919–1939(Wybórmateriaów),ed.
BronisawugowskiandEugeniuszRudzinski(Warsaw,1960),342–44.
AccordingtoSzymonRudnicki,"Afun-damentalrallyingcryofthenationalistyouth,whichitusedtogaincontrolattheuniversities,wasthecampaignagainstwhatitbelievedtobetheexcessivelyhighlevelofyoungJewsenter-inghighereducation":"From'numerusclausus'to'numerusnullus,'"360.
SeealsoHeller,OntheEdgeofDestruction,119–25;EmanuelMelzer,NoWayOut:ThePoliticsofPolishJewry,1935–1939(Cincinnati,1997),71–80.
21J.
Zanski,"Uprogunowegorokuakademickiegonamedycynie,"AkademikPolski9(Octo-ber1930):2.
22OnthepoliciesofnumerusclaususininterwarPoland,seeRudnicki,"From'numerusclausus'to'numerusnullus'";MonikaNatkowska,Numerusclausus,gettoawkowe,numerusnullus,"paragrafaryjski":AntysemityzmnaUniwersytecieWarszawskim1931–1939(War-saw,1999);Srebrakowski,"SprawaWacawskiego.
"334N.
ALEKSIUNseenasyetanotherattempttolimitthenumberofJewscompletingmedicalstudies.
WiththeexpandingquotasystemthenumberofJewishstudentsatPol-ishuniversities,especiallyinthedepartmentsoflawandmedicine,dimin-ishedsteadily.
Until1923,JewscouldenrollatPolishuniversitieswithrela-tiveease.
Inthatyear,however,medicaldepartmentsbegantoimposeunof-cialnumerusclaususlimitingthenumberofnewJewishstudents.
Althoughinthe1922–23academicyearJewishstudentsconstitutedmorethan34per-centofallmedicalstudents,theirproportionhaddecreasedto18.
5percentbythebeginningofthe1930s.
23ThedeclinecontinuedsoprecipitouslythatbytheeveoftheSecondWorldWartheirnumberswere"rapidlyapproachingthevanishingpoint.
"24TheQuotaSystemandNationalSelf-DefenseInpromotingallthesepolicies,right-wingstudentgroupsandtheiralliesreferredtoargumentsaboutPolishnationalself-defenseandeconomiccom-petition.
Thelinkbetweenthecadaveraffairandnumerusclaususwas,how-ever,oftentenuous.
Infact,severalmedicaldepartmentshadimposednu-merusclaususonJewishstudentspriortotheaffair.
25Moreover,demandsforJewishcadaversweremadeevenwherethenumberofJewishstudentsenrolledinmedicalschoolswasinsignicant,asinthecaseofthemedicalschoolatPoznanUniversity.
26In1936,althoughtheschoolhadhardlyanyJewishstudents,DeanTadeuszKurkiewiczwarnedthelocalJewishcommu-nitythatJewswouldnolongerbeacceptedtothemedicaldepartmentunlessthecommunity"takescareofprovidingJewishcadaversforthepurposeofstudyinganatomyproportionatelytothenumberofJewsattendingtheschool23SeeSaulLangnas,˙ZydziastudjaakademickiewPolscewlatach1921–31(StudjumStatysty-czne)(L'viv,1933),34–39.
24Mahler,"JewsinPublicService,"345.
In1938,noJewwasadmittedtothemedicalorpharmacydepartmentsinKraków.
25Inthefallof1917,themedicaldepartmentatJagiellonianUniversityinKrakówdecidedto"continuegivingpreferencetoPolesaheadofstudentsofJewishnationality.
"SeeprotocoldatedNovember30,1917,l.
809,inAUJ,WLII68,ProtokoyposiedzenRadyWydziau[Lekarskiego]zlatakademickich1916/17–1920/21.
26AccordingtoLangnas,inthe1930–31academicyeartherewereonlytwenty-nineJewishstudentsatPoznanUniversity;theyaccountedfor0.
7%oftheentirestudentbody.
Thatnum-berwouldonlybelowerafter1935.
SeeLangnas,˙ZydziastudjaakademickiewPolsce,13,34.
SeealsoMahler,"JewsinPublicService.
"JEWISHSTUDENTSANDCHRISTIANCORPSES335inPoznanandthepercentageofcadaversnecessaryannuallyforthepurposesoftheDepartmentofAnatomy.
"27DespitethesteadilydecliningnumbersofJewishstudents,right-wingstu-dentgroupsandtheirallieskeptupthepressurethroughargumentsthatcouchedeconomiccompetitioninPolandintermsofaPolishnationalneedformoralself-defense.
The1926WarsawUniversitysenateresolutionre-quiringtheprovisionofJewishcorpses,forexample,baseditsimplicitclaimtolegitimacyinanappealtotheconstitutionalequalityofallcitizens,fromwhichstandpointitwaspositedthat"JewishsocietyoughttocontributetothepossibilityofmedicalstudiesequallytotheChristiansinthenameofscience.
"28Byrefusingtoacknowledgeandactonthisprinciple—thatis,bysendingitsyouthbutnotitscorpsestomedicalschools—Jews,asmanyChristiansperceivedthematter,achievedaprivilegedoradvantageousposi-tion.
InNovember1927,themedicaldepartmentandtheacademicsenateinVilniusbothacceptedthesamelineofthinkingwhentheyratiedamotionthat"allofthepopulation,withoutregardtodenomination—Christian,Jew-ish,Karaite,andMuslim—oughttoprovidecadaverstofullltheneedsoftheInstituteofAnatomy.
"29Themotionwasneveradoptedintheformofanenforceableregulation,soithadlittleeffectonJewishparticipationatthisparticularinstitution.
Nonetheless,thefacultyofthedepartmenthopedthatalegalrulingfromtheMinistryofReligiousAffairswouldbeforthcomingtoenforcetheirexpressedpositionregardingcadavers.
30Somestudentactiviststookthecivicequalityargumentevenfurther.
Mi-chaWillamowicz,whowasactiveintheright-wingAll-PolishYouth(Mo-dzie˙zWszechpolska)inVilnius,describedthestruggleforJewishcadaversaspartofthebattleforequalrightsonthepartofChristianstudents:"ThetimehaspassedwhenJewsfoughtforequalityofrights.
Todaytheygointobattletogainadvantageoverus.
Itmightseemparadoxical,butthestruggleagainsttheJewsisthebattleforourequalrights.
"31Overall,studentswho27Thestatementwaspublishedwiththefollowingintroduction:"WehaverecentlyreceivedaletterfromthedeanofthemedicalschoolatPoznanUniversitythatshouldlltheheartofeverymedicalstudentwithjoy.
Thereforewetakethelibertyofpublishingitinitsentirety.
"˙ZycieMedyczne2,no.
5(February–March1936):1.
28"UchwaaSenatuakademickiegowsprawiezwok˙zydowskich"[Resolutionoftheaca-demicsenatewithregardtoJewishcadavers],November18,1926,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
3IXB,B.
151,173.
29LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
3IXB,B.
151,120.
Inpractice,thesenatehopedtorelyonprovisionsofhomelesscorpsesofalldenominations.
Italsocondemnedviolentincidentsinthedissectingroomandauthorizedtheheadoftheinstitutetodistributespecimensuntilofcialregulationswereissuedbytheministry.
30Ibid.
,120–21.
31MichaWillamowicz,speechatstudentrallyinVilnius,November12,1926,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
1IA,B.
171,18.
336N.
ALEKSIUNdemandedthattheirJewishcolleagues'accesstothedissectingroombecon-tingentontheprovisionofJewishcorpsesreliedonavarietyofcivic,politi-cal,economic,andracialargumentstodemonstratethejusticeoftheircause.
Predominantly,however,theclaimthatallsectionsofthepopulationshouldcontributeequallytotheprogressofscienceandtothetrainingoffuturedoc-torswascouchedintermsof"fairness":studentsarguedthat"basicjustice[elementarnasusznosc]requiresthatequalrightsmatchequalobligations"andthatthereforeJewishcorpsesoughttobeprovidedforthedissectingroomtoensurethesocialequityoftheSecondPolishRepublic.
32InsulttoStudents'ReligiousFeelingsThelanguageofthestudentrallies,petitions,andnewspaperarticlesdrewonwhatHelmutWalserSmithcalledthe"anti-Semiticimagination,"whichreliedonlatenttropesgoingbeyond—orinfactagainst—theprogramofemancipationoftheJewsasequalcitizens.
33AstudentofmedicineatWar-sawUniversity,JerzyZanski,admonishedhiscolleaguestocampaignforenforcingtheprovisionofJewishcorpsesasanonpartisanmatter,linkedtotheir"deeplyrootedCatholicseparateness.
"34B.
Jeziorskipraisedthestrug-glelaunchedinthecapital:"thequietandpeacefulWarsawdissectingroomhasrecentlybecomethesiteofstrenuousthoughbloodlessstruggle.
Pol-ishmedicalyouth,indignantovertheimpudenceofmedic-Jewswhozeal-ouslystudyanatomyonthebodiesofChristianswhilerecoilingfrompro-vidingthecadaversoftheirco-religionists,decidedtoforcethemtodoso.
"35TadeuszBieleckiwentevenfurther.
DuringadiscussioninthePolishParlia-mentinMarch1931,thisactivistoftheAll-PolishYouthandmemberoftheNationalClub(KlubNarodowy)arguedthatinthisconictChristianstudents"havealways,unanimouslyandwithoutconsiderationforpoliticalconvictions,actedagainsttheJews.
.
.
whoconsciously.
.
.
blocktheacqui-sitionofJewishcadavers.
"36Typically,thislanguageofnationalistmobiliza-32W.
Sawickiand[Heibert],secretaryandchairmanofPoloniafraternity,lettertorectorofStefanBatoryUniversity,October25,1926,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
1IA,B.
171,34.
33Smith,TheButcher'sTale,78.
34Zanski,"Uprogunowegorokuakademickiego.
"35B.
Jeziorski,"Zatargotrupy˙zydowskie,"Awangarda6,no.
1(February1927):10.
Awan-gardawastheacademicorganoftheradicalright-wingAcademicUnionofAll-PolishYouth(ZwiazekAkademickiModzie˙zyWszechpolskiej)andhadappearedpreviouslyunderthetitleofAkademik.
36Sprawozdaniestenogracznez23posiedzeniaSejmuRzeczypospolitejzdnia16i17marca1931(RPII/1/23),164,inBibliotekaSejmowa,ParlamentariazokresuIIRP(ARS01),Spra-wozdaniastenogracznesejmu1922–1939.
JEWISHSTUDENTSANDCHRISTIANCORPSES337tionevokedtraditionalstereotypes.
Speakersatstudentralliesandcommen-tatorsinright-wingpublicationsremindedPolishstudentsofthefundamentalmoralinferiorityoftheJewishreligion,suggestingthatotherconsiderations,includingstereotypicalreligiouscharacteristics,playedasignicantroleintheaffair.
Articlesintheright-wingstudentpresscomplainedof"perdiousJewishquibbles"(perdnewykrety˙zydowskie)thatpreventedapeacefulsolutiontotheconictinthedissectingroom.
While"Jewswhinedloudly,complainingthattheyhadbeen(asusual)wronged,"theywerethemselvestheassailantsthatPolishyouthandatleastsomemembersofthefacultytriedtooppose.
37ThusthestruggletobanJewsfromdissectingChristiancorpseswasanactofself-defense,amoralandnationalobligationofthemedicalyouthstrivingto"protectPolishnesseverystepoftheway.
"38Theright-wingPolishacademicpressportrayedtheJews—especiallyJewishcommunityleaders—asknow-inglyexploitingChristiansinrefusingtoforgoreligiousritualsforthebodiesoftheirowndead.
AsoneactivistfromL'vivnotedin1923,"JewishyouthstudyalmostentirelyonChristiancorpses,andtheJewishcommunity[kaha˙zydowski]showsanastoundingcautioninthisrespect.
ThissavingofJewishcorpsesattheexpenseofChristianonescontinuesandisthecauseofajustbitternessamongPolishstudents.
"39Tosupporttheircause,thesestudentsemployedargumentsbasedonnotionsofself-defenseofChristiansagainstJews.
AsrepresentativesoftheNationalUnionofPolishAcademicYouthargued,"thelackofcooperationonthepartofJewishsocietyinprovidingcorpsestodissectingroomsconstitutesaninsulttothereligiousfeelingsofallChristianstudentsandcausesharmfuldisruptiontothecourseofacademicmedicaltraining.
"40Gentilestudentsarguedthatbyplacingtheresponsibil-ityontheChristiancommunitytosupplyspecimensforautopsies,theJewswereimplyingafalsesenseofreligioussuperiority.
Forexample,followingtheprotestrallyinVilnius,medicalstudentssignedaresolutionstatingthatthelackofJewishcorpses"givesrisetoanimpression—insultingtoChristianreligiousfeelings—thatonlyChristiancorpsescanbeusedinthedissectingroom.
"41FollowingtheoutbreakofviolenceatWarsawUniversityonMarch12,1930,thedeanofthemedicalschool,KazimierzOrzechowski(1878–1942),37B.
Jeziorski,"Zatargotrupy˙zydowskie,"10.
TheauthoralsosuggestedthattheJewsmightleacomplaintwiththeLeagueofNations.
38Medyk,"WKoleMedyków,"AkademikPolski3,no.
1(January1930):6.
39"Srodowisko˙zydowskie:Walnezebranie'WzajemnejPom[ocy]Medyków'wsprawie˙zy-dowskiej,"Akademik2,no.
4(1923):82.
40SeetheconclusionsoftheGeneralConventionofPolishAcademicYouth(ZjazdOgólnyPolskiejModzie˙zyAkademickiej)inPoznan,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
1IA,B.
171,79.
41See"Protokuwiecuogólnoakademickiegomodzie˙zypolskiej,"14.
338N.
ALEKSIUNbemoaned"thehighlyunpleasantincidents[zajscia]betweenChristianstu-dentsandJews[miedzystudentamichrzescijanskimii˙zydami],"whichheblamedontheunresolvedissueofJewishcadavers,complainingthatthequantityofJewishcorpsesstilldidnotmatchthecontingentofJewishstu-dentscarryingoutanatomicalexercisesintherst-andsecond-yearcoursesinmedicine.
42Inthesamecontext,Orzechowskideclaredthatuniversitycir-clessharedtheopinionofacademicyouthingeneralthatthe"fanaticismofcertainJewishcircles"(fanatyzmpewnychsfer˙zydowskich),whichhinderedtheowofJewishcadaverstodissectingrooms,oughttobeovercome.
Orze-chowskidecriedthepositionofthe"entireJewishcommunity,"whichwantedtohaveJewishdoctorsbutdidnothingtoprovidethemwithspecimensfortheirstudies.
43BeyondthetraditionalderogatorylanguageusedtodescribetheperceivedJewishmoralinferiorityandreligiousfanaticism,discussionsofJewishdis-sectionsofChristiancadaversfrequentlyalludedtotheissueofprofanation.
Whenthecorpsewasviewedas"theseatofthesoul"(siedliskoduszy),Jew-ishaccesstoitseemedoutrightimproper.
44ThesenateofWarsawUniver-sityarguedthatbyrefusingtodeliverJewishcadaverstotheuniversity,theJewishpublicimpliedthattheythemselvessawdissectionsasprofanationorconsidered"corpsesofotherdenominationsassomethinginferior.
"45Advo-catesfortheChristianstudents'position,moreover,notedthat"themotiveforthisstruggle[bytheJews]istherejectionoftheprofanationofconsecratedcorpses,"andtheyarguedthatinsuchacontexttheJewishstudentsimplicitlytoleratedtheprofanationofChristiancorpses.
46Onthatbasis,activistsintheaffairattackedthe"Jewishfaith,""Jewishfanaticism,"and"Jewishsuperstition,"andtheyappealedtoso-calleden-lightenedelementsinJewishsocietytotakechargeandstandupforfair-nessandprogress.
47ForBielecki,Jewishreligiouscultscouldbetolerable42Orzechowski,SprawozdaniezdziaalnosciWydziauLekarskiego,13–15.
Thedeanreportedwithreliefthatduringthespringsemesterwhenthestudentsweresupposedtocarryoutexer-cisesonthebrain,hewasabletosecuresomeJewishbrainsthankstohiscooperationwithDr.
PonskieroftheJewishhospitalonCzysteStreet,andheexpressedhis"heartfeltgratitude"(serdecznepodziekowanie)toDr.
Ponskier(ibid.
,14).
43Ibid.
,14.
HealsocondemnedmembersofprogressiveJewishcircles,includingphysicians,wholookedtothegovernmenttoresolvethematterandwhoappearedtothinkthatburdeningChristianswiththedutyofprovidingallcorpseswas"completelynatural"(rzeczzupenienaturalna;ibid.
,15).
44BernardRusiecki,speechatthestudentrallyinVilnius,November12,1926,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
1IA,B.
171,17.
45"ResolutionoftheAcademicSenatewithregardtoJewishCadavers,"November18,1926,LCVA,F.
175,Ap.
3IXB,B.
151,173.
46Zanski,"Uprogunowegorokuakademickiego.
"47"Protokuwiecuogólnoakademickiegomodzie˙zypolskiej,"14.
JEWISHSTUDENTSANDCHRISTIANCORPSES339"withinaghetto.
"However,whenconfrontedwiththeneedforJewishcadav-ers,theyproduced"religiousprejudice"(przesadreligijny)andrevealedthe"ignoranceoftheJewishmasses"(ciemnotamas˙zydowskich).
48Inlightofthesearguments,thedemandforJewishcadaverswasportrayedasadefensebothofChristiancorpsesandofthehonoroftheChristianreligion.
Fromanon-Jewishperspective,thecadaveraffairmayhaverepresentedawayofforcingJewstobreakwiththeirownreligioustraditionandhencetobecome"Christianized"inasense,oratleastmoresecularandassimilated.
InDefenseofChristianPatientsIndemandingthatChristiancadaversbeusedtotrainJewishmedicalstu-dents,JewsprotedfromChristianeshfortheirownselshpurposesanddeledthevesseloftheChristiansoul.
OrganizationsprotestingagainstthisperceivedinjusticemobilizedindefenseofChristiancadavers.
Theirpositionwascloselyconnectedtotheirperceptionofanimminentdangerinthetreat-mentofChristianpatientsbyJewishphysicians.
Ostensibly,however,itwasgroundedinaconcernfornationalinterests;theyalsostressedeconomiccon-siderations,sinceremovingJewswouldallowPolesgreateraccesstoprof-itableprofessionsinmedicineandlaw.
49TheCatholicandright-wingpressnotonlydemandedtheremovalofJewishinuenceintheculturalspheremoregenerallybutcampaignedinparticularforaboycottofJewishdoctorsasanactofpatriotism.
Atthesametime,theCatholicpressreferredtothestruggleagainsttheJewishpresenceinthemedicalprofessionasanessentiallyreligiousconict.
JewishphysicianstreatingPolishpatientscreatedanunacceptablepowerim-balanceinwhichChristiansfoundthemselvesinthepositionofclients.
50JournalistsandstudentactiviststhereforeremindedtheiraudiencesaboutoldpapalprohibitionsagainstJewstreatingChristianpatients.
ThepressarguedthatthesepronouncementsremainedrelevantandvalidforCatholicsincon-temporaryPoland.
51SomeauthorswentsofarastodescribeJewishdoc-torsasknowinglyharmingtheirCatholicpatients,especiallypriests.
52InthejournaloftheChristianmedicalstudents,TeodorGrabeckiarguedthat48Sprawozdaniestenogracznez23posiedzeniaSejmu,165.
49See"Animalnyantysemityzm,"GazetaWarszawska,December12,1931.
SeealsoLandau-Czajka,Wjednymstalidomu,215.
50Landau-Czajka,Wjednymstalidomu,215.
51"˙Zydniemo˙zeleczycchrzescijanina:StareajednakaktualnewskazaniaOjcaSw.
Grze-gorzaXIII,"MayDziennik,no.
189(1935):5.
52SeeJerzyBandrowski,"Rozmowyz˙Zydami,"Kultura33(1937):4–5.
340N.
ALEKSIUNtheJewish"worldview,culture,andethical,moral,andreligiousrules[are]basedonthehatredofallthatisChristian,whichallowsthemtoreachtheirgoalsbyallpossiblemeans.
"53HenceChristianpatientscouldhardlytrustJews.
Furthermore,GrabeckiremindedhisreadersofspecicqualitiesthatdisqualiedJewishphysicians:theyweremotivatedbygreed,lackedsym-pathy,andtendedtoseeonlytheircoreligionistsasfellowhumanbeings.
54"DoctorJewlackstheappropriatefeelingtowardasick(orhealthy)Slav.
UsedtothehypochondriaoftheJews,whichhetakesasagiven,hetreats[allcomplaints]asJewishhypochondria,forwhichhehasnoconcern.
Inotherwords—whenaJewcomplains[steka],althoughheisnotinpain,hisdoctortriestorelieveit.
Whenanon-Jewcomplainsofpain,aJewphysicianalwaysclaimsthatheoverreacts.
"55MedicalfacultiesattimesexpressedtheirdistrustofthemoralvaluesofJewishphysicians.
Oneletterfromthemedi-caldepartmentatJagiellonianUniversityinKrakówarguedthatthe"ethicallevel.
.
.
amongtheJewishnationalityisdecidedlyloweronaveragethanitisamongthePolish[nationality].
"56Nowonder,then,thatChristians,whetheraliveordead,neededprotectionfromJewswhowouldmercilesslyuseandabusethemfortheirownindividualandcollectivebenet.
ConclusionBothcontemporaryobserversandmodernhistorianshavedescribedtheca-daveraffairasacaseofnationalistcompetition,reectingatensionstirredupbythevisiblepresenceofJewishmedicalstudentsandthedecitofJew-ishcorpsesinthedissectingroom.
Theyhavealsoconstrueditasanattempttointroducenumerusclaususbyothermeans.
Acloseinvestigationoftheaffairreveals,however,thattheprotestsexceededthemedicalcommunity'spracticalconcerns.
Inparticular,itshowsthatthediscoursesurroundingthecadaveraffaircombinednationalistlanguagewithreligiousvocabulary,sug-gestingthattheaffairwasmotivatedasmuchbyreligiousconcernsasbynationalistones.
Studentspresentedtheconictinthedissectingroomasoneofreligiousmentalitiesandvaluesystems:itwasamanifestationnotonlyofaclashofreligioustaboosbutalsoofbroaderreligiousprejudice.
53TeodorGrabecki,"Opolskicharakterzawodulekarskiego,"˙Zyciemedyczne:Organmie-dzysrodowiskowymedyków2,no.
7(June1936):15.
54Ibid.
55J.
Bandrowski,"RozmowyzAryjczykami,"Kultura36(1937):4,citedinLandau-Czajka,Wjednymstalidomu,217.
56Thisunsignedandundatedletter,addressedtotheMinistryofReligiousAffairsandEdu-cation,wasdiscussedinthemeetingofthemedicaldepartmentonMarch9,1923.
SeeAUJ,WLII404,Wieceidemonstracjestudenckiewlatach1913–1946.
JEWISHSTUDENTSANDCHRISTIANCORPSES341TheobjectionofPolishgentilestotheJewishcommunity'sunwillingnesstoprovidecadaversformedicalstudywasnotmerelyatricktokeepJewsawayfrommedicalschools:itwasalsosymptomaticofawidespreadperceptionthatJewish-gentileinteractionwasinherentlyharmful.
InthenationalistdiscourseoftheSecondPolishRepublic,nationalandreligiousconictwiththeJewsrepresentedtwosidesofastruggleagainstwhatwasperceivedasarrogantJewishdomination.
Right-wingstudentor-ganizationsespousedthenotionthatCatholicismwasanessentialandindis-pensablepartofthePolishnationalidentity,implyingthatdefensesofPolesanddefensesofChristianswereidentical.
57Althoughright-wingstudentac-tivistsandpublicistsusedtheterms"Christian"and"Pole"interchangeably,thereligiouscontextthatdenedcorpsesas"Christian"and"Jewish"re-mainedconspicuouslyunchangedintheinterwarperiod.
Innewspaperarti-cles,pamphlets,andstudentrallies,theseactivistsreliedontheiraudience'ssharedtraditionalknowledgeaboutJewishreligiousritualsandmentalities.
58TheirrhetoricwasgroundedinnotionsofcollectiveJewishcriminalityandoffundamentaldifferencesbetweenJewsandChristians,aswellasinfearsofJewishconspiracyandtheideathatJewsposedadangerofdesecrationand"contamination"—even,apparently,toChristianswhowerenolongeralive.
WhilestudentactivistsreferredtoreligiousrivalrybetweenJudaismandChristianityandtoJewishcontempt,thesereligiousmotifswere"barelyaudibleechoesofaonce-powerfultale[ofJewishritualmurder].
"59Forsomestudentactivists,referringtotheChristianstruggleagainstJew-ishdangermighthaveservedasarhetoricaltoolhelpingtomobilizestudentsfrompietisticassociationsormembersofCatholiccharitablewomen'sas-sociations.
MembersofsuchgroupswereunlikelytoremainindifferenttotheallegeddangerofChristiancorpsesbeingdeledatthehandsofJewishmedicalstudentsinthepublicsphereofuniversitycampuses.
60EvenifforsomeradicalstudentactivistsandjournaliststhetropeofprotectingChristiancadaversanddemandingJewishoneswasmerelyadecoy,theystillrightlyassumedthatitwouldresonatebeyondtheirimmediateideologicalmilieu.
Polishstudentassociationsinsistedthatinrefusingtocontributecorpsestomedicalschools,Jewsweremotivatedbyasenseofreligioussuperiority.
57SeeJoannaMichlic,Poland'sThreateningOther:TheImageoftheJewfrom1880tothePresent(Lincoln,NE,2006).
58Inhisdiscussionofnarrativeaccountsofritualmurder,HillelKievaldenes"socialknowl-edge"as"whatagroupunderstandsandremembersaboutanevent,"andhearguesthat"sym-bolicelementsandinternallogicalprocesses[intheseaccounts]aredesignednotonlytoinducecredenceintheirintendedaudiencebutalsotofacilitatereplicationandtransmission";"RepresentationandKnowledge,"54.
59Ibid.
,67.
60SeeZanski,"Uprogunowegorokuakademickiego.
"342N.
ALEKSIUNTheysawJewsascynicallyexploitingChristiansbyutilizingChristianca-daverstotrainJewishphysicians.
Lastbutnotleast,theyviewedthispracticenotonlyasunfairanddemoralizingbutalsoasdangerousfromthereligiouspointofview,bothforChristianswhowerealreadydeadandforthosewhowerestillliving.
TheseissuesgalvanizedstudentsinothereasternandcentralEuropeancountriesaswell:similarconictsovertheavailabilityofJewishandChristiancorpsesformedicalstudywereoftenpresentincountriesinwhichethnicnationalidentitywascloselylinkedwithreligiousidentity—withCatholicisminAustria,Hungary,andLithuania,forexample,orwithOrthodoxChristianityinRomania.
61Hencethecadaveraffairmaywellrep-resentabroaderphenomenon:yetanothermodernmanifestationofbloodlibelthatrequiresfurtherinvestigation.
OpenAccessThisarticleisdistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribu-tionLicensewhichpermitsanyuse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalauthor(s)andthesourcearecredited.
61See"˙Zycieakademickiezagranica:Walkao'numerusclausus'wRumunii,"Akademik2,no.
3(1923):73.
SeealsoTadeuszP.
Bielecki'sspeechtothePolishParliamentconcerningtheprovisionsofcadaversformedicalcolleges,March17,1931,inSprawozdaniestenogracznez23posiedzeniaSejmu,164.