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Chapter2NormativeTheoriesofPracticalPhilosophyWhiletheoutcomesometimesmightbethesame,itisthewayofreasoningwhichdistinguishesthesethreetheories.
1Inthefollowing,thesetheorieswillbeaddressedbydisplayingsomekeycharacteristics,withoutgoingintoallpossibledetails,asitisbeyondthescopeofthisbook.
22.
1DeontologyTheword'deontological'isderivedfromtheGreekword'deon',whichmeans'the(moral)necessity'3andrelatestoanobligationorduty.
4Hence,'deontology'issometimesreferredtoasthe'scienceofduty'.
5Deontologyreferstotheformofnormativeethicsaccordingtowhichthecommitmentandqualityofmoralactionsandjudgmentsderivefromtheobligationtocertainbehavioursormaximsofaction.
6Accordingtodifferentdeontologicalapproaches,amoralobligationmayresultfromrulesdenedbyareligiouscommunity(church),orfrompersonalorcollectivevalues,orbefoundinsomeobjectiveorderofduties.
Thus,itcanbeunderstoodinasecular,orinareligiousway.
Well-knownrepresentativesofdeontologyaretheGermanphilosopherImmanuelKantandWilliamDavidRoss.
1Part(2011)addressestheinterestingquestion,whetherdifferenttheories(Kantianism,contractu-alism,consequentialism)intheend'climbthesamemountain'andwhethertheycanbecombined.
2TheauthorwouldliketothankBrunoNiederbacherforvaluablefeedbackonthischapter.
Theusualdisclaimerapplies.
3Literally,'thenecessary',andinapracticalcontext,the'moralnecessity'.
4Spinello(2002,p.
219).
5Hallgarth(2012,p.
602).
6Fahrenbach(1972,p.
114).
TheAuthor(s)2019M.
Frischhut,TheEthicalSpiritofEULaw,https://doi.
org/10.
1007/978-3-030-10582-2_221222NormativeTheoriesofPracticalPhilosophyDeontologycanbeseenasbeingopposedtoanyformofteleologicalorconsequen-tialistethics,7orinotherwords,accordingtodeontology,"[a]ctionsareintrinsicallyrightorwrong,regardlessoftheconsequencestheyproduce".
8Anexample,whichclearlyfollowsadeontological(tortureisintrinsicallywrong)andnotaconsequen-tialist(eveniftorturewouldresultinsavingthekidnappedchild'slife)approach,isthefamousGfgen9caseoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights(ECtHR).
10Fromalegalperspective,thisconcernsthediscussionsinthecontextofhumanrightsonabsoluteversusrelativerights,wheretherstarerights,whicharenotsubjecttoexceptions(e.
g.
thereisnopossibilitytotortureakidnapperinordertogettheinformationnecessarytosafethekidnappedchild).
11Otherwise,werefertorelativerights.
Itisworthclarifyingthatalthoughoftenassociatedwithdeontology,deon-tologicalethicaltheoriescanrecognizeabsoluterights,butdoesnotnecessarilydoso.
12Inadditiontotypesofactionthataremorallygoodorbadinthemselves,onealsohastoaddressthequestionofgoodwill.
Thisgoodwill"mustbeautonomousandthusrationallygenerated,becauseitisreasonalonethatenablesthehumanpersontoovercomemyriadvariationsofinclinationanddesire".
13Wecandistinguishbetweenahypothetical(e.
g.
ifyouwanttobet,dosomesports)andacategoricalimperative,wheretherstdoesnotimplyanabsolutemoralduty,whereasacategoricalimperativeiswithoutoption.
14Inordertodeterminewhether,besidesthegoodwill,anactioncorrespondstoaduty(i.
e.
whetheritisintrinsicallyright)ithastofollowa'maxim'.
AccordingtoKant,reasoncommuni-catestothemindthingsitshoulddoaccordingtocertainrules,whichhereferstoas'maxims'.
15"Amaximisthesubjectiveprincipleforacting,andmustbedistin-guishedfromtheobjectiveprinciple,namelythepracticallaw.
"16Thewayinwhichapersoncanthentestwhetheramaximisofsuprememoralworthisthe'categori-calimperative'.
AsKantisarepresentativeofdeontology,hiswayfordeterminingwhetheramaximforactionisagenuineuniversalmoralprinciple,"mustbegroundedinaprioriprinciples",i.
e.
principleswhichcanbejustiedbeforewecanevaluatetheirconsequences.
17Kantdescribesthecategoricalimperativeasfollows:7SeeFootnote6.
8Spinello(2002,p.
219);noemphasisadded.
9ECtHRjudgmentof1June2010,Gfgenvs.
Germany,22978/05.
10Foracasethatraisessimilarquestions(smallvs.
bignumberofvictims),seeBundesverfassungs-gericht(BVerfG)judgmentfrom15February2006,Shootingdownterrorplane,1BvR357/05.
11ECtHRGfgenvs.
Germany,22978/05,para87.
12Birnbacher(2013,p.
133).
13Hallgarth(2012,p.
608).
14Hallgarth(2012,p.
609).
15SeeFootnote13.
16Kant(2014,p.
69(IV420));noemphasisadded.
17SeeFootnote14.
2.
1Deontology23"actonlyaccordingtothatmaximthroughwhichyoucanatthesametimewillthatitbecomeauniversallaw"18(basicformula);"soactasifthemaximofyouractionweretobecomebyyourwillaUNIVERSALLAWOFNATURE"19(formulaoftheuniversallawofnature);"Soactthatyouusehumanity,inyourownpersonaswellasinthepersonofanyother,alwaysatthesametimeasanend,nevermerelyasameans"20(formulaofhumanity);"todonoactiononamaximotherthaninsuchaway,thatitwouldbeconsistentwithitthatitbeauniversallaw,andthusonlyinsuchawaythatthewillcouldthroughitsmaximconsideritselfasatthesametimeuniversallylegislating"21(formulaofautonomy);"everyrationalbeingmustsoactasifthroughitsmaximsitwereatalltimesalegislatingmemberoftheuniversalkingdomofends"22(kingdomofends).
Aswecanalreadyimagineatthisstage,Kant'sviewisone,whichcanbeseentorespectcontemporarynotionsofhumanrights.
23Likewise,theunderstandingoftheconceptofhumandignityisverymuchattributabletoKant.
24Ashepointedout,"whatconstitutestheconditionunderwhichalonesomethingcanbeanendinitselfdoesnotmerelyhavearelativeworth,i.
e.
aprice,butaninnerworth,i.
e.
dignity".
25Hence,humansshouldbetreatedassubjects,notasobjects.
2.
2ConsequentialismConsequentialismisdescribedas"[a]nyethicaltheorythatarguesfundamentallythatrightactionisanactionthatproducesgoodresultsoravoidsbadresults".
26Consequentialisttheoriesassumethatthejudgementaboutthemoralcorrectnessandwrongnessofactionsdependsexclusivelyonthequalityoftheconsequencesofaction.
27Oneexampleinthisregardareimpactassessments.
However,theyarenotrequiredinanycase,butarelimitedtodecisionswithfar-reachingconsequences,asinthecaseofnationalorsupranationallegislators.
28Alsoriskassessmentdealswithconsequences,eitherfromalegalorfromanethicalperspective.
18Kant(2014,p.
71);noemphasisadded.
19SeeFootnote18.
20Kant(2014,p.
87);noemphasisadded.
21Kant(2014,p.
97);noemphasisadded.
22Kant(2014,p.
105).
23Hallgarth(2014,p.
611).
24OnKantandhumandignity,seeKnoepfer(2017).
25Kant(2014,p.
99);noemphasisadded.
26Hallgarth(2012,p.
602).
27Birnbacher(2013,p.
173).
28Birnbacher(2013,pp.
194–195).
242NormativeTheoriesofPracticalPhilosophyToagreaterextentthandeontologicalethics,consequentialisttheoriesallowadjustmentsofmoraljudgementtosocialandscientic-technicalchange.
29Theeffectsofcurrentactiononfuturegenerationsareoftenconsideredtohavethesameweightastheeffectsonthecurrentliving.
30Themostfamousformofconsequentialistis'utilitarianism'.
Asforeverynorma-tiveethicaltheory,therearedifferentvariations,whichduetolimitedspacecannotbecoveredinthefollowing.
Theaxiologyofutilitarianismhasonlyonenon-moralvalue,called'utility',whereutilityistheextentofwell-beingbroughtaboutbyanaction.
31Hence,utilitarianismisadecisionprocedurethatisintendedtopromotethegeneralwelfare,32"accordingtowhichtherightnessandwrongnessofactsdependsentirelyonfactsaboutthemaximizationofoverallwell-being".
33Well-knownrepresentativesofutilitarianismareJeremyBenthamandJohnStu-artMill.
ThedistinctionbetweenprimaryandsecondaryprinciplesisbasedonMill,whereprimaryprinciplesarelocatedatthelevelofethicaltheory,secondaryprinci-plesatthelevelofmoralpractice;therelationshipbetweenthetwoisthefollowing:theprimaryethicalprinciplesdeterminewhichsecondaryprinciplesshouldapplyatthelevelofsocialmorality.
34Secondaryprinciplesmustthenbeformulatedinsuchawaythattheyavoidanyshortcomingsofprimaryprinciples.
35Secondaryprinciplesmustnotcognitivelyoverloadtheaverageactorandthatiswhyhecannotberequiredtoincludefutureworldconditionsinhisreasonsforaction;however,aresponsibilityforprecautionisneverthelessdemandedinthecaseofnewlandandrisktechnologies.
36Onefactortobeconsideredwhenchoosingsecondaryprinciplesistheextenttowhichtheobligatedactorhimselfcausallycontributedtotheevil(polluterpaysprinciple).
37Utilitarianismisegalitarianasthewell-beingofeachpersonisofequalvalue,andeventhefeelingsofanimalscanbetakenintoaccount.
38Characteristicofutili-tarianismisapronouncedfutureorientationandthinkinginlong-termdevelopmenttendencies;thus,inadditiontosustainability,utilitarianismcancallforpresentpre-cautionsforfuturegenerations.
3929Birnbacher(2013,p.
174).
30Birnbacher(2013,p.
195).
31Birnbacher(2013,p.
218).
32Habibi(2002,p.
894).
33Eggleston(2012,p.
452).
34Birnbacher(2013,p.
194).
35Birnbacher(2013,p.
197).
36Birnbacher(2013,p.
200).
37Birnbacher(2013,p.
203).
38Habibi(2002,p.
895).
39Birnbacher(2013,pp.
220–221).
2.
2Consequentialism25Utilitarianismisanethicaltheory,whichstandsforasecular,rationalandscienticmoralsystem,40whichcanalmostbecalculatedinamathematicalway(theslogan'thegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber').
Bentham'sdesirewas"todeviseasystemthatwouldbeobjectiveandscientic".
41Thesimplicityofutilitarianethics,however,appliesonlyintheoryandnotinconcreteapplication.
422.
3VirtueEthicsVirtueethicsisdescribedas"[a]napproachtobothunderstandingandlivingthegoodlifethatisbasedonvirtue",43wherevirtue44isreferredtoas"moralexcellenceofbehaviourand[!
]character".
45Proponentsofvirtueethicstrytoconstructthemoralitydemandedbynormativestandardsfromtheconceptsofvirtuethatarevalidinmorality;thus,valuesornormsarenotthestartingpointoftheanalysisorconstruction,butvirtueconceptsandvirtuecatalogues.
46Thekeyquestionofvirtueethicsobviouslyiswhatkindoftraitsshouldwedevelop,and,inwhichwaydoesthishelpusinassessingthemoralcorrectnessofactionsThenotionofhonesty,forinstance,doesnotonlydesignatethemotiveofwant-ingtobehonest,butitalsoincludescertainjudgmentsofcorrectnesssuchasthejudgementthatitismorallycorrectnottolie,etc.
47Hence,insteadofconsideringtherequirementsofmoralityindetail,itisoftenenoughtodescribetheexamplesofperfectvirtue.
48Asaprominentexample,wehavealreadyseenthe'cardinalvirtues'oftemper-ance(temperantia),courage(fortitudo),practicalwisdom(prudentia),andjustice(iustitia).
49Togetherwiththetheologicalvirtuesoffaith(des),hope(spes)andlove(caritas),theyformtheso-calledsevenvirtues.
50Asmentionedabove,virtues(charactertraits)canbeunderstoodinasecular,orinareligiousway.
51Hence,dif-ferentculturesandreligionshavedifferentcataloguesofvirtues,52whichsometimesoverlap(e.
g.
justice),whileothersmightbemorespecic;forinstance,lovemight40SeeFootnote32.
41SeeFootnote38.
42Birnbacher(2013,p.
219).
43Kollar(2002,p.
915).
44Onthenotionofvirtue,seealsosupraSect.
1.
5.
45Chara(2002,p.
912).
46Birnbacher(2013,p.
302).
47Birnbacher(2013,p.
302).
48SeeFootnote47.
49Klein(1971–2007,p.
695).
50Chara(2002,pp.
912–914).
51Chara(2002).
52SeeFootnote50.
262NormativeTheoriesofPracticalPhilosophyratheroccurinareligiouscontext.
53Intermsofappliedvirtueethics,virtuescanalsobetailoredtospecicneeds,forinstanceintheeldsofmedicalethics,54businessethics,professionalethics,etc.
55Itremainstobeseen,whichapproachEUlawtakesinthisregard.
56However,sometimesevenvirtueethicscannotavoidestablishingprinciples.
Inthiscontext,Birnbacherprovidesthefollowingexample:thevirtueofjusticemayrequireprinciplesofjustice,whereasthismightnotbethecaseforvirtuessuchassolidarity,helpfulness,orgenerosity.
57Giventhemostcontroversialdebateonsolidarityinthecontextofthecurrentmigrationandrefugeedebate,accordingtotheauthoralsosolidaritymightrequireareferencetoprinciples,whichprovidefurtherclaricationwithregardtothesubstance.
58Withoutgoingintofurtherdetails,inliteraturevirtueethicsissometimesseenratherasasupplement,thanasabasisofnormativeethics.
59InthewordsofLouden,"[v]irtueethicsisnotcompetingforquitethesameturfasmodernconsequentialistanddeontologicaltheoriesbutisratheranattempttoreturnmoraltheorytomorerealisticpossibilities".
602.
4ExcursusAsmentionedinFig.
1.
4,deontology,consequentialismandvirtueethicsarethethreenormativetheoriesconcerningethics.
Besidesthesejustcoveredtheories,therearethreeotherapproaches,whichdeserveattention.
Althoughdifferentindetails,boththe'minimalethics'approachand'princi-plism'ofBeauchampandChildressdonotcoverthewholeofmorality,butonlyitsbaselines.
Insteadoftracingthecontroversialramicationsofmoralviewsindetail,bothconceptionsarelimitedtotheroughoutlinesofmoralityandreconstructonlythatcoresetofprincipleswhichissouncontroversialthatitcanberecognizedbyall.
6153Ontheproliferationofvirtues,seeHalbig(2013,pp.
142–146).
54BeauchampandChildress(2013,pp.
37–44)address"vefocalvirtues"forhealthprofessionals:compassion,discernment,trustworthiness,integrity,andconscientiousness.
55Louden(2012,p.
507).
56SeeinfraChap.
4.
57Birnbacher(2013,p.
304).
58SeeinfraChap.
6.
59Birnbacher(2013,p.
305).
60Louden(2012,p.
509).
61Birnbacher(2013,p.
77).
2.
4Excursus272.
4.
1MinimalEthicsMinimalethicsclaimsmoralrealismandthepossibilityofmoralknowledgeonlyforacoresetofmoralnorms,whileitrenouncesaclaimtotruthandknowledgeforallnormsthatarenotpartofthecoreset.
Minimalethicscombinestheprogrammeofdescriptiveinventorywiththeambitiousprogrammeofanunassailablejusticationofintersubjectivelyvalidstandards.
Indoingso,itassertsaparexcellenceobjectivevalidityfortheminimumsetofmoralnormsthatithashighlighted.
62Well-knownrepresentativesareThomasHobbesandBernardGert.
63Gerthasdenedtenmoralrules,allofwhichareformulatednegatively,whichremindusofthe'TenCommand-ments',andcanbesubjecttoexceptions.
64Suchethicaltheories,whichfocusonthedescriptionofthefunctionalprinciplesofcurrentmorality,canbeassignedtothemodelof'reconstructive'ethics,whilean'establishing'ethicsnotonlydescribesmoralprinciples,butalsoattemptstojustifythem.
652.
4.
2PrinciplismBesidesethicalminimalism,thereisanotherwell-knowncontemporaryreconstruc-tiveethicalapproach.
Determiningwhatis'therightthingtodo'canalsobedoneinasubstantiveway,aselaboratedbyBeauchampandChildress66intheeldofmedicalethics.
Their'principlism'isasystemofethics,whichisbasedonfourmoralprin-ciples:autonomy(freewill),nonmalecence(donoharm),benecence(dogood),andjustice(socialdistributionofbenetsandburdens).
AccordingtoBrnnmark,"bioethicistslikeBeauchampandChildressdonotthinkthattheyhavetomakeachoicebetweenKantianismandutilitarianism,becauseirrespectiveofwhichfunda-mentalnormativeapproachoneadopts,onecanstillunderstandtheirfour-principleframeworkasareasonableframeworkinbioethics".
67Suchanapproachmighthavetheadvantageofbeingmore'user-friendly',butapossibledisadvantagecanbeseeninthesectoralapproach,inthecaseofthisprominentexample,medicalethics'only'.
68Asprinciplismisarathernewapproach,tosomeextentonatimelineit62Birnbacher(2013,pp.
398–399).
63Birnbacher(2013,p.
399).
64Birnbacher(2013,82–83,399–401).
65Birnbacher(2013,p.
64).
66BeauchampandChildress(2013).
67Brnnmark(2017,p.
174).
68On'disunitarianism',seeinfraChap.
6.
282NormativeTheoriesofPracticalPhilosophycannothavehadacausalinuenceonthe'ethicalspirit'ofEUlaw.
Nevertheless,itmightproofusefulforthisbook.
2.
4.
3CommunitarianismBesidesuniversalistethicaltheories,whichclaimtobeuniversallyvalid,therearealsoparticularisticapproaches.
Accordingtoaparticularisticmoralunderstanding,theclaimofmoralitycanalsobelimitedtothemembersofcertaincultures,membersofcertainreligiouscommunitiesandethnicgroups,inextremeeventoasingleindividual.
69Oneexampleis'communitarianism',70whichhasrecentlyemergedinpoliticalphilosophysincethe1980's,andwhichemphasizestherootednessofmoralityinthespecichistoryandcultureofacommunityornationandrejectsthesharpseparationofmoralandotherculturalnormsthatcharacterizestheuniversalistunderstandingofmorality.
71Well-knownrepresentativesareAlasdairMacIntyreandMichaelSandel.
MacIntyre'sbook'AfterVirtue'wasatthebeginningofthis"newethicthatrepu-diatedbothmodernindividualistliberalismandtherejuvenatedconservatismoftheReaganera".
72Asdescribedelsewhere,inthisbook,"MacIntyreanalyzestheoriesofmoralitywithregardtocultureandstatesthatvirtueisfoundwithinthecommunity,initsethos,orcharacter,andnotintheindividualalone".
73Communitarianism,atheorymainlyassociatedwithAmericanphilosophers,hasbeendevelopedagainstthebackgroundofmultiplecrises,wheresocietyis"inastateofemergency",wheremoralityhasbecome"avirtualimpossibility",andwherecom-munities,institutionsandsocialrelationships,whichshouldmakemoralitypossible,"arequicklysuccumbingtoapervasiveindividualism".
74Onemajorpointofcrit-icismisthatsocietyisnothingmorethanacollectionofindividuals"withnothingincommonbutself-interestandthefearofdeath".
75Thatiswhycommunitarianismcanalsobeopposedtoliberalism,accordingtowhich"eachpersonistodeterminethegoodindividually".
76Communitarianismrejects"Westernculture'sone-sidedemphasisonindividualrightsandseekstobalancerightswithresponsibilities".
77Thus,thecommunity-basedethicsstressesthe'commongood',sharedcommonvaluesandemphasises69Birnbacher(2013,p.
27).
70Nottobeconfusedwith'communism'.
71Birnbacher(2013,p.
28).
72Paul(2002,p.
172).
73N.
N.
(2002,p.
519);noemphasisadded.
74SeeFootnote72.
75Paul(2002,p.
172).
76Etzioni(2012,p.
516).
77SeeFootnote75.
2.
4Excursus29individual'sobligationstowardssociety.
AsEtzionihaspointedout:"Thisisincontrasttofocusingonmaximizingtheutilityofeachperson,theautonomyoftheselfandindividualrights".
78Communitarianismalsosuggeststhatthegoodshouldbedenedbysociety.
Inthewordsofonewell-knownrepresentative,MichaelSandel,"[a]justsocietycan'tbeachievedsimplybymaximizingutilityorbesecuringfreedomofchoice.
Toachieveajustsocietywehavetoreasontogetheraboutthemeaningofthegoodlife,andtocreateapublicculturehospitabletothedisagreementsthatwillinevitablyarise.
"79Healsopointsoutthat"[a]morerobustpublicengagementwithourmoraldisagreementscouldprovideastronger,notaweaker,basisformutualrespect",80whichisofutmostimportancefordemocracy.
81Tosumitup,accordingtoPaul,"communitarianismremainsoneofthemostpromisingcontemporarymoralphilosophies".
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