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JewishHistory(2016)30:233–256TheAuthor(s)2017.
ThisarticleispublishedDOI:10.
1007/s10835-017-9265-1withopenaccessatSpringerlink.
comAddressingtheJewishQuestionwithHumor:PovertyandUnproductivityintheDutchPurimProductions(ca.
1800)TSILARDECKERFacultyofTheologyandReligiousStudies,UniversityofGroningen,Groningen,TheNetherlandsE-mail:tsilaradecker@hotmail.
comAbstractThisessayinvestigatestheappearanceintheDutchPurimproductionsofsuchcon-temporarypoliticalissuesasthepovertyandtheunproductivityoftheAshkenaziJews.
Attheendoftheeighteenthcentury,pejorativeimagesoftheJewandmaskilicreform,aswellasenlightenedideals,interactedwithinthesewritings.
Asaresult,thefocusofthePurimproductionsshiftedfromabsurdhumortothehardshipsofJewishlife.
ThisessayanalyzeshowmaskilimemployedtheAshkenaziPurimproductionstocopewithandaddressthe"Jew-ishQuestion.
"Assuch,itdemonstratesthathumorbecameanideologicalmotorforJewishculturalchange.
KeywordsAmsterdam·Ashkenazicommunity·Purimproductions·Maskilim·Humor"WiththesunIdiscussedthefourelementsoflife:hunger,thirst,badhous-ing,andthelackofpeatinthewinter.
"1Inthisintentionallycomicanec-dote,theauthorofAnayePurimlukh[AnewPurimcalendar]criticizesthedeplorablestateoftheDutchJews.
Unemployment,poverty,andalackofeducationtroubledthisgroupattheturnofthenineteenthcentury.
Numer-ousenlightenedwritingsofferedsolutionstoimprovetheirstatus,rangingfromtheabolishmentofreligiousritualstothereformationoftheJewisheducationsystem.
Forinstance,theGermanChristianWilhelmvonDohm(1781–83)publishedthepamphletberdiebürgerlicheVerbesserungderJuden[OnthecivilimprovementoftheJews]whereinheproposedthat,iftheywantedtobepartofsocietyandbeeligibleforcitizenship,theJewsshouldtransformtheirreligion.
Asimilarcritiquewasmadeinanessaypub-lishedinDeKoopman(1770),apopularDutchenlightenedjournal,whereinitwassuggestedthattheSabbathbemovedtoSunday,therebysolvingtheJews'povertyproblem.
2ManyheldtheAshkenaziwayoflife(partly)re-sponsibleforboththeJews'povertyandtheirlegalinequality.
Theconnec-tionbetweenJudaismandpovertyalsoappearsinthelateeighteenth-and1AnayePurimlukh[AnewPurimcalendar],fol.
1,EH20B67,EtsHaimLibrary,Amsterdam.
Theauthoralsospeaksofthenineelementsoflife.
Seeibid.
,fol.
10.
Unlessotherwisenoted,alltranslationsaremyown.
2"EenHollandsch-joodschhervormingsplan,"DeKoopmanofWeekelijkschebij-dragentenopbouwvanNêerlandskoophandelenzeevaard2,nos.
54–57(1770):425–50.
Thewriter's234T.
RDECKERearlynineteenth-centuryhumorousDutchAshkenaziPurimproductions.
The"JewishQuestion"emergedasanewthemeinthePurim'scarnivaltradition,whereitbecameentangledwithscatologicalhumoraswellasthereversalofsocialorder.
3Asaresult,thePurimproductions'focusshiftedfromabsurdhumortothehardshipsofJewishlife.
Thisessaywillinvestigatetheappear-anceinthePurimproductionsofcontemporarypoliticalissuessurroundingtheAshkenazicommunityinAmsterdam,suchastheunproductivityandthepovertyoftheJews.
ThePurimproductions'Jewishwritersengagedpejora-tiverepresentationsandemployedhumorinordertocopewithandaddresstheJewishQuestion.
Assuch,self-reection"markedthefaultlinesofJewishmodernity.
"4Moreover,thisessaywilldiscusstheAshkenaziPurimproduc-tionsfromahistoricalperspectiveand,consequently,demonstratethathumorbecameapowerfultoolforJewishculturalandsocialchange.
5BecauseofthescatologicalhumorfoundinbothPurimplays(purim-shpieln)andPurimpapers(purimkrantn),mostcontemporaryscholarshavedismissedthegenre,consideringittobe"coarse"and"lowculture,"satis-fyingtheneedsofonlytheJewishproletariat.
6ThecriticZisheKornblithhaswrittenoffthegenreasfollows:"Fortheintelligentpersonwithamoreidentityisamatterofdisputeamongscholars.
JozephMichmanisoftheopinionthatitisIsaacdePinto.
OdetteVlessingisoftheopinionthatthewriterisnotJewishbecauseoftheproposaltomovetheSabbathtoSunday.
AndTonJongenelenpostulatedthattheproposalwasactuallypennedbytheDeKoopmaneditor,WillemOckers,himself;becauseDutched-itorswereusuallysingle-handedlyresponsiblefortheentiretyofajournal'scontent,theirpiecesoftenappearedanonymouslyorpseudonymously.
SeeJozephMichman,DavidFrancoMendes:AHebrewPoet(Amsterdam,1951),134;OdetteVlessing,"TheJewishCommunityinTransition:FromAcceptancetoEmancipation,"in"ProceedingsoftheSeventhInterna-tionalSymposiumontheHistoryandCultureoftheJewsintheNetherlands:ExpectationandConrmation:TwoHundredYearsofJewishEmancipationintheNetherlands,"ed.
H.
Berg,J.
Frishman,S.
A.
Herman,andA.
K.
Offenberg,StudiaRosenthaliana30,no.
1(1996):195–212,197;andTonJongenelen,"Mordechai:IllusieenwerkelijkheidinhetspectatorialebladDeKoopman,"MededelingenvandeStichtingJacobCampoWeyerman26,no.
2(2003):94–105,97–100.
SeealsoJ.
C.
E.
BelinfanteandPeterBuijs,"DeGelijkstaatderJoden:In-burgeringvaneenminderheid,"inDeGelijkstaatderJoden:Inburgeringvaneenminderheid,ed.
HettyBerg(Amsterdam,1996),7–14,8;andPeterBuijs,"Totnuteneervan'tjodendom:JoodsegenootschappeninNederland,"inibid.
,15–24,17.
3IsraelDavidsonlikewiseobservedashiftinthemesintheHebrewparodyofthenineteenthcentury.
SeeIsraelA.
B.
Davidson,ParodyinJewishLiterature,2vols.
(NewYork,1907),2:58–59.
4DavidG.
Roskies,"MajorTrendsinYiddishParody,"JewishQuarterlyReview94,no.
1(2004):109–22,111.
5Unlessotherwisestated,JewsreferstoAshkenaziJews.
6SeeMarionAptroot,"WesternYiddishYontev-bletlekh:FacingModernitywithHumor,"JewishStudiesQuarterly15,no.
1(2008):47–67,56;LeoFuks,"VanPoerimspelentotPoerimkranten,"MaandbladvoordeGeschiedenisderJodeninNederland1,nos.
6–7(1947/1948):162–76,168–69;andCarolineEitje,"EenaardigevondstindebibliotheekADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR235orlessdevelopedaestheticfeeling,thegreat,hugedifferencebetweenthecreationofapoetandthecobbled-togetherworkofashund-writer—eventhebestofthem—issoclearthatitstareshimintheface.
"7ThistendencytoclassifyYiddishtheatricalexpressionsasshundliteratur,or"streetlitera-ture,"andtheneedforscholarstojustifytheirobjectsofstudyremain,evennowadays,irresistible.
8MarionAptrootexcusesherselfbystatingthat,eventhoughthepurimkrantwasnotofahighliterarystanding,itnonethelesshashistoricalvalue,andAhuvaBelkinviewsthegenrefromananthropologicalperspective,statingthat"grotesquehumor"and"obscenities"wereagen-uineexpressionof"folkculture.
"9Lackingaestheticmotives,shundwritershadonlynancialmotives—orsomanyhistoriansargue.
10Theirdeplorableeconomicsituations,ratherthancreativezeal,stimulatedsuchproductions.
Becauseoftheconnectionbetweenpovertyandthesupposedlylowculturalstatusofthepurimkrant,CarolineEitjeevenregardedtheshundwritersas"silentbeggars,"distinguishedfromprofessionalbeggarsonlybytheiredu-cation:"AlthoughtheirDutchisfulloferrors,theyatleastproducedsome-thingthatcouldbepassedoffaspoetryorprose.
"11Theemphasison-nancialmotivesreectsanuneasinesswiththePurimproductions'literarycontentandneglectsthepublic'sdemandforhumorousliterature.
Purimproductionsbecameforthelateeighteenth-centuryJewishcommu-nityanimportanttoolwithwhichtomockthesocialorder.
Criticismhasal-waysbeenanelementofPurimproductions,fromtheirrstappearanceintheMiddleAgesuptocontemporarytimes.
12However,theobjectofcriticismhasdiffered.
Forinstance,fromthesixteenththroughtheeighteenthcen-turies,thepurimshpielfocuseditscritiqueonChristianhegemonybylettingthevillainHamanbeplayedbyaChristiancarryingacross.
13TheearliestknownPurimplayscloselyfollowthebiblicalnarrativeofthebookofEs-ther,comicallyreversingthesocialorder,butrefrainingfromsocialcritique.
ThisPurimtraditioncontinuedwellintotheeighteenthcentury,withpar-odyandswitchingbetweentheholyandtheprofanebecomingtheimportantvanEtz-Chajiem,"MaandbladvoordeGeschiedenisderJodeninNederland1,nos.
6–7(1947/1948):177–80,177.
7CitedinJoelBerkowitz,ed.
,YiddishTheater:NewApproaches(Portland,OR,2003),7.
8JacobSchatz,"Purimshpielnoenleytsiminamsterdamergetto,"YivoBleter19,no.
2(1942):212–20,217.
9Aptroot,"WesternYiddishYontev-bletlekh,"67;AhuvaBelkin,"The'Low'CultureofthePurimshpil,"inBerkowitz,ed.
,YiddishTheater,29–43,s33.
10Aptroot,"WesternYiddishYontev-bletlekh,"66;Fuks,"VanPoerimspelentotPoerimkran-ten,"167–68.
11Eitje,"EenaardigevondstindebibliotheekvanEtz-Chajiem,"179.
12FortheideaofPurimas(violent)Jewishagency,seeElliotHorowitz,RecklessRites:PurimandtheLegacyofJewishViolence(Princeton,NJ,2006).
13ChoneShmeruk,YiddishBiblicalPlays,1697–1750(Jerusalem,1979),103.
236T.
RDECKERhumorouselements.
14ThisbegantochangewiththenewAkhashveyroysh-shpils(Ahasheverusplays)intheeighteenthcentury,andespeciallywiththeAmsterdamAkhashveyroysh-shpilof1780,asthegenrebegantoshowsignsofincorporatinglocalissues.
Thesenewplayssubsequentlyinuencedlatermaskilicdrama.
15Aswasthecasemoregenerally,suchtheaterwasoftencriticalofsociety.
Forinstance,throughhisplayNathantheWise,Lessingsoughttofosterre-ligioustolerationbyreproducingtheparableoftheringandbylettingaJewplaytheroleofthehonorableandenlightenedNathan.
Furthermore,mas-kilimusedthetheatertoaddresssocialissues.
However,insteadofblam-ingsocietyfortheJews'inferiorposition,asLessingdid,theyinsteadcrit-icizedtheJews'inabilitytocopewithmoderntimes.
Forexample,RebHenokh:Odervostutmedamit(1793),byIsaacEuchel(1756–1804),andLeichtsinnundFrmmelei:EinFamiliengemldeindreiAufzügen(1796),byAaronWolfssohn(1754/1756–1835),describethecrisisofbourgeoisGermanJewry—itsgenerationalconictsandsexualdeviance—aswellastherigidresponseoforthodoxytoanythingnew,suchasmodernhead-wearandmaskilicstudywithitsemphasison(biblical)Hebrewgrammar.
16TheseplaysbreakwiththeearlymodernandlatemedievalPurimplaysandmarkwhatJeremyDauberhascharacterizedas"thebeginningofastrate-gicshiftbytheJewishEnlightenersfromexternaldefensivenesstointernalcritique.
"17IntheNetherlands,theJewishsocietyFelixLibertate[Happinessthroughfreedom],opentoadherentsofallreligions,supportedtheemancipatorythe-aterproductions.
18J.
C.
Hespe,aChristianmemberofthegroup,regardeditasavehicletopromotesocialchangeandeducation.
19Inparticular,the14EviButzer,DieAnfngederjiddischenPurimshpilninihrenliterarischenundkul-turgeschichtlichenKontext(Hamburg,2003),114.
SeealsoShmeruk,YiddishBiblicalPlays,20–40.
15JeremyDauber,Antonio'sDevils:WritersoftheJewishEnlightenmentandtheBirthofModernHebrewandYiddishLiterature(Stanford,CA,2004),182–83.
16ShmuelFeiner,TheJewishEnlightenment,trans.
ChayaNaor(Philadelphia,2002),357.
17Dauber,Antonio'sDevils,164.
18FelixLibertatewasaJewishpatrioticsocietythatsupportedtheBatavianRevolution.
Whileitwasopentoalldenominations,mostofitsmemberswereAshkenazim.
Moreover,itplayedapivotalroleintheEmancipationDecreeof1796grantingallJewslegalequality.
SeeJozephMichman,DutchJewryduringtheEmancipationPeriod:GothicTurretsonaCorinthianBuilding,1787–1815(Amsterdam,1995);andSalvadorBloemgarten,HartogdeHartogLé-mon,1755–1823:JoodserevolutionairinFranseTijd(Amsterdam,2007),37–84.
19TimothyDePaepe,"'Heavens!
JewsontheStage"'(paperpresentedatthesymposium"PlacesofEncounter,"March14,2013,Antwerp).
ThisviewwasalsoheldbythechiefrabbiofAmsterdam,SamuelBerenstein,whoinasermonpraisedwriterssuchasMolière,Shakespeare,Schiller,andKlopstockfortheirplays'moralmessages.
SeeSamuelBerenstein,LeerredeoverPsalmCXII:Vers9(Groningen,1807),9–10.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR237theatercompanyoftheplaywrightJacobHartogDessauerwasknownforitssupportofbothFelixLibertateandtheidealsoftheFrenchRevolution.
20ThechoiceofcertaintheaterpiecesreectsDessauer'spoliticalafliationandemancipatoryprogram.
OnMay28,1795,duringtheBatavianRevolution—inwhichFrancedismissedthesittinggovernmentwithhelpoftheOrangeParty—thecompanyperformedaGermantranslationofAntonioSalieri'soperaAxur,oderderpersianischeFeldherrTarare.
ThisoperatellsthestoryoftheOrientaltyrantAxurwhoisreplacedbyTarare,akingelectedbythepeople.
Itwasrstperformedin1787inParisandiscloselyconnectedtotheFrenchRevolution,foritreectsthepoliticalturmoiloftheyearspre-cedingtheRevolutionwhileatthesametimepredictingitsoutcome.
Thestoryofthereplacementofatyrantbyanelectedleadersharesmanysimi-laritieswithFelixLibertate'scriticismofthemisconductandabuseofpoweroftheparnasim.
Inthelastsceneoftheopera,whichtakesplaceafterthecurtainshaveclosed,Dessauerappearsonthestageandproclaimsthat,likeKingAxur,"allpoliticallies,allignoranceandallancientprejudiceswillbechasedawayfromtheirthroneandoutofthecountry,asstepchildrenoftheonlytruegovernment.
"21ThejoyousatmosphereofthetheaterenabledmaskilimsuchasDessauertoreachtheJewishmassesinalightheartedway.
Likewise,thegenreoftheAshkenaziPurimproductionswasanexcellentmediumthroughwhichtocommunicateseriousmattersinanattractiveandnotoverlyseriousway.
Aroundtheyear1800,anabundanceofAshkenaziPurimproductionswasproduced,yet,afteronlyafewdecades,thegenrehadalmostceasedtoexist.
22ThesuddenincreaseofsomanyephemeralAshkenaziPurimproductionscanbeseenasadirectconsequenceoftheabolitionofJewishsemiautonomy,thelossofreligioussocialcontrol,andadeclineinindividualzeal.
IntheyearssurroundingtheemancipationoftheJewsintheNetherlandsin1796,Dutchmaskilimproducedmanypamphlets,and,consequently,manymaskilicthemesenteredthePurimproductions.
TheDutchHaskalahhasmanydifferentinterpretationsamonghistorians,whotendeithertodownplaytheMendelssohnianinuenceorelsetohigh-20ItisinterestingtonotethatDessauer'sgroupwastherstJewishprofessionaltheatergroupandthatithadmorethanthirtyactors,includingbothmenandwomen.
Dessauerestablishedhisowntheaterschool,wherehetrainedactorsandactresses.
HettyBerg,"ThaliaandAmster-dam'sAshkenaziJewsintheLate18thandEarly19thCenturies,"inDutchJewry:ItsHistoryandSecularCulture(1500–2000),ed.
JonathanIsraelandReinierSalverda(Leiden,2002),191–200,192–94.
21CitedinDePaepe,"'Heavens!
JewsontheStage"'5.
22Itistellingthatthe(Dutch)maskilSommerhausen,knownforhisemancipatorywriting,producedaHaggadahparody.
Inlinewithmanymaskilicendeavors,SommerhausenfocusedonJewishclassicalworks,buthedidnotusetheopportunitytospoutcriticism.
SeeTzviHirschSommerhausen,Haggadahleleilshikurim(Brussels,1842).
238T.
RDECKERlightit.
23OrthodoxyandmoderatereformcharacterizedtheDutchHaskalahincontrasttotheGermanHaskalah.
24TheDutchJewsneverwitnessedasweeping,radicalreformoftheJewishcommunities.
MassiveconversiontoChristianity,orevenreligiousassimilation,didnotoccurintheNetherlands.
Inaddition,thereformmovementnevergainedanysortoffoothold,andthequestionofthe"missingreform"movementdominatedtheresearchagendaofhistorians.
25UnlikeinGermany,themaskilicelitefailedtoradicallyre-formandaltertheDutchJewishlandscape.
ThiswaspartlyduetothenatureoftheDutchHaskalahmovement.
TheDutchmaskilimresembledthemas-kilimoftheearlyBerlinHaskalahinmaintainingastrongJewishreligiousidentity.
26UnderFrenchrule,alongwiththeestablishmentofFelixLibertate,thenayekille—thesmallmaskiliccommunitythatsecededfromthealtekille(theoldJewishcommunity)andwasofciallyknownasAdathJesserun—madethemaskilimapowerfulinuenceamongtheDutchJews.
However,thenayekillewasforcefullyabolishedin1808,andafterwardmaskilicradical-ismceasedtoexist.
Theconstantwishforcompromise,orwhatthehistorianBartWallethascharacterizedastheDutchdesireforthe"middle,"ledtomoderatereform,inwhichradicalideaswerecontinuouslycounterbalancedbytheorthodoxfactioninordertomaintainonecommunity.
27Itisnotsur-23FortherelationshipbetweentheDutchHaskalahandtheGerman,seeFréderiquevanCleeff–Hiegentlich,"ReectionsontheRelationshipbetweentheDutchHaskalahandtheGermanHaskalah,"inDutchJewishHistoryI,ed.
JozephMichmanandTirtzaLevie(Jerusalem,1984),207–18;IreneE.
Zwiep,"JewishEnlightenmentReconsidered:TheDutchEighteenthCentury,"inSepharadinAshkenaz:MedievalKnowledgeandEighteenth-CenturyEnlightenedJewishDiscourse,ed.
ResianneFontaine,AndreaSchatz,andIreneE.
Zwiep(Amsterdam,2007),281–311,and"AMaskilReadsZunz:SamuelMulderandtheEarli-estDutchReceptionoftheWissenschaftdesJudentums,"inTheDutchIntersection:TheJewsandtheNetherlandsinModernHistory,ed.
YosefKaplan(Leiden,2008),301–18;andJozephMichman,MichmaneiYosef:StudiesontheHistoryandLiteratureoftheDutchJews(Jerusalem,1994),245–62.
OntheideaoftheabsenceofHaskalahintheDutchJewishcom-munity,seeIreneE.
Zwiep,"JewishEnlightenment(Almost)withoutHaskalah:TheDutchExample,"JewishCultureandHistory13,nos.
2–3(November2012):220–34.
24Onecouldarguethat,becauseoftheirreligiousobservance,moderatereform,andendeavorstorevivebiblicalHebrew,theDutchmaskilimcanbestbecomparedwiththeearlyHaskalah.
SeeFeiner,TheJewishEnlightenment,36–67.
25BartWallet,NieuweNederlanders:DeIntegratievandeJodeninNederland,1814–1851(Amsterdam,2007),175–76.
26Aswillbeseenbelow,intheDiskursn,e.
g.
,thenayekille(newcommunity)usedreli-giousobservanceasapolemicaltooltodiscreditthealtekille(oldcommunity).
SeeTsilaRdecker,"MakingJewsDutch:SecularDiscourseandJewishResponses,1796–1848"(Ph.
D.
diss.
,UniversityofGroningen,2015),103,161;DavidSorkin,TheTransformationofGermanJewry,1780–1840(NewYork,1987);andFeiner,TheJewishEnlightenment.
27Wallet,NieuweNederlanders,173–76.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR239prising,then,thatthismoderatetonealsodistinguishedthemaskilicthemesinPurimproductions.
Thisessay'sfocusontheAshkenaziPurimproductionsdoesnotsuggestthattheSephardiccommunityofAmsterdamdidnotdevelopaPurimthe-aterculture.
TheDutchSephardimhadarichanddiversePurimcultureandproducedmanyPurimplays.
Moreover,theywereknownfororganizinglux-uriousballs.
28However,SephardictheaterdifferedprofoundlyfromPurimtheaterasitwasdirectedtowardamorelearnedaudience.
29Moreover,theSephardiccommunitywasnot,accordingtomaskilimandDutchcontempo-raries,inneedofsocialandculturaltransformation.
Infact,theSephardimservedasamaskilicidealtowardwhichtheAshkenazimaspired.
30ThiswasmoreanidealizedimagethanarealisticreectionoftheSephardiccommu-nity,which,duringtheeighteenthcentury,sufferedeconomicdeclineresult-ingeventuallyinimpoverishment.
31Inwhatfollows,Ihistoricallycontextu-alizetheAshkenaziPurimproductionsandshowthatthethemesofpovertyandunproductivityreectedcontemporaryconcerns.
ThePurimProductions'GenreandAudienceThemajorityofthepurimshpielnwereelaborationsonthePurimstory:EsthersavestheJewsfromdestructionbyconvincingKingAhasheverusofHaman'swickedness.
However,manyPurimproductionsadoptedandJudaizednon-Jewishtheater;ChristianmysteryplaysaswellastheGer-manFastnachtspielandtheItaliancommediadell'arteinuencedthempro-foundly.
32Incontentaswellasinlanguage,thepurimshpielplayedwithconventions.
Itwasunstructuredandfulloftransvestismandobscenities.
Re-versalofthesocialorderledtoridiculoussubversivebehavior.
Forinstance,thepiousmanMordechaisingsthefollowingaddresstotheking:"HappyNewYear,stinkingeggs.
Maytheking'sballsgrowandswell.
"MenplayedEsther'spart,invertinghersupposedbeautybyrenderinghergrotesque,com-paringhertoafrog,andcallingheradaughterofawhore.
3328MozesHeimanGans,Memorboek:PlatenatlasvanhetlevenderJodeninNederlandvandeMiddeleeuwentot1940(Baarn,1971),216–20.
29Butzer,DieAnfngederjiddischenPurimshpiln,33.
30SeeIsmarSchorsch,"TheMythofSephardicSupremacy,"LeoBaeckInstituteYearBook34(1989):47–66;andAndreaSchatz,"ReturningtoSepharad:MaskilicReectionsonHebrewintheDiaspora,"inFontaine,Schatz,andZwiep,eds.
,SepharadinAshkenaz,263–77.
31TirtsahLevieBernfeld,PovertyandWelfareamongthePortugueseJewsinEarlyModernAmsterdam(Oxford,2012),65–66.
32Shmeruk,YiddishBiblicalPlays,18–19;JoelBerkowitzandJeremyDauber,eds.
,Land-markYiddishPlays:ACriticalAnthology(NewYork,2006),7–8.
33Belkin,"The'Low'CultureofthePurimshpil,"30(quote),40.
240T.
RDECKERHumor,ratherthanabsolutedelitytothebiblicalstory,wasthefocusofPurimtheaterpieces.
Around1800,purimkrantnwereproducedinAmster-dam,oftennomorethanacoupleofpageslongandprintedoncheappaper.
Theserangedfrompoems,toconversations,toparodies,topastiches.
34Ja-cobDessauer—aGermanimmigrantwhomovedtoAmsterdamin1784—created,aswehaveseen,anumberofPurimproductions,allcharacterizedbyastrongemancipatoryagenda.
35ShloumeDuikelaar,ashoemaker,wrotethemajorityofPurimproductions.
36(Hisnameisstillinuseincontempo-raryDutch,whereithasbecomeapejorativetermreferringtoadrip.
)37Hisbrochureswerewrittenmainlyintherstpersonandconsistedofamixtureofeverydaylifeandctiveabsurdities.
Aconsiderablenumberofeighteenth-centuryPurimproductionswereprintedanonymouslybecausetheparnasimprohibitedtheirdistribution.
38InaFebruary16,1790,announcement,theproducerswerewarned(withthehelpofatalmudicallusion):"Whoeverspeaksobscenely,evenifasentenceofseventyyears'happinesshasbeensealedforhim,itisreversedforevil"(seeBabylonianTalmudShabbat33a).
Consumerscaughtbuying,reading,orlisteningtothese"mockeries"weretargetedaswell:Foryears,theparnasimhaveseentheappearanceofpurimkrantnlledwithobscenelanguageandmockeryandwho[ever]readsitsinsgreatly.
Therefore,topreventsuchathingfromhappening,theparnasimabsolutelyforbidtheprinterstoprint.
Andthenwediscoveredthatpeoplelookedforotherwaystoreachtheirau-diencewiththosebadwritings.
Therefore,wewarnstronglythatifyougathercopiesofsuchkrantenorwritingsunderwhatever34Aptroot,"WesternYiddishYontev-bletlekh,"52.
35DePaepe,"'Heavens!
JewsontheStage"'2.
SeealsoBerg,"ThaliaandAmsterdam'sAshkenaziJews,"191–92.
36ForalistingthatincludesShloumeDuikelaar'sandmanyotherDutchYiddishpublications,seeMirjamGutschow,InventoryofYiddishPublicationsfromtheNetherlands,c.
1650–c.
1950(Leiden,2007).
37JustusvandeKampandJacobvanderWijk,KoosjerNederlands:JoodsewoordenindeNederlandseTaal(Amsterdam,2006),594.
38BesidesprohibitingthePurimproductions,theparnasimalsotriedtolimittheexuberantPurimfestivities,concernedbytheirdisruptiveelements.
OnPurim,manyJewsdressedincostumeanddrankexcessivelyinordertofulllthereligiousprescriptionthatoneshouldnotbeabletodistinguishbetweentheheroMordechaiandthevillainHaman.
Furthermore,ontheFridaysbeforeandafter,groupsofJewswouldsingPurimsongsandbegforalmsintheJewishQuarter.
Thosepurimverschteerdersorverschtellersoftendisruptedthepeaceandviolatedtheirreligiousobligations.
EveryyearwhentheholidayofPurimwasapproaching,theparnasimissuedawarningconcerningreligiousobservance.
ProtocolbuchIV,pp.
2,68,100,GAA714,GemeenteArchiefAmsterdam.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR241nametheyareknown,thecommunityguardswillconscatethem.
Andwhentherearepeopleonpoorrelief,theywillforeverbede-nied.
Whoholdshismouthandhistongue,keepshissoulfromtrouble[seeProv.
21:23]andtheLordwillblessyourstrength,amen.
39Asthewarningsuggests,purimkrantnwerefrequentlyreadinpublic.
Itappearsthatonlyonepersonneededtopurchaseacopy,whichcouldthenbereadtomany,enablingthosewhoeithercouldnotreadorcouldnotaf-fordapurimkranttoenjoythecontent.
ConsideringthequantityofcopiesofpurimkrantndistributedeitherbyanonymouswritersandprintersorbyknownprinthousessuchasProops,theinterdictionswerefutile.
40IntheNetherlands,satiricliteraturewasextremelypopular,andmanysuchpam-phlets,brochures,regularjournals,andenlightenedjournalswereavailable.
Ephemeralitycharacterizedthegenre,andmostoftheperiodicalpublica-tionsdisappearedasquicklyastheywerefounded.
41Duringthelastquarteroftheeighteenthcentury,Dutchsatirefocusedpredominantlyonthepoliti-calriftbetweenopponentsandsupportersoftheHouseofOrange,patriotsandorangisten,respectively.
TheDiskursn—polemicalpamphletsissuedintheyears1797and1798byboththealtekilleandthenayekilleinwhichonecommunityattemptedtodiscredittheother—alsosuppliedthehighde-mandforsatireandhadsimilarlystrongpoliticalobjectives.
42ThePurimproductionsnotonlytintotheexistingDutchsatirictraditionbutwerealsoinuencedbyit.
Purimproductionsandfestivitiesattractedalllayersofsociety.
Forin-stance,in1778,theSephardicrabbiandemissaryHahamAzulayvisitedAmsterdamandwatchedapurimshpielatthehomeofthechiefrabbi,SaulLwenstamm(1717–90).
AsAzulayrecounts:Inthemeantime,afoolaroseandgaveaspeech.
HespokeHebrewindoggerelandcitedastoryfromtheTalmud(Kiddusin39b)that39Ibid.
,2.
40ContrarytoMarionAptroot,whoregardsthemiddleclassasthetargetaudienceofthepurimkrantnbecauseoftheirprice,Ibelievethattheywerereadaloudinpublicplaces,whichmeansthatwealthwasnotaprerequisiteforfamiliaritywiththegenre.
SeeRogerChartier,CulturalUsesofPrintinEarlyModernFrance,trans.
LydiaG.
Cochrane(Princeton,NJ,1988),159;andJeroenBlaak,GeletterdeLevens:Dagelijkslezenenschrijvenindevroeg-modernetijdinNederland,1624–1770(Hilversum,2004),20.
41SeePietervanWissing,ed.
,PersenPolitiektussen1780en1800:Stookschriften(Nij-megen,2008);PietervanWissing,StokebrandJanus1787:Opkomstenondergangvaneenachttiende-eeuwssatirischpolitiek-literairweekblad(Nijmegen,2003);andPietervanWoensel,DeLantaarn:Satirischetekstenuitdeachttiendeeeuw(Amsterdam,2002).
42SeeJozephMichmanandMarionAptroot,eds.
andtrans.
,StormintheCommunity:YiddishPolemicalPamphletsofAmsterdamJewry,1797–1798(Cincinnati,2002).
242T.
RDECKERrelatedtothe[commandmentsto]honoryourfatherandmother(Deut.
22:7)andtosendawaythemotherwhilecollectingeggsfromthenest(Deut.
5:16).
Bothcommandmentsareaccompa-niedbythesentence"somayyourdaysbelengthened.
"Onedayafatherorderedhissontoclimbawallandtotaketheeggsfromanest.
TheboydiditaccordingtothelawsofTorah,buttrippeddur-inghisdescentanddroppeddead.
TheGemara(Talmud)explainsthe"lengtheningoflife"asareferencetotheafterlife,namelytheperfectlifeofthe'olamha'ba.
He[thefool],however,thoughtotherwiseandexplained:ontheearth('olamha'zeh).
Becausetheboywasstandingonawall,thepromisewasnotfullled.
43Thejokehereistheliteraltranslationoftheconceptof'olamha'zeh.
The-ologically,'olamha'zehmeans"lifeonearth.
"However,thefooltranslatesitas"ontheearth,"and,becausetheboystoodonthewall,hislifewasnotlengthenedintheworldtocome('olamha'ba).
Becausetheconceptof'olamha'zehistranslatedincorrectly,theinitialtalmudicexplanationiscompletelyreversed.
Thiscritiqueofextremetalmudicreasoningsuchaspilpul(casuis-tichairsplitting)wasabelovedthemeformanymaskilim,whowerecriticaloftherabbinateforitspurportedunreasonablenessandignorance.
44MosesLwenstamm,whosucceededhisfatherSaulaschiefrabbiofAm-sterdam,alsoappreciatedthePurimfestivitiesanddidnotshyawayfromcritiquingtheJewishcommunity.
Sometimebetween1794and1798,anun-traditionalpurimshpielwasperformedathishousemockingtheJewishcom-munityanditscharitysystem.
Theanonymousplay,titledbyitsfounder,LeoFuks,Alzdersofizgut,izallezgut[Alliswellthatendswell],deviatesfromthebiblicalstorylinecommonlyusedinpurimshpieln.
ItisanupdateoftheEstherstory,andtheplotrevolvesaroundahypocritewhodeceivestherul-ingeliteandislaterdispatchedbythemainhero.
45AlthoughthethemeofunmaskingispivotalinAlzdersofizgut,izallezgut,theplotalsosharessimilaritieswithDutchcomediessuchasthe1683anonymousYiddishplayDenbedrogebedrieger[Thedeceiveddeceiver].
Intheseplays,theplotfo-cusesonrevealingthetruthandexposingtheimposter,which,inAlzdersofizgut,izallezgut,isreectedintheuseoftellingadjectivessuchasdis-43S.
A.
Vega,trans.
,"ChagamAzulayverteltoverPoerimteAmsterdam,1778,"MaandbladvoorderGeschiedenisderJodeninNederland(1947–48):192–97,194–95.
44SeeJonathanMeir,ImaginedHasidism:TheAnti-HasidicWritingsofJosephPerl(Jerusalem,2013);andYehudaFriedlander,BemistareiHasatira:HebrewSatireinEurope(Ramat-Gan,1979).
45SeeDauber,Antonio'sDevils,187.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR243guised,betrayed,deceived,etc.
46Likewise,inDenbedrogebedrieger,theplotrevolvesaroundtheunmaskingofseveralcharacters.
47Othertypicalpurimshpielelementssuchasmasquerades,maritalprob-lems,codeswitching,andcursingappearinAlzdersofizgut,izallezgut.
Onewomanisdressedasamaleservant,andtheimpostersaredisguisedas,respectively,ashadar(ashaliachderabanan,alegalemissaryforthecollectionofsettlementsindistressorintheHolyLand)andabaal-shem(amiracle-workingorwonderrabbi)fromGalicia.
Eachcharactercanberecog-nizedbyhisorherdialect.
Shiftsinlanguagealsocharacterizethesenewver-sionsoftheAkhashveyroysh-shpilandtheplaysRebHenokhandLeichtsinnundFrmmelei.
Thus,theemissaryfromJerusalem,Yerushalmi,speaksbro-kenHebrew,andthewonderrabbiexpresseshimselfinPolishYiddish.
OthercharactersspeakeitherGermanYiddishorDutchYiddish.
48Ineachcase,thetheatricalattributeoflanguageidentiesthecharacter.
Also,thefemalecharacterLipkeYentesconstantlycursesatherdeceitfulhusband,thedis-guisedwonderrabbiRebYokesh.
Shecallshima"bastard"anda"rascal"andthreatensto"scratchouthiseyesandbreakallhisteeth"ifhecontinueslying.
49However,onetypicalelementmissingintheplayistheexplicituseofsexualmetaphorsandinsinuations.
Instead,theplayperformedforMosesLwenstammmixeshumorwithsocialcritique,whichisdirectedatJewishcommunallife.
BecauseofthetraditionalcriticalfunctionofthePurimproductions,thesebecameanexcellentformattoincludemaskilicsolutionstotheJewishQues-tion.
Traditionally,purimshpielndestabilizedthesocialorder.
Therealisticcontemporarysetting,therefrainingfromsexualandcoarseelements,andthelinguisticplayallbecame(alongsidepoliticalobjectives)characteristic46LeoFuks,ed.
,AllIsWellThatEndsWell;or,TheUncoveredThree-FoldDeceit:AComedyinThreeActs:AnAnonymousYiddishComedyfromtheEndofthe18thCentury,modernizedYiddishversion(Paris,1955),xi–xii.
47ThecomedycommenceswiththearrivalofYerushalmiinthehouseoftheparnasofAm-sterdam,RebLipman.
YerushalmipretendstobeamoneycollectorfromJerusalemwhospeaksonlybrokenHebrew.
However,inreality,heisaswindlerfromGaliciawhohastrickedhiswife,LipkeYentes,bysendingheralettertellingherofhisdeath.
Yerushalmiisaccom-paniedbyagirldressedasaboywhomhedeceivedintoleavingherfather'shouse.
BecauseLipkeYentespresumesthatherhusbandisdead,shemarriesRebYokesh,amiracle-workingrabbifromGaliciaandafriendofYerushalmi's.
RebYokeshinturnalsodesertsLipkeYentesandmovestoAmsterdam.
ButLipkeYentesfollowshim,and,inthehouseoftheparnasLip-man,whereeventuallyallthecharactersgather,theimpostersareexposed.
YerushalmireturnstohiswifeLipkeYentes,andRebYokeshmarriesthegirldisguisedasaservantboy.
48ForadiscussionofthedifferentdialectsandlanguagesusedintheAlzdersofizgut,izallezgut,seeRenaFuks-Mansfeld,"West-enOost-JiddischophettoneelinAmsterdamaanheteindevandeachttiendeeeuw,"StudiaRosenthaliana26,no1(1996):91–96,94–96.
49Fuks,ed.
,AllIsWell,8.
244T.
RDECKERelementsofthemaskilicreinventionoftheJewishtheatertradition.
More-over,thelargeaudiencesandacceptancebytherabbinateprovidedexcellentopportunitiesformaskilimtodisseminatetheirideasthroughoutalllayersofsociety.
Richorpoor,illiterateoreducated,allinsomewayoranotherhadaccesstothePurimproductions'content.
PovertyintheDutchPurimProductionsTheDutchJewishQuestionfocusedonimprovingthenancialstateoftheJews.
Sinceitsfoundingin1635,theAshkenazicommunitystruggledcon-tinuouslytondsufcientnancialresources,anditspinkasim(notebooksoftheJewishcommunity)arefullofreferencestotheenormousnumberofpoorJews.
In1799,87percentofDutchAshkenaziJewswereonpoorrelief.
50Thisunfortunateeconomicsituationdeclinedfurtherduringtimesofwar,suchastheFourthWarwithEngland(1780–84)andthesubsequentFrenchinvasion(1795).
NotonlydidAshkenaziJewswitnessincreasedpoverty,buttheSephardimwerealso,ashasbeennoted,rapidlyimpoverishedasaresultofthegeneraleconomicdecline.
51Jewishpovertywascaused,accordingtotheDutchmaskilim,bytheparnasim'sabuseofpower,inequality,lackofeducation,andarefusaltoletgoofoutmodedrituals.
ThemaskilicwritersoftheDiskursnofthenayekillecriticizedthepar-nasimformaintainingbackwardJewishritualsthatkepttheJewsdeprived.
Moreover,theycontended,theparnasimconsolidatedandpreservedthedis-paritybetweenrichandpoorintheobservanceofJewishlawbecauseonlyrichJewswereabletoperformhonoraryfunctionsinthesynagogue.
52ThemaskilicthemeofpovertyandtheconnectiontotheJewishcommunity'smismanagementalsofoundtheirwayintoDutchPurimproductions.
Theyin-spiredDuikelaartocomposethefollowingverseinDinayebefrorenePurimkrant[ThenewfrozenPurimpaper]:Whatcanwewriteaboutwintertime,dearfolk,thatwecarriedtheyoke.
50JozephMichman,HartogBeem,andDanMichman,Pinkas:GeschiedenisvandejoodsegemeenschapinNederland(Ede,1992),59.
ThenumberofJewsreceivingpoorreliefisun-certainasscholarstendtoviewallJewseligibleforthematzedistributionaspoor.
SeeMarcoH.
D.
vanLeeuwen,"DeGelykstaatderJoden:InburgeringvaneenMinderheid,"inArmeAmsterdamseJodenendestrijdomhunintegratieaanhetbeginvandeNegentiendeeeuw,ed.
HettyBerg(Amsterdam,1996),55–66,58–59.
51SeeBernfeld,PovertyandWelfare,65–66.
52See,e.
g.
,Diskursn1ofthenayekille,inMichmanandAptroot,eds.
andtrans.
,StormintheCommunity,28–61,passim.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR245Thisyeartherewasalotofsnowfallandalsowindandsquall.
Forthepoor,thiswinterhasneverbeensobad,andabitofmercywehavenothad.
Thepeopleamusedthemselvesthiswintertimeandshoweduspoornorespite.
Winterisgood,theysay,butourgoodsandchattelswehaveeatenaway.
Hementionsthedifferencebetweentherichandthepoorandblamestheformerfornottakingcareofthelatterandprovidingpoorrelief.
Therichhappilycarryon,oblivioustotheneedsoftheunfortunate.
Duikelaar,how-ever,feelsguilty:"AndIhavethoughtaboutthepoorwithnofoodandnogoods.
Ahouseholdwithsmallchildren,withnobreadorretowarmthem.
Poorthem,allwinterwithoutearnings—andwhenIthinkofthatmyjoydisappears.
"53InapurimkrantbyDuikelaar,oneofthehumorouselementsisdevotedtoactionalpricelistwhereinworthlessitemsareassignedabsurdlyhighprices.
54DinayePurimkrant:Beschraybungfundidrayberumtesokhrim[ThenewPurimpaper:Descriptionofthethreefamousmerchants].
Forin-stance,oneoftheitemsonthelistreads:"43sleevelessshirts,torninfront,shatuponontheback,40two-and-a-half-guildercoins,4baizeskirtswitheas,dittowhiteoneswithmisfortuneinthem.
.
.
.
"55ThepricesoffoodandclothingwereimportantissuesfortheimpoverishedDutchJewry.
TheAm-sterdamchroniclesbysuchauthorsasAbrahamHaimBraatbard,ZalmanPrins,andBenditBenjaminWingechothiseconomicconcern.
56Theyoftenmentionthepriceofvarious(food)itemsduringtheirdescriptionsofeventsintheRepublicaswellasintheirownJewishcommunity.
Forthem,foodpriceswereofvitalimportance.
Priceasacontinuingthemethusappearsinvariousguisesandsometimesreinforcesotherthemesassociatedwithpoverty,suchasthewinterseason.
DinayePurimkrantconnectstypicalwinteractivitieswiththetimeofthePurim53AnayePurimlukh,fol.
5.
SeealsoFuks,"VanPoerimspelentotPoerimkranten,"172.
54Theconstructionofabsurd(price)listswasacommondevice.
ItappearsnotonlyinPurimproductionsbutalsoin,e.
g.
,Sommerhausen'sHaggadahleleilshikurim,inwhicheveryknownwineismentionedinalphabeticalorder.
SeeSommerhausen,Haggadahleleilshikurim,28.
55DinayePurimkrant:Beschraybungfundidrayberumtesokhrim,YidNed450,fol.
00,LibraryRosenthaliana,Amsterdam.
56Foranelaboratediscussionofthosechronicles,seeBartWallet,"LinksinaChain:EarlyModernYiddishHistoriographyfromtheNorthernNetherlands,1743–1812"(PhDdiss.
,Uni-versityofAmsterdam,2012),216–37.
246T.
RDECKERplay'scomposition,whichwassometimebetweenFebruaryandMarch:"Thechildrenareveryhappyandhavecried.
Tomorrowourfatherwillbuyusiceskates.
Foreachofthechildrenhewillbuyapairoficeskatesfornineguilders.
"57Comparedtotheaveragewageofoneguilderperdayforanunskilledlaborer,thispricewasveryhigh.
58DinayePurimkrantfurtherdiscussesthecostofryebreadduringthewinter:"Wehaveneverhadsuchawinterwhenitwasmuchcheaper[tolive]thanalltheotheryears;Idon'tknowwhythepoorcomplain,moan,andcrybecause'ofthebadtimes.
'Oneloafofryebread,whichhascostotheryears15two-and-a-half-guildercoins,coststhiswintertime10two-and-a-half-guildercoins.
"59Ofcourse,eventhoughthepriceofryebreadhasdecreased,itremainsridiculouslyhigh.
Therelativeimprovementinanunfortunatesituationserveshereasacomicdevice.
TheconstantreferencetopricesinvariousPurimproductionsdemonstratesself-mockeryasastrategyforcopingwiththepooreconomicsituationofAshkenaziJews.
PovertyinrelationtoaninabilitytoobserveJewishlawoccursinabilin-gualPurimproductionbyDuikelaar,Nayenyorsundekstrasimkhes-tourekurantbeningnLekereKheritkhe[NewYear'sandspecialSimhatTorahpa-pertothetuneof"TheAccomplishedWifeGerritje"].
Inthispoem,RebHenokhcomplainsabouttheexpensesofthehighholidays.
Hementions,amongotherthings,thecostsconnectedtotheobservanceofJewishlaw.
Helamentsthepriceof"honeyandsweetapplesforRoshHashanah,thegrapestosayablessingover,kosherwinefortheblessingofthewine,alulavandetrogforSuccoth.
"60Bypointingoutthecostsofreligiousobservance,Duikelaartentativelyaddressesthepoliticalissueofinequality.
Hisself-reectionandmaskilicagendaareevidentwhenDuikelaardirectshiscriticismtowardtheAshkenazipoor,condemningtheirpassivityandcon-tinuousrequestsformoney.
Inalengthyexposition,helistsallhisgenerousgiftstothepoor,whocontinuetobegforalms:That'swhyIhavegivenawayenough.
ButhowcanyougiveawaythewholeworldBetweenus,Ihavegiventheclericsaroaster[ayoungchicken]of150guilders.
Tomecamethepoor,theydidnothavewater,whatshouldIdoInaroomIhadabarrel,Ihaveletthemtakeoutasmuchwaterastheyliked.
Tomecamethepoor,withoutheating.
Ihadalumberjackmakeacoupleofyards57AnayePurimlukh,fol.
4.
58ForwagesinearlymodernAmsterdam,seeH.
Nusteling,WelvaartenWerkgelegenheidinAmsterdam,1540–1860(Amsterdam,1985),252.
59AnayePurimlukh,fol.
4.
60Nayenyorsundekstrasimkhes-tourekurantbeningnLekereKheritkhe,YidNed523,fol.
2a,LibraryRosenthaliana.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR247ofpeat,andIdistributedtoeveryonehisshareofpeatandabundleofsulfur.
Afterthatthepoorcametomebecausetheydidnothavecarpets.
Iwenttothecarpetshopandgottwocarpetsofsixandvemiles,respectively,whichIcutintopieces.
61Thislonglistexposeshow,withoutaconstructivesolution,povertywouldendure.
TheJewishcommunity'spinkasimconrmtheaccuracyofthisob-servationofthemanypoorpeoplebeggingforsupport.
62InlinewithEn-lightenmentthought,whichstressedautonomyandagency,theDutchmas-kilimdidnotacceptAshkenazipovertyasafaitaccompli;theyurgedthepoortotakemattersintotheirownhandsandchangetheJewishfuture.
ImplicitcriticismoftherelationbetweenpovertyandpassivityappearsinAlzdersofizgut,izallezgut.
TheplaycommenceswitharequesttotheAm-sterdamAshkenazicommunitytodonateonbehalfofthepoverty-strickencommunityofSolnekinPoland.
Theirritualenclosure(eruv)andkeystotheritualbath(mikveh)havebeenstolen,and,because"thereisnomoney,norinourpockets,norinourhousesandeverythingcostsmoney,we[will]sendayoungmanwhoshallvisitthecityandvillagetocollectmoney.
"63TherstlinesoftheplayshowthedifcultyfacedbytheimpoverishedattemptingtoobserveJewishlaw,whichrequiresmoney.
TheplaymocksPolishJewsasincapableofsolvingtheirownproblems,preferringtotraveltootherJew-ishcommunitiestobegforsubsistence.
ThePolishJewhererepresentsthepassiveJew.
Jewishself-criticismcomesespeciallytotheforeinthehumorousspec-tacleofthePolishJewinplaysandPurimproductions.
TheappearanceofthischaracterinPurimproductionsresultedfromthecontinuousinuxofpoorJewishimmigrantsfromEasternEuropeintotheNetherlandsasaresultofpogromsandtheirregrettableeconomicsituation.
ManyJewishinhabi-tantsoftheDutchRepublicwereofPolishancestry,andPolishJewshadaseparatecommunityupuntil1673.
64TherevealingtitleofanotherPurimproduction,DiPurimkrantfonPoylendoiznikstsuhoylen[ThenewPolishPurimpaper:Thereisnothingtoget],connectstheEasternEuropeanback-groundofmanyDutchJewswithpoverty,and,inDinayeHagode[ThenewHaggadah],aparodyontheHaggadah,DuikelaarconnectsalackofgoodfoodwithaPolishheritage:"Thisisthebread.
Itisthebreadofthepoor.
Itisthepoorman'sbreadwhatwehaveeatenwithourparentsathomeinlittle61Ibid.
62SeeProtocolbuchIV,pp.
2,3,6,26,45,101,169.
63Fuks,ed.
,AllIsWell,1.
64SeeLeoFuks,"Oost-JodeninNederlandtussenbeidewereldoorlogen,"StudiaRosen-thaliana11,no.
2(1977):198–215.
248T.
RDECKERPoland.
Pumpernickelbreadwithsmellygoats'cheese.
"65ForthegeneralAshkenazicommunity,thePolishJewwasthepoorestofthepoor.
ThePolishJewwasrepresentedbywhatwasconsideredatypicallyderogatoryimageofapoorJewishpeddlerwithabeardandaYiddishac-cent.
66PolishJewswereperceivedasuneducated,poor,untrustworthy,andbackward.
TheJewishfamilynamePolak,whichindicatedthefamily'sfor-merplaceofresidence,becameapejorativestigma.
Forinstance,thesatiricwriterNicolaasHoefnageldepictsthePolishJewinthefollowingparody:"Idesiresh,asasmouse67Polaksmells,asthoughhedidnotshavehisbeardforahalfyearnorbrushhishair.
"68MaskilimalsostereotypedthePol-ishJew.
IntheDiskursn,forexample,thePolishbackgroundofthechiefrabbiofAmsterdam,MosesLwenstamm,wascontinuouslyridiculed.
HisPolishrootsandaccentweresaidtosignifyhisignoranceofJewishtexts.
Thisuncomplimentaryimagecontinuedwellintothenineteenthcentury,whenPolishJewishteachersespeciallywereheldresponsibleforthede-plorablestateofJewisheducation.
69ThePolishJewcametosymbolizeev-erythingwrongwithintheDutchAshkenaziJewishcommunity.
Attheendoftheeighteenthcentury,themaskilimcriticizedthewayinwhichcommunityleadershandlednancesforthepoor,accusingthemofmisconductandmismanagementandofdistributingthetaxesbenetingthepoorunfairly.
Accordingtomembersofthenayekille,thepoorcontributedmoretopoorrelieffundsthandidtheafuent,owingtothetaxonoffalandongoodcutsofmeat.
Moreover,aswascommoninthisperiod,theJewishcommunitydistributedonlythebareessentialstothepoor,thoughthiswas65Ibid.
,25.
66Inmuchsatiricalliterature,suchasinthewritingsofNicolaasHoefnagel,theJewisde-pictedwithaYiddishaccentbyplacingtheletterhinfrontofeveryword.
Similarly,inthepublicationsofFelixLiberate,thewronguseoftheletterhindicatesaJewishbackground.
SeeHeilenBroederschaptusschendenBurgerendenJood:BygelegenheidderHeilrykeOmwendingvan'sLandsZaakeninJanuary1795,enhetInweidenderJoodenClubopden11denFebruary1795(Amsterdam,1795).
67ThewordsmouseprobablyderivesfromthenameMosesandwasusedpejorativelytorefertoJews.
FréderiquevanCleeff–Hiegentlich,"'Eerlijkesmousen—hoeziendie'eruytmynheer'OfhoeerindeachttiendeeeuwindeRepubliekderZevenVerenigdeNederlandenoverjodenwerdgedacht—eenverkenning,"inVreemdGespuis,ed.
JanErikDubbelmanandJaapTanja(Amsterdam,1987),56–65,56–57.
68NicolaasHoefnagel,DeNederlandseOverweeger(Amsterdam,1771–72),78.
69AccordingtoaDutchgovernmentofcialin1806,Jewisheducationturnedchildreninto"depetitsPolonaisouAllemands.
"H.
T.
Colenbrander,Gedenkstukkenderalgemeenegeschiede-nisvanNederlandvan1795tot1840,10vols.
(TheHague,1910),5:272.
SeealsoN.
L.
DoddeandM.
M.
P.
Stuljens,"JewishEducationinSchoolsintheNetherlandsfrom1815to1940,"StudiaRosenthaliana30,no.
1(1996):67–87.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR249hardlyenoughtosustainthem:70theyreceivedasmallallowance,inwinter-timetheyweregivenpeatandclothing,andforPassovertheyreceivedfreematzo,allowingthemtoobservetheholidayrequirement.
SolutionstothisimmensepovertywerelinkedtoperceptionsoftheJew.
FortheDutchmaskilim,thekeytoimprovementlayinemploymentandequality.
Theyproposedanequaldistributionofpoorreliefandataxsystemthatwasbasedonincome.
Thisway,thosewhohadthemostalsocontributedthemost.
Inthemaskilim'seyes,povertyderivedfromtwosources,namely,theoldcommunitiessystem,whichpromotedandsustainedpoverty,andthereluctanceofJewstoworkinthecraftsbasedonthepreviousprohibitionagainsttheiracceptancetomostoftheguilds.
ThewritersoftheDiskursnofthenayekillestronglycondemnedthepar-nasimfortheunequaldistributionofgoods,which,alongwithindifference,maintainedthedreadfulpoverty:Wehavetododrudgeworkandsufferhardship;wecan'thearthereadinginthesynagogue,sincewe'retravelingtoekeoutaliving.
Stillweare—thankGod—Jews.
WereadaboutitwhensomethinghappensforthegoodofthecountryorfortheJewsintheworld.
Butthey,intheirblackcoats,gorgethemselvesoncaponsandswillwine.
Theydon'tworkhardorsuffer.
Theydon'thaveto;theylivelikelordsandtheydon'tbotheraboutthepoorman.
TheyboastthattheyhearthereadingthreetimesaweekandbecauseofthemthewholeJewishQuartercries.
Theyslapthemselvesonthebelly:"Ek,mekweareit!
"AndostensiblyinthenameofJewishness,theycutthepoorman'sthroat.
71Keepingthepoorinastateofdeprivationfosteredinequalitywhileboostingthestatusoftheparnasim.
Becauseoftheirwealth,thelattercouldattendsynagogueandthusrepresentthemselvesasobservantandmorehonorableJews.
Solvingtheproblemofpovertywould,therefore,leadtogreaterequal-ity.
Intheeyesofthemaskilicwriters,theleadersbenetedfromtheim-poverishedconditionofmostmembersoftheAshkenazicommunity.
ThiscriticalstancewaslikewisepresentintheDutchPurimproductions,thoughinasomewhatmilderform.
TheabsurdpricelistsandreferencestopovertyaswellasthedepictionofthePolishJewasthepoorestofthepoorshowthatmaskilicsolutionsandcriticismoftheJewishQuestionwereseamlesslyentangledwiththehumorousframeworkofPurim.
70S.
E.
Bloemgarten,"DeAmsterdamsejodengedurendedeeerstejarenvandeBataafseRepubliek(1795–1798),"StudiaRosenthaliana2,no1(1968):42–65,esp.
53.
71MichmanandAptroot,eds.
andtrans.
,StormintheCommunity,90.
250T.
RDECKERUnproductivityintheDutchPurimProductionsAccordingtotheDutchmaskilim,JewishunproductivitylayattheheartofthepovertyandperceivedbackwardnessoftheAshkenazim.
TheJewishoc-cupationalstructurewasblamedforwidespreaddeprivation.
Theresidualef-fectofformerrestrictionswasthatJewswerepredominantlyemployedinun-skilledandlow-paidprofessions.
OnlyjobsoutsidetheguildshadbeenopentoJewssincetheguildsacceptedonlyChristiansasmembers.
TheinabilityofDutchJewstoworkinmanufacturingstarklydecreasedtheireconomicopportunities.
Thismeantthatthemajoritywereemployedasunskilledla-borers,suchasporters,tradersinsecondhandgoods,andpeddlers.
72AlthoughtheEmancipationDecreeof1796seemedtosuggestthatJewscouldnowofciallyworkinthecrafts,theslowimplementationofthede-creeprovedotherwise.
Jewscontinuedtobebannedfromjoiningthepro-fessionalorganizationsofcraftsmen.
73Moreover,thelocalgovernmentofAmsterdamignoredthenewregulationsregardingthelegalequalityoftheJews.
74TheJewishreligionalsocontributedtoapreferenceforemploymentintradeasthistypeofworkenabledtheearningofanincomewhileobserv-ingtheSabbathandhighholidays,whichwouldhavebeenimpossiblehadwagelaborbeenpursued.
MaskilicinitiativestoteachpoorJewsacraft,suchastheVerenigingvoorarbeidenvlijt[Associationforworkanddiligence],foundedin1805,andtheVrijwilligwerkinstituut[Voluntaryworkinstitute],foundedin1810,failedintheirattemptstocreateamorediverseJewishworkforce.
75Thecombinationofhistoricalrights,localgovernmentresis-tance,discrimination,andtraditionresultedintherestrictedaccessofJewstocrafts,arestrictionthatwascarriedoverwellintothenineteenthcentury.
TheoverrepresentationofJewsinpettytradeandinlow-payingjobscontributedtoasurfeitofrivalryandadearthofworkinthecommunity.
76Especiallyinwintertime,whenbusinesswasslow,itwasdifcultforJewsworkingineco-nomicallysensitivejobstoearnaliving.
TheDutchPurimproductionsreectthiscontinuousstruggleforemployment.
Forinstance,Duikelaar'sEznayePurimbuch[ThenewPurimbook]notesthestreetcleaners'unemployment:"ThiswinterIhadnothingtoclean.
Istarvedtodeath.
Mydesirewasmodest.
72VanLeeuwen,"DeGelykstaatderJoden,"57.
73KarinaSonnenberg-Stern,EmancipationandPoverty:TheAshkenaziJewsofAmsterdam,1796–1850(Oxford,2000),99.
74Wallet,NieuweNederlanders,82–87.
75Bothinitiativesweresmall,andthemajorityofthepoorwereveryreluctanttoapply.
Gans,Memorboek,326;letterdatedJuly31,1827,GAA5186-698,GemeenteArchiefAmsterdam.
76VanLeeuwen,"DeGelykstaatderJoden.
"ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR251IfonlyIcouldsweeptheBreestreet,Iwouldhavemoney.
"77UnemploymentwasacommonfeatureofEuropeanportcitiessuchasAmsterdam,whichdependedheavilyonseasonalworkers.
78Inthatsense,lackofemploymentaffectedthewholecity.
Manycraftsworkshopsproducedgoodsforexport,andtraderstrafckedinbothimportedandexportedgoods.
Reducedeco-nomicactivityatcertaintimesoftheyearwasthustypicalnotonlyofJews;itwasageneraltrendinearlymoderncities.
Sometimesitwasdifculttodiscernthedifferencebetweenbeggarsandunsuccessfulmerchants.
Forinstance,JewishbeggarsdeportedtocampsinthenorthernNetherlandsconsideredthemselvestobemerchants.
79Thepar-odicPurimproductionAlgebreischundakurantalmanakrallereyzende,gehende,farende,undzitsendeleytenmitgeldundzondergeld[Thealge-braicandaccuratealmanacforalltraveling,moving,sailing,andsittingpeo-plewithorwithoutmoney]addressesthisnelinebetweenbeggingandbusinessfailureasitridiculesthehabitmanyJewshadofconsideringthem-selvestobesalesmenevenwhentheyhadnothingtosell:"March–Aprilfairsforallprominentbusinessmenwhohavenomerchandise:Batavier.
.
.
TheFolistreet.
.
.
Komkommermarket.
.
.
.
"80ReferencedhereareimportanttrademarketsandstreetsintheJewishQuarterthatwereknownforanabundanceofJewishpeddlers,mostlysellingsimilaritems,allofquestionableuseful-ness.
AccordingtoDessauer,thedisproportionatenumberofJewsintradewasresponsiblefortheJewishcommunity'spoverty.
81InanarrativesongwiththerevealingtitleArbeitundFleiss[Workanddiligence],Dessauerencour-agesJewstolearnacraftandexplicitlyaddressesthequestionofJewishpro-ductivity.
ThispiecebearsmanysimilaritiestoRebHenokhandLeichtsinnundFrmmeleiasitclearlyconveysamaskilicmessageintendedtoalterthebehavioroftheJews.
Init,twosistersareinsearchofahusband.
Bothashoemakerandatailorpropose.
However,thesistersarereluctantastheydonotconsidereitheronehonorableorappropriate:"Ohnotailor,atailorandashoemaker,doyoudespiseusNo,wewanttomarrymerchants.
"8277AnayePurimlukh,fol.
2.
BreestraatwasthemainstreetintheJewishQuarterofAmster-dam.
78Forcities'economicdependenceonimmigrants,seeCharlesTilly,"MigrationinModernEuropeanHistory,"inHumanMigration:PatternsandPolicies,ed.
WilliamH.
McNeillandRuthS.
Adams(Bloomington,IN,1978),48–71.
79LetterdatedJuly31,1827(seen.
75above).
80AnayePurimlukh,fol.
19.
81Becauseoftheshiftincontent,thelanguage,andthelackofhumor,thisbrochurebyDessauerisregardedbyFuksandAptrootasnotaproperPurimproductioneventhoughDessauerhimselflabeleditassuch.
SeeFuks,"VanPoerimspelentotPoerimkranten,"176;andAptroot,"WesternYiddishYontev-bletlekh,"55.
82JacobHartogDessauer,ArbeitundFleiss,2,YidNed497,LibraryRosenthaliana.
252T.
RDECKERAsthereactionofthesistersdemonstrates,professionssuchasshoemakerandtailorwerefrownedon.
Toboosttheesteemoftheartisan,Dessauerletsthetailoranswerthesisters:"Thecraftsmanisjustasgoodasanyoneelse.
Iftherewerenocraftsmen,therewouldbenomerchants.
"Theshoemakercontinues:"Ahumanisaman,whenheishumanandhonest.
Theworldisdividedundervariousstars.
Wecannotbecomeeverything.
"Thenthechoirrespondswiththemuch-citedanswertothequestionofJewishproductivity:"Wecannotalllivefromtradeandliveasmerchants;variationinconductcangiveusnourishment.
"83DessauerclearlyintendedtoconvincetheJewsthatworkingincraftsprovidedfoodandwasthereforejustashonorableasworkingintrade.
Towardtheendofthesong,thewomenarenallyconvincedofthere-spectabilityoftheartisansandhappilyproclaim:No,no,no,IwillnolongertarryIshouldquicklymarryAsawomanagesHerappearancechangesAndifshedoesn'thavealotofcapitalAhusbandshewillnotgetatallThereforeacraftsmanitwillbeAshecanprovideformeBetteronethannone.
84Here,Dessauerexplicitlyconnectstheartisan'sproductivitywithusefulness.
BeingproductivewasanEnlightenmentideal,andthispreoccupationwithutilityisreectedinvariouscivicassociations.
Thewordusefulnessappearsinthenamesofvariousinstitutions,andittypiesthepivotalroleattributedtocivilsocietyintheprocessofsocialchange.
Thingswerevaluableonlyiftheybenetedhumanity.
Forinstance,themostimportantDutchassocia-tionaimingtocivilizethemasseswascalledtheMaatschappijtotNutvan'tAlgemeen[Associationforthebenetofthecommongood].
Jewswere,however,excludedfrommembershipinit.
85Inlinewiththevalueattributedtoproductivity,Dessauerpraisesthecrafts.
Sothecarpenterhammers,theweaverweaves,andthecookcooks;theirprofessionsarerespectableastheyallbring"breadtothetable.
"Inthenalcouplet,theideasofrespectability83Ibid.
,3.
("WirknnenallenichtvomHandel,UndalsKaueuteleben,VerschiendenheitinLebenswandel,KannunsNahrunggeben.
")84Ibid.
,4.
85MerelStikkelorum,"DeJoodsegelijkberechtingende'verlichte'praktijk:DeMaatschap-pijtotNutvan'tAlgemeenonderdeloep1796–1798,"inEenveelzijdigeverstandhouding:ReligieenverlichtinginNederland,1650–1850,ed.
ErnestinevanderWallandLeoWessels(Nijmegen,2008),358–73.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR253andusefulnessareonceagainexpressedwhenthechoirsings:"Beingusefulisourgoal.
.
.
andthegreatestartstayssmallwhensheisofnousetotheworld.
"86ThePurimproductionDiPurimkrantfonPoylendoiznikstsuhoylen[FromPolandthereisnothingtoobtain]furtherelaboratestheconnectionbetweenbusinessfailureandpoverty.
"Itrains;Iamsowet,Ireturn.
Idonothavefun;Idonothaveadime,chilblainedhandsandnomoney.
Whatdoesonedotomakemoney"ThedifcultlivingconditionsoftheJewsandtheiremploymentinpettytradecontributedtotheirinabilitytoearnadecentliving.
Mostworkedinthesameindustry,whichstarklydecreasedearningpotentialperperson.
Theythereforetraveledduringtheweek,tryingtoselltheirwareswhereverpossible.
87Othersattempted,forbetterorworse,toselltheiroften-uselessitemsintownortriedtheirluckasportersorcarriers.
Intheireagernesstosellasmanyitemsaspossible,livelyandoftennoisysellingmethodscausednumerousconictsbetweenJewishmerchants,guildmembers,andthecityauthorities.
88Jewishmerchantspresentedtheirgoodsinthestreetandloudlyproclaimedtheirprices.
Repeatedly,cityauthoritiesaswellastheJewishcommunitywarnedthemtoobeyregulationsandnotdisturbtrafcorcauseupheavals.
89Consideringthatsuchwarningsrecurredthroughouttheeighteenthcentury,attemptstocontroltheJewishmerchantswereapparentlyinvain.
Theneedtoearnalivingprobablyfarexceededanythreatofpunitivemeasures.
TheideathatunproductiveJewsareworthlessinthemselvesisexploredinAntvertanShloymeDuikelaar[ResponsetoShloumeDuikelaar].
There,Duikelaardescribeshowheundertookasuccessionoftradesinordertopro-videforhisfamily.
ThebrochurestartswithadepictionofDuikelaartryingtocashinalotteryticketatclearlyinappropriateplaces(e.
g.
,afarmhouse)andthenmovesontohisattemptstopursuevariousprofessions.
Forexam-ple:"Ibeganwithanotherprofession,namelycorncutter(allfeetarelthy).
Therst[corn]Icutwithsharpknivesuntil[thepatient]wascompletelycutbymyhands.
.
.
.
Anapothecaryanddoctorhadtohelp.
Whatwasmy86Dessauer,ArbeitundFleiss,4,5.
87SeeMichmanandAptroot,eds.
andtrans.
,StormintheCommunity,468;HettyBerg,TheraWijsenbeek,andEricFischer,eds.
,Venter,fabriqueur,fabricant:Joodseondernemersenon-dernemingeninNederland,1796–1940(Amsterdam,1994);andvanLeeuwen,"DeGelyk-staatderJoden,"55–59.
88ThechronicleofBraatbardrefersextensivelytothemanyupheavalsbetweenguildmembersandJews.
SeeLeoFuks,trans.
,Dezevenprovincininberoering:HoofdstukkenuiteenJid-dischekroniekoverdejaren1740–1752vanAbrahamChaimBraatbard(Amsterdam,1960),106–22.
89See,e.
g.
,ProtocolbuchII,pp.
13,230,305,602,GAA714,GemeenteArchiefAmsterdam.
254T.
RDECKERluckThatIescapedquickly.
"90Inthisexample,Duikelaar'sclumsinessisridiculedinrelationtothedirtinessoffeet.
Referencestosmells,pain,andbodilyexcretionswereintendedhumorously.
ConnectingfailureandfraudwasatypicalcomicdevicereappearinginmanyDutchplays.
91Inhisnextattempt,Duikelaarsuffersfromhisown"inexperience":"Well,IthoughtwhatcanbebetterthanapeatcarrierTotherst[client]Ibroughtpeat,twostairshigh.
Iarrivedatthehighestthreshold;Islippedandfelltwostairsdown.
WhatwasmyluckThatitwasn'tthreestairs.
"(Duikelaar'sname,whichtranslatesas"tumbler,"alsoreectsclumsiness.
Tumblerswereartistswhoearnedtheirlivingasclowns,makingfunnyandclumsygestures,andoftentumblingonthestage.
)Duikelaarthenbecomesaphysician—andkillshispatientwithanineffectivemedicine.
Inoneofhislasteffortsatearningaliving,hebecomesasellerofmusselsincreamatafair.
WhiletheJewsdonotbuyfromhim(becausethemusselisnotkosher),"luckily"heisabletosellhismerchandise,albeitataloss.
92Thecontinuousfailuretondprotableemploymentreectsthegallowshumorofapeopletypicallyineconomicdespair.
Humorbecameforthemameanstocopepsychologicallywiththeirhardships.
TheDiskursnofthenayekillelikewisedrawalinkbetweentheinabilitytoworkinthecraftsandtheJews'backwardness:"IwanttoservethiscountryinwhichIhaveashare.
Andformyhousehold,too,bymakingalivinginanhonorableway.
Ifyouhaveatrade,buyyourselfintoaguild.
Ifyouhaveashopthatisn'tfree,buyyourselfintoaguild.
Becomeaman.
Don'tremainaJewinabjection.
"93Here,DessauerpresentsmanuallaborasacureforthewretchedpositionoftheJews.
Physicallaboranditsmaterialresultcouldturnthemintocitizensandhumanbeings.
ThenegativerepresentationoftheJews'methodsofbreadwinningwasfurtherfosteredbytheircircular(orrepeat)migration,afunctionoftheirever-decreasingopportunitiestosettleandearnalivinginEasternEuropeandtheGerman-speakingcountries.
94SomeJewsevenjoinedgangs,andintheeighteenthcenturysomeDutchgangswerealmostexclusivelyJewish.
95This,coupledwithalargegroupofbetteljuden(Jewishbeggars),addedtothe90AntvertanShloymeDuikelaar,YidNed480,LibraryRosenthaliana.
91B.
A.
M.
RamakersandKarelE.
Eykman,eds.
,Listenbedrog:Drierederijkerskluchten(Amsterdam,2009),16–17.
92AntvertanShloymeDuikelaar.
93MichmanandAptroot,eds.
andtrans.
,StormintheCommunity,136.
94Forinstance,FrederickIIofPrussiaissuedadecreein1744restrictingthesettlementofJewsinBreslau,andinRussiaJewscouldresideonlyinthePaleofSettlement.
95FlorikeEgmond,Ophetverkeerdepad:GeorganiseerdemisdaadindeNoordelijkeNeder-landen,1650–1800(Amsterdam,1994),142–67.
ADDRESSINGTHEJEWISHQUESTIONWITHHUMOR255alreadynegativeimageoftheJew.
96TheboldimageofthedishonorableJewmovingfromcitytocityisembodiedintwocharactersintheplayAlzdersofizgut,izallezgut.
OneisRebYokesh,thewonderrabbifromGalicia,andtheotherisYerushalmi,theswindlerposingasasettlementcollector.
Bothchar-actersrepresentthewanderingEasternEuropeanJewishimmigrant.
Theydonothaveacraftbutinsteadresorttopreyingonthegoodnessandnavetéofothers.
RebYokesh,forinstance,isinsearchofalucrativepositionasateacherandextensivelyquotesrabbinicliterature,whichhequiteoftentwiststohisownbenet.
Thus,whenthehost,theparnasLipman,reactssuspiciouslyandquestionshisrealintentions,RebYokeshchangestheusualexplanationof"letanothermanpraisethee,butnotthineownmouth"(Prov.
27:2)tothefollowing:"WhoisallowedtopraisemeNomore,no:itiswrit-ten,letanothermanpraisethee,thatmeansastranger,whodoesnotknowyou;heisallowedtopraise.
Fromthatitderives,ifamanknowssomeone,thatistosaysomeonelikeyou,whonodoubtknowsme,heisnotallowedtopraise.
Therefore,ifamanfullsthisobligation,onedoesnotpraise.
Also,Iexecutethisruleandpraiseonlymyself.
"97Here,RebYokeshexplainsthat,becauseoneisnotallowedtopraiseone-self,onealsocannotbepraisedbyanacquaintance.
However,hethenturnsthisexplanationonitshead,forgettingtherstrule,namely,nottopraiseoneself.
ThisbizarreexplanationoftheverserevealstheskillofthewriterinplayingwithtraditionalJewishtextsandtheologicalreasoningwhileatthesametimecriticizingthosewhouseJewishliteraturefortheirowngain.
Inaway,theplayresemblesthemid-nineteenth-centurymaskilicsatire,con-demningtheHasidiclifestyleandabuseofreligioustexts.
Assuch,itisagoodexampleofhowJewishunproductivitybecameanewthemeinthePurimproductions.
ConclusionThePurimproductionsshowanengagementwiththeJewishQuestion,ad-dressingsuchissuesasproductivityandtheimmensepovertyofDutchJewry.
BothpovertyandunproductivitywerecriticizedandpositionedinrelationtotheoccupationalstructureofJewishsociety.
ThePurim'sscatologicalandcarnivaltraditionswereusedtochannelpoliticalsolutionstoeconomicdistress.
Thosesolutionswerenotuncommonornewbutinsteadreectedeighteenth-centuryideasabouttheutilityofmankind.
Inlinewiththethink-ingonutility,beingusefulwasseenastheequivalentofbeingproductive.
96MichmanandAptroot,eds.
andtrans.
,StormintheCommunity,136.
97Fuks,ed.
,AllIsWell,4.
256T.
RDECKERThecraftswerehailedashonestoccupationsthatcouldelevatetheconditionofJews.
Sometimesthiscritiquewasarticulatedexplicitly,asinthecaseofDessauer'ssongs,butmoreoftenitwasimplicit,throughreferencestoun-employmentorshadyprofessions.
IntertwinedwithacriticalstancetowardtheeconomicsituationwerestereotypicalnotionsofJewishpovertyandun-productivity.
Bymixingscatologicalhumor,absurdsituations,andweatherconditionswithpoliticalsolutionstotheJewishQuestion,thegenreofthePurimpro-ductionplaceditselfrmlywithinthecontemporaryDutchsatirictraditionofmixinghumorwithpoliticalopinion.
Moreover,thePurimproductionsareanoutstandingexampleofhowthemaskilimemployedareligiousframeworkfortheircritiqueoftheJewishcommunityandtheruleoftheparnasim.