destinationreadnovel

FullTerms&Conditionsofaccessandusecanbefoundathttps://www.
tandfonline.
com/action/journalInformationjournalCode=fjps20TheJournalofPeasantStudiesISSN:(Print)(Online)Journalhomepage:https://www.
tandfonline.
com/loi/fjps20StiefmoederAarde[StepmotherEarth]byTheundeVries(1936)JanDouwevanderPloegTocitethisarticle:JanDouwevanderPloeg(2020):StiefmoederAarde[StepmotherEarth]byTheundeVries(1936),TheJournalofPeasantStudies,DOI:10.
1080/03066150.
2020.
1774701Tolinktothisarticle:https://doi.
org/10.
1080/03066150.
2020.
17747012020TheAuthor(s).
PublishedbyInformaUKLimited,tradingasTaylor&FrancisGroupPublishedonline:31Aug2020.
SubmityourarticletothisjournalArticleviews:224ViewrelatedarticlesViewCrossmarkdataAGRARIANCLASSICSREVIEWSERIESStiefmoederAarde[StepmotherEarth]byTheundeVries(1936)JanDouwevanderPloega,baCollegeofHumanitiesandDevelopmentStudies,ChinaAgriculturalUniversity,Beijing,People'sRepublicofChina;bRuralSociology,WageningenUniversity,Wageningen,NetherlandsABSTRACTThisarticlepresentsanddiscusses'StepmotherEarth',anovelwrittenbytheFrisianauthorTheundeVriesandpublished,forthersttime,in1936.
Thisnovelisaclassicworkinthetraditionofagrarianstudies.
Itstandsoutinlinkingcriticaltheorywithpeople'severydayexperiencesandlanguage.
Thetextalsoreectsthepoliticalstrugglesthatreignedthecountrysideatthetimeofwriting.
Thebookstillisremarkablyrelevantand,inaway,uptodate.
KEYWORDSAgrarianclassic;peasants;sociallogic;socialstruggles;anarchismInthisarticle,IwillintroduceanddiscussStiefmoederAarde[StepmotherEarth]byTheundeVries.
Thishistoricalnovel,rstpublishedin1936,isaclassicinthetraditionofcriticalagrar-ianstudies(DeVries1936).
ItisamonumentalandmovingrepresentationoftheagrarianhistoryoftheprovinceofFrisiainthenorthoftheNetherlands–comparableIthinktotherepresentation,manydecadeslater,oftwentiethcentury'sclassstrugglesintheNorthernItaliancountrysideinNovecento,theepicmovieofBernardoBertolucci.
Itdoesfeel,atrstinstance,abitspeculativetodiscussanovelasaclassicwithintheframeworkofcriticalagrar-ianstudies.
However,IwillarguethatStepmotherEarthadds(asdoseveralothernovels,movies,paintingsandpoems)strategicelementsthatarenotprovidedbythemoreortho-doxapproachesbutwhichexpandourperceptionandcriticalunderstandingofpeasants,peasantstrugglesandpeasantagriculture.
AparticularlyimportantaspectofdeVries'workishisabilitytolink'criticaltheory'(avantlalettre)withpeople'severydayexperiencesandlanguage.
Healsodiscussestherelationsbetweenpopulismandfascismwhich,sadly,hasonceagainrecentlybecomeapressingtheme.
Aboveall,TheundeVriesshowsthelinkbetweenthestrugglesforsocialismandpeasantagricultureandpeasants.
Inthe1930sStepmotherEarthwasconsideredtobethemostwidelyreadbookintheNeth-erlands(Overdiep1938,171–172;HetVrijeVolk1967)1anditbecameanimportantpointofreferenceinsocio-politicaldebatesofthetime.
Formanyitwaslike'abible'(FrieseKoerier2020TheAuthor(s).
PublishedbyInformaUKLimited,tradingasTaylor&FrancisGroupThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivativesLicense(http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.
0/),whichpermitsnon-commercialre-use,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited,andisnotaltered,transformed,orbuiltuponinanyway.
CONTACTJanDouwevanderPloegjandouwe.
vanderploeg@wur.
nlThisreviewformspartofJPS's'AgrarianClassics'reviewseries,inwhichleadingscholarsrevisitclassicworksinagrarianstudiestoexaminetheirlegacyandcontemporaryrelevance.
Thesereviewsbringolderworks–bothwell-knownandunderappreciated–intodialoguewithcurrenttheoreticaldebates,politicalstruggles,transformationsinglobalcapital-ism,andtrajectoriesofagrarianchange.
1In1972StepmotherEarthwasintegratedintoatrilogyentitled'HetGeslachtWiarda'[TheWiardaLineage].
Itreachedagainawideaudience.
THEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIEShttps://doi.
org/10.
1080/03066150.
2020.
17747011963).
Itwastranslatedmanytimes,butintriguinglyonlyintoGerman,PolishandotherEasternEuropeanlanguages.
2ThereisnoEnglishtranslationavailableandthisprobablyreects,amongotherthings,thespecicityofagriculturaldevelopmenttrajectoriesinthenorthwestofEurope(theNetherlands,Denmark,Belgium,andpartsofFranceandGermany)–tra-jectoriesthatstronglydierfromtheBritishone,whichwashighlightedintheworksofKarlMarxandwhichare,therefore,diculttounderstandforanAnglo-Saxonaudience.
'StepmotherEarthpresentsacomprehensiveviewofFrisianpeasantagricultureinthenineteenthCenturyandhowitrelates,ontheonehand,tocapitalismasitdevelopedatthattimeandtothelabourmovementontheother'(deMaere1980).
'Usingfamilyepi-sodesitshowsthebigsocialandeconomicchanges,therevoltagainstthepovertyoftheworkers[…],thecrisis,labourmovements,feminismandthethreatoftheloomingWorldWar1'(terBraak[1936]1956).
TheriftBeforeenteringintothestorylinesthataredevelopedinStepmotherEarth,therearesomepertinentquestionsthatshouldbeasked.
TherstonecentresontherelationsbetweenMarxistintellectualsintheNetherlandsandthespecicityofDutchpeasantagriculture.
Thesecondregardsthetitleofthebook.
AtthetimethatStepmotherEarthwaswritten,theNetherlandshadarichandwell-articu-latedMarxisttraditioninwhichpeoplelikeHenrietteRolandHolst,JanandAnnieRomein,FerdinandDomelaNieuwenhuis,JoValkho,AntonPannekoekandHermanGorterstoodout.
TheycommunicateddirectlywithKarlMarx(asdidDomelaNieuwenhuis),FriedrichEngelsand,somewhatlater,withKarlKautskyandRosaLuxemburg(amongothers).
Theyalsorelated,albeitindierentways,tothesocialmovementsofthetime.
Atthesametime,Dutchagriculturestoodoutasremarkable,inseveralrespects:therewas,e.
g.
,anotableprocessofre-peasantizationinthelastdecadesofthenineteenthandtherstdecadesofthetwentiethcenturiesandagriculturalproductionasawholekeptgrowingconsiderably.
However,thetwo–theMarxistintellectualsandthestrong,vividandcontra-dictorystoryofDutchagriculture–neverreallymet,letaloneexchangedideasormutuallyenrichedeachotherintellectually.
ThespecicityofDutchagriculturewasnotgrasped,norreectedandexplainedbytheMarxisttheoristsofthattime.
Ittook,instead,anovelisttodoso.
Itwasonlyin,throughandbymeansofanovelthatTheundeVries(whowashimselfaconvincedMarxist,ahistorianandactionwriter[Perry2010])createdanunderstandingofpeasantlifethatexpandedthelimitsofMarxistorthodoxy.
InretrospecttheriftbetweenthetheoristswithaMarxistbackgroundandthestrengthsandtragediesofpeasantlifeiseasytoexplain.
ItwasclearlyduetothehegemonyofthethenprevailingLeninistview.
Byinsistingontheinevitableclassdierentiationofpeasantagricultureintoasmallpocketofrich,capitalistfarmersandahugemassofdown-troddenlandlessruralworkers(aperspectivethatmayhavebeenvalidinsomespecicsituations),thisviewwasmyopicincontrastingdevelopmentaltrendsandclasscongurations.
Therigidorganizations,'democraticcentralism'andtrueorpresumed'solidarity'didtherest.
Deviationsfromtheprescribedanddominantviewtriggereddenunciationsof'revi-sionism','divisionism'andthelike.
2Thebookwastranslatedin1994intoFrisianandentitled'StyfmemIerde'(DeVries1994).
2J.
D.
VANDERPLOEGWithinthispanoramaitwasonlywithin,andfrom,theintersticesthatthegermsofdierentviewsandrepresentationscoulddevelopandbecommunicated.
Exile,3armedstruggle,4beinglocatedinafarawayperiphery,5andtheartshappenedtobesuchinterstices.
Andaslongastheveilofthehegemonicviewwasrespected(or,atleast,nottorntopieces),6thenew,alternativewaysofseeinganddoingcouldhaveaconsiderableoutreach.
TheundeVriesandthewayheusedliteratureisemblematicforthecaseofarts.
Step-motherEarthimplicitlyraises–andrespondsto–questionsthatdenitelyfelloutsidethehorizonofrelevanceofMarxist-Leninistorthodoxy.
Whyarelandlessworkerslongingforand,ifpossible,constructingtheirownsmallpeasantfarmWhyarepeasantsworkingashardasthedevilanddefendingtheirfarmatwhatevercostWhyaretheyexperiencingtheirlifeandworkasa'struggle'.
Whyarelargefarmsnottheself-evident'winners'inpro-cessesofdierentiationWhyisbeingapeasantnotconsideredtobeashame,atleastbypeasantsthemselvesHowcanpeasantsandworkersrelateDoesthesueringinthecoldandweteldsmakesenseAndwhywastheanarchistclergymanDomelaNieuwenhuiswelcomedbyruralworkersas'OurSaviour'TheresponsescontainedinStepmotherEarthwereapparentlyrecognizedbymanyreaderswhowerecomfortedbythem.
Thisprobablyexplainsthehugereadershipthatthebookattracted.
StepmotherEarthwasindeedoneofthe'booksofthepeople'(DeWaarheid1956).
Itresonatedwithwhatpeopleexperiencedineverydaylifeandithelpedthemtounderstanditabitbetter.
Inmoretheoreticalterms:StepmotherEarthdescribesthe'sociallogic'asidentied,manydecadeslater,byTeodorShanin(1972,76).
Togetherwiththebetterknown'economiclogic',this'sociallogic'governs,throughcomplexinteractions,developmentsinthecountryside.
Knowingthis'sociallogic'istobeanindispensableingredientofcriticalagrarianstudies.
TheresponsesuncoveredbyTheundeVriesalsoaddress,indirectly,twotheoreticalissuesthathavebeencentralinalldebatesabouttheagrarianquestion.
First,howdoespeasantagriculturerelatetocapitalismgenerallyAndsecond,howshouldsocialistpoli-ticsunderstandanddealwiththespecic(class)positionofpeasantsIwillcomebacktotheseissuesandthespeciccontributionofStepmotherEarthattheendofthisarticle.
ThetitleForreadersofthetwenty-rstcenturywhoprobablyarefamiliarwith'MotherEarth','PachaMamma'andsimilarreferences,therepresentationoftheEarthasastepmother–cruel,miserly,hard,andbiting–will,forsure,besomewhatenigmatic.
Suchatitle3HereEmilioSereni(aprominentMarxistintellectualandCommunistleaderinItaly)isthetypicalexample.
Hewasinexile(inNice,France,fromwherehesupportedthearmedstruggleinItaly)wherehedevelopedthecontoursandprogrammeofwhatlaterbecametheAlleanzadeiContadini,therstPeasantConfederationintheCommunistsphereofinuence(seee.
g.
Sereni2000).
AfterthewarSerenibecameMinisterofAgricultureandlaterleaderoftheItalianPeasantFederation.
HehadaverydicultrelationwithStalin(eventuallythePopehadtorescuehimfromMoscow).
4HereMaoTseTungstandsoutasexample.
IntheendthesocialiststruggleinChinawasapeasantstruggle,andthePeople'sLiberationArmywasapeasants'army.
5JoséCarlosMariateguiand,inaway,HildebrandoCastroPozo(bothfromPeru)developedaviewonthecountryside,theagrarianquestion(andtheassociatedquestionoftheindigenouspeople)thatdeviatedinmanyrespectsfromorthodoxy(seeMariátegui1928;CastroPozo1936).
ThedistancefromMoscowwasprobablyanadvantagehere.
6AtthelevelofideologyMaoTseTung,forinstance,kepttalkingaboutaproletarianrevolution,thevanguardpositionoftheworkers,etc.
allofwhichwasatoddswiththerealsituation.
Allthiswasunavoidable.
MaoTseTungdependedonStalinforthedeliveryofweaponsand,lateron,economichelp.
THEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIES3referstohardshipandsueringand,moregenerally,toanantagonisticrelationbetweenmanandnature.
However,suchanotionisfarfromuncommoninFrisianliterature.
LateronHylkeSpeerstra(agiftednovelistandhighlyfamiliarwithpeasantlifeinthesecondhalfofthetwentiethCentury)willwriteaboutthe'WredeParadijs'[TheCruelParadise]7andcharacterizefarmingin'DeOerpolder'[TheAncientPolder]as'ongoingstruggle'(wraksel-jen)(Speerstra1999,2006).
Andyes,natureandthelandare,indeed,sometimesextremelycruelinFrisia,butsotheyareintheAndesmountainsaswellwherethechaccliisneededto'break'thesoilastheliteralexpressiongoes.
TheundeVriesexplainshispositionwell.
Indeed,thelandoftenisa'stepmother'topeople.
Ithurtsandexhauststhem.
Itdamagespeople,asthenarrativeinthebookamplydemonstrates.
Thisraisesatmanypointsraucousoutcries:whyistheearthlackinggenerosity,whydoesn'tshebringwarmthandhappinessItistrue:'peopletrustthefavoursthelandwillrenderthem,thelandonwhichtheybuildtheirhouses,andonwhichtheirherdsareourishing;thelandthatrendersthemthemoneytheyneed'(DeVries1980,199).
8Therefore'thefarmermightpraytoGod,thankingandfearinghimsimul-taneously.
Butintheearthhetrusts,evenwithoutdemands;theearthisamothertohim,shefeedseverybodyandrejectsnobody'(200).
Nonetheless,asthenarrativeamplydemon-strates,thesamemotherbringsinrealitytragedies,disastersanddespairtomany.
Lateroninthebookoneofthekeycharactersinthebook(Karel,asocialistworkerandakindoforganicintellectualaswewouldsaynowadays)explainsthiscontradiction.
DuringastrikeandafteraninterventionofapreacherwhoaimstobreakthestrikeKarelshouts,tothehesitantpeople:'Nowit'senough.
ThelanddoesnotbelongtoGod.
Thatistheexcusetheyalwaysusetosuppressthepeople.
No,Itellyouthatthelandbelongstous,toallofus.
Thelandgivesenough,sheisgeneroustoeverybody,shebringsamplerichness.
Butyou,thechurchandthemoney,youhavestolentheloveofmotherearthfromus.
Youmadeastepmotheroutofher.
Astepmotherearth!
Thatiswhywecannotshareinthefruitsoftheearth,that'swhyweremainwithnothingbuthunger'(404).
TheauthorTheundeVries(1907–2005)wasbornintheNorthernFrisianWoodlands,inthevillageofVeenwouden.
Heknewpeasantlifefromhisinfancy(terBraak[1936]1956,174).
MennoterBraak,afamousnovelistofthattimeandhighlycriticalofStepmotherEarth,declaredanywaythat'[this]authorknowsverywellwhatheiswritingabout,heisthoroughlyfam-iliarwiththeobjectthatheknowsfromdirectobservation'([1936]1956,172–176).
Beyondthat,hediligentlygroundedhiswritingenterpriseonextendeddocumentation(Mak2003).
TheundeVrieshimselfexplainedtohiscontemporariesthathisnovelisnon-ction,'itisgroundedinfacts'(LeeuwarderNieuwsblad1938).
Hestatedaswell,inaninterviewattheoccasionofhis80thbirthdaythatStepmotherEarthwashis'trulysocialistnovel'(DeWaarheid1987)7ThisbookcarefullydocumentsthelifeofFrisianfarmersandruralworkerswhomigratedtoCanada,Australia,theUSA,Paraguay,SouthAfrica,etc.
andhopedtoencountermorefavourableconditionstogainadecentlivinganddevelopabeautifulfarm.
Formanythenewdestinationturnedouttobeadverseandcruel.
Thefarmers'womenparticularlysueredinthenew'paradise'(seeSpeerstra1999).
8Thisandallfollowingquotesaremytranslations.
Thepagenumbersrefertothe1980editionof'HetgeslachtWiarda',publishedbyQuerido'sUitgeverijinAmsterdam.
4J.
D.
VANDERPLOEGDeVriesbecamewell-knownwithamuchlaudedpublicationentitled'Rembrandt'.
InneighbouringNaziGermanythetranslatededitionof'Rembrandt'wasprohibitedandburnt.
SoonafterwardshewroteStepmotherEarth.
InthemeantimehegainedalivingbyworkingaslibrarianinthepubliclibraryofSneek,amodestcityinFrisia,andlateronasjournalistforthecommunistdaily'Volksdagblad'andacontributortothe'Tribune'.
InWorldWar2thatfollowedsoonheengagedintheresistance,wasarrestedbytheoccu-pyingGermanForces,connedfor10monthsintheAmersfoortLagerafterwhichhewasliberatedbytheresistanceandcontinuedwithhisundergroundactivities.
Afterthewarhereturnedtowriting;thisresultedinanimpressiveoeuvre.
In1963hewasawardedtheP.
C.
Hooftprize(thehighestawardintheNetherlandsforliterature)andwasnominated(in1974),bytheDutchPEN,fortheNobelprizeforliterature(whichhedidnotget).
Hispublicrolewasmuchdisputed,especiallyduringtheColdWarperiod.
Thismadehimintoalonelyman,especiallyafter1971whenhequittheCom-munistParty.
In1979hewashonoured,bytheUniversityofGroningen,asdoctorhonoriscausa'forhavingservedinaprofessionalandhonestwaythescienceofhistory'.
Accordingtothedocumentthatjustiedthenomination,TheundeVriessuc-cessfullyprovidedthe'skeletonofMarxisttheorywiththeeshandblood[ofreallife]'(Perry2010).
ThestoryThestartingpointofthebookistheWiardafarm(inDutch:'deWiardaZate').
Itisoneofthose'farmsthatarelyingaswaitinganimalsintheelds'(127).
Waitingforlabour,thatis.
Thefarmistheoutcomeoflabour,ofhandsthatfoughtthehostileland,ofhandsthatmadedykesbetweentheseas,swampsandtheland[…]Handsthatbuildstables,barnsforthehayandsheds.
Handsthatcaressedtheanksofthehorses[…]andslaughteredanimals.
Handsthatdigged,ploughedandentrustedseedtothefurrows.
(127)Thefarmclearlygureshereasbeingman-made.
Itistheoutcomeofco-production:theongoinginteraction,andmutualtransformation,ofmanandnature.
Thefarm,theeldsandtheanimalsareallmadeby,andthroughlabour.
Theyarematerializedlabour.
'Unknownancestorswhodiedlongagohavebeensweatingandtoilinghereinordertomakethefarmprosper,freeofdebtsandasindependentaspossible'(129).
Inasfarasthefarmrepresentsa'capital'(avaluablewholethatallowsforproduction),itisthematerializationofthelabourdedicatedtoit.
This'capital'(or'patrimony')belongstothosewhoprovidedthelabour.
And,asmuchasthefarmresultedfromtheworkdonebygenerations,itnowrequireslabourforitscontinuityanddevelopment.
Thatiswhytheyarelyingthere'aswaitinganimals'.
Theyawaittheworkofthosethatbelongtothem.
TheWiardafarmisatypicaldomus(asdescribedbyLeRoyLadurie1984).
Theland,theeldsandtheanimalsbelongtotheWiardafamily,justasthefamilybelongstothefarm.
Thefamilyfeelsdutyboundtowork,protect,anddevelopthefarm:todig,ploughandentrusttheseedstothefurrow.
Thatiswhythefarmisdimensionedaccordingtotheavail-ableworkforce:FatherWychman,motherSwobk,andtheirtwosonsJarigandTjalling(thereisasisteraswell,Tet,butsheismarriedouttoanotherdomus)providelabourtothefarmandthesizeofthefarmtsthislaboursupply.
ItisonlywhenoneormoreofthefamilyTHEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIES5membersareunabletodotheworkthatsalariedworkersarecontracted.
9Theythenreplacethemissingfamilymember.
Theruleisthatthe'farmstandsonitsown'andthatthefarmerisa'sovereign'(131).
Theyearlyexception,ofcourse,istheharvestofthehay(andespeciallythemowingofthegrass)whenpart-timeworkersareneeded.
TheWiardafarmisaprosperousfarmanditharboursproudpeople.
Moreprecisely:itisarichfarmthathousesrichpeople.
Nonetheless,thesamefarmbringsdownfallanddis-aster.
FatherWychmanhangshimself;Jarig,theeldestsonendsup,afteraterribleepisodeinwhichhorsesandgenderplayanimportantrole,inprison–for15years.
Tjalling,theyoungerbrother,ndshimselfattheendworkingassalariedworkerinapoorsmallfarmonthesandysoilsintheFrisianWoodlands,wherehereplacesthefarmerwhobecamecripple.
FinallytheWiardafarmis,afteranintermezzo,tobesold.
Thedomusisdestroyed:apoignanttragedy.
Itisawell-toldstory,butnotthatctitious.
ThetragedyofthelargefarmisarecurrentthemeinFrisianandDutchliterature.
Toavoidit,thefarmingfamiliessometimeshadtomakeadealwiththedevil(asindeJong1979).
10PeoplewhoreadStepmotherEarthrecog-nizedit,itresonatedwiththeirownobservations.
Duringmyownyouth,onecouldpoint,allaroundthecountryside,toonce'well-establishedfarms'(ofgezetenboeren[well-ofarmers])thatweresurpassed,inthemeantime,bysmallfarmerswhodidwhatevertheycouldtodeveloptheirfarms.
Theselatterpeasantswerereferredto,inFrisianlanguage,aswrotters[rootersandalsopeoplewhoareworkingveryhard].
InStepmotherEarththetragedyofthelargefarms(probablyinspiredbythefallofcapitalistfarmsduringthe1880crisis)11comestotheforeasakindoffate.
'Pridegoesbeforeafall',asthepro-verbialsayinggoes.
Itisadestinydiculttoescapefrom.
Justasisitsurethat'aftertwodeathstherewillsooncomeathirdone'(196),itseemshardtoescapefromthistragedyofthelargefarms.
ScrutinizingStepmotherEarthmakesitclearthatsuchtragediesarelargelyrootedinthetemptationsofthesurroundingcapitalistworld(andespeciallyintheinter-twiningofsuchtemptationsandgenderrelations).
Horsesarekeyhere.
12Nottheworkinghorsesofthefarm,buttheeleganttrottersusedwhengoingout(toimpressothers),ortheswiftArabianstallionsusedforracing.
Suchhorsesareassociatedwithhighspending,gambling,speculationanddrinking.
LargepartsofStepmotherEarth(forinstance167–198and273–291)arededicatedtosuchhorse-boundtemptations:timeandagainthestorylineturnsintoatragedy.
'Horsesbringcalamityasanoldsayingstates[…]Whomeverstartswithhorseswillbeunabletostopwiththem.
Onlyverystronglegscanbearsuchwealth'(285).
Herehorsesclearlyarethemetaphorforboundary-crossingbehaviour.
Insteadofdedicatingtheirlabourandotherresources(notablytheirsavings)tothe9Thephenomenonofwageworkerswasomnipresentinarablefarming(especiallyintheNorthEastandSouthWestofthecountry).
Manyarablefarms(specializingingrains,potatoesandsugarbeets)werestructuredascapitalistenterprises.
Indairyfarmingthesituationwasdiametricallytheopposite:therewerehardlyanycapitalistdairyfarms.
Theexplanationofthisdivideresidesinthedierentnaturesofthelabourprocesses:dairyfarmingiscriticallydependentonskillsandcraftsmanship(andalsotheseasonalrhythmsoflabourrequirements).
10'HetgeslachtVerhagen',abeautifulnovelbyA.
M.
deJongisalsobasedonthemakingandsubsequentdownfallofalargefarminBrabant,thesouthoftheNetherlands.
Theauthorwasasocialist,engagedintheResistanceduringthewarandkilledbytheNazis.
11AsdocumentedbyJanLuitenvanZanden,aDutchagrarianhistorian(vanZanden1985).
12Ofcoursetherearemanyotherforms.
StepmotherEarthalsoreferstofarmers'forwhomearningmoneyshouldproceedasquickaspossible.
Theydonothesitatetostopcaringwellandworkingcleanlywhenpreparingbutter.
Thustheyruintheproduct.
Thestupids!
'(210).
Fraudwithbutterandinvadingthemarketwithinferiorproductswas,atthattime,averywidelyspreadphenomenon.
Itwasonlycounteredeectivelythroughtheconstructionofcooperativedairyfactories,strictgovernmentcontrolsandobligatorybrands.
6J.
D.
VANDERPLOEGfarm('thewaitinganimal'),theydedicatetheirtimeandmoneytoother,probablymorepromisingandurbanactivitieshopingthatthesewillrenderthem'thegoldenwhip'–thehighestpossiblepremiumprovidedbytheKing.
Itisthrough,andbymeansof,suchluxuryhorsesthatrichfarmerscrossthenormativeboundaryassociatedwiththe'embarrassmentofriches'(Schama1987)whichismeanttokeeprichnessinvisible.
Itshouldremaininthefarm(andbeusedtodevelopitfurther);itshouldnotpasselsewhereinordertotrytomakemoremoney–letaloneinanostentatiousway.
Thewrottersmentionedbeforearetheantithesisofthewell-establishedfarmers.
TheyalsogurequiteprominentlyinStepmotherEarth.
'Rootingandsaving'(437).
Workingashardandaslongaspossible,bothmanandwoman(andchildren)livealifeassoberaspossibleandmakesomesavingsthatmayallowthemtomoveforward.
Foarútwrotte[rootahead],thatisthelifeofwrotters.
'Threepoordairycows,foursheep,ashedwithchickens,someducksinthecanal,apigtobeslaughteredandifpossibleearninghereorthereadailywage'(436).
Andofcoursethedream,theaspirationthat,throughtheirhardwork,thingsmightgetbetter–ifnotforthemselvesthenfortheirchildren.
Herelabouriscentralaswell.
Byworkinghardthepoorpeasants(thewrotters)buildalittlepatrimonythatmightformastartingpointfortheirchildren.
Itisdireneedthatpushesthemforwards–justasitistemptationthatmakesthelargefarmersdeviate.
ThetwomainstorylinesinStepmotherEarth(representedbyJarigandTjallingrespect-ively)comedowntotheinteractionofeconomicandsociallogic.
Prideandhorsesontheonehand,andtheeconomiccrisisofthe1880sontheother,makeforthecollapseoftheWiardadomus(moreaboutthiscrisisandhowitaectedfarminglateron).
Jarig,theeldestsonandoutspoken'horseman'goestojail,thenlivesinthedarksideofthecityandnally,whencompletelybroke,becomesalabourerinthepeatindustryandasaresultbecomesfamiliarwithlabourmovementsandsocialism.
Tjalling,hisyoungerbrother,becomesaruralworker,butthroughmarriageacquiresasmallfarmthatheisabletodevelop13–makingtruethedreamofthewrotter.
HereweareattheheartoftheworkofTheundeVries.
Againstallorthodoxyitisthelargefarmerwhodisappearsandtheruralworker,originallycompletelylandless,whois,againstallodds,abletodevelopasmallfarmintoamoreprosperousone.
14Bothareembodiedinoneandthesameperson.
InTjalling,thelargefarmertolosehisfarmandthentheproletariandreamingof,andabletoconstruct–asawrotter–anewfarm.
ItispreciselytheunityofthesetwocontrastingidentitiesinoneandthesamepersonthatgivesStepmotherEarthitsnarrativesplendour.
15Thesameunityofcontrasting,ifnotconicting,elementscanalsobefoundinJarig,theelderbrotherofTjalling.
Afterjailthereisaperiodthathespendsinthedarkcornersofthe13Thefrequentshiftsfromtheconditionofapoorruralworkertooneof(small)peasant,andtheotherwayaround,frompeasanttoworker,aswellasthecombinationofthetwoconditions(beingsimultaneouslypeasantandruralworker)oftentiedthoseinvolvedtogetherinone'class-for-itself'thatdeneditselfas'wethepoorpeopleoftheland'.
Thisoccurredinmanycountries.
Iliveditmyselfinthe1970sinPeruwherepeoplespokeof'nosotroslospobresdelcampo'(vanderPloeg1977).
14Thismovement,frombeinglandlesstohavinganddevelopingasmallfarm,hasfrequentlyreoccurredinDutchsocialhistory.
FormerwageworkersfromarablefarmsintheNorthEastbecamehorticulturalproducersaroundthecityofTheHague(inwhatisknownastheWestland).
PoorurbanworkersfromtheSouthbecamethedrivingforceforintensivepigbreedingintheSouth.
15Butagain,intheempiricalrealitythatDeVriesexperiencedinhisyouth,suchacombination(theunityofcontrastingelementsinoneperson)wasfrequentlyfoundinthecountryside.
CanonicalMarxismhasfounditextremelydiculttodealwithsuch'hybridity'andambiguity.
THEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIES7city,duringwhichheburnswhateverpossibilitieshehastorebuildhislife.
Theonlywayoutthatremainstohimistosellhislabouronshorttermcontracts,movingfromoneplacetotheother.
Jarigmovesfromthreshingbarley,breakingax,viaallkindsofotherjobs,todelvingturfinthepeatindustry.
DuringhiswanderingshemeetsKarelandthetwobecomefriends.
Karelisatoughandexperiencedworker,whocaresforothers.
Heiswellacquaintedwithsocialistthoughtandreadsthesocialistweekliesofthetime(suchas'JusticeforAll').
Thetwotalkanddiscussalotbutthereain'tnoneedforKareltoexplainthewritingsofMarx.
Surplusvalue:thatisthehorseinthestableoftheboss[ofthepeatindustry],hisfatbelly,hisdaughterinlacedressesandhissonspendinghisleisurehuntinginthewoodsofthenoblemen.
(331)ThissentenceisakeytoStepmotherEarthasawhole.
Thebookdevelopsasharpanalysisofclassrelationsandhowtheyevolveovertime;italsoentailsabright(andtheoreticallyunderpinned)descriptionofpolitico-economicrelationsandprocesses.
Butthisisdonewithoutanyjargon.
ItisasifTheundeVrieselaboratesawrybutcolourfulpainting16ofcapitalismandthefateofthedierentpeopleinvolvedinit.
Itisapaintingthatmakestheobserverfeel,byhimorherself,thatthingsneedtobechangedandthatlifecannotcontinueinthisway.
Thepaintinghitstheobserverinthestomach.
Itmakestheobserverfeelthattheneededchangeswillbedicultandverypainful.
Thepaintingmakesthosewhoareobservingitrealize,bythemselves,thatunityandorganizationareneeded.
That,Ithink,isthegeniusofTheundeVries.
Itisamasterythatresidesinthecapacitytonotprescribetothereaderswhattothinkordo–insteadDeVriesinvokeshisreaderstodeveloptheirownopinionsandpositions.
Noneedtotalkexplicitlyabout'surplusvalue'.
Justtriggertheneededintrospectionandreection.
Peopleknowbythemselveswhat'surplusvalue'and'exploitation'are.
Hejusthelpedthemtomaketherightconnectionsbetweenthebitsandpiecestheyknowandtounitetheseinamoreorlesscoherentwhole.
Thus,'thankstoKarel,Jarigbegantoseethecruelrealityaroundhim'(304).
Ifonetriggersthepeopletoseethe'eshandblood',theywillunder-stand'theskeleton'bythemselves.
ThatiswhathappensinStepmotherEarth.
WhatKareldoesistohelpJarigtoseetheinterconnectionsofthedierentreal-lifeexperienceshewasandisexperiencing.
InStepmotherEarthTheundeVriesdoesthesame:heweavesdierentpartsofvisiblesocialhistorytogetherinsuchawaythatitbecomesacompellingpolitico-economicandclassanalysis.
Eveniftheybecomegoodfriends,somedistanceremainsbetweenKarelandJarig.
AtonepointKarelsaystoJarigthatheisnotsurewhetherhecantrusthimas,afterall,heis'thesonofarichfarmer'.
WilltheotherworkerseverunderstandhimAndtheotherwayaroundThereremaindoubts.
Beyondthat,itturnsoutthatbothmenlovethesamewoman,alwaysfertileterritoryfortensionsbetween'friends'.
Whenitcomestostrikes17(ashappenswhenKarelandJarigareworking,withthou-sandsofothers,inthepeatindustrywhereconditionsforworkingandlivingwereterrible,16Itis,inthisrespect,verytellingthatGeertMak,acontemparyDutchwriterwhoestablishedhisfamewithanovelaboutthedecayofaruralvillage('HoeGodverdweenuitJorwerd')characterizesTheundeVriesas'awriterwhosimultaneouslyisapainter,withthesameevocativecapacityasFlaubertandPaustovski'(Makintheintroductionto'DevertellingenofWiltTjaarda',2003).
17AlthoughStepmotherEarthwaswrittenintheDutchlanguage,TheundeVriesusestheFrisianword'bollejeije'(slightlychangedinto'bollejagen'whichisakindofDutchversionoftheFrisianoriginal)insteadoftheDutchword'staken'.
Thelatterword(staken)isidenticalto'stop'(withsomething).
Inthiscase:stopworking.
Assimpleasthat.
TheFrisianword8J.
D.
VANDERPLOEGasiswelldescribedinStepmotherEarth),Karelemergesasnaturalleader,wellacceptedbytherankandle(althoughtherearesharpconictswithotherleaders,someofwhombetraythecause).
Asduringallstrikesthereis,eachandeverymorning,acall.
Allthepeopleonstriketurnupanddiscusstacticstogether,thepositiontotakeinongoingnego-tiations,etc.
FerdinandDomelaNieuwenhuis,theanarchistclergyman(or'OurSaviour'asFrisianscallhim),isinvitedtooneofthesecalls.
18ItisatouchingpartofStepmotherEarth.
Thestrikefails.
Itisbrokenbythearmy.
Internaldivisionsalsoplayarole.
Meanwhilethebigeconomiccrisisislooming.
'Thestrikewasdead.
Therevoltisdead'(412–413).
'Revolu-tionisenteringlowtide'(374).
Jarigescapesandisabletorestarthislife,togetherwithhiswifeandtheirson,butunderverydicultconditions:Jarigbecomesawrotter,apeasant-workerwhobuilds,step-by-stepandthroughbloodyhardwork,hisownresourcebase.
Itistheproverbial'returntotheland'(303).
Butbeforehecomesclosetohisdream,hetra-gicallydies.
ItisNewYear'sEveanditisbittercold,thestreetsareslipperyandagaleogstheland.
Jarig,now60yearsoldandphysicallywornout,isreturningwithhiswaggonandhorsefromaroundofcollectingmilkfromthesurroundingfarmerstodelivertothedairyfactory(apaidjobthatsmallfarmerslikedtocombinewithfarming).
TiredandconfusedJarigbelievesthatKarelisridingawaggoninfrontofhim.
Jarigwantstocatchupwithhim,inordertoridetogether.
Hespeedsupbutfails.
HiswaggonturnsoverandJarigdies.
DoesthissuggestthatthatsocialismandpeasantscannotreallygotogetherOrwasJarigjustpursuingaghostStepmotherEarthleavesthequestionopen.
Sofartwomainstorylines,inwhichJarigandTjallingaretheexponents.
Bothlinesstartwiththecollapseofalargefarm.
Theyevolve,albeitwithdierentpointsofdepartureanddierentrhythms,asthemakinganddevelopingofasmallfarm.
Inonestorylinethisisdonesuccessfully,whileittragicallyfailsintheotherone.
Thisalsoreectsrealitiesofthetime.
ThereisfarmoreinStepmotherEarth,butinsteadofcontinuingwiththissummaryIwillturntobrieydiscusssomestylisticelementsandthenshifttotwounder-lyingtheoreticalissues.
Howis,accordingtoStepmotherEarth,farmingarticulatingwiththecapitalistsocietyinwhichitisembeddedAndsecondly:whatdoesthismeaninpro-grammatictermsThatis:whatshouldasocialistpolicyforagriculturelooklikeInotherwords:whatwouldKarelargue,ifhewereaskedtooutlinethenextstepsforwardThestyleTheFrisianlanguageisveryrichinmetaphors.
Thisisrelatedtoitbeingverymuchthelanguageofpeasantsandshermen.
ThefrequentuseofmetaphorisreectedinStep-motherEarth.
Letmegiveanexample.
ItisrelatedtoHerre,thesonofTjalling.
Herreisbuildinganetworkof,initiallysmall,foodprocessingenterprisesandtradingcompanies.
Indoingsohecapitalizes,asitwere,onhisdetailedknowledgeofthepeasantsofthesandysoilsoftheEastofFrisia.
Thusheisabletoaccumulateconsiderablewealthandtoimposehisimprintonthewaypeasantfarmsdevelop.
InStepmotherEarththisreadsbollejeijeliterallymeans'torushthebull',itiscloselyrelatedtotheSpanish'corrida'(bullght).
Whenstrikesweregoingonatthattimetherewasalotofpoliceintervention,andsometimesbythearmyaswell.
Iamnotknowledgeableabouttheoriginofthisstrangeword'bollejeije',buttheghtingthatoftenresultedfromthestrikesandinterventionsmighthavelookedlikeabullght.
Seethedescriptionofsuchasceneonpages379–412.
18FormoreaboutthelifeandworkofDomelaNieuwenhuis,seetheexcellentbiographywrittenbyStutje(2012).
Itis,bytheway,asalientfeatureofStepmotherEarth.
Fictionandnon-ctionaremixedandinterwoveninanimaginativeandthoughtprovokingway.
THEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIES9asfollows:'Slowlyhelayshisnetsovertheregion'(419).
ThisreferstotheFrisianwayofbirdhunting,wylsterappe,thatusedlargenetsthatcoveraeldinordertocatchbirds.
Onereadsthat'thebirdsewunsuspectingintothenets;andnowtheyareawaitingdefencelessthehandthatwillpluckthemandcliptheirwings[…]andthentellthemthetrajectorytheyhavetofollow'(423).
19Again,thisisnotalanguagestructuredaroundconceptsas'surplusvalue','accumulationbyexpropriation',etc.
Butitdid,Iimagine,communicatefarmoreeectivelyandpowerfullywiththemanyreadersofStepmotherEarth.
Thatisthestrengthofmetaphor,itrelateseverydaylifeexperiencewithsomethingmoregeneralthatweallknow,feel,andexperience.
Insteadofmovingeverydaylifetothecategoryofthealreadyknown,orevenworse:tothecat-egoryoftheirrelevant,themetaphorputsitcentrestage.
'Slowlylayinghisnetsovertheregion'.
The'slowly'soundslikesneakyandthechangefromeldto'region'high-lightstheimminentdanger.
Thisiswhateverybodyunderstood.
ThisiswhyStepmotherEarth'couldbefoundinnearlyeveryhousehold'andwhyitbecamea'sortofBible'(FrieseKoerier1963).
TheundeVriesunderstoodthelanguageofcommonpeopleandmadepowerfuluseofit.
AnotherfeaturethatIliketomentionhereistheabundantuseofimagesofnature.
Eachepisodeisembedded,asitwere,inaseason,inparticularweatherconditions.
Eachmajoreventcomeswiththesmellsandsoundsoffaunaandora.
'Natureandsocialhistoryintertwine,theycometogether'asTheundeVriesexplainedfarlaterinaninterview:Iamasonofapeasantfamily,natureplaysaconsiderableroleinmywork[…].
Thedynamicsofaseason,themightypowerofathunderstormorthemiseryitbrings,acolddayinwinter,allthisisimportant.
(LeeuwarderCourant1976)Natureputsitsimprintonthewayeventsdevelopandinterlinkandhowpeopleperceivethem.
Thisappliesevenmoresincefarmingisunderstoodandrepresented,inStepmotherEarth,asco-production.
'Theearthprovidesthegerms[ofthegrass]andtheskybringstherains;butitisthefarmerwhoconvertsitintomeadows'(149).
20Natureis,togetherwithlabour,attheheartoffarming.
Understandinganddealingwithitisstrategic–atleastintherealmofpeasantagriculture.
InStepmotherEarththisisself-evident.
Inretrospectitreadsasakindofearlywarning.
Forcriticalagrarianstudiesbecameonlyfarlaterawareoftheneedto'slotinnature'.
AgricultureandcapitalismStepmotherEarthisrichindescribingthemanyconnectionsthattie,andsubordinate,farmingtocapitalism.
Ihavealreadymentionedthetemptations.
Theassociated'luxuryconsumption'(inhorses,women,alcohol,orwhatever)impliesatransferof19'Tellthemthetrajectorytheyhavetofollow'.
ThissoundslikeananticipationoftheTATE(Technological-AdministrativeTaskEnvironment)theory,developedfarlaterbytheItalianruralsociologistBrunoBenvenuti(1982).
TATEtheorydescribeshowthebehaviourofformallyindependentfarmersisexternallyprescribedandsanctionedandbywhom.
20Makingameadowisdenitelynotaone-oprojectoroperation.
'Thesemeadowsarethefruitsofbuilding,maintainingandimprovingthepolders,ofdrainingandmakingditchesduringhundredsofyears.
Well-bredmanurehasbeendis-tributedovertheseelds,andmud,andliquidmanure,timeandagain.
Therehasbeenmowingandpasturing,they[i.
e.
themeadows]havebeenclearedfromthistlesandbadherbs,thegrasswaskeptshortinearlyspringbysheepandirrigatedafterwardswiththerainsofthesummer[…]Thusthemeadowwasmadeintoathickfur,greenvelvet,springyandaspreciousastapestriesinurbandwellings'(149).
10J.
D.
VANDERPLOEGwealthfromthecountrysidetowardsthecitiesandanimpoverishmentofthefarmingfamilieswhosepatriarchsorsonsareattractedtothesetemptations.
Inthiscontextausterityeasilyemergesasavirtue–themoresowhenitinteractswithProtestantism.
Thentherearethefarmerswhowanttogobeyondtheirowncapacity(beyondthelimitsoftheirownresource-base)becausethey'gotbewitchedbythemoney'(254).
Theybecome'money-devils'(270)whogoforthe'easymoney'andthiscantakevariousforms.
Theymightstartwithfraudwithbutter(210),orbyputtingcruelpressureontheirwife,childrenand/orworkers,squeezingthemaximumoflabouroutoftheirbodies.
Anotherapproachistoenlargethefarmbeyonditsboundaries.
Thatimpliesenga-gingindebts(inpeasantagricultureoftenunderstoodasmakingadealwiththedevil)21inordertobuymoreresources.
Itimpliesenlargingtheherdbeyondthecarryingcapacityoftheirownmeadows(alsostronglytabooinpeasantculture)sothatbuyingfeedandfodder(insteadofproducingitonthefarmitself)becomesapermanentfeature.
Itmightalsomeanthatmorelabourisrequiredthancanbeprovidedbythefarmingfamily:thensalariedworkersenterandbecomestructurallyembedded.
Whateverthespecicform,thefarmisincreasinglycommoditizedandfarmingbecomesanoperationgovernedanddrivenbythelawsofmoneyandmarket.
22Anotherlinkagearefarmersorfarmers'sons(daughtersapparentlydidnotdoso),whobecomethemselvescapitalistandtrytomake'outofevery10guildersatleast15newguilders'(359).
'Entrappingothersintheirnet'(254)isakeystrategyfordoingso.
Misfortunemightequallytriggerrelationsofdependencyandexploitation.
Diseasesintheherd,afailedharvest,ortroubleinthefamilymaybringtheneedtoengageincreditrelations.
Debtswillbringnancialcostsandvulnerability.
Thismightalsooccurwhensoli-darity(orfamilyrelations)hasbroughtpeopletosupportothers(320).
Thenthemisfortuneofthelattereasilybackresontheformer.
Evidentlythereistheprice-squeezeaswell.
Pricesthatareslowlygoingdownandcostlevelsthatkeepincreasingmake'foraworldwhereeverybodybelieveshecanliveonbehalfofthefarmers'(202).
'Highexpenses,highwages,longworkingdaysandyetthefarmisnotmovingforward.
Yes,thefarmrendersalot,butsheconsumesaswellthebiggestpartofit'(201).
Thus,thevalueproducedwithinthefarmowselsewhere.
Ittrans-latesintoothers'richness.
Thesqueezeonagriculturerelateswiththeslowbutpersistentgeneralizationofcapitalrelations.
Inthepasttheworldwassmalleranditmovedwithmodestrhythms;theworldwaswelldeli-neated:thefarm,thevillage,theneighbouringcity[…]Onecouldcountwithslowstepsahead,itwaspossibletocreatesomebuers[…].
Butthemetabolismoftheworldchanged.
(201–203)Andthen,justasChayanov(1986)writingthat'literallybeforeoureyes'theworldwaschanging,TheundeVriessignalsthattheworldisnotsmallanymoreandlivingbecamedangerous.
Lifebecameagameofchance,theindependenceofpeasantsgotthreatened,theirwellbeingordownfallbecamedependentonthemercyofthosewhogovernedthemarkets,nationallyaswellasinternationally.
Those21Thisisbeautifullyspelledoutinthe'folkstories'gatheredinJaarsma(2016).
22LateronthisthemeisdramatizedbyBrolsma([1940]1979).
THEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIES11peoplemovedquicklyinordertoconquermarketsthatwerelayingbarren.
Firstonehundredsmallmarkets,thenvemediumones,andnallyonemarketthatusurpseverything,onenalcentreofdecisionthatestablishesthepricestobepaidonthemarketsofHoorn[inHolland],Harlingen[Frisia],Delfzijl[Groningen],EsjbergandRingkbing[Denmark].
Thattherearepeoplewhofreneticallyworkontheconquestofallthesemarkets–no,thepeasantswerenotawareofthat.
Theyonlyreceivedpartialandconfusingbitsofinformation;theydidnotperceivetheunderlyingpatterns.
Theydonotseethatthosewhoincreasinglygovernthemarketshavespreadtheirnets–likespidersinawarmsummerevening[…]inordertoquicklycatchasmuchastheycan.
(203)23Intimesofcrisisthesqueezeonagricultureisabruptlytightened:'InJanuary'79the[pricesof]farmsfall,inMarchthebutterpricegoesdown'(294).
Suchacrisisbecomesamanysidedattackonfarmsandfarmers.
Farmsgobrokeandaresoldatpublicauctions.
Whatstartedasasnowballnowisanava-lanche.
Mortgagesthataretoberepaid,leasepayments,thebillforboughtfeedandfeed,merchantsthatinsistthatthepurchasedclothesarenowtobepaid[for]assoonasposs-ible.
Everybodyisurgingthefarmers,underallroofsthereisdespair.
Peasantswhopre-viouslycalculatedwiththehundredsandthethousandsaresuddenlypoor.
Theytrytoengageinsecondjobsinordertoraisesomemoney.
Somecommitsuicide[…]Otherssuerhunger.
(322)Thecrisisgreatlythreatenedthe'patrimony'andtheindependenceoffarmers(asdoestoday'songoingcrisis).
Ittriggeredawaveofwhatwenowcall'landgrabbing':'Intheyearsofcrisismorethanhalfoftheprovincehasbeenboughtbyabsenteelandowners,Dutch-men,whoseestateagentscollecttheleasepayments'(418).
ThepositionofsocialiststowardspeasantsAlthoughitisnotspelledoutinasystematicandexplicitway,StepmotherEarthclearlyentailsakindofprogramme–asocio-politicalprogramme.
Itcentresaroundfourpointsthatpopuprepeatedlyinthebook.
Togethertheyconstitute,Ithink,thebackboneofwhatcouldhaveconstitutedasocialistagriculturalpolicy–providedthatthestraight-jacketofthethendominantLeninist/Stalinistorthodoxycouldhavebeenloosened.
First,thereistheneedtodisclosethemechanicsofmarketcontrolandcapitalaccumu-lationandthewaytheyaectfarming.
ThroughoutStepmotherEarth,TheundeVriesreferstotheignoranceoffarmerswhenitcomestothenew,global'metabolism'thatwasdrain-ingthem.
Hence,explainingthemanyinterdependenciesandtheirunderlyinglogic,istheprimarytask.
Remember:'ItwasonlythankstoKarel[thesocialist]thatJarigbegantoseethecruelreality'(304).
Wearelivingin'aworldoflies'(334)andhavetoshout,asDomelaNieuwenhuisdidfromhispulpit,'thetruth'(334).
Secondcomestheorganizationofcoop-eratives(423)inordertoresistthosewhowerespreadingtheir'nets'overagricultureandfoodprovisioning.
24Thirdcomesorganization.
Peasantsneedtheirownstrongorganiz-ations–justasruralworkershavetheirlabourunions.
25Theyneedadequateformsforactionandprotest–justastheworkersgo'rushingthebull'.
Fourth,andthisisintriguing23ItistheoreticallyinterestingthatDeVrieselaborateshereananalysisthatisclosetotheapproachdevelopedlateronbyBraudel(1989).
Itcentresoncapitalbeinglocatedrstandforemostinthesphereofcirculation.
24TheundeVriesclearlyrefersheretoso-calledverticalcooperatives.
25Interestingly,deVriestakesherethesamepositionasSerenidid(seenote3).
12J.
D.
VANDERPLOEG(especiallyatthetimeStepmotherEarthwaswritten),peasantagriculture,peasantsfarmsandthelandpossessedbypeasantsweretobedefended.
Thethreepreviouslymentionedpointsareallessentialforthisfourthpointtoberealized.
'Therightofpeopletotheearthandtherightofthefarmerstothefreepossessionofhisland'(Volksdagblad1938a)aretobedefended,especiallyintimesofcrisiswhentheserightscomeundermultipleattack.
Thestrugglesthatembodyandconsolidatesuchadefencewillensure'thattheearthstopsbeingastepmother,andbecomestheoriginandunlimitedsourceofprosperouslabour,progressandwell-being'(Volksdagblad1938a).
Allthisisclearlypresent,albeitimplicitinStepmotherEarth.
However,itwillsoonbemadeexplicit.
ThatiswhentheNazisintheNetherlandstriedtoappropriatethisepicandmuchreadnovel.
WithshamelessimpudencetheNazisgraspthiswork[i.
e.
StepmotherEarth].
Theydeclareittobe'agoodfarmers'book'fullof'populistfeatures'[…],atruecontributiontothe"BlutundBoden"art'[thefasciststyleartthatputs'BloodandSoil'centrestage].
(Volksdagblad1938a)This'impudence'compelledthesocialists(i.
e.
theCommunistPartyHolland,CPH)ofthattimetoreactandtosharplydenetheirownposition.
TheydidsothrougharejoinderintheVolksdagblad[People'sDaily].
ItisnotunlikelythattheresponsewaswrittenbyTheundeVrieshimself.
26StepmotherEarth,itissaid,hasshownthattheindividualismoffarmersisuntenable[…].
Theonlywayforwardisthroughorganizedresistanceanduniedaction.
Thisistheonlywayforfarmerstoprotectthemselvesfromexploitationandsuppression.
Andthiswayhasbeenblocked,inItalyandGermany,bythetotalitariancombination[…]ofcapitalismandterror,calledfascism.
(Volksdagblad1938a)Moreover,therightoffarmerstofreelyaccessandpossessland[…],oneofthecornerstonesofStep-motherEarth,impliesthatitisabsolutelyimpossiblethattherewillbeanythingthanenmitybetweentheauthor[ofStepmotherEarth]andtheNazis[…].
Forfascismreducesthefarmertoaserfandawageworkerforlargelandowners,asweseeinGermany,wherethenewsuccessionlawsimplythatlandisbeingtransferredtoJunkersandlargelandownerswho,duetofascism,haveastrongerpositionthanever.
(Volksdagblad1938a)'Freemenonfreeland'wasthebattlecryofVolksdagblad(1938a).
Oraswewouldsaytoday:'Freemenandwomenonfreeland'.
Itsoughttodefendtherightsofpeasants,includingtherighttopossessland.
Thiswasthesamelessonthatwasdrawn,inStep-motherEarth,duringthetremendouscrisisofthe1880s–alessonthatwasarticulatedagaininthe1930sand'40s,withmuchinsistence,inordertodrawaclearlineofdemar-cationvis-a-visfascism.
Inanepochsuchasours,inwhichneo-liberalpolicieshaveinducedapermanentcrisisinagriculture,land-grabbingiswidespreadagain,and(proto-)fascistmovementsaretryingagaintoincorporateruralmovements,soitis,tosaytheleast,stillaveryrelevantandtimelymessage.
26Ironically,thisrejoinderispublishedinthesameissue,andonthesamepage,wherethedeathofKarlKautskywasannounced:'HediedinexileinAmsterdamasasocialistpersecutedbythefascists'(Volksdagblad1938b).
However,theobituaryrepeatsthestandarddenunciationsofrevisionism,etc.
Thecontradictionbetweendefendingthe'righttoland'ontheonehandandtherejectionofKautskyasrevisionistontheotherevidentlyescapedtheattentionoftheeditoroftheVolksdagblad.
THEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIES13BywayofconclusionItisevidentthatStepmotherEarthreectsaspecic,time-and-spaceboundedreality.
TheinsightselaboratedbyTheundeVriescannotbegeneralizedtowardsothertimesorotherplaces.
Themethod,however,thatisappliedinStepmotherEarth,thecarefulinquiryintothesociallogicoffarmingandhowitinteractswiththeeconomiclogic,isapplicableeverywhere.
Thesameappliestothetoolsusedfortheexploration(andsubsequentrep-resentation)ofthesociallogic.
Oneofthesetoolsisputtingthewaythattheinvolvedactorsexperiencetheirsituationandtranslateitintoacourseofactioncentrestage.
ItiswhatNormanLong(1985)willelaboratemanydecadeslaterasthe'actor-orientedapproach'.
Systematicallyintegrating'folkconcepts'intoamorecomprehensivepoli-tico-economicanalysisisasecondtool.
Thethirdoneispayingtherequiredattentiontoheterogeneity(seee.
g.
thedierencebetweenlargefarmersandwrotters)andelabor-atene-tunedcomparativeanalyses.
Afourthtoolisusingculturalrepertoireasanimpor-tantsourceforunderstandingtherural.
ThemeritofTheundeVriesisthatheconvincinglydemonstrates–inStepmotherEarth–thatathoroughknowledgeofsociallogicandthewayitinteractswitheconomiclogicisstrategicforunderstandingtherural.
Itisalsoindispensablewhenitcomestotheformu-lationofpoliticalpositionsandappropriateagrarianpolicies.
ThemeritofDeVriesalsoresidesinhighlightingthedynamicsofpeasantagriculture–longbeforetheconvincingempiricalstudiesofBernhardSlichervanBath(1960),JanBieleman(1987),JanLuitenvanZanden(1985)andmanyotherswerepublished.
Itresidesespeciallyinhisexplanationofsuchdynamics:thecentralityoflabourandthelongingforabetterlife.
FinallyIwanttorefertoanothermerit:showingthatprocessesofdierentiationcantakemanydierentandmutuallycontrastingformsandoutcomes.
Potentially,allthiswasagreat,albeitprobablyunintended,contributiontowhatwenowdeneascriticalagrarianstudies(EdelmanandWolford2017).
WhatapitythatsomanypoliticiansoftheradicalleftaswellasMarxisttheoristsstudyingagriculture,missedtheinsightselaboratedinStepmotherEarth(andsimilarworks).
Whatapitythatthisradicalleftbecame,consequently,astepmothertoruralpeoplewhowereandareghtingfortheiremancipation.
DisclosurestatementNopotentialconictofinterestwasreportedbytheauthor(s).
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THEJOURNALOFPEASANTSTUDIES15JanDouwevanderPloegisAdjunctProfessorofRuralSociologyattheCollegeofHumanitiesandDevelopmentStudies(COHD)ofChinaAgriculturalUniversityinBeijing,People'sRepublicofChina.
HeisProfessorEmeritusofWageningenUniversity,Wageningen,theNetherlands.
Overthedecadestheauthorwasengagedinpeasantmovementsindierentpartsoftheworld,includingFrisiaintheNorthoftheNetherlands.
16J.
D.
VANDERPLOEG