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TheConstructionoftheMedicalWriter'sAuthorityandLegitimacyinLateImperialChinathroughAuthorialandAllographicPrefacesFlorenceBretelle-EstabletDieKonstruktionmedizinischerAutorittundLegitimationimsptchinesischenKaiserreichdurchallographischeundAutorenvorworteImVerlaufderMing-undanschlieendenQing-DynastiestiegdieAnzahlderimmedizinischenBereichttigenPersonenerheblichan.
UndauchdieAnzahlmedizinischerAbhandlungenwuchsproportionalzumAnstiegme-dizinischerExperten.
IndieserHochphasemedizinischerPublikationen,inderdasFehleneinesinstitutionalisiertenZulassungssystemseinembreitenPersonenspektrumgestattetesowohlMedizinzupraktizierenalsauchdarüberzuschreiben,musstensichdieAutoreneinebesondereStrategiezurLegitimierungundAufwertungihrerBüchereinfallenlassen,zumalseitdem19.
JahrhundertEuropermitderVerbreitungunterschiedlicherTechnikenundKenntnissebegonnenhattenunddadurchdieohnehinschonstarkeKonkurrenznochweiteranstachelten.
EinenwichtigenFaktordieserStrategiebildetedasVorwort.
WaseinAutorübersichselbstundseinenTextaussagte,wenerbat,seinVorwortzuschreibenundwasdieseLeutewiederumalswichtigzurEmpfehlungeinesneuenBucheserachteten,istGegenstanddesArtikels.
DieseAspektesolleneinBilddavonvermitteln,woraufimsptenchine-sischenKaiserreichmedizinischeAutorittundLegitimationberuhten.
Schlüsselwrter:China,Qing-Dynastie,Medizin,Vorwort,medizinischeAutoritt,medizinischeLegitimationKeywords:China,Qing,medicine,preface,medicalauthority,medicallegitimacyBeforethetwentiethcenturynoprofessionalinstitutionhadtakenaclosecensusofthephysicians1workingonChinesesoil,yetvarioushistoricalsourcesdogivecluesabouttheevolutionofthiscommunitybeforetheinstitutionalizationofthemedicalprofession.
Infact,localgazetteers—atypeofofcialhistoricalsourcethatregularlyprovidedthecourtwitheconomic,culturalandsocialdataoneachadministrativeunitoftheempire—alwaysreservedroomforbiographiesofphysicians.
Onthebasisofthesecollectionsofbiographies,severalscholarshaveshownthatinlateimperialtimes,thatis,overthelastfourcenturiesoftheempire,thenumberofpeopleinvolvedinN.
T.
M.
19(2011)349–3900036-6978/11/040349-42DOI10.
1007/s00048-011-0062-5Publishedonline:7December20112011SPRINGERBASELAG349ARTIKEL/ARTICLEmedicalassistancerosedramaticallyboth,incentral,richandurbanareasaswellasinremote,ruralandpoorerareas.
ThisgrowthwasduetothesocialtransformationoflateimperialChinaandwasfueledbyanincreaseinsocialmobility.
Ontheonehand,thedemographicboomandsimultaneousreduc-tionofofcialpostshadledanincreasingnumberofeducatedmentochoosemedicineasasecond-choicecareerafterfailingthecivilserviceexaminations.
Ontheotherhand,medicine,withitslongscholarlytraditionanditsunder-lyingmorality,wasconsideredarespectablemeansofmakingalivingandastatusformoreandmoreliteratefamiliesbelongingtomerchantorlowersocialcircles.
2Thebibliographiccensuspreservedintheselocalhistoricalsourcesshowsthatthenumberofmedicaltreatisesexpandedinproportiontothisincreaseinthenumberofphysicians(Guo1987).
Inthesetimesofproliferationofmedicaltextsandacutecompetition,wheninadditionthelackofaninstitutionalsystemoflicensingallowedagreatvarietyofpeopletopracticemedicineandtowriteanddistributemedicaltexts,theauthorshadtodevelopastrategytovalorizeandlegitimizetheirbooks.
Partofthisstrategywastheprefatorydiscourse.
Obviouslywecannotreducetheprefatorydiscoursetoasolelyadver-tisingdiscourse.
AsGérardGenetteemphasizes(1987:199–239,1991),aprefaceusuallyfulllsdiversefunctionsandallowsthepersonwhowritesittodovariousthingsatthesametime:declareintent,givegenericdenition,narratethebook'sgenesis,guidethereader,andsoonandsoforth.
However,regardlessoftheprefacewriters'intentions,theprefaceconstitutesthespe-cicspaceinabookwhichwilldecideifthereader—regardlessifasimpleuser,apotentialeditororapublisher—isgoingtocontinuereading,buying,editingorprintingthebookornot.
Hencetheprefacecanbeconsideredathreshold3,tryingtolureitspotentialreadershiptoenterwithin.
Whatanauthorsaysabouthimselfandhistext4,andtowhomhereferstowriteaprefaceandwhatthesepeopleconsiderasimportanttosayinordertorec-ommendanewbook,arethefocalpointsofthisarticle.
TheywillgivesomecluestounderstandingonwhatmedicalauthorityandlegitimacyreliedoninlateimperialChina,whennocentralinstitutionregulatedtheeldandwhere,furthermore,sincethenineteenthcentury,Europeanshadstartedtospreaddifferenttechniquesandknowledgetherebyincreasingthealreadyercecompetition.
TheprefacesinthefocusofthepresentstudybelongtomedicalliteratureproducedinthefarsouthofChina,farawayfromthemajorculturalcentersofthattime.
Fromamedicalperspective,thispartofChinasoundedparticularlypromising.
Indeed,intheeyesofthescholarswhowereemployedtowritethelocalgazetteers,thefarsouthwasspecicintherespectthatitofferedtheworsthealthconditionsforpeople.
Theareawasnotoriousforitsrecurrentmiasmas(zhang)aswellasitspoisons(gu)anditsepidemics(yi)inwhichtheFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET350unequivocalproverbsthatstillappliedintheearlytwentiethcenturyhadtheirroots(Tian1987,Benedict1996,Bretelle-Establet2002,Bello2005).
WeretheprefacesofmedicalbooksthentheplacetoevokethislocalparticularityinanefforttoconstructmedicalauthorityonthegroundofregionalargumentsOrweretheytheplacetodisplayargumentsusedinotherprefacesattachedtomorecentral,prestigiousandlessunhealthyareasthathadbeenexaminedthusfar5WhatConstitutedthePrefatoryDiscourseinChineseMedicalTreatisesCorpusThecorpusassembledhereismadeupof70prefacesattachedto32medicaltextswrittenbetweenthemid-eighteenthandthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyinthefarsouthofChinaincludingtheprovincesofYunnan,GuangxiandGuangdong(seetable1).
These32medicaltextsarenearlyallthathassurvivedfromthemedicalliteratureproducedinthesethreeprovincesduringtheQingdynasty(1644–1911).
Localgazetteersreportthatbetweentwoandthreehundredmedicaltextswerewrittenthereduringthelastdynasty.
Librarycataloguesrevealthatonly33ofthemhavesurvived(Xue1991).
Thusthemedicaltextsandprefacesexaminedinthiscontributioncoveralmostallthatisavailabletodayinlibrariesfromthatarea.
6Ifoundthemajorityoftheseprefacesinthebooksthemselves,onlyninecomefromothersources.
Infact,sometimes,thegazetteersreproducedprefacestolocalbooksintheirentirety.
Consequently,andinasomewhatunexpectedway,anumberofprefacesarestillextantwhilethetextstheyweresupposedtointroducehavedisappeared.
Itisaremarkablepointsinceitdrawsattentiontoatleasttwoparadoxesaboutprefaces.
Whileweusuallyconsiderprefacesas(literally)secondary,itisinterestingtonoteherethatthesesecondarytextshavebeenbetterpreservedthantheactualtexts.
Then,whiletheprefacesoriginallydependedonamaintext,theyweresometimesseparatedfromitlater.
Wedonotknowforcertain,whylocalhistoricalsourcesreproducedsomeprefacesandothersnot.
Wemustadmit,however,thatwhenprefaceswereseparatedfromtheiroriginaltext,theytransformedfromametatext(introducingorcommentingonaparticulartext)intoanautonomoustext,prizedforitself,eitherforitsliteraryqualitiesoritscom-mentsonmedicalliteratureandmedicineingeneral.
Inthesecases,atleast,theprefatorydiscourseallowsustounderstandonamoregenerallevel,whatwasprizedornotinmedicalliteratureandinmedicineingeneral,since,aswewillsoonsee,theprefacesweremainlytheplaceofageneraldiscourseonmedicine.
THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY351ARTIKEL/ARTICLETable1Authors(medicalbooksandprefaces)inalphabeticalorderAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-faceChenCong陈琮(activein1832)FromXingren兴仁,Guangdong.
Jiansheng监生"purchaseddegree.
"Involvedinlocaldefenceandacademiesduring1821–1850Shanghanshu伤寒述ColddiseasesTechniques1832Yes,pr.
1832copiedinthegazetteerofShaoxing,1922in(Guo1987:1936)ChenHuantang陈焕堂,(activein1849)fromDongguan东莞,Guangdong.
Knownasaphysicianonly.
Shanghanlunguizhen伤寒论归真BacktothetrueShanghanlun1849Yes,pr.
undated-JiangShencun蒋慎存,fromDongguan,东莞,Guangdong,pr.
1849––ChenYi陈义(activein1877)UnclearwhetherhewasfromShunde顺德,GuangdongorGengshan耕山,Guangxi.
Hereditaryphysician.
Yifangbuqiuren医方不求人Amedicalvade-mecum1911[1877]Yes,pr.
1877–––ChengKangnan程康南(ca.
1821–1908),fromGaoming高明,Guangdong.
HereditaryphysicianErkemiyao儿科秘要Secretsinpediatrics1919[1893]––Fanli凡例fromLuoSifan罗思范XieYun谢允,1919,fromCangwu,GuangxiChengZhenge程珍阁(activein1892)fromXinhui,新会,Guangdong.
GrandsonofthephysicianChenBichen(WangQingrenlineageandinterestedbyWesternanatomy).
In1886,hevisitedaBritishhospitalinSingapore.
Yigangcongshu医纲總枢,Pivotofmedicalthreads1892Yes,pr.
undated–––FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET352Table1continuedAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-faceFengXinlan,冯心兰author(订),(activein1897)likelyfromGuilin桂林,Guangxi.
DirectorofEducationinGuangxi广西学政in1897.
Baihoujibiaojuewei百喉忌表抉微Subtlelistoftaboosforwhitethroatdisease1894()-LiangXilei梁锡类reviser,1899.
-LianYuanfu梁元辅corrector,Nanhai南海,heldofcialpostsatthecapitalandinGuangxi(1852–1862)CopiedinthegazetteerofFoshan1923,in(Guo1987:1985–1986)––GongPengshou龚彭寿(1862–1926),fromTongling桐岭,Guangxi.
Xiangsheng庠生,pupilofaConfucianschoolorlicentiate.
Knownasexcellentinmedicineanddivination.
Yixuecuzhi,医学粗知Roughmedicalknowledge1887Yes,pr.
1887copiedinthegazetteerofGuixian1934,in(Guo1987:2033)THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY353ARTIKEL/ARTICLETable1continuedAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-faceGuoZhi郭治(ca.
1736–1796)fromNanhai南海,Guangdong.
Fugongsheng附贡生"tributepersonnel.
"Knownonlyasaphysician.
Mairu,脉如Aboutthepulse1827[1753]Yes,pr.
undated-HeMengyao何梦瑶,jinshi进士andphysician,pr.
1738or1798-XiYi洗沂alocalpoet,pr.
1827-GuoLinbiao郭麟檩,cousin,pr.
1827-ZhuangYouxing莊有信,Hanlinmember,pr.
undated––GuoZhi郭治(ca.
1736–1796)Shanghanlun伤寒论Treatiseoncolddiseases1827–––HuangRenheng黄任恒(1876–1953),fromNanhai,Guangdong1930HeMengyao何梦瑶Yifangquanshu医方全书Completebookofformulas1918[1751]–-DirectorofLiangguangtushujuyinhang两广图书局主人,editor,pr.
1918––FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET354Table1continuedAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-faceHeMengyao何梦瑶(1693–1764),fromNanhai南海,Guangdong.
"Presentedscholar"jinshi进士in1730,magistrate,mathematician,poet,andphysicianinGuangxi,Liaoning,Guangdong.
Yibian医碥TheSteppingstoneformedicine1994[1751]Yes,pr.
1751-ZhaoLinlin赵林临,jinshi进士,magistrate,undated-XinChangwu辛昌五,jinshi进士,Hanlinmember,undatedFanli凡例in12points–HeMengyao何梦瑶andMonkHuchan僧互禅Guangdong.
Lezhitangrenzixuxhi乐只堂人子须知WhatsonsneedtoknowfromPalaceLezhi1885[1872]–-Directorofthepalace,pr.
1885-HeMengyao'ssecondson次男,pr.
undated-DirectorofBaishuangxuan主人百双轩,pr.
1872––HeMengyao何梦瑶andLiuXiangfu刘相辅,fromQiyang祁钖,Hunan.
Douzhenjiyao痘疹辑要Compilationonsmallpox1775–-ZhouYuanli周元理,juren,highofcial,pr.
1775-HuangTiduan黄体端,fromGuidong桂东,Hunan,localofcialandauthorofmedicaltexts,pr.
1775––THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY355ARTIKEL/ARTICLETable1continuedAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-faceHuangChihua黄炽华(activein1909)fromHuaxian花县,Guangdong.
Wenttothecapitalin1898fortheexaminations.
Yixuechuyan医学刍言Modestdiscourseonmedicine1909Yes,pr.
undated-XuYuqiu许玉球fromPanyu,pr.
1919-CaiMinyu蔡敏预fromNanhai,pr.
1909––HuangHuishi黄晖史(activein1909).
FromDabu大埔,Guangdong.
Yixuexunyuan医学寻源Originsofmedicine1909Yes,pr.
undated-unidentied––HuangYan黄岩(activein1800)FromJiaying嘉应(Hakkaregion),Guangdong.
Knownonlyasaphysician.
Yixuejingyao医学精要EssentialsofMedicine1918[1800]–-LiGuangzhao李光昭,magistrate,pr.
1831-WenBaochun温葆淳,ofcialhistorianofHanlin,pr.
1830Dufa读法in17pointsLiaoXuesong廖雪松(editor),1830,in1866'seditionHuangYan黄岩Yankezuanyao眼科纂要CompilationonOphtalmalogy1879Yes,pr.
undated–––HuangYuanji黄元基(ca.
1700–1778)FromHenan,hemovedasanofcialtoGuangdongandGuangxi.
Juren举人"recommendedman"in1733.
Jingyunzhaijiyanfang,静耘斋集验方,MatureformulasfromJinyunpavillon1799[1763]Yes,pr.
1763-FanXian范咸,jinshi进士,pr.
1763––FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET356Table1continuedAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-faceHuangZijian黄子健(Post1742before1836).
FromNanhai南海,Guangdong.
Zengsheng增生"tributestudent.
"Knownonlyasaphysician.
Dingzhengjinguiyuhanjingquanshujizhu,订正金匮玉函经全书集注CollectionofcommentariesabouttheGoldenCasketPost1742before1836Yes,pr.
undated,copiedinthegazetteerofNanhai1836in(Guo1987:1934)JinJinghua金菁华(activein1810).
MigratedfromZhejiangtoGuangdong.
Receivedfubang副榜in1810(2ndclassJurenlist).
OfcialpostsinLianzhou廉州,Boluo博罗,Yong'an永安,Qinzhou,inGuangdong.
Yixuejiyao,医学辑要CompilationofMedicinePost1810before1872Yes,pr.
undated,copiedinthegazetteerofPanyu,1872,in(Guo1987:1961)LiangLianfu梁廉夫(ca.
1810–1894)FromChengxiang城厢,Guangxi.
Fugong副贡(2ndclassjurenlist)in1846.
OfcialpostsinLingchuan灵川,Baise百色,Nanning南宁,Guangxi,during1862–1874.
Buzhiyibiyao不知医必要Whatanignorantpersoninmedicineshouldknow1936[1881]Yes,pr.
1881-XuChuncen旭春岑,pr.
1882.
-JiaoZhaojun焦肇骏,jinshiin1845andmagistrateofFuchuan富川,Guangxi,in1875,pr.
1880.
Yaoyan要言in18points–LinXianfu,林贤辅(activein1888)FromYangjiang阳江,GuangdongHuoluanliangfang,霍乱良方ExcellentformulasagainstSuddenturmoildisorders,1888Yes,pr.
1888copiedinthegazetteerofYangjiang1925,in(Guo1987:1939)LiuYuan刘渊(activein1739),fromChangning长宁,Guangdong.
Militarylicentiate武生Yixuezuanyao医学纂要CompilationofMedicine1873[1739]–-WangShu王恕,GovernorGeneralofGuangdong,pr.
1740Fanli凡例in10points–THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY357ARTIKEL/ARTICLETable1continuedAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-faceLuShunde路顺德(activein1823).
JurenfromRongxian融县,Guangxi.
MiaoFuzhao缪福照(editor)Zhiguxinfang治蛊新方Newformulasfortreatingpoisons1935[1823]–-MiaoFuzhao缪福照,fromJiangsu1835––MaiNaiqiu麦乃求(ca.
1819–1876)Xiangshan香山,Guangdong.
Zhusheng诸生licentiate.
Shanghanfayan伤寒法眼ExactmeaningofColdDiseases(Treatise)1876Yes,pr.
1875-TaoGuangrong陶广荣,pr.
1875-ChenLi陈澧,jurenin1832,Academiesdirector,pr.
1875.
-FengDaliang冯大梁,Guangzhoumagistrate,pr.
1876例言Liyanin13pointsbyWuQiqun吴淇羣(pupil)–PanMingxiong,潘明熊,(ca.
1807–1886)fromPanyu番禺,Guangdong.
Zhusheng诸生.
Knownonlyasaphysician.
Pingqinshuwuyilue,评琴书屋医略AbstractofmedicinefromPingqinlibrary1868[1865]Yes,pr.
undated-LiGuangting李光廷,localscholar,co-directorofXuehaiAcademyin1863,pr.
1865-HuangDehua黄德华,teacher,pr.
undated-ChenPu陈璞,jurenin1844,magistrate,co-directorofXuehaiAcademyin1861,pr.
undatedFanli凡例,in4points–FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET358Table1continuedAuthor/date/provinceBooktitle/yearofpublication,reprintAuthorialprefacezixuAllographprefacesxubyAuthorialForewordPost-facePanMingxiong潘明熊,(ca.
1807–1886)PingqinshuwuYeankuoyao评琴书屋叶案括要,AbstractofM.
Ye'smedicalcasesfromPingqinlibrary1935[1873]Yes,pr.
1873-LiGuangting李光廷,localscholar,co-directorofXuehaiAcademyin1863,pr.
undatedFanli凡例,in6points–QiuXi邱熺,(activein1817),fromNanhai南海,Guangdong.
Knownasvaccinator.
Yindoulue,引痘略Summaryofsmallpoxinoculation1864[1817]Yes,pr.
1817-WenRushi温汝适,pr.
1817-ZhengZhaoheng郑兆珩,1821––WangXueyuan王学渊(activein1838).
FromMaoming茂名,Guangdong.
KnownasaphysicianonlyShuzhengzhinan暑症指南GuideforSummer-HeatDiseases1838Yes,pr.
1838–Fanli凡例in11points–YuTingju俞廷举,(activein1780)fromQuanzhou全州,Guangxi.
Juren举人in1768"recommendedman"andmagistrateinYingshan营山,Sichuan.
Jintaiyihua金台医话MedicalanecdotesfromJintai1991[1783]Yes,pr.
1780-LiMudu李楘顿,provincialdirectorofinstruction提督学政,pr.
1797––ZhanRuiyun詹瑞云,(Post1808before1931).
FromPanyu番禺,Guangdong.
Knownasphysicianonly.
Maifami'ao,派法秘奥SecretsofpulsediagnosisPost1808before1931Yes,pr.
undated,copiedinthegazetteerofPanyu1931in(Guo1987:1963)ZhaoZhibeng赵之琫(19thcentury),fromLongling龙陵,Yunnan.
Knownasaphysicianonly.
Zhizhangdu治瘴毒Treatingthemiasmaticpoison,Undatedlost-ZhaoJinsheng赵金声,hissonengong恩贡1876,copiedinlocalgazetteerofLongling1914THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY359ARTIKEL/ARTICLETheDifferentLayersofthePrefatoryDiscourseTheprefatorydiscourse,asitappearsinthese32medicalbooks,iscomposedofdifferentlayersofparatext.
Firstly,itismadeupoftextsthateitherprecedeorclosethemaintext.
ForGenette,whomainlyworkedintheeldofEuro-peanliterature,thesepiecesofparatext,regardlessifplacedbeforeorafterthemaintext,haveusuallymoreincommonthanpointsthatdividethem(1987:164).
Hethusclassiesthemunderthesametypeofparatext,theprefaces.
DavidL.
Rolston(1990:64)whohasworkedextensivelyonChineseliteraturecametothesameconclusion:"Thepost-facesare,forthemostpart,verysimilartotheprefaces.
"Inthesampleofmedicaltextsunderdiscussion,thepost-facebaisrare:Onlythreetextshaveapost-face,andforoneofthem,itwasputbeforethemaintextinthethirdeditionatleastbutperhapsevenearlier(Huang1918[1800]:1).
Thecorpusunderdiscussionhereistoosmalltodrawrmconclusionsfrom.
However,thisndingconformswithGenette's(1987:241)ownndingsinEuropeanliterature.
Genettenoticedthatpost-facesinliteraturewereratherrareincomparisonwithprefaces.
Inhisopinion,apost-faceshouldbemorerelevantonalogicallevelsinceitallowstheauthortospeaktoawell-informedreader.
However,onapragmaticlevel,apost-facehasapoorefcacysinceitlacksthetwocardinalfunctionsofapreface,namely,toengagethereaderandtoguideher/himthroughher/hisreading.
Thoughitremainsasubjectoffutureresearchwhytherearesofewpost-facesinChinesemedicaltexts,itisafactthatpost-facesinthiscorpusarerare,whileallthetextshaveapreface.
Consequently,theparatextwearenowgoingtoexploreismainlycomposedoftextsplacedbeforethemaintext.
Secondly,theprefatorydiscoursesinthesemedicaltextscouldbewrittenbytheauthororbyotherpeople.
Nearlyalltheextantbookshavebothauthorialandallographicprefaces.
Asshownintable1,thebooksthatreceivedaprefaceonlybytheauthorareinfactnolongerextant.
Theseprefaceshavecomedowntousthroughcontemporarylocalhistoricalsourcesinwhichtheyhadbeencopiedorinanthologiesofprefaces.
7Itcannotberuledoutthattheselostbookshadallographicprefacesaswell,butasthebooksarenolongerextant,or,atleast,notavailableinacademiclibraries,thereisnowayofascertainingthis.
Finally,insomebooks,wendtwotypesofauthorialdiscourseprecedingthemaintext:thezixu(g.
1and4)thatIwillnowcalltheauthorialprefaceand,attimes,anothertextthatIwillcalltheforeword(g.
2and3),translatingtherebydifferentChineselocutions(fanli,dufa,yaoyan,liyan8).
Thesimul-taneouspresenceofthesetwotypesofauthorialdiscourse,insevenbooksonly(twoforewordswerenotauthorialbutprobablyaddedbythepublisher),allowsforcomparison.
Clearly,theseauthorialprefatorydiscoursesaredif-ferent.
Firstly,theyarelocatedindistinctpartsoftheprefatorydiscourse:FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET360Intheoriginalorancienteditions,thezixuorauthorialprefacesarealwayslocatedafteroneormoreallographicprefacesxu,mostlikelyreectingtheauthor'shumilitytowardhispeers,asMartaHanson(1997)pointedout.
Whenanauthoraddedaforeword(fanli,dufa,yaoyan)healwaysputitafterthesetofallographicandauthorialprefaces(xuandzixu)andclosetothecontents.
Thisorderwasusuallytheonechoseninoriginalorancienteditions.
Itmayhavebeenchangedinsuccessiveeditions.
9Secondly,theseauthorialbefore-textdiscoursesarealsodistinguishablebythestyleoftheirwriting.
Athoroughanalysisoftheirstylisticfeatures,notablythetypesofillocutionaryactsusedinthesedifferentpartsoftheparatext,andoftheirtypographicalfeatureswouldbeveryinterestingtocarryout,inasystematicway.
10Thisanalysisremainstobedone,butsomedifferencesstillappearveryclearly:Thestyleoftheauthorialforewordsismuchmoredidacticthanthatusedfortheauthorialprefacesproper.
Asshowningures2and3,theforewordisusuallywrittenasanenumerationofthedifferentpointstheauthorwantstomake—between4and18inthesamplehereunderdiscussion—andthatherendersparticularlyvisiblebyusingatypographicalmarker,similartoourcontemporaryem-dash,butwhichinfactlooksliketheChinesecharacteryi"one"andindicateswhereanewpointbegins.
ThetextisFig.
1HeMengyao'sauthorialprefacezixutohisStepping-StoneforMedicine(Yibian1751),inhandwritingcalligraphy,pr.
1751.
(He[1751]2ndedition,Tongwentang,undated,Preface:1)Fig.
2HeMengyao'sforewordfanlitohisStepping-StoneforMedicine(Yibian1751),instandardscript(He[1751]2ndedition,Tongwentang,undated,Foreword:1)THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY361ARTIKEL/ARTICLEfrequentlypunctuated,simpleandclear.
Furthermore,thecalligraphyisalwaysinstandardscript.
Bycontrast,theauthorialprefaceswhichaccompanytheallographicprefacesareunpunctuated,anduseanallusiveandmeta-phoricallanguagelacedwithscholarlyreferencesandnameswhich,foracontemporaryChinesescholarwereprobablyeasytodecipher,butwhichveryoftenleavethemodernreadercircumspect.
Moreover,asgures1and4incontrasttogures2and3show,authorialprefacescouldattimesbewrittenincursivehandwriting,evenifhandwritingwasmoregenerallyusedinallo-graphicprefaces.
Asrecalledearlier,authorialprefaces,togetherwithallographicprefaces,weretherstpiecesareaderwouldlookatwhenopeningabook.
Undoubtedly,theauthormadeithisgoaltobeover-zealousintheseveryrstpages.
Seemingly,heshowsoffhistalentbydemonstratingthathehasmasteredthecompactandmetaphoriclanguageofscholarswho,asweshallsoonsee,inlateimperialChinastillplayedamajorroleintheprocessoflegitimizingintellectualworks,includingmedicaltexts.
Bytheirpositioninginthebookandtheirstylisticfeatures,theauthorialforewordandpreface,whilebothwrittenbythesamehand,donothavemuchincommon.
Verylikely,theseauthorialwordsdidnottargetthesameaudience.
Thetypesofargu-mentsdevelopedinthesedifferentpartsoftheparatextdiffertooandleadustothinkthattheseauthorialpiecesofparatextwereintendedtoplaydifferentroles.
Fig.
3HuangYan'sforeworddufatohisEssentialsofMedicine(Yixuejingyao,1800),instandardscript(Huang1867[1800],Foreword:1)Fig.
4Authorialprefacezixuinhandwrit-ingcalligraphybyHuangYantohisCompilationonOphthalmology(Yankezuanyao,1879),prefaceundated.
(Huang1867,Preface:1)FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET362Tosummarize,theprefatorydiscourse,asitappearsinthiscorpus,iseithercomposedofoneortwodistinctsetsofparatext.
TogiveanimageborrowedfromChinesearchitecture,theallographicandauthorialprefaces,xuandzixu,arethegatewayofthebook,which,inaChinesehouse,asFrancescaBray(1997:92–93)underlined,metthedoublefunctionofbeingaphysicalthresholdanda"noticeboard"advertisingthehome'sworthinesstovisitors.
Theforeword,alwayslocatedaftertheprefaces,closetothecontents,andopeningontothetext,isitsaccessorysecondinnergate.
Wewillfollowthistextualarchitecture,whichtheauthor,andmorelikelythepublisher,usuallychosewhentheypresentedthebooktotheircontemporariesforthersttime.
Andwewillanalyzewhatalltheseparatextualelementsdotoengagetheirreader,inwhatthepersuasiverhetoricemployedconsistsandwhatittellsusaboutthequestionofmedicalauthorityandlegitimacyinlateimperialtimes.
HowtoTaketheReaderAcrosstheThreshold:AllographicPrefacesAsnotedearlier,inoriginalorancienteditionsofamedicaltext,theoorisrstgiventopeopleotherthantheauthor.
Undoubtedly,thisorderconveystheauthor'shumility.
Ithasapragmaticeffectaswell.
Itisalwaysdifculttovalorizeatextwithoutgivingtheimpressionofvalorizingitsauthor,andthus,authorsusuallyprefertoleavethetaskofvalorizingtheirtalentandgeniustosomeoneelse.
Nothingismoreefcientintermsofvalorizationwhenthispersonisevenmorehighlyregardedthantheauthor.
PeersandTheirEndorsementsTheidentityofthepeoplechosentowriteprefacestothesemedicaltextsgivescluestoknowingfromwhomlegitimacyinmedicalliteraturecouldbeobtained.
WiththeexceptionofHeMengyao(ca.
1692–1764)andLiangLianfu(1810–1894)whowererenowned,atleastlocally,fortheirmedicalpracticeandtexts,andwho,respectively,wroteaprefacetotheAboutthePulse(Mairu)ofGuoZhi(ca.
1736–1796)andtheEssentialCaptureofMedicalBooks(Yishusheyao)ofGongZhengjia(1836–1906),theywereneverphysi-cians.
11Andinfact,whileHeMengyaoandLiangLianfuwerelocallyrenownedforbeinggoodmedicalexpertsandauthors,theyhadaboveallfunctionswithintheimperialbureaucracy.
Bothhadsucceededinthecivilserviceexaminations,HeMengyaowasajinshi("presentedscholar,"thehighestdegreetakeninmetropolitanexaminations)andLiangLianfuwasafugongsheng(secondlistofthe"recommendedman,"theintermediatedegree,takeninprovincialexaminations)andtheyhadrelationshipswiththemostfamousscholarsoftheirtime,astheallographicprefacestotheirownmedicalTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY363ARTIKEL/ARTICLEbookstestify.
Infact,besidesHeMengyao,LiangLianfu,andthreeprefaceswrittenbyfamilymembers,wemainlyndofcialsanddegree-holderswhosetitlesandfunctionswerespeciedintheirsignature,attheendofthepreface(seetable1).
Wethusndaprovincialgovernor,aprovincialdirectorofeducation,severaljinshiandmembersoftheHanlinacademy,themostprestigiousscholarlyinstitutionoftheempire,severalmagistrates,unspeciedbureaucratsandsomedirectorsoflocalacademies,suchasLiGuangting(1812–1880),whoafterteachingintheDuanxiAcademyinZhaoqing(Guangdong)wentontobeaco-directoroftheXuehaiAcademy,inGuangzhou(Miles2006:151).
Themajorityofthepeoplechosentowriteprefaceswerethusmenwhoselegitimacywaslinkedwithfunctionsortitlesoutsidetherealmofmedicine.
However,thesymboliccapitaltheirsignaturebestowedwashighenoughtoserveasanuncontestableendorsement.
Choosingpeoplewhohadneverbeeninvolvedinmedicinetowriteaprefacetoamedicaltextshowsthatmasteringtechnicalknowledgesuchasmedicinewasnotsufcienttoconvinceasimplereader,aneditororapublisher,tobuy,toreadortoprintatextrespectively.
Untilthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,whichistheendofourcorpus,itwasnecessarytohavethecompensatorysupportandtheendorsementofmeninvolvedinapublicservicecareer,ofdegree-holdersandthusmastersofthegreatclassicalculture.
Thisconrmsthelowlypositionofmedicineinthehierarchyofknowledgeandinsociety,whichobligedthesescholarstoreservealargepartoftheirprefacetoarguethecontrary.
Theanalysisoftheidentityofthepeopleselectedtowriteprefaceshighlightsashiftinthesystemofrecommendationtoanothersphere.
Justasscholarswererequestedtorecommendyoungtalentforthecivilserviceexaminations,theywerealsorequestedtorecommendanewmedicaltexttoanaudienceortoaneditor,eveniftheyhadlittleknowledgeofthesubject.
Asamatteroffact,someofthesescholarsconfesstheirscantacquaintancewithmedicineandmentiontheirembarrassmentoruneasinessinwritingapreface,whichisacommontoposinallographicprefaces,ingeneral(Genette1987:276–277).
In1880the"presentedscholar"andlocalmagistrateinFuchuan,JiaoZhaojun,writesinLiangLianfu'sbook:"MyfriendaskedmetowriteaprefacetohisWhatanIgnorantPersoninMedicineShouldKnow[…]formypart,Idonotknowmedicine,"(Liang1936[1881]:1–2)whileXuChuncenadds,in1882,"IdonotknowmedicineandIdidmybesttowritethismodestandsimplenote.
"(Liang1936[1881]:1).
ThealreadymentionedLiGuangtinginhisprefacestoPanMingxiong'stwobooksstresses:"Afterhecompletedhisbook,heaskedanignorantmantowriteanintroduction,Ithuscomposedthispreface,"(Pan1868[1865]:3)and"Iamnotyetverywelleducatedinmedicine"(Pan1935[1873]:2).
Thefactthatthesepeoplewerenotphysiciansandhadnospecializedknowledgeinmedicine,probablyexplainswhyweneverndpreciseinformationrelatingtotheprefacedtext.
Infact,thevalorizationFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET364strategyforamedicaltextmainlycallsonaspectsotherthanonitsinternalpropertiesorintrinsicvaluesandappearslargelycodied.
Medicine:HighlyComplexKnowledgeasValuableasClassicalStudiesWendinallographicprefacesanumberofthemesalsoaddressedintheauthorialprefaces.
Firstly,anallographicprefaceveryoftentakestheformofaforumwherethepersonwhowritesitdevelopsageneralreectiononmedicine,accordingtoavalorizationstrategyveryfrequentinprefatorymaterial.
Byvalorizingthesubjecttowhichtheprefacedworkislinked,theprefaceemphasizestheimportanceofconsideringthebook(Genette1987:201).
Nearlyalltheallographicprefacesthusunderlinetheimportanceofmedicineanditsdifcultiesandstrivetoestablishthatmedicineingeneralisworthyofconsideration.
Indoingso,prefacewritersinfactcontributedinfuelingalong-standingdebateaboutthestatusandplaceofmedicineinthecongurationofknowledge.
MedicinehadlongbeenconsideredaminordisciplineincomparisonwithConfucianstudiesandmedicalpractitionershadlongbeenseenasartisans,withastatusfarinferiortothatoftheConfucianbureaucrats.
InspiteoftheSongscholarFanZhongyan(989–1052)'sdecla-rationthatplacedthephysicianonthesamelevelasthehighestbureaucrat,andinspiteofthephilosopherZhuXi's(1130–1200)assertionthatmedicineandother"minordisciplines"(xiaodao)werepartoftheGreatWay(dao),practicingmedicinehadlongbeenconsideredasecond-choicealternativetobettercareers,suchasthecivilservice,andmedicineacontroversialeldofknowledge.
12Theprefacewriters'maineffortthusconsistsindepictingmedicineasbeingonaparwithclassicalConfucianstudiesintermsofcom-plexityandasthebestwayforhewhoknowsandpracticesmedicinetobeanaccomplishedConfucian,notablyabletotakecareofhisparents.
LiGuang-ting,inhisprefacestoPanMingxiong'sbooks,writes"Thedisciplineofmedicineissubtle,"(Pan1868[1865]:1;1935[1873]:1)whiletheGeneralGovernorofGuangdongWangShu,inLiuYuan'sbook(pr.
1740),says"itisdifculttoknowitsimportantpoints"(Liu1873[1739]:4).
Theusefulnessofknowingmedicineforthebenetofhumanityand,tostartwith,forthebenetofone'sparentsisalsogivenprominenceinmanyallographicprefaces.
IntheprefacebytheProvincialDirectorofEducationLiMudu(pr.
1797)toYuTingju'sbook,wereadasomewhatplagiarizedformulafromtheeminentphysicianXuChunfu(1526–1596):"MedicineandConfucianism,thesearetwothingsthatamancannotignore"(Yu1991[1783]).
13Medicineisanimportant,difcult,usefulsubjectthat,consequently,shouldgivehewhomastersitahighpositioninsociety.
ThefamoussayingoftheSongscholarFanZhongyan,mentionedearlier,appearsveryoftenintheseprefaces,andinmanyotherprefacesoflateimperialmedicalliterature.
IntheprefacetoHuangYuanji'sbook,the"presentedscholar"andbureaucratFanXian(pr.
1763)explains:"Inthepast,Mr.
Zhongyansaid'IfIcannotbecomeaministerthanITHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY365ARTIKEL/ARTICLEshallbecomeaphysician'.
Thisisbecauseaphysicianhasthepowerofdeathorlifeforpeople;hismeritsareashighasthoseofaminister"(Guo1987:2024).
ThelocalpoetXiYi(pr.
1827)inGuoZhi'sbookstates:"Thesagesofthepastusedtoconsideragoodministerandagoodphysicianasbeingequallyimportant,theministerhavingthepowerandthephysicianthetechniquesforsavinglives.
"(Guo1981[1753]:1)Thedifcultyofmedicineanditsusefulnessforbeingagoodpersonarereasonswhyscholarsacceptedtowriteapreface,eveniftheyhadonlylittleknowledgeinmedicine.
Writingamedicaltext,evenmorethanpracticingmedicine,wasconsideredamoralenterprisethatneededtobesupported.
FanXian'spreface(pr.
1763)toHuangYuanjistatesthisclearly:Whenaphysician,inhisvacations,haswrittenbooksandthatthesebooksarepublishedtheirmeritsareverygreat[…]Danyuan(infact,HuangYuanji)gave(hisbook)tobeprintedandheaskedofmeapreface.
IpraisethemanwhowantstohelppeopleandIofferhimthisgift.
Inthisway,(hisbook)willbehandeddowntofuturegenerations,notlikethegoodactionsoftheministers,which,bycompar-ison,lastonlyashorttime;thisiswhyIwroteapreface.
(Huang1799[1763]:2)Whethertheideathatwritingmedicaltextswascharitable,issincereorjustarhetoricalformula—wendthisideainseveralallographicprefaces—isdifculttodecide.
Letusnote,however,thatunlikeothertextualproductions,likenovelsforinstance,whichtheConfucianscholarsperceivedasaschooloflies(Postel2006),medicaltextsdealtwithasubjectthatdidnotbelongtotheworldofction,buttothatofhumanreality.
Makingmedicalknowledgeaccessible,opentoall,andnotkeptsecretwithinthefamily,maywellhavebeenconsideredatrulycharitableenterprisethatdeservedthesupportofConfucianscholars,especiallyinremoteandruralareasoftheempire,wherebookswereverylikelyscarce.
14ThealreadymentionedFanXianunderlinesthisclearly:"If/whenthisbookispublished,thereaderswillbeabletoobtainthemostsubtle(knowledge)andtolargelytransformpeople'sdifcultiesintolongandgoodlives.
"(Huang1799[1763]:3)Theusefulnessofthebookanditsphilanthropictargetwerethusattheheartofthevalorizationstrategycontainedintheprefatorydiscourse,astrategythat,inturn,grantedtheprefatorydiscoursewriterapartofthischaritableendeavor.
Byfavoringtheaccessofmedicalknowledgetoall,hewhoagreedtowritetheprefacetogetherwithhewhoprintedandcirculatedthebookwere,byassociation,charitablemen(Hanson1995,Widmer1996).
TheSpiritualAfliationoftheNewAuthorInordertohaveanewtextacceptedinadisciplinewhosedifculties,importanceandusefulnesshavebeenhighlighted,theprefacewriterinvokesinhisrecommendatorydiscoursethegreatestguresofmedicineandthemostancientandclassicaltexts.
InordertopraisePanMingxiong'sskills,LiGuangting,inhispreface(pr.
1865),didnothesitatetoresorttothegureofFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET366BianQue,whowas,accordingtolegend,theearliestknownChinesephysician(ca.
500B.
C.
)(Pan1868[1865]:2).
LiangLianfuwasgiven(pr.
1880)thevarioustraitsoftheidealphysicianasdetailedintheChronicleofZuo(Zuozhuan,compiledinthefourthcenturyB.
C.
)andintheBookofRites(Liji),oneoftheChineseFiveClassicsoftheConfuciancanon.
Ihaveneverseenanyonewhohasmasteredmedicineinsuchasubtleway.
Withrespecttothisdiscipline,hereallyissomeonewhohasbecomeacompetentdoctor'throughtreatingbrokenupperarmsthreetimes'[…]The(Bookof)Ritessays:'Oneshouldnottakethemedicineofaphysicianwhodoesnotcomefromthreegen-erations'[…]Thereisnodifferencebetweenthisthirdgenerationphysicianandmyfriendwhoasayoungmanstartedtopractice,asamaturemanbecamereliable,andasanoldmanisnottired.
(Liang1936[1881]:2)15Theallographicprefacesstrivetoemphasizetherelationshipbetweenthenewtextsandotherancienttexts,which,overthecourseofhistory,hadreachedacanonicstatusliketheRitesofZhou(Zhouli),theBookofChange(Yijing),theInnerCanonoftheYellowEmperor(HuangdiNeijing,composedoftheSuwen,PlainQuestions,andtheLingshu,DivinePivot,andcompiledbetweenthenalcenturiesB.
Cand2A.
D.
,foritsmajorpart),theClassicofDifculties(Nanjing,ca.
2A.
D.
)ZhangJi'sTreatiseonColdDiseases(Shanghanlun,3A.
D.
)butalsosomefamousmedicalauthorssuchasYeGui(1667–1746)orZhangJiebin(1563–1640).
XiYi(pr.
1827)forinstancewrites:"Mr.
GuoZhi[…]wroteaAboutthePulse,aTreatiseonColdDiseasesandaBookofClinicalCases,byreferringtothePlainQuestions,theDivinePivot,theClassicofDifcultiesandtheotherhistoricalbooks.
"(Guo1981[1753]:2)LiGuangzhao,inhispreface(pr.
1831)toHuangYan'stextstresses:"Heespeciallylovedmedicalbooks;hecouldrecitethemedicalcasesoftheDivinePivot,thePlainQuestions,ofZhang,Li,Liu,Zhu,XueandthesecretsofZhangJingyue"(Huang1918[1800]:1).
16ThissampleofChinesemedicaltextprefacesshowsusastrategyemphasizedbyBokibaintheprefaceswrittentovalorizetheAfricanwriter.
Atextisparticularlyvalorizedwhenitisplacedclosetotheothertexts,whicharefarthestfromit,intimeandspace.
Theuniversaltranshistoricitythatemergesfromthismergerprocessenhancesthelegitimacyofthenewtextandgivesitaquasi-mythicdimension.
(1991:86,translationismine).
Byreferringtothemostancientanduncontestedguresofmedicine,theprefacewriteractsastheconductorofanorchestra,inBokiba'swords,allowingthenewtexttomakeitsvoiceheardinthisintertextualconcert.
Bydoingthis,theauthoroftheprefacestrivestoemphasizeaspiritualafliationbetweenthenewauthorandhisforbearersandexpectsthatthereaderwillgrantthedescendantsomeoftheforbearers'accumulatedheritageofprestigeandlegitimacy.
AMedicalAuthorHadToBeaConfucianScholarOncetheprefacewriterhassucceededinestablishingtheauthorandthetextinadisciplinewhoselegitimacyhasbeenevokedonthegroundsofitsancientTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY367ARTIKEL/ARTICLEliterarytradition,theprefacewritersometimesmovesonfromgeneralmatterstobiographicaldata.
However,inrevealingaspectsoftheauthor'slifetothepublic,theprefacewriterveryoftenwishestoennobletheauthorwiththisinformation.
IncaseoftheChinesemedicalauthor,thisembellishmentcon-sistsingivingthephysicianthetraitsoftheConfucianphysicianruyi.
Infact,biographicalinformation,intheprefaces,isshortandoftenlimitedtomen-tioningthedegreesanauthorhadobtainedorthedifferentofcialpostshehadoccupiedintheimperialbureaucracy.
ThejinshiandmagistrateZhaoLinlin(pr.
undated)introducesHeMengyaobywriting:"MyfriendXichiwasajinshiat38[…]afterhavingtakenexaminations,XichistrovetoobtainpostsinGuangxi,hewasamagistrateinYining,Yangshuo,Cenxi,Si'en,andinotherplaces,thenhebecameprefectofLiaoyang,whereheobtainedagoodrepu-tationasapublicofcial.
"(He1994[1751]]:49)FanXian(pr.
1763)presentsHuangYuanjiintheseterms:"TheLordHuangDanyuanofGuiling,succeededintheimperialexaminationsinthesameyearasIdid,in1732,intheprovinceofGuangxi.
IwasaninstructorinDuanxi,andtheLordwasamagistrateinLingshan.
"(Guo1987:2024)AndJiaoZhaojun(pr.
1880),whenspeakingaboutLiangLianfu,says:"Thiscultivatedyoungmanwastheyoungestdegreeholderinhiscanton"(Liang1936[1881]:1).
Ifanauthorhadnodegreeornohigherfunctionthanthatofphysician,theprefacewritereithermakesnomentionoftheauthor'slifeorendeavorstoframetheauthorasascholarallthesame,stressingforinstancehisgreatclassicalcultureorevokingsomeancientscholarlyorigins.
ThemagistrateLiGuangzhao(pr.
1831)describesHuangYanasamanwhohadnootherinterestthanthatofwritingbooks,and"whowasgoodinpoetry,inclassicalChineseandlyricpoetry"(Huang1918[1800]:1).
Ifanauthorhadnodegree,hemaystillhavehadsomehonorablefamilialoriginsorrelationshipsworthyofinterestforvalorizingatext.
TheyoungcousinofGuoZhi,GuoLinbiao(pr.
1827)exploitsthistoposbyretracingGuoZhi'sfamilytree:MycousinonmyfathersideYuanfeng,styledZhi,hadasanancestorGuanya,styledBiao,whooccupiedafunctionineducationintheprovinceofGuangxiandwasamagistrateinthesubprefecturesofWuxuan,LiuzhouandXiangzhou.
Hehadanexcellentreputationasapublicofcial.
AfterthegranduncleGuanya,andfollowinginhisfootstepswithoutinterruption,sixgenerationsprovidedthetownwithlowestandhighestdegreeholders,untilthebirthofmycousinwhoisanextraordinaryman.
(Guo1981[1753]:1)Anotherwayofraisingamedicalauthortotherankofscholarwastorelatesomemedicalanecdotesthat,inadditiontotestifyingtotheauthor'sperspicacityandefcacy,attestedaboveall,tohisclosecontactswiththelocalscholarlyelites,andtostartwith,withtheprefacewriterorwithoneofhisfamilymembers.
Thisnarrationallowsthepersonalprestigeoftheprefacewritertobereectedontothebook'sauthor,prestigethatisexpliciteitherinhissignatureattheendoftheprefaceorintheprefaceitself.
Infact,inseveralFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET368allographicprefaces,wegetmorebiographicalinformationontheprefacewriterthanonthebook'sauthor,andthesebiographicaldetailsarealwaysveryatteringintermsofacademicsuccessandsocialstatus.
17Interestingly,theallographicprefacesneveraddressthemedicalauthor'slife,ifthebiographicalelementscannotraisethephysiciantothestatusofthescholarphysician.
Defendingthedisciplineandraisingtheauthortotherankofthescholararethusthemostimportantpointsdiscussedintheseallographicprefaces.
Infact,wehavelittleinformationontheactualtexts.
ContrarytotheallographicprefacesthatweusuallyndforEuropeanaswellasChineseliteraryworks,whichoftengivetheprefacewriterstheopportunitytosuggest,ifnottoimposeaparticularinterpretationoftheworkbeingintroducedintheshapeoflongcomments,theallographicprefacestomedicaltextsdonotdiscussatlengththetexttheyareexpectedtopresent.
18Insomecases,theysimplyavoidthesubject:"IthinkthatHeMengyaoinhisprefacehassum-marizedtheessential,itisnotnecessarytoaddanything,"writesZhaoLinlininhisprefacetoHeMengyao'sStepping-StoneforMedicine(Yibian)(He1994[1751]:51).
"Notedscholarshavealreadycommentedonthisbook,itisnotnecessarythatIrepeatthem,"saystheallographicpreface(pr.
1885)toHeMengyao'sWhatSonsNeedtoKnowfromPalaceLezhi(Lezhitangrenzixuzhi)(He1885[1872]:1).
Whentheprefacewritersdonotshyawayfromthesubject,theircommentonthetextisusuallyshortandexpressedinstereo-typicalterms.
Asalreadymentioned,nearlyallallographicprefacesunderlinedhowthenewbookhaditsrootsinalongscholarlytradition,stressingthattheauthorwasparticularlywell-versedintheclassicaltexts.
Inadditiontoalludingtothenewtext'sclassicalroots,theallographicprefacesbringoutabovealltheclarity,simplicityandeasinessofthenewtext,praisethat,ofcourse,contrastswiththehighlevelofdifcultyandcomplexityofmedicinestressedearlier.
In1900thelocalofcialLiangYuanfuwritesaboutFengXinlan'sbook:"Hisargumentationisverydetailed,hisexplanationsontheoriginsandontheprocessesareveryunderstandable"(Guo1987:1986).
"Thelanguageissimpleandappropriate,itsmeaningissimpleandclear,"writesthesonofHeMen-gyaoinhisfather'sposthumousbook(He1885[1872]:1).
XinChangwuwritesofHeMengyao'sStepping-StoneforMedicine(Yibian):"Thisbookisconciseanditsmeaningisappropriate.
Itexplores(things)intheirdepthbutmakesthemappearveryclear.
"(He1994[1751]:52)ThetwoallographicprefacespraiseLiangLianfu'sbookalongthesamelines:"Iappliedmyselftoreadthisbookcritically.
Itanalyseseverythingindetail.
Itissimpleandeasy,"and"Isawthathisdiscussionsondiseasesareclear"(Liang1936[1881]:1–2).
Finally,LiGuangting(pr.
1863)praisesoneofPanMingxiong'sbooksusingametaphor:"Hebroughttogetherallthatwasscattered,hesimpliedallthatwascom-plicated,itislikearoomfullofscatteredsilvercoinsthatnobodyhadyetputinorder.
Oncetheyarethreadedonastringtheyareeasytohold"(Pan1935[1873]:2).
THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY369ARTIKEL/ARTICLEInadditiontofocusingontheclarityandsimplicityofthetext,theprefacewritercanturnthereader'sattentiontootheraspectsaswell,buttheseaspectsaremorespecic.
Comprehensivenessistheonlyfeaturebywhichoneprefacewriterdenesthebookheisprefacing:"InhisMatureformulasfromJinyunpavillon(Jingyunzhaijiyanliangfang),withits56entries,its39detaileddivisions,its8chapters,andits26,000characters,frompreventivehealthagainsttheaccumulationofevils,toformulasagainststrangediseases,everythingisconsidered,"writesFanXian,in1763(Guo1987:2024).
Intwoprefaces,wendthemoralityoftheauthoratthefocusofthevalorizationstrategyforthebook.
LiGuangtingpraisesPanMingxiongfornothavingplagiarizedtheeminentphysicianYeGuiwhenhewrotehisbookaboutYeGui'smedicalcases.
Inamoreconservativeway,FanXianpraisesin1763HuangYuanjifornothavingintroducednewandpersonalideasandformulaswhengoodonesalreadyexisted,followingadviceformulatedbytheSongscholarSuDongpo(1036–1101).
19Inamorepragmaticway,LiangXilei,theeditorofamanuscriptwrittenbyFengXinlanonthediseasebaihou(lit.
"whitethroat"andusedtodayfordiphtheria)reportedtohaverecentlyemergedinthesouthofChina,writesthatthebookallowsmanyvictimsofthisdiseasetobesaved(Pan1935[1873]:2;Guo1987:2024,1986).
Thetaskoftheallographicprefatorydiscourseistopresent,commentonorintroducethetexttothereader,itdoesnotanswertoanallegedneedforexplanation.
Intheseallographicprefaceswedonotndacriticalcommentaryofthetext,butarathercodieddiscourse,aimedatvalorizingsomeaspectsofit:itsclarity,itssimplicity,itsattempttobeuniversalandnotabiasedwork,leaningtowardoneofthe"fourmasters"andparticulardoctrinesthathademergedintheSong,JinandYuandynasties(twelfthtofourteenthcenturies).
20Insum,theallographicprefacestothesemedicaltextsassumethefunc-tionofrecommendation,whichisthemainfunctionofanallographicpreface.
Astherecommendationrelatestoanactivitypracticedanddiscussedbyeducatedaswellasbyuneducatedpeople,theprefacewriters'maintaskistounderlinethewaythetextanditsauthorpertaintoascholarlytradition.
Itisinterestingatthispointtocomparethevalorizationstrategycontainedintheprefatorymaterialwiththatcontainedinanothertypeofindirectdiscourseaboutphysiciansalsowrittenbyscholars:ofcialbiographies.
Biographiesofphysiciansassembledinlocalgazetteersweremainlywrittentoprovideexamplesforposterity,andconsequentlyemphasizedtheexperts'qualities.
Whilebiographiesoftenframedthephysiciansasaccomplishedscholars,itwasstillpossibletondinthesebiographiesadiscourseofvirtueonthethemesoftheexperiencedpractitionerdisplayingdiagnosticandcurativegenius,particularlywhentheywerehereditaryphysicians(Bretelle-Establet2009).
Intheprefaces,thevalorizationdiscourseneverresortstotheseimagesbutonlythosethatshowthemedicalauthorasanaccomplishedscholar.
FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET370Agoodmedicalpractitionercouldbeanexperienced,efcientandperspica-ciousexpert.
Agoodmedicalauthorshouldbealearnedscholar.
Seemingly,thisimageismoreauthoritativetoareadership,that,bydenition,isliterateandforwhom,verylikely,thescholarwasstillamodelofsocialachievement.
Theauthorsthemselvesaugmentthisimage,asweshallnowsee.
HowToEngagetheReader:TheAllegedAuthor'sVoiceWecouldexpecttondintherstauthorialwords(zixu)anintimatedis-coursewhere,totakeEliot'simage,theauthorcomestospeakwithhisreaders,makesconfessions,speaksabouthimselfandofhiswork:NopartofabookissointimateasthePreface.
Here,afterthelonglaboroftheworkisover,theauthordescendsfromhisplatform,andspeakswithhisreaderasmantoman,disclosinghishopesandfears,seekingsympathyforhisdifculties,offeringdefenceordeance,accordingtohistemper,againstthecriticismswhichheanticipates.
ItthushappensthatapersonalitywhichhasbeenveiledbyaformalmethodthroughoutmanychaptersissuddenlyseenfacetofaceinthePreface.
(Eliot2004[1909]:3).
Infact,andcontrarytothisrathernaivestatement,wendverylittleconfessionandintimacyintheauthorialprefacestothesemedicaltexts.
Thismaybeduetothefactthatthesezixudidnotcomefromtheauthor'sownhand.
21Butevenmoresobecauseanauthorialpreface,inthiscontextofacutecompetitionamongmedicalauthorsandtexts,hadanotherfunctionthandisclosingintimatedetails.
Medicine:AHighlyComplicatedBranchofKnowledgeThatMustBeLearnedAuthorialprefacesprovide,aboveall,theauthorwiththeopportunitytoholdageneraldiscourseaboutmedicine.
Alltheauthorsemphasizethedifcultiesofmedicineandthenecessityoflearningitsoastoavoidbecomingavictimofquacks'errors,andtoprotectthehealthofone'sparents.
ZhanRuiyun,alatenineteenth-centuryphysician,contestedtheideathatmedicinewaseasy.
Thisidea,hesaid,hadbeenintroducedbyChenXiuyuan(1753–1823)andhisbookTheStudyofMedicineIsReallyEasy(yixueshizaiyi).
ZhanRuiyunwrote:"Formypart,IhavelongexperienceandIknowthatthingsintheirdeptharenoteasy.
"(Guo1987:1963)GongPengzhou,presentedasaneminentphysicianofGuangxiinthenineteenthcentury,quotinganancientscholar,explains:"Mr.
ChengYichuansaid:thosewholeavesickpeopleinthehandsofquackslackcompassionandlialdevotion.
Thisiswhyhewhoisinchargeofhisfamilymustknowmedicine.
"((Ibid.
:2033)1987:2033).
Byhighlightingboth,thedifcultyofthesubjectandtheworthofmasteringitsoastobecomeagoodTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY371ARTIKEL/ARTICLEConfucian,theauthorinviteshisreadertoreconsidertheestablishedhierar-chyofknowledgeandtoattachmorevaluetomedicine,whichispreciselytheobjectiveofthebook.
Unlikeallographicprefaces,authorialprefacesusuallydonotdirectlystatethataphysicianisequaltoaminister.
ItwouldbetoopretentioustorefertoFanZhongyan'sfamousdeclarationputtingthephy-sicianonaparwiththehighestbureaucratandanauthorwouldnotembarrasshisreaderbydoingso.
UnlesswhenthemedicalauthorisalsoabureaucratlikeHeMengyao,whoinallusiontothelong-lastingdiscussionamongscholarsonthestatusofmedicineintheoverallcongurationofknowledge,andquotingthephilosopherZhuXi'sstatement,openlypleaded(pr.
1751)fortherecti-cationofthehierarchyofknowledge.
LikeZhangJiebin(1563–1640)beforehim,heinviteshisreadershiptounderstandthatwhilemedicineisasmalldiscipline(xiaodao)itisstillapartoftheWay(Dao),(yisuixiaodaoyidaoye),andthatpracticingmedicineisagoodmannertoachievetheWay,asmanyDaoxueor"neo-Confucian"scholars,followingZhuXi,argued.
SuchisalsothecaseofthemagistrateYuTingju,who(pr.
1780)stated:"Wecandeducethatthediscipline(dao)ofmedicineisasimportantasthedisciplinesoftheSixclassics(orsixarts)liujing,andcannotholdthenameoftechniqueandcraftyishu.
"(Yu1991[1783]).
Thusintheseauthorialprefaces,weareabovealldealingwithgeneralities:asnotedearlier,thebestwaytovalorizeatextistovalorizethesubjectitdealswith.
However,authorialprefacesarealsotheplaceforpersonalinformation.
Letuslookatwhatthemedicalauthorschosetorevealoftheirownpersona.
Ihaveshownin2009thatofcialbiographiesincludedinlocalgazetteerscouldbecrucialmaterialforsheddinglightonthesocialandculturalhistoryofmedicine,butIalsostressedthatthiskindofmaterialwasbiasedandfur-thermoreofferedaslantedviewofthepersonaunderconsideration.
Apriori,wewouldexpectauthorialprefacestobetheplaceforlessbiasedpersonalinformationthanthatobtainedintheofcialandexemplarybiographies.
Infact,theanalysisoftheseauthorialprefacesisdisappointingforthose,whowouldliketoheartheprivateconfessionsofthesemenwritingabouttheirworkintheeldofmedicineinremoteareasoftheempire;areas,riddenwith"miasmas,""poisons,"and"epidemics.
"Infactheretootheauthoronlyliftstheveil,ifthefactsofliferevealedcanassociatehimwiththegureofthescholar.
BiographicalConfessions:APhysician'sCareerandtheGenesisofHisBookAuthorscanseizetheopportunityofaprefacetodescribethecourseoftheirmedicalcareer.
However,thesenarrativesaretoosimilarnottocorrespondtoarhetoricaldiscourse:whetherwereadtheauthorialprefacesofHeMengyao(pr.
1751),HuangYuanji(pr.
1763),YuTingju(pr.
1780),JinJinghua(post1810before1872),GongPengshou(pr.
1887)orLinXianfu(pr.
1888),theFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET372sameprocessisdescribed.
Allfellsickduringtheirearlychildhoodandnoneofthephysicianssubsequentlycalledtotheirbedsidessucceededincuringthem;andduetotheirdiseases,someevenhadtoabandontheclassicalstudiesthatwouldhaveofferedthemgoodcareersinthebureaucracy.
Insteadtheyreturnedhomeandstartedtoreadmedicalbooksbyfamousauthorsofthepast.
Fromtheirprivatereadinginitiallymotivatedbypersonalneedthechildrenandlateryoungadultsacquiredtheirmedicalknowledge.
Withthisnarrativeonthecourseofthephysician'sgenesis,theauthordrawsattentiontovariousthings.
Firstly,theauthorinformshisreadersthathedidnotchoosemedicineasavocationbutbecamegoodatmedicinethroughforceofcir-cumstance,andespecially,toavoidhavingtoputupwithquacksinthefuture.
Inthisformulaicnarrative,theauthorlaysgreatstressonasecondpointthathadbeentheconcernofmuchdebateforsomecenturiesalready:whatrequirespropermedicaltrainingtobecomealegitimatephysician.
Infact,theissueofapprenticeshipsinmedicinehadbeenatthecenterofadebatethatlasteduntiltheTangdynasty(618–907)andintensiedlaterasthecommunityofmedicalpractitionersgrew,andthecompetitionbetweenthemincreased.
Thisdebatefocusedontheissueofwhatagoodphysicianshouldbeanditfueledalong-standingdiscussiononthemeaningofthealreadyquotedpas-sageoftheBookofRites,"yibusanshibufuqiyao,oneshouldnottakethemedicineofaphysicianwhodoesnotcomefromthreegenerations.
"Thesanshioftheabovesentence,whichhadusuallybeeninterpretedas"threegenerations"andthusputtheemphasisonexperiencethroughhereditarylineagehascometobereinterpretedbysomescholars,sincetheTangdynasty,asthe"threemedicalclassics"attributedtolegendarysages(Chao2000),22areinterpretationthatputtextuallearningasthebasisofmedicaltraining.
Wouldthenagoodphysicianbetheone,whohasgreatexperiencethankstohishereditarymedicalbackground,thehereditaryphysicianshiyi,ortheoneabletomasterthemedicaltextsandclassicallearning,thescholarphysicianruyi(Ibid.
)23Asvariousscholarshavestressed,thissentenceoftheBookofRiteswaswidelyquotedinthemedicalbooksofthelateimperialperiod.
Hence,whenanauthorexplainedinhisprefacethatforpersonalreasonshehadstudiedthemedicalbooksofthepastthoroughly,therewasundoubtedlytheintentionofpositioninghimselfandshowinghisreadersthathehadacquiredmedicalknowledgethroughbook-learning,andnotsolelythroughexperienceinheritedfromhisfamily.
Thenarrativeonthephysician'strajectoryissosimilarinmanyauthorialprefacesthatitletsusthinkthatthisnarrativeislessaprivateconfessionthanformulaicrhetoricintendedtodrawaclearlinebetweenthemselvesandtheotherhealers,includinghereditaryphysicians.
Noauthorwouldtaketheriskofinconveniencinghisreadersbyproclaiminghimselfagoodphysicianandanauthorofgenius—butwouldfollowthereversestrategythatconsistsindescribingone'sinabilitytotreatsuchadifcultsubject,aclassicanduniversalTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY373ARTIKEL/ARTICLEstrategyalsousedinthecaptatiobenevolentiaeofLatinrhetoric.
Yetauthorsdonothesitatetopaintapictureofthebadphysician,theyongyi.
Heisalwaystheone,whopracticesmedicinewithoutreadingtexts,copyingonlytheoddformulafoundbychancehereandthereandlearntbyrote.
Medicineisnoteasy.
Formypart,IdidresearchforalongtimeandIhavenotsucceededinunderstandingmorethanthesupercial,thusIdonotdaretocomparemyworkwiththesubtletyobtainedbytheAncients.
Iamjustsurprisedtoseethatthepeoplewhopracticethisactivityhavenotobservedtheessentialpoints,donotknowtheprinciplesofthepulse,havenomulti-chapterbooksathome,knowjustafewfamousmasters'teachingsandcanonlyreciteoneortwoversiedformulastotwithdiseasesthatconstantlychangeanddonothaveasingleform.
(Yu1991[1783]:281)ThiswritesYuTingjuin1780,while,acenturylater,LiangLianfucontinuestolament:"Isawthattownmarketphysiciansnowadays(or,townmarkethereditaryphysicians)oftencopysomeversiedformulas,theyknowjustafewofthem.
"(Liang1936[1881]:2)Inadditiontothenarrativeofthephysician'scareerthatunderlinestheacquisitionofknowledgethroughbook-learning,someauthorialprefacesrecountotherpersonalelements.
Hereagain,theauthoragreestodisclosepersonaldetailswhentheyallowforanassociationtoamorehonorablemilieuthantheoneofmedicalpractitioners.
Successinimperialexaminationsisanimportanttopos.
Thewaysofexpressingone'sacademicsuccesscouldbeexplicit,suchasinYuTingju'spreface:"In1780,Iwenttotakethemetro-politanexamination,"(Yu1991[1783]).
Someprefernottomentionthefacttheyaredegree-holdersorthattheyhadobtainedapostinthebureaucracy—withthegoodreasonthatithadalreadybeenrecountedintheallographicprefaces—butpreferusingamoreimplicitdiscourse.
HuangYuanji(pr.
1763),ZhanRuiyun(pr.
latenineteenthcentury),JinJinghua(pr.
nineteenthcen-tury),andLiangLianfu(pr.
1881)forinstanceexplainthattheylearntmedicineduringtheiradministrativevacations.
Thisindirectformulainformsthereaderthattheyhadobtainedapermanentortemporarypositioninthebureaucracy,andthusbelongedtothehigheststrataofsociety.
Moreover,itunderlinesthatasreliableandvirtuousConfucianofcials,theydidnotwastetimeonleisureactivities,butusedtheirpublicnancialsupporttodevotethemselvesentirelytopublicwelfare.
24Unliketheallographicprefaces,theauthorialprefacesdonotgivealotofinformationabouttheauthor'sfriendsandacquaintancesorfamilialorigins.
Onlytwoprefacesmentiontheauthor'shumanenvironment.
JinJinghua(pr.
nineteenthcentury)indicatesthathehadoncecuredhismother.
Thisinformationnotonlystresseshislialpiety,acommontoposinmanyprefaces,butalsogiveshimtheopportunitytogivehismother'shonorictitleruren,atitlegiventowomenmarriedtobureaucratsofthe7thto9thrank(Guo1987:1960).
PanMingxiong(pr.
1865and1873)explainsthathewrotehisbookforFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET374hisnephews,whohadleftPanyutostudyinGuangzhou(Pan1868[1865],1935[1873]).
YuTingju(pr.
1780),forhispart,mentionsinhisprefacethathehadafewhoursdiscussionwithZhangJuru(1805–1879),therebyinformingthereaderofhisacquaintanceshipwithafamousscholarandpainter.
Infact,anauthorevokeshisfamilialoriginsoracquaintancesonlywhentheinfor-mationcangivecredittotheauthor.
Inasomewhatunexpectedway,wethusdonotndanymentionoflocalmedicalmastersintheprefacesandonlyoneauthorpointstohisfamilialmedicalheritage(Chen1911[1877]:1).
ThelackofreferencetolocalandcontemporarymedicalmastersandmedicalnetworksthusbringsusalongwayfromthemedicalpracticethatVolkerScheid(2007)describesinMenghe,(JiangnanregionofcentralChina)which,heshows,wasdeeplyanchoredinmedicallineagesandnetworks.
Asfaraswecanascertainfromthecollectionofbiographiesinlocalgazetteers,hereditarymedicallin-eagesandlocalmedicalnetworksalsoexistedinthefarsouthofChina.
Thefactthattheprefacesnevermentionlocalmedicalmasters,ancestors,orlocalmedicalnetworks,butratherestablishctivetextuallineagewithtextscon-sideredtobepartoftheinheritedclassicalmedicalcanon,leadsustothinkthatatleasttwothingswereimportantinavalorizationstrategy:rstly,itwasbetterforthesemedicalauthorstoprojectanimageofthemselvesasscholarsattachedtotheworldofscholarsandtheirbookishcultureratherthanasphysiciansbelongingtoaspecializedmedicalenvironment;andsecondly,itwasbettertoprojectanimageoftheirworkasintegratedintothe"universal"medicaltraditionratherthanintoalocal,regionally-basedmedicaltradition.
Finally,theseprefacesprovidetheauthorswiththeopportunitytowritesomewordsabouttheirtext.
Inadditiontobrieyevokingtheirintention,deningthegenreoftexttheyhaveproducedandsometimesgivingsomeindicationsaboutthecontents,itisquiteoftentheplaceforanauthortonarratethebook'sgenesis.
Inthisdiscourseonthebook'sgenesis,theauthorrefersagaintothedifferenttextshehasreadandhasendeavoredtocompile,synthesize,orrewriteinsimplelanguage.
Inthenarrativeonthebook'sgenesiswethusndtherecurrentimageofaccumulatedancient,classicalandsometimesevencontemporarytexts,animagethatnotonlydepictstheauthorasalearnedscholar,butalsoasamediumforconveyingknowledgeofthepast.
Infact,neitherpersonalinterventionnororiginalcontributionsareattheforeinjustifyingthecreationofanewmedicaltext.
Someauthorsexplainthattheyhavenotaddedanythingthemselves.
ChenHuangtang(pr.
1849)explains:"[T]hisbookiscomposedoftherealtechniquesandformulasoftheMaster(ZhangJi).
Idon'tdareproclaimmyselfclevernordoIadddifferentopinionswithoutthinking.
"(Chen1849:2)Someexplainthattheyhaveaddedonlysomesmallpersonaldetails.
HeMengyao(pr.
1751),forinstance,wrote:"IcollectedthesayingsofthephysiciansthatIusedtorecitewhenIwasyoung[…]Iaddedmyownconsiderationsinwritingthisbook.
"(He1994[1751]:47)LiangLianfu(pr.
1881)explained:"ItookthetheoriesandtheformulaswhichTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY375ARTIKEL/ARTICLEhadbeenwrittenbeforeme[…]Then,IaddedwhatIhadseenbymyselfandassembledthewholetomakethisbook.
"(Liang1936[1881]:2)EvenifthisstatementofhumilitythatimplicitlyreferstothefamoussayingofConfucius—"Transmittingbutnotcreatingshuerbuzuo"(Analects7.
1)—isrhetoric,inscribingone'stextinthesuccessionofmoreancientandrecognizedtextsisarecurrentargumentusedinauthorialprefaces.
25Amedicalauthorgainsmoreauthorityandlegitimacywhenhecanfeaturehimselfasanheirtoaclassicalscholarlytraditionandavehicletoconveyknowledgeofthepast,ratherthanasanauthorwhosodespiseshisheritagethathebrushesitoffandonlydisplayshisownpointsofview.
26JinJinghua(1810[pr.
[1782),whoexplainedthathehadcompiledhisbookrelyingonthemedicalpartoftheCompleteLibrariesoftheFourTreasuries(SikuQuanshu),alargecollectionofbookscommissionedbyQianlongemperorandcompletedin1782,statesthisveryclearly:Whocouldbuildbrickswithoutamold,andaxhandleswithoutatemplate.
Tolearnmedicine,whywouldwenottakethemedicalbooksofthepastasmoldandtemplateThefamousphysiciansofthepastdonotwriteanylonger,theirdeeptruthiscontainedpreciselyintheirextantbooks.
SomepeopleevenwhentheyreadthesebooksdonotsucceedinmasteringtheirdeeptruthsbutIhaveneverheardofpeoplewhowithoutreadingthemhavesucceededinmasteringalltheirdepth.
(Guo1987:1960–1961)Inscribingone'stextinalongtraditionremainsanargumentfortheauthorityofmedicaltextsproduceduntilthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,evenwhentheauthorseemstoalignhisbookwitharupturewithpastthinkingorpractices.
QiuXi(pr.
1817)andLiangXilei(pr.
1899)declarethattheywrotetheirbookstointroduce,respectively,anewtherapyandtoaddresstheoutbreakofanewtypeofdiseaseinthearea.
HoweverwhileQiuXi(pr.
1817)explainsthathewrotehisbooktointroduceChinatosomethingnew—Jennerianvaccinationagainstsmallpox—hersttakescaretoexplainthatheisonlyconveyingsomethingthathasbeeninventedelsewhere.
Further,heinscribestheEuropeanmethodwithinasetofotherancientandindigenouspracticesrelatedtosmallpoxinoculation,widelysupportedbytheGoldenMirroroftheOrthodoxLineageofMedicine,animperiallycommissionedbook,in1742.
TheGoldenMirroroftheOrthodoxLineageofMedicinesays:Treatingsmallpoxiswhatyoudowhenyouhavethediseasebutsmallpoxinoculationistheprocessthatyouapplybeforehavingthedisease[…]eveniftherearedifferencesbetweenalltheinoculationtechniques,allaregoodmethodsfordrivingitoutsidethe(body).
(Qiu1864[1817]:22–23)LiangXilei(pr.
1899),forhispart,doesnotclaimanypersonalinventionbutunderlinesthatheisjusttheeditorofamanuscriptwrittenbysomeoneelse,whichhisunclefoundonhistravelsandsenttohim(Guo1987:1985).
Themajorityoftheauthorsusetheprefacestoshowthemselvesasnon-controversialusersoftheknowledgeofthepast,hidingthemselvesbehindtheFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET376coattailsoftutelaryguresofmedicine.
SomeauthorslikeHuangZijian(1742\pr.
[1836),ChenHuangtang(pr.
1849),MaiNaiqiu(pr.
1876)focusingonZhangJi'smedicaltexts(thirdcenturyA.
D.
),positionedthem-selvesintheancient,or"Hanlearning"tradition,characterizedbyanemphasisonancientclassicallearningandrigorousphilologicalanalysesinordertorecapturethe"truemeanings"formulatedbythesagesofantiquity.
27OtherslikeZhangJinsheng(engongin1876),LiangXilei(pr.
1899)expresstheideaalreadyexpressedbyJin,SongandYuanscholarsthattheoldremediesnolongermatchedmoderndiseases,andallusivelypositionedthemselvesinthenewor"Songlearning.
"Butthecommongroundonwhichalmostalltheseauthorsagreedwastherejectionofmedicalpractices,biasedbyanyoneoftheparticularschoolsthathademergedintheSong,JinandYuandynasties.
Authorialprefacescouldthusbetheplacetoinsertoneselfintothebroadmedicallandscape.
However,veryfewusethisthresholdtodefendtheirownpointofview.
Interestingenough,inthecorpusofprefacesunderdiscussion,whenanauthorusestheprefaceasaforumtopresentowncontroversialopinions,itisalwayssomeonewhohasalreadyprovedhimselfinotherareas,andinparticularinclassicalculture.
AjinshilikeHeMengyaoopenlycon-tradictedthemedicaldoctrinesandpracticesofZhangJiebin(1563–1640),whichwerewidelyspreadatthattime,andadvocatedtheuseofwarmingandtonifyingdrugs.
HuangYuanjijurenin1733recommendedthediagnosisinthreeinsteadoffourstages,marginalizingpulse-readingwhileLiangLianfuafugongin1846defendstheimportanceofinquiryincomparisonwithpulse-diagnosis.
Butevenwhentheseauthorsexpresstheirownpointsofview,theyalwaysdefendtheirpositionbyreferringbacktootherfamousancientmedicalmasters.
WhilecontestingZhangJiebin'smedicalstyle,HeMengyao,forinstance,justieshiscriticsbyreferringtoLiuWansu's(1120–1200)theories,oneofthegreatmastersoftheJin.
Inordertoengagehisreadersamedicalauthorusesthisthresholdpri-marilytoassociatehimselfwithbeinga"literatus"andthebookwithancientanduncontestedmedicalculture.
Eveninthemedicalbranchanauthorhadtohavethetraitsofascholar.
Thevalorizationdiscourse,intheserstpages,staysonthelevelofgeneralitiesandneitherdescribesatlengthnorinterpretsthemaintextthatthereaderhasinhishands.
Infact,thisrstsetofprefacesseemstotargetnotonlyfuturereadersofthetextbutalsopotentialeditorsandprinters.
Actuallywendevidenceinseveralprefacesthatthescholars,whoagreedtoaddsomewordstothetext,werequiteawareofthefactthatthesewordswouldhelpthedistributionofthebook.
TheHanlinmember,WenBaochun(pr.
1830),forinstanceunderlinesthecharitablenatureofHuangYan'sworkandbook("hehasthewilltosavetheliving"),andnallyaskstwootherlocalofcialswithwhomhehaddiscussedthebookandtheopportunitytofacilitateitsprinting:"Howcouldn'twesupporttheprincipleofextendinghumanlives"(Huang1918[1800]:1)THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY377ARTIKEL/ARTICLEThethresholdofatextmustbeckonalargenumberofpeopletocrossit,includingusers,editorandprinters.
Thevalorizationstrategydisplayedthereincannotgoagainsttheconventionsofthetimeandnorcanitbetoospecialized.
Thisisprobablywhytheseprefacesthriveonclichésandbanalitiesthatthehistorian,familiarwithtextsoftheperiod,willrecognizeimmediately.
However,someauthorsseemednottohavebeensatisedwithsuchacon-ventionalintroductiontotheirtextandfelttheneedtoaddanotherprefatorydiscourse,aforeword.
Letusnowhavealookatthislastliminaltexttoseeiftheauthorsusedittovalorizetheirtextand,ifso,whichargumentstheyused.
HowToMaketheReaderContinueAuthorialforewords,whentheyexist,alwaysfollowtherstsetofprefaces(xuandzixu)andprecedethemaintext.
Theyconstitutethelastpassingpointbeforethepropertext.
Wemustnotethatwhilenearlyalltheauthorswroteanauthorialprefacezixutotheirbooks,notallofthemdecidedtoaddaforeword.
Inthiscorpusof32medicalbooks,thereareonlynineforewords.
Perhapswewouldhavehadmore,ifthemedicaltexts,whoseprefaceshavebeencopiedinthegazetteersandhavethusbeenpreservedindependentlyofthebook,hadnotbeenlost.
Althoughauthorialandallographicprefaces(xuandzixu)weresometimesreproducedinlocalgazetteers,forewordswerenevercopiedinthesehistoricalsources,evenwhenthesaidprefaceswerefollowedbyaforeword.
28Thisunequaltreatmentbetweenthesedifferentsetsofparatextconrms,Ithink,thedifferentstatusandfunctionstheseprefatorytextswereintendedtomeet.
Togivemoreevidence,letmebrieydescribewhatwendintheseforewords.
Someoftheseforewordsareentirelydevotedtodiscussingthetextthatimmediatelyfollowsthem.
TheforewordfanlitoPanMingxiong'stwobookshaveametatextualfunction,sincetheymainlytalkaboutthetextstheypre-cede.
WereadintheforewordtohisPingqinshuwuYe'ankuoyao:"Thisbookismadeupof[…];ThereadingofversesallowsyoutomastertheclinicalcasesofMr.
Ye[…];Inthisbook,IaddedsomeclinicalcasesofmyownthatItreatedtaking(him)asamodel.
"AndinhisPingqinshuwuYilue:"Thisbookespeciallyaddressesthosewhodonotknowmedicinebutwhosuddenlyneedit.
Punctuationhasbeenaddedinordertospeedthereading[…];thisbookmainlydiscussesthediseasesthatyoungpeoplecontracteasilythroughnothavingbeencarefuloffood,usuallife,thesevenemotions.
"(1935[1873]:1–2;1868[1865]:1–2)ItisalsothecaseofHeMengyao'sforewordfanlitohisYibian,whichreserveseightpointsoutoftwelvetodiscussingthetext.
Theauthorstartsbyexplaininghowhecametowritehisbook,andthencontinueshowheFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET378structureditscontentsandhowthereadershouldgoaboutdoingresearchinhisbookandhowtosearchforremedies.
Inthesethreeauthorialforewords,theauthorsguidethereaderthroughthemaintexthehasathand.
Bycontrast,someforewordsalmostcompletelyignorethetexttheyprecede.
LiangLianfu,forinstance,inhisforewordyaoyanin18points,reservesonlyonepointtotalkabouthisbook:rememberingthemotivationsthatledhimtowritethetext.
Infact,the17otherpointsallowhimtogiveadiscourseonthemostimportantpointsofmedicineingeneral.
Helistssomeofthemistakesthatonemustavoid—notablyhere,takingawoman'sadviceforcuringsomeone—,andremindsthereaderofthepracticalandtheoreticalbasesofmedicinelikethedifferentstagesindiagnosisandthenotionsofheat-excessandcold-decit.
LikeLiangLianfu,WangXueyuanrarelymentionshistextinhisverylongforeword.
Infact,onlythreepointsdealwiththetext.
Therstpointexplainsthestructureofhistext—andwithgoodreasonsincethistextdoesnothaveatableofcontents—andthelasttwopoints,attheendoftheforeword,underline,withhumility,thatthetextisjustacompilationofthedifferenttheoriesfromthepastandthatitislikelytobeincomplete.
Atthecoreofhisforewordisanenumerationofdifferenttheoriespresentedinthepastregardingsummer-heatdiseaseswhich,heexplains,hereferstowhendiscussingsomeparticularsummer-heatdiseasesinhisowntext.
Inbothcases,theforewordhasnocircumstantiallinktothebook,itisakindoftechnicalandpragmaticintroductiontothesubjectsdealtwithinthebook:medicineandsummer-heatdiseases.
Fallingbetweenthemetatextualfanli(HeMengyao,PanMingxiong)andthoseessentiallydevotedtointroducingthereadertothesubjectmatterofthebook(WangXueyuan,LiangLianfu),oneoftheforewordsdiscussesboththebookandthesubjectinatonewhichisveryclosetoamarketingdiscourse.
ThisisHuangYan'sforeworddufa.
Thiscaseisunusual,becausetheauthorchosetowriteaforewordandnotanauthorialpreface.
Whenweanalyzethisspecicforeword,weseethatinfactitconcatenatesthefunctionsofvalorizationandofinitiationtomedicine.
Indeed,inhisforeword,HuangYanhighlightsthemostimportantdifcultiesofthesubjectdealtwithinthebook,medicine,andemphasizesthatinthebookhetakesspecialcaretohelpthereadertoovercomethem.
Thedifferentpointsinhisforewordfollowthesamepattern:medicinepresentssuchandsuchadifculty;thisbookwillhelpyoutoovercomeit.
TheAncientsusedtosay:itiseasiertotreattenmenthanasinglewoman.
Anditiseasiertotreattenwomenthanasinglechild.
[…]Giventhesetwodifculties,thisbookbeginswithchildrenandendswithwomen[…]Evenifmedicineisacom-plicateddiscipline,wecanreduceittoasinglesentence:theyinandyang[…]Thisiswhythisbookoffersaverydetailedanalysisofthesetwoprinciples.
(Huang1918[1800],dufa:2)Thisbriefoverviewofthecontentoftheseauthorialforewordshighlightsthatauthorialprefacesandauthorialforewords,inadditiontooccupyingdifferentTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY379ARTIKEL/ARTICLEpartsoftheprefatorymaterial,touseadifferentstyle,weretheplacesfordistinctdiscoursesaswell.
Firstly,authorialforewordswerecloselydependantonthetext,whethertheyhadapurelymetatextualfunction,orwereapartofthebookproper.
Thisisprobablywhy,unliketheprefaces(xuandzixu)theywereneverseparatedfromthemaintexttobecopiedinlocalgazetteers.
Then,whiletheauthorialprefacesstrovemostlytovalorizethetext,thetypesofargumentdisplayedinthisotherbefore-textshowthatauthorialforewordshadanotherfunction.
Itprovidedthereaderwithguidancethatwouldeitherhelphim/hertonavigatethroughthebookortoassimilateitscontent.
Thetargetaudienceofthesepiecesofparatextwaslessthepublisher/editorthanthepotentialreaderanduserofthebook.
Whileauthorialprefaceshadthefunctionofengagingthereader,authorialforewordsactedasanorientationforthereader.
Thetwokeyfunctionsofanypreface,asGenettestated,werethusfullledbythedifferentpiecesofparatextintheseChinesemedicalbooks.
However,evenifforewordsactedmainlyasaguide,theysometimesdiddeliverthenalargumentstoconvincethereadertocontinuewiththebook.
Interestingly,intheselastpagesbeforethemaintext,theauthordoesnotalwaysvalorizeandlegitimizehisbooksolelyonthegroundsofscholarlyauthority.
Thoughauthorsintroducethemselvesintheirauthorialprefacesasmediumsofknowledgeofthepast,quotingextensivelyfromtheirancestors,wecanalsondinthesepagesdiscoursesthatdistancethemfromtradition,especiallywhentheauthorhasalreadyprovenhisabilityindealingwithclassicalcultureandbyhavingobtainedanimperialdegree.
Thisdistanceisrstpalpablethroughthequotationofsources.
WangXuey-uan,forinstance,whohadnodegreeandwhocouldnotfallbackonevenonesingleallographicpreface,reserveshisforewordtoinscribehisbookinthelongtextualtraditionofmedicine.
Asnotedearlier,hisforewordisalonglistofquotationsextractedfromancientauthorsandancientbooks.
Hisforewordallowshimtoshowhisreadersthathehascarefullyreadhisforbearers'work,fromwhichhehasderivedhisknowledgeofsummer-heatdiseases(Wang1843:fanli).
Onthecontrary,thefugongandbureaucratLiangLianfu,whosetexthadreceivedseveralprefacesfromscholars,doesnotfeelnecessary,inhisforeword,togroundhisgeneralstatementsaboutmedicineonancientsourcesormasters.
Likewise,HeMengyao,ajinshiwhohadheldseveralpostsandwhosetextreceivedtheprefacesofprestigiousscholarsexplainsinhisfore-wordthathedidnotmentionhissources.
Hewrites:IslightlymodiedtheopinionsoftheAncientswhicharequotedinthisbook,asIwantedthatthereaderunderstandsthemeasily.
ThisiswhyitisnottheoriginaltextoftheAncients,andwhyinmanyplacesIdidnotwritetheirnames.
"(He1994[1751]:54)Further,forsomeauthors,theforewordwastheplaceinthebooktoafrmtheirownoriginalityorpersonalcontribution.
HeMengyaowho,inhisFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET380authorialpreface,hadbrieystressedthathehadaddedsomepersonalconsiderations,goesmuchfurtherhere:"Inthediscussion,IhaveexpressedmanypersonalopinionswhichsometimesareopposedtothoseoftheAncients,Icannotrefrainmyself,searchingfortherectitudeislaudable,Ihopethatyouwillforgivemycriticisms.
"(Ibid.
)Andinordertojustifyhispersonalintrusionsintotheestablishedcorpusofknowledge,heexplainsthatothersbeforehimhaddaredtointroducenewandpolemicalideas:"WhenHejiantalkedaboutthereofsummer-heat,heopposedZhongjing'stheoryaboutthecoldandwind.
WhenDanxitalkedaboutYindecit,heopposedDongyuan'sdoctrineoftheYangdecit.
Bothsupplementedthedecienciesoftheforbearers.
"(Ibid.
)Asthisshortquotationshows,HeMengyaopresentshimself,inhisforewordashavingmasteredtheknowledgeproducedbytheAncientsandasaresearcheraswell,introducinginhismedicaltextsomeoriginalconsiderationsandviolentcriticismofsometherapeuticfads.
HuangYan,asnotedpreviously,didnotwriteaprefacezixubutonlyaforeworddufawherehedeclaredthathisbookwouldallowthereaderstomasterthedifcultiesofmedicine.
Infact,inadditiontoavalorizationdis-courseintheformofanadvertisingdiscourse,HuangYanstressedhisownoriginalcontributioninthelastpointsofhisforeword,stronglyemphasizingtheinclusionofmanysecretprescriptions,arhetoricalstrategyoftenusedtomakethebooksellwell:"Inmybook,thetreatmentsofchildhoodmalnutri-tion,measlesandsmallpox,anddysenteryinchildrenandoldpeople,aresecret,theywerenotaddressedintheancientbooks.
Theyarethefruitsofmyownworkandofthesecretstransmittedbymymastersandfriends.
"Andhecontinues:"Inthisbook,therearesomesecretformulas,theydeservetobecarefullypreserved,"(Huang1918[1800]:6–7.
29Thiscorpusofauthorialforewordsistoosmallforgeneralconclusions.
However,itdoesrevealthatwhileauthorsintheirprefatorydiscoursezixumainlystrovetovalorizetheirtextbyhidingthemselvesbehindtheuncon-testedguresofmedicine,someofthemalsotookadvantageofthislastliminarytexttoprovidethereaderwithaguideandtovalorizetheirtextbyemphasizingtheirownpersonalcontribution.
ConclusionAsNathalieKremer(2007:17)underlinedbyquotingThémiseuldeSaint-Hyacinthe'sprefacetohisHistoireduPrinceTiti—"Sicelivreparaissaitsanspréface,àpeineaurait-ill'aird'unlivre.
Ilenfautdoncfaireune,maisquedire(ifthisbookwastoappearwithoutapreface,itwouldnotlooklikeabook.
TheremustbeonebutwhatcanIsay)"—,apreface,inspiteofitsconven-tionaldiscourseanditscodes,isoftennecessarytotransformatextintoabook.
THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY381ARTIKEL/ARTICLEAtextusuallyneedsotherexternalelementsthatwillpositionit,justifyitsexistence,andprovideitsidentityasabook.
30Prefacesareparticularlynec-essaryfortextsdealingwithapoorrelationtoliterature.
MedicaltextswritteninthefarsouthoftheQingDynastycouldbeconsideredapoorrelationfortworeasons.
Theydealtwithasubjectthatdidnotoccupythehighestrankinthehierarchyofknowledge.
Further,theywereproducedinthemarginsoftheempireconsideredattheantipodesoftheChinesecivilization(Hanson1997:69–84,Bretelle-Establet2010,Miles2006:1,Rowe2001).
Intheseconditions,andgiventhehugenumberoftextsincompetition,receivingapreface,par-ticularlyifitcamefromthemostrespectedmilieus,musthavebeenanimportantmarkofrecognitionthatfacilitatedthetransformationofaprivatetextintoapublicbookworthyofpreservation.
Inthatrespect,andasBokiba(1991)stressedwhenheexaminedAfricanliterature,prefacesbelongtowhatBourdieudescribedastheexternalregulationofintellectualandaestheticgoodswhoselegitimacyrarelycomesfromtheirintrinsicpropertiesalone.
HowtheauthorsandthedifferentpeopletheyinvitedtowriteaprefacedidtheirbesttovalorizeandvalidatethelegitimacyofamedicaltextineighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesChinahasbeendiscussedatlengthinthearticle.
Whatdidnotenterintothisvalorizationstrategyanddidnotconstituteaconvincingargumentthataphysiciancouldusetoestablishhisauthorityisalsointeresting.
Firstly,amongthese70prefacesattachedto32medicaltextswritteninaspecicregionoftheempire,notoneresortstotheargumentoflocality.
Regardlessofwhethertheauthorhadinmindthathewaswritingforanaudiencewiderthanthatofhisimmediatesurroundings,orwhetherheconsideredmedicineasasetofuniversaltheoriesandpracticesthatonecouldapplyinasimilarwaywhereveronewasintheempire,orwhetherhewasconsciousthatitwasnotagoodvalorizationstrategy,onethingissure.
Noneoftheseauthorsandnoneofthepeopleinvitedtowriteaprefacebeforethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,basedtheirvalorizationdiscourseontheideathatamedicalbookwasvaluablebecauseitofferedparticularlyappro-priatesolutionstothehealthproblemsofaparticularlocality.
Thisissurprisingfortworeasons.
First,becauseinthescholars'imagination,aswecandetectbyreadinglocalhistoricalsources,thefarsouthwaspaintedasaparticularlyunhealthyarea,withrampantmiasmas,zhang,epidemics,yi,andpoisons,gu,whereonebetteravoidedtobetransferredto.
Second,becausetheideathatsouthernershaddistincthealthproblemsrequiringdistinctthera-peuticinterventionshaddevelopedsincetheMingdynastyinJiangnanarea,—amacroregionwhichwaslocatedfarfromthenorthcapital—anditwasinthenineteenthcenturyanargumentextensivelyusedtovalorizenewmedicaltextsproducedinthatarea.
31Inthecorpushereassembled,twotextprefacesthatdealspecicallywith"miasmas"and"poisons,"TreatingtheMiasmaticPoisonandNewFormulasforTreatingPoisonsemphasizethelocalnatureoftheseFLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET382particularproblems.
However,theprefacetoNewFormulasforTreatingPoisons,writtenin1835byMiaoFuzhao,didnotvalorizethebookbyclaimingthatthetextgavelocalsolutionsparticularlywell-suitedtolocalpeople,butonlystresseditseffectiveness(Lu/Miao1935[1835]).
TheprefacetoTreatingtheMiasmaticPoison,(abooknolongerextantbutprobablywritteninthenineteenthcentury)bytheauthor'sson,ZhaoJingsheng,(degree-holder,en-gongin1876)andcopiedin1914inthegazetteerofLongling,onlymentionsthathisfatherhadreadWuYouxing'sbookaboutepidemics(WenyiLun1642)andwasconvincedbyitscontent.
However,theprefacedoesnotinscribeWuYouxing(ca.
1580–1660)orZhaoZhibengwithinawell-identiedlocalmedicaltradition(Longlingxianzhi1968[1914]:299–300,537–539).
Likewise,LiGuangting,bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,praisesPanMingxiongforfollowingYeGui's(1667–1746)ideas,buthedoesnotfeatureYeGuiorPanMingxiongasbelongingtoaparticularlocalschooleither.
Infact,therstprefacesthatpraiseanauthorforbeingconsciousofthedifferencesbetweennorthernersandsoutherners,andfordeliveringsuitabletreatmentsaccord-ingly,werewritteninthe1910s.
32Hence,untilthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,whetherthefarsouthernfollowersofWuYouxingandYeGuididnotidentifytheseseventeenth-andeighteenth-centuryauthorsasbelongingtotheclear-cutlocalmedicaltraditionthatwaslaterknownasthe"hotdiseaseschool"wenbingxue;33oriftheydididentifythemassuch,inavalorizationstrategy,farsouthernersmostlypreferredtobuildtheirauthoritybyinscribingthemselvesinauniversalandnotalocalmedicaltradition.
Secondly,untiltheendofthenineteenthcenturyandinspiteoftheexpansionofWesternmedicineinChina,andinthefarsouthinparticular(Bretelle-Establet2002),theauthorsdidnotvalorizetheirbooksthroughcomparisonwithoragainstWesternmedicine.
Infact,withtheexceptionofonlyonetextpreface(Cheng,pr.
1892inCheng1892)whichmentionsWesternmedicine(Xiyangzhiyi),notonlydononeoftheseprefacesevermentionWesternmedicine,butnordoesanyprefacewriterfeelitnecessarytospecifythenationalessenceofthemedicinediscussedinthebook.
34Certainly,QiuXi'sprefaceexplainedhowsmallpoxvaccinationhadbeendiscoveredintheWestandhowithadreachedChinabutthereisnomentionofitbeingeitherChineseorWesternmedicine.
Onthecontraryandasalreadymen-tioned,theauthorjustiesthesmallpoxvaccinationbystressingthattheunderlyingprocess—treatingthediseasebeforeitappears—wassimilartotheotherstrategiesofinoculationsupportedbytheorthodoxandimperiallypublishedGoldenMirroroftheOrthodoxLineageofMedicine.
Inanutshell,toberecognizedasalegitimateauthorintheperiodbetweentheeighteenthandtheearlytwentiethcenturyinthefarsouthernmarginsoftheempire,onehadtowearthescholar'suniversallyrecognizedclothesandsymbols.
THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY383ARTIKEL/ARTICLEAcknowledgmentsIwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetowardthethreeanonymousrefereeswhohavegivenmemanysuggestionstoimprovethisarticle.
IwouldlikealsotothankKarineChemla,JacquesVirbel,andalltheresearcherswhoattendedandenrichedtheseminar"HistoiredesSciences,HistoireduTexte"intheREHSEISteam(RecherchesEpistémologiquesetHistoriquessurlesSciencesExactesetlesInstitutionsScientiques).
Finally,IwouldliketothankRichardKennedyandthecopyeditorofNTMfor'polishing'myEnglish.
Allremainingproblemsanderrorsaremyown.
Endnotes1Forconvenience,Iuse"physician"todesignatethepeoplewhowere,intheirtime,renownformasteringmedicine,initspracticalorintellectualdimensions.
However,onemustbearinmindthatbehindthistermstandsawiderangeofdifferentsocialandculturalprofilesthatrenderthisentityhardtodefine.
2Chao2009andBretelle-Establet2002,2009providestatisticalevidenceofthisincreasewhichledtotheacutecompetitionmentionednotablyinLeung1987,Grant2003,Furth1999,Hanson1997,Scheid2007,Volkmar2000.
3GenetteintroducedthisterminhisbookSeuilswhereheexploresthestatusandthefunctionsofallthesignsandfringeswhichfrequentlysurroundthetextitselfandwhichhecoinstheparatextofawork.
Hisbookhasgivenbirthtoalargeamountofotherworksontitles,prefaces,notesandthelike,whichhavebeenhelpfulforanalysingtheprefatorymaterialattachedtotheChinesemedicaltreatisesdiscussedhere.
Asystematicinvestigationremainstobedoneonbookcovers,titles,tablesofcontentandillustrationswhichplayedanimportantroleforattractingapotentialaudienceinacontextwherecommercialprintingwasbooming(Brokawetal.
2005,Brokaw1996,Chia1996,2002).
However,wehavelimitedourselvestotheprefacestohighlightwhatsortofrhetoricalstrategywasdisplayedbytheauthor,hispeersandtheeditortoshowwhatagoodmedicalauthorandagoodbookshouldbe.
4Allmedicaltextsandprefacesthathavesurvivedinthiscorpuswerewrittenbymen.
5AllhistoriansofmedicineinChinahaveusedandstilluseprefacestolearnabouttextsandauthors'contexts.
Inthisarticle,Iproposetolookatprefacesnotonlyfortheinformationtheyconveyononetextorauthorbutalsotohighlightthefeaturesandfunctionsofthistypeoftext.
Moreover,IproposetoexploretheprefacesofmedicaltextsandauthorsthatstillremainmarginalinthehistoriographyofmedicineinlateimperialChina,mostlycenteredonthebrilliantJiangnanarea(withthenotableexceptionofPaulU.
Unschuld'srecentprojectonruralmanuscripts(2010)).
Becausetheyarestillmarginalinthehistoriographyofmedicine,themedicalauthorsandprefacewriters,mentionedhere,willsoundunknowntomostreaders.
Miles'sworkontheintellectuallifeinGuangdongprovince(2006)hasprovidedmewithsomedetailsonahandfulofprefacewriters.
Butbiographicaldataforalltheseprotagonistsisscarce,ifitexistsatall(seetable1).
6ItislikelythatinthefuturewewilldiscovermoretextssincetheCatalogueofMedicalBooksinChineseLibraries(Xue1991)whichliststhemedicalbooksavailablein113majorlibrariesinChinaisfarfromerrorfree.
AcloserlookattheGuangdonglibraries'holding,forinstance,showsthatsomebookswrittenintheprovinceofGuangdongandheldinoneoftheGuangdonglibrarieshadnotbeenincludedinthisgeneralcatalogue(Lu2008).
MyownexperienceoftheLocalHistoricalMaterialDepartmentoftheSunYatsenLibraryin2010confirmsthis,sinceIfoundthreebooksthathadnotbeenincludedinthecatalogue.
7InrecentdecadeswidecorporaofprefaceshavebeenpublishedinChinasuchas(Yanetal.
,1990–1993)forthefieldofmedicine.
Weightman(2004:266)mentionsthatanumberofanthologiesofprefatorywritingshavebeenpublishedinthelastdecadesaswellinthefieldofliterature.
8AsRolston(1990:61)states,thesedifferentpiecesofparatext,inspiteofbearingdifferentnames,werenotverydifferentwithregardtotheirfunction.
FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET3849Accordingtotheeditions,someprefaceswerewithdrawn,otherswereaddedespeciallybythosewhostrovetoreprintthetexts.
Infact,asGenette1987andGuay1998highlight,themobilityofparatextisverycommonandnotspecifictotheChinesemedicaltreatisesandthismobilitygivescluestounderstandinghowthesuccessiveeditorsmoldedthereadingofabookaccordingtotimeandtotheirexpectedreadership.
10Cayuela1996andMacLean1990providegoodexamplesoftheinterestofapplyingsuchananalysistohighlightwhattheauthorsaredoinginthesepiecesofparatext.
11Asauthors'namesandbooktitlesaregiveninChinesecharactersintable1,IgiveanEnglishtranslationwiththepinyininthemaintext.
Igivethedateofpeoplewhentheyfirstappearinthetext.
ForotherChinesenames,booktitlesandplaces,seethelistofcharacters.
ThefactthatLiangLianfuwroteaprefacetoGongZhengjiaisrecordedinthelatter'sbiography(Guo1987:2030-2031).
However,GongZhenjia'sbookandprefacearenolongerextant,whichiswhytheauthorisnotmentionedintable1.
12Onthestatusofmedicineandmedicalpractitioners,seeHymes1987,Hinrichs2003,Chu2008.
13"Confucianismandmedicinecannotbeseparated"wroteXuChunfu,quotedin(Leung2008:1457).
14OnaccesstobooksingeneralseeMacDermott2006,andforevidenceofbookshortagesinremoteareas,seeRowe1994andBretelle-Establet2010.
15Here,the"sanshi"isinterpretedasthethreestagesoflife.
Wewillseelaterthatthisinterpretationwasnotthemostcommon.
16Asoftenintheprefaces,thenamesoffamousphysiciansandtreatisesareabbreviated.
Here,ZhangreferseithertoZhangJi(150-219)orZhangCongzheng,(1158-1228)LitoLiGao(1180-1252),LiutoLiuWansu(1120-1200),XuetoXueJi(1488-1558),ZhangJingyuetoZhangJiebin(1563-1640).
Allareveryfamousphysicians.
17SeeforinstancetheprefacesofZhuangYouxinginGuo1981[1753],WenBaochuninHuang1918[1800],orJiaoZhaojuninLiang1936[1881].
18OnprefacestoChineseliteraryworksseeWeightman2004,Postel2006,Rolston1990.
19TheintroductionofnewideaswasacommoncritiqueaddressedtomedicalauthorssinceatleasttheSongdynasty.
SuDongpointheeleventhcenturycriticizedthosewhodiscardedoldlearningandwhoputforwardnewideasandKouZongshiinthetwelfthcenturydidthesameinthefieldofmateriamedica.
(Unschuld1986a:44,1986b:87).
20Acritiqueveryoftenexpressedinthemedicalliteratureofthelateimperialperiod.
SeeforinstancethetextbyXuDachun(1693-1771)inUnschuld(1985:210).
Formoreinformationonthe"fourgreatmasters"ofthisperiod(sidajia)andhowtheycametobeidentified,duringtheMing,asthefoundersofthe"fourschools"seeUnschuld(ibid.
:168-179)andScheid(2007:384-387).
21AsVolkmar2000showswiththeexampleofWanQuan(1500-1585)'smanuscript,themedicalliteratureinlateimperialChinawasoftenplagiarized,publishedunderdifferenttitles,andanentirebookcouldbecopiedverbatimwithminimalchanges(dates,names)thatveiledtheidentityoftheoriginalauthor.
Wethuscannotbetotallysurethatanauthorialprefacezixuwaswrittenbytheauthorhimself.
22TheyweretheYellowEmperor'sCanononAcupuncture(Huangdizhenjiu);theClassicofthePulseoftheSunü(Sunümaijue)andtheDivineHusbandman'sMateriaMedica,(ShennongBencao).
23Onthedevelopmentoftheso-calledcategoryofscholarphysiciansruyiundertheSongdynastyandonitssignificanceinlateimperialtimes,see(Hymes1987,Chu2008).
24Stressinginone'sprefacethatabookwaswrittenduringtheauthor'sleisuretimerecallsarhetoricthatwasusedmanycenturiesearlierinanotherempire,theRomanEmpire.
PlinytheElderwasprocuratorandheldseveralfunctionsintheimperialpalaceduringthereignofVespasian.
HewroteinhisdedicationofhisNaturalHistory,whichhadnorelationtohispublicfunctions:"forIamameremortal,andonethathasmanyoccupations.
Ihave,therefore,beenobligedtocomposethisworkatinterruptedintervals,indeedduringthenight,sothatyouwillfindthatIhavenotbeenidleevenduringthisperiod.
ThedayIdevotetoyou,exactlyportioningoutmysleeptothenecessityofmyhealth"PlinyTheElder,TheNaturalHistory.
Ed.
byJohnBostock.
Dedication.
C.
PliniusSecundusToHisFriendTitusVespasian.
[http://www.
perseus.
tufts.
edu/cgi-bin/ptextlookup=Plin.
Nat.
toc(lastaccessed:05/07/2011)].
IamgratefultoStéphaneSchmittforhavingindicatedthisreference.
THECONSTRUCTIONOFTHEMEDICALWRITER'SAUTHORITYANDLEGITIMACY385ARTIKEL/ARTICLE25Itisalsointhesetermsthat,forinstance,WanQuanpresentedhiswork(Volkmar2000:8).
26Seenote19.
Ontheearlyrootsofthiswayofpresentingoneself,seeLLyod2002.
27OnthisintellectualtrendseeElman2001[1984]andGuy1987.
28Forinstance,PanMingxiong'sprefacetohisPingqinshuwuyiluewascopiedinthegazetteer(Guo1987:1967),butnothisforeword,whichstillexistedinthebook.
29Onthestrategyofmentioningsecrecyinmedicalbooks,seeWidmer1996andWu2000.
30Inthatrespectthesesmallpiecesofparatextlookliketheidentificationlabels,discussedbyCambefort(underreview),thatonefindsinanentomologist'scollection.
Atfirstglance,theyappearsecondaryincomparisonwiththeinsectsandspeciestheyidentify,buttheyareinfactnecessarytogivethecollectionitsscientificentomologicalidentity.
31Hanson(2001,2006)analysedthedevelopmentofmedicalregionalisminlateimperialChinaandshowsthattheargumentthatpeopleinthesouthhadparticularbodiesthatsufferedspecificdiseasesandrequiredspecialtreatmentswasoftenexpressedintheprefacestosomeJiangnanbooksinthenineteenthcentury.
32SeeCaiMinyu'sprefacetoHuang1909andthepublishinghousedirector'sprefacetoHe1918[1751].
33ConfirmingtherebyMartaHanson'sthesis(1997,2001)accordingtowhichthislocaltraditionwasinventedinthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcenturyinapoliticalcontextmarkedbytheweakeningofthecentralisedQingpowerandtheriseofregionalismafterlocalarmiesputdowntheTaipingrebellion.
ThenineteenthcenturypromotersofthislocalmedicaltraditionpresentedWuYouxingandYeGuiasitsmainfounders,areputationdevelopedfarbeyondtheevidence,accordingtoM.
Hanson.
34ThiscasestudythusconfirmsXuXiaoqun'sstudy(1997)andalsoprovidesevidencethat,untiltheendofthenineteenthcentury,WesternmedicinewasnotidentifiedbyChinesemedicalauthorsasanimportantandcompetitivecurrentoflearningandbodyofpractice.
ListofChineseCharactersbaihou白喉ba跋BianQue扁鹊ChenXiuyuan陈修园Dao道dufa读法engong恩贡FanZhongyan范仲淹fanli凡例fugongsheng附贡生fubang副榜Fuchuan富川fugong副贡GongZhenjia龚振家gu蛊HuangdiNeijing黄帝内经Huangdizhenjiu黄帝针灸Jiangnan江南jiansheng监生jinshi进士juren举人FLORENCEBRETELLE-ESTABLET386Liji礼记LiuWansu刘完素liujing六经liyan例言ruren孺人ruyi儒医Shanghanlun伤寒论Shennongbencao神农本草shiyi世医shuerbuzuo述而不作sidajia四大家SikuQuanshu四库全书Sunümaijue素女脉诀wenbingxue温病学Wenyilun瘟疫论WuYouxing吴有性wusheng武生xiangsheng庠生xiaodao小道xiyangzhiyi西洋之医xu序yaoyan要言YeGui叶桂yibusanshibufuqiyao医不三世不服其药yisuixiaodaoyidaoye医虽小道亦道也yi一Yijing易经Yishusheyao医书摄要yishu艺术Yixueshizaiyi医学是在易yi疫yongyi庸医zengsheng增生ZhangJiebin张介宾ZhangJuru张菊如zhang瘴Zhouli周礼ZhuXi朱憙zhusheng诸生zixu自序Zuozhuan左传LiteratureBello,David,2005.
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