Healthiest38ab.com

DevelopingcapacityforaprotectedplanetBestPracticeProtectedAreaGuidelinesSeriesNo.
19GuidelinesforapplyingtheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategoriestomarineprotectedareasJonDay,NigelDudley,MarcHockings,GlenHolmes,DanLaffoley,SueStolton,SueWellsandLaurenWenzelSecondeditionIUCNWCPA'sBESTPRACTICEPROTECTEDAREAGUIDELINESSERIESIUCN-WCPA'sBestPracticeProtectedAreaGuidelinesaretheworld'sauthoritativeresourceforprotectedareamanagers.
Involvingcollaborationamongspecialistpractitionersdedicatedtosupportingbetterimplementationinthefield,theydistillearningandadvicedrawnfromacrossIUCN.
Appliedinthefield,theyarebuildinginstitutionalandindividualcapacitytomanageprotectedareasystemseffectively,equitablyandsustainably,andtocopewiththemyriadofchallengesfacedinpractice.
Theyalsoassistnationalgovernments,protectedareaagencies,non-governmentalorganisations,communitiesandprivatesectorpartnerstomeettheircommitmentsandgoals,andespeciallytheConventiononBiologicalDiversity'sProgrammeofWorkonProtectedAreas.
Afullsetofguidelinesisavailableat:www.
iucn.
org/pa_guidelinesComplementaryresourcesareavailableat:www.
cbd.
int/protected/tools/ContributetodevelopingcapacityforaProtectedPlanetat:www.
protectedplanet.
net/IUCNPROTECTEDAREADEFINITION,MANAGEMENTCATEGORIESANDGOVERNANCETYPESIUCNdefinesaprotectedareaas:Aclearlydefinedgeographicalspace,recognised,dedicatedandmanaged,throughlegalorothereffectivemeans,toachievethelong-termconservationofnaturewithassociatedecosystemservicesandculturalvalues.
Thedefinitionisexpandedbysixmanagementcategories(onewithasub-division),summarizedbelow.
IaStrictnaturereserve:Strictlyprotectedforbiodiversityandalsopossiblygeological/geomorphologicalfeatures,wherehumanvisitation,useandimpactsarecontrolledandlimitedtoensureprotectionoftheconservationvaluesIbWildernessarea:Usuallylargeunmodifiedorslightlymodifiedareas,retainingtheirnaturalcharacterandinfluence,withoutpermanentorsignificanthumanhabitation,protectedandmanagedtopreservetheirnaturalconditionIINationalpark:Largenaturalornear-naturalareasprotectinglarge-scaleecologicalprocesseswithcharacteristicspeciesandecosystems,whichalsohaveenvironmentallyandculturallycompatiblespiritual,scientific,educational,recreationalandvisitoropportunitiesIIINaturalmonumentorfeature:Areassetasidetoprotectaspecificnaturalmonument,whichcanbealandform,seamount,marinecavern,geologicalfeaturesuchasacave,oralivingfeaturesuchasanancientgroveIVHabitat/speciesmanagementarea:Areastoprotectparticularspeciesorhabitats,wheremanagementreflectsthispriority.
Manywillneedregular,activeinterventionstomeettheneedsofparticularspeciesorhabitats,butthisisnotarequirementofthecategoryVProtectedlandscapeorseascape:Wheretheinteractionofpeopleandnatureovertimehasproducedadistinctcharacterwithsignificantecological,biological,culturalandscenicvalue:andwheresafeguardingtheintegrityofthisinteractionisvitaltoprotectingandsustainingtheareaanditsassociatednatureconservationandothervaluesVIProtectedareaswithsustainableuseofnaturalresources:Areaswhichconserveecosystems,togetherwithassociatedculturalvaluesandtraditionalnaturalresourcemanagementsystems.
Generallylarge,mainlyinanaturalcondition,withaproportionundersustainablenaturalresourcemanagementandwherelow-levelnon-industrialnaturalresourceusecompatiblewithnatureconservationisseenasoneofthemainaimsThecategoryshouldbebasedaroundtheprimarymanagementobjective(s),whichshouldapplytoatleastthree-quartersoftheprotectedarea–the75percentrule.
Themanagementcategoriesareappliedwithatypologyofgovernancetypes–adescriptionofwhoholdsauthorityandresponsibilityfortheprotectedarea.
IUCNdefinesfourgovernancetypes.
Governancebygovernment:Federalornationalministry/agencyincharge;sub-nationalministry/agencyincharge;government-delegatedmanagement(e.
g.
toNGO)Sharedgovernance:Collaborativemanagement(variousdegreesofinfluence);jointmanagement(pluralistmanagementboard;transboundarymanagement(variouslevelsacrossinternationalborders)Privategovernance:Byindividualowner;bynon-profitorganisations(NGOs,universities,cooperatives);byfor-profitorgansations(individualsorcorporate)Governancebyindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities:Indigenouspeoples'conservedareasandterritories;communityconservedareas–declaredandrunbylocalcommunitiesFormoreinformationontheIUCNdefinition,categoriesandgovernancetypesseeDudley(2008).
Guidelinesforapplyingprotectedareamanagementcategories,whichcanbedownloadedat:www.
iucn.
org/pa_categoriesFormoreongovernancetypes,seeBorrini-Feyerabend,etal.
,(2013).
Governanceofprotectedareas:fromunderstandingtoaction,whichcanbedownloadedat:https://portals.
iucn.
org/library/node/29138GuidelinesforapplyingtheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategoriestomarineprotectedareasJonDay,NigelDudley,MarcHockings,GlenHolmes,DanLaffoley,SueStolton,SueWellsandLaurenWenzelSecondeditionThedesignationofgeographicalentitiesinthisbook,andthepresentationofthematerial,donotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofIUCNorotherparticipatingorganisations,concerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,orarea,orofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.
TheviewsexpressedinthispublicationreflecttheIUCNglobalstandardapplyingtoMPAsThispublicationhasbeenmadepossibleinpartbyfundingfromThePewCharitableTrustsPublishedby:IUCN,Gland,SwitzerlandCopyright:2012,2019IUCN,InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNaturalResourcesReproductionofthispublicationforeducationalorothernon-commercialpurposesisauthorisedwithoutpriorwrittenpermissionfromthecopyrightholderprovidedthesourceisfullyacknowledged.
Reproductionofthispublicationforresaleorothercommercialpurposesisprohibitedwithoutpriorwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightholder.
Citation:Day,J.
,Dudley,N.
,Hockings,M.
,Holmes,G.
,Laffoley,D.
,Stolton,S.
,Wells,S.
andWenzel,L.
(eds.
)(2019).
GuidelinesforapplyingtheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategoriestomarineprotectedareas.
Secondedition.
Gland.
Switzerland:IUCN.
TheprimarypurposeofthesesupplementaryguidelinesistoincreasetheaccuracyandconsistencyofassignmentandreportingoftheIUCNcategorieswhenappliedtomarineandcoastalprotectedareas.
Toavoidunnecessaryduplicationoftext,thesesupplementalguidelinesthereforemustbereadinassociationwithGuidelinesforApplyingProtectedAreaManagementCategories(referredtoasthe2008Guidelinesthroughoutthisdocument).
ISBN:978-2-8317-1941-2Coverphoto:FrontcoverCommonwealthofAustralia(GBRMPA),Photographer:C.
Jones.
BackcoverDanLaffoleyDesignandlayout:MillerDesignAvailablefrom:IUCN,InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureGlobalProtectedAreasProgrammeRueMauverney281196GlandSwitzerlandTel+41229990000Fax+41229990002www.
iucn.
org/resources/publicationsContentsPreamble7Ataglance8Acknowledgements121.
Introduction131.
1WhyaresupplementaryguidelinesneededforMPAs131.
2Whoarethesupplementaryguidelinesfor131.
3Howtousetheseguidelines132.
Whatisamarineprotectedarea142.
1Thedefinitionofamarineprotectedarea142.
2PrinciplesassociatedwiththeuseoftheprotectedareadefinitionandIUCNcategory172.
3WhenisamarineareathatmayachieveconservationoutcomesnotanMPA172.
3.
1Fisherymanagementareas182.
3.
2IndigenousPeoplesandCommunityConservedTerritoriesandAreas(ICCAs)182.
3.
3Miningandindustrialactivity192.
4Governance193.
CharacteristicsofthemarineenvironmentthataffectprotectedareadesignationandIUCNcategoryapplication204.
TheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategoriesasappliedtoMPAs215.
ApplyingthecategoriestodifferentzonesinanMPA265.
1.
ApplyingacategorytoanentireMPA265.
2.
Combinedoradjoiningterrestrialandmarineprojectedareas265.
3'Nestedsites'265.
4.
ApplyingthecategoriestozoneswithinanMPA265.
5.
Verticalzoning286.
Relationshipbetweenthecategoriesanddifferentactivities296.
1Sustainablelocalfishingandrecreationalfishingandcollectionoflivingresources306.
2Mining(includingoilandgasandmostsandandgravelextraction)317.
ReportingtotheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreasandtheUNListofProtectedAreas327.
1Reportingmultiplecategorieswithinaprotectedarea32ListoftablesandfiguresTable1:DefinitionandprimaryobjectivesofIUCNprotectedareacategories9Table2:Explanationofprotectedareadefinition14Table3:Characteristicsofthemarineenvironmentthataffectprotectedareas20Table4:ZonetypeswithintheGreatBarrierReefMarinePark29Table5:MatrixofactivitiesthatmayormaynotbeappropriateforeachIUCNmanagementcategory31Table6:Compatibilityoffishing/collectingactivitiesindifferentmanagementcategories33Figure1:Marineprotectedareaswithinwideroceangovernance11CoralreefsonthewestcoastofNewCaledoniainthemarineWorldHeritageproperty.
DanLaffoley7PreambleIn1996,theWorldConservationCongressinMontrealrecommended(Resolution1.
37)interaliathattheIUCNWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas(WCPA)should"developguidanceontheapplicationoftheIUCNGuidelinesforProtectedAreaManagementCategoriesinthemarineenvironment".
Thiswassupportedbyseveralsimilarrecommendationsoverthefollowingyears.
1,2In2007,adiscussionpaper3waspresentedattheWCPAMarineSummitinWashingtonDCreiteratingtheneedforfurtherguidance.
Priortothepublicationin2008oftherevisedIUCN-WCPA'sGuidelinesforApplyingProtectedAreaManagementCategories(referredtoasthe2008Guidelinesthroughoutthisdocument),4ameetingwasheldinAlmeria,Spain,atwhichtheneedforadditionalmarineguidancewasagainrepeated.
5Thedevelopmentofthesupplementaryguidelinesstartedin2010withanonlinesurveytohighlightissueswheremoreguidancewasneeded.
Subsequently,asmallworkinggroupmetinTownsville,Australia,todevelopapreliminarydraft.
ThiswascirculatedtoWCPAmembersforwiderinput.
Inaddition,thedraftguidelineswerefield-testedintheMaldives6andtheRepublicofKorea7,beforebeingpublishedin2012.
1Kelleher,G.
andRecchia,C.
(1998).
'Editorial–lessonsfrommarineprotectedareasaroundtheworld'.
Parks8(2),Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.
http://parksjournal.
com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/parks_8_2.
pdf2Wells,S.
andDay,J.
(2004).
'ApplicationoftheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategoriesinthemarineenvironment'.
Parks14(3),Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.
http://parksjournal.
com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/14_3lowres.
pdf3Laffoley,D.
,Day,J.
,Wood,L.
andBarr,B.
(2007).
'IUCNCategories–TheirApplicationinMarineProtectedAreas',DiscussionpaperpresentedatWCPAMarineSummit,WashingtonDC,April2007.
4Dudley,N.
(ed.
)(2008).
GuidelinesforApplyingProtectedAreaManagementCategories.
Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.
https://portals.
iucn.
org/library/node/92435Laffoley,D.
,Day,J.
,Wood,L.
andBarr,B.
(2008).
'MarineProtectedAreas'.
In:Dudley,N.
andStolton,S.
(eds.
)(2008).
Definingprotectedareas:aninternationalconferenceinAlmeria,Spain.
Gland,Switzerland:IUCN.
220pphttps://portals.
iucn.
org/library/node/101276MWSRP(2011).
GuidelinesforapplyingtheIUCNMarineProtectedAreaManagementCategoriestoMarineProtectedAreas:afieldtestingreportbytheMaldivesWhaleSharkResearchProgramme(MWSRP).
UnpublishedReport,September2011.
5pp7Stolton,S.
,Shadie,P.
andHagYoungHeo(2011).
CasestudySouthKorea–MarineCategories.
Unpublishedreport.
5pp.
Asecondeditionofthemarinesupplementaryguidelineshasnowbeenprepared.
Workonthisstartedatameetingonmarineprotectedareas(MPAs)andcategorieshostedbythePewCharitableTrustsinWashington,inJanuary2018,andorganisedbytheWCPAMarineTheme.
ThiswasinpartaresponsetoevidenceofthewidespreadincorrectapplicationofthecategoriestoMPAs.
Marinemanagementandsustainablefisheriesmanagementarecriticalelementsofgoodoceansmanagement,butarenotthesameasprotectedareasmanagement,wheretheprimaryfocusisconservationofnature.
Inaddition,severalresolutionsatIUCNWorldConservationCongresses,passedsincethe2008Guidelineswerepublished,describeIUCNguidanceonacceptablepracticeinMPAmanagement.
WheretheseresolutionsmakeamaterialdifferencetoapplicationanduseofthecategoriesinMPAs,thishasbeenindicated.
FurtherworkisunderwaytodevelopmorespecificguidancefortheimprovedapplicationoftheIUCNcategoriestoMPAs.
Inaddition,IUCNresolutionsrelevanttothisguidanceareproposedfordiscussionatthe2020WorldConservationCongress.
FurtherupdatesofthisguidancewillbepreparedtoreflectanyrelevantapprovedmotionsandwillbeavailableatIUCN-WCPAMarine.
TheseguidelinesareaccurateasofOctober2019.
TheexamplesusedtoillustratethedifferentcategoriesmaybeupdatedfromtimetotimetoreflectnewMPAsand/orchangesinmanagement;pleaserefertoIUCN-WCPAMarineforanyupdates.
TheprimarypurposeofthesesupplementaryguidelinesistoincreasetheaccuracyandconsistencyofassignmentandreportingoftheIUCNcategorieswhenappliedtomarineandcoastalprotectedareas.
Toavoidunnecessaryduplicationoftext,thesesupplementalguidelinesthereforemustbereadinassociationwiththe2008Guidelines.
Thetextidentifieswherecross-referencingisrequiredtothe2008Guidelines.
TheMPAexamplesusedtoillustratethesesupplementaryguidelinesareaccordingtotheirmanagementinOctober2019andareforillustrativepurposesonly.
Managementconditionscanchangedueinparticulartodecreasesorincreasesinbudgetorchangesinprevailingecologicalconditions,andIUCNreservestherightatshortnoticetochangeexamplesusedtoillustratethisguidanceasitseesfittobestillustratethepointsbeingmade.
8AtaglanceIUCNhasdevelopedasetofguidelinesthatdefineaprotectedareaandcategoriseprotectedareasthroughsixmanagementtypesandfourgovernancetypes(Dudley,2008)8.
TheguidelineswerepassedthroughresolutionbyIUCNmembersatthe2012WorldConservationCongress,andarethusnowofficialpolicyforIUCN.
ThesesupplementaryguidelinesprovideadditionaladviceonusingtheIUCNguidanceinmarineprotectedareas(MPAs).
ToqualifyforoneormoreoftheIUCNcategories,asitemustmeettheIUCNdefinitionofaprotectedarea,asgiveninthe2008Guidelines:"Aprotectedareaisaclearlydefinedgeographicalspace,recognised,dedicatedandmanaged,throughlegalorothereffectivemeans,toachievethelong-termconservationofnaturewithassociatedecosystemservicesandculturalvalues"BydefinitionthereforeonlythosesiteswherethemaingoaloroutcomeisconservingnatureshouldbeconsideredMPAs.
Itshouldbenotedinsodoingthatthiswillincludesiteswithothergoalsaswell,atthesamelevel,suchasculturalorspiritual,butinthecaseofconflictnatureconservationhastobethepriority.
Italsofollowsfromthedefintionthatunsustainableextractiveactivities,particularlythoseontheindustrialscale,temporarymanagementmeasures,singlespeciesprotections,orbansondamaginggearwillnotleadtothelong-termconservationofthewholeecosystemandthereforedonotqualifyasMPAsTheappropriateIUCNcategoryisassignedbasedontheprimarystatedmanagementobjectiveoftheMPA(whichmustapplytoatleast75%oftheMPA–seesection5.
1),orazonewithinanMPA(thezonemustbeclearlymapped,recognisedbylegalorothereffectivemeans,andhavedistinctandunambiguousmanagementaimsthatcanbeassignedtoaparticularprotectedareacategory–seesection5.
4).
TheprimaryobjectivesofeachIUCNcategoryarelistedbelowasdescribedinthe2008Guidelines.
Amoredetailedexplanationispresentedinsection4ofthisdocumentandinthe2008Guidelines.
Inaddition,IUCNrecommendsthatanMPAshouldseektomeetthefollowingstandards:1)conservationfocuswithnatureasthepriority,2)definedgoalsandobjectiveswhichreflectthesevalues,3)suitablesize,locationanddesignthatwillenableconservationofvalues,4)definedandagreeduponboundary,5)managementplanorequivalent,whichaddressestheneedsforconservationofthesite'smajorvaluesandachievementofitssocialandeconomicgoalsandobjectives,and6)resourcesandcapacitytoimplement.
Thereareanumberofotherarea-basedmeasures,suchasfisherymanagementareas,thatcanbeconfusedwithMPAs.
ThekeydifferencebetweenMPAsandotherarea-basedmeasuresisthat,whateverformtheMPAstake,theprimaryfocusistheconservationofbiodiversity.
Area-basedmeasureswheretheprimarygoalsaresomethingelse,suchassustainablefishing,donotqualifyasanMPA.
IffishingorotherextractiveactivitiesarecompatiblewithanMPA'sobjective(s)andarepermittedwithintheMPA,theymusthavealowecologicalimpact,besustainable,bewellmanagedaspartofanintegratedapproachtomanagement,andfitwithinthedefinitionandcategoryofanIUCNprotectedarea.
Anyindustrialactivitiesandinfrastructuraldevelopments(e.
g.
mining,industrialfishing,oilandgasextraction)arenotcompatiblewithMPAsandshouldbeexcludedfromsuchareasiftheyaretobeconsideredasMPAs.
8Dudley,N.
(ed.
)(2008).
GuidelinesforApplyingProtectedAreaManagementCategories.
Gland,Switzerland:IUCN9Table1:DefinitionandprimaryobjectivesofIUCNprotectedareacategoriesIUCNcategoryDefinitionPrimaryobjectivePermittedactivitiesProhibitedactivitiesIaCategoryIaarestrictlyprotectedareassetasidetoprotectbiodiversityandalsopossiblygeological/geomorphologicalfeatures,wherehumanvisitation,useandimpactsarestrictlycontrolledandlimitedtoensureprotectionoftheconservationvalues.
Suchprotectedareascanserveasindispensablereferenceareasforscientificresearchandmonitoring.
Toconserveregionally,nationallyorgloballyoutstandingecosystems,species(occurrencesoraggregations)and/orgeodiversityfeatures:theseattributeswillhavebeenformedmostlyorentirelybynon-humanforcesandwillbedegradedordestroyedwhensubjectedtoallbutverylighthumanimpact.
Scientificresearchinvolvingcollectionmaybepermittedifthatcollectioncannotbeconductedelsewhereandifthecollectionactivityisminimisedtothatwhichisabsolutelynecessarytoachievethescientificgoalsofthestudy.
ExtractiontocontrolinvasivespeciesisalsopermittedinsomecategoryIaMPAs.
Removalofspeciesormodification,extractionorcollectionofresources(e.
g.
throughanyformoffishing,harvesting,dredging)isconsideredtobeincompatiblewiththiscategory.
Anchoring,whichcandamagebottomhabitat,shouldnotbepermitted.
Ifnecessaryforresearch,mooringbuoysmaybeanalternativeIbCategoryIbprotectedareasareusuallylarge,unmodifiedorslightlymodifiedareas,retainingtheirnaturalcharacterandinfluence,withoutpermanentorsignificanthumanhabitation,whichareprotectedandmanagedsoastopreservetheirnaturalcondition.
Toprotectthelong-termecologicalintegrityofnaturalareasthatareundisturbedbysignificanthumanactivity,freeofmoderninfrastructureandwherenaturalforcesandprocessespredominate,sothatcurrentandfuturegenerationshavetheopportunitytoexperiencesuchareas.
SameasIaandinsomecircumstances,sustainableresourceusebyindigenouspeopletoconservetheirtraditional,spiritualandculturalvalues,providedthisisdoneinaccordancewithculturaltradition.
AswithCategoryIa,removalofspeciesormodification,extractionorcollectionofresources(e.
g.
throughfishing,harvestingordredging)isnotconsideredcompatiblewiththiscategory.
IICategoryIIprotectedareasarelargenaturalornearnaturalareassetasidetoprotectlarge-scaleecologicalprocesses,alongwiththecomplementofspeciesandecosystemscharacteristicofthearea,whichalsoprovideafoundationforenvironmentallyandculturallycompatiblespiritual,scientific,educational,recreationalandvisitoropportunities.
Toprotectnaturalbiodiversityalongwithitsunderlyingecologicalstructureandsupportingenvironmentalprocesses,andtopromoteeducationandrecreation.
AswithcategoryIb.
Thiscategoryshouldalsoprovideforvisitation,non-extractiverecreationalactivitiesandnaturetourism(e.
g.
snorkelling,diving,swimming,boating,etc.
)andapprovedresearch,providedthatresearchcannotbedoneelsewhere(seep.
23formoredetails).
Extractiveuse(oflivingordeadmaterial)isnotconsideredconsistentwiththeobjectivesofcategoryII(e.
g.
alltypesoffishing,includingrecreational,arenotcompatible),otherthanforapprovedresearchwhichcannotbedoneelsewhereIIICategoryIIIprotectedareasaresetasidetoprotectaspecificnaturalmonument,whichcanbealandform,seamount,submarinecaverns,geologicalfeaturesuchasacaveorevenalivingfeaturesuchasanancientgrove.
Theyaregenerallyquitesmallprotectedareasandoftenhavehighvisitorvalue.
Toprotectspecificoutstandingnaturalfeaturesandtheirassociatedbiodiversityandhabitats.
SameascategoryII.
Extractiveuse(oflivingordeadmaterial)isnotconsideredconsistentwiththeobjectivesofcategoryIII(e.
g.
alltypesoffishing,includingrecreational,arenotcompatible),otherthanforapprovedresearchwhichcannotbedoneelsewhere.
Allotheractivitieswhichhavethepotentialtoimpactthespecificnaturalmonument(e.
g.
aquaculture,wastedischarge,habitation,etc)arealsoprohibited.
10IUCNcategoryDefinitionPrimaryobjectivePermittedactivitiesProhibitedactivitiesIVCategoryIVprotectedareasaimtoprotectparticularspeciesorhabitatsandmanagementreflectsthispriority.
ManycategoryIVprotectedareaswillneedregular,activeinterventionstoaddresstherequirementsofparticularspeciesortomaintainhabitats,butthisisnotarequirementofthecategory.
Tomaintain,conserveandrestorespeciesandhabitats.
UnlikecategoriesIa–III,withincategoryIVMPAsextractiveresearchispermitted,asisrenewableenergygenerationandrestoration/enhancementforotherreasons(e.
g.
beachreplenishment,fishaggregation,artificialreefs).
Long-termandsustainablelocalfishingpractices,small-scaleaquacultureandworks(e.
g.
harbours,ports,dredging)areallpermittedsolongastheactivitycanbemanagedinsuchawaythatitiscompatiblewiththeMPA'sobjectives.
Industrialfishing,industrial-scaleaquaculture,untreatedwastedischarge,miningandhabitationnotpermitted.
VCategoryVprotectedareasarewheretheinteractionofpeopleandnatureovertimehasproducedanareaofdistinctcharacterwithsignificantecological,biological,culturalandscenicvalue:andwheresafeguardingtheintegrityofthisinteractionisvitaltoprotectingandsustainingtheareaanditsassociatednatureconservationandothervalues.
Toprotectandsustainimportantlandscapes/seascapesandtheassociatednatureconservationandothervaluescreatedbyinteractionswithhumansthroughtraditionalmanagementpractices.
Localcommunitieslivingwithinandsustainablyusingtheseascapeisallowed,andlong-termandsustainablelocalfishingpracticesorsmall-scaleaquaculturearepermitted.
However,theprimaryobjectiveofthearearemainsthesustainableinteractionofpeopleandnatureovertime.
Works(e.
g.
harbours,ports,dredging)mayalsobepermitted,providedtheyoranyassociatedactivities(e.
g.
wastedischarge,seadumping)donotcauseadverseimpactsontheecological,biological,culturalorscenicvaluesofthearea.
Industrialfishing,industrial-scaleaquaculture,untreatedwastedischargeandminingnotpermitted.
VICategoryVIprotectedareasconserveecosystemsandhabitatstogetherwithassociatedculturalvaluesandtraditionalnaturalresourcemanagementsystems.
Theyaregenerallylarge,withmostoftheareainnaturalcondition,whereaproportionisundersustainablenaturalresourcemanagementandwherelow-levelnonindustrialuseofnaturalresourcescompatiblewithnatureconservationisseenasoneofthemainaimsofthearea.
Toprotectnaturalecosystemsandusenaturalresourcessustainably,whenconservationandsustainableusecanbemutuallybeneficial.
Long-termandsustainablelocalfishingpractices,small-scaleaquacultureandsmall-scalesustainablecollectionofsomespecies(e.
g.
foodspecies,ornamentalcoralorshells)arepermitted.
Works(e.
g.
harbours,ports,dredging)mayalsobepermitted,providedtheyoranyassociatedactivities(e.
g.
wastedischarge,seadumping)donotcauseadverseimpactsontheecological,biological,culturalorscenicvaluesofthearea.
Industrialfishing,industrial-scaleaquaculture,untreatedwastedischarge,miningandhabitationnotpermitted.
11SpatialareaswhichmayincidentallydelivernatureconservationbutDONOTHAVESTATEDnatureconservationobjectivesshouldNOTautomaticallybeclassifiedasMPAs.
Suchareasinclude:FisherymanagementareaswithnowiderstatedconservationaimsCommunityareasmanagedprimarilyforsustainableextractionofmarineproducts(e.
g.
coral,fish,shells,etc.
)Marineandcoastalmanagementsystemsmanagedprimarilyfortourism,whichalsoincludeareasofconservationinterestWindfarmsandoilplatformsthatincidentallyhelptobuildupbiodiversityaroundunderwaterstructuresandbyexcludingfishingandothervesselsMarineandcoastalareassetasideforotherpurposesbutwhichalsohaveconservationbenefit:militarytrainingareasortheirbufferareas(e.
g.
exclusionzones);disastermitigation(e.
g.
coastaldefencesthatalsoharboursignificantbiodiversity);communicationscableorpipelineprotectionareas;shippinglanes,etc.
Largeareas(e.
g.
regions,provinces,countries)wherecertainspeciesareprotectedbylawacrosstheentireregionAnyoftheabovemanagementapproachescouldbeclassifiedasanMPAifinsteadtheyhadaprimarystatedaimtodelivernatureconservationandwherethereisaconflictnatureconservationprevails.
Some,butnotall,oftheseareasmayinthefuturebeclassifiedasOtherEffectiveArea-BasedConservationMeasures(OECMs),anewdesignationthatcoversareaswithsignificantnatureconservationvalueinpractice,butwhichmaynothavenatureconservationasaprimaryobjective,andyetcontributetotheobjectivesofanMPAnetwork.
AdviceonOECMsisavailableseparatelytothisguidance,whichfocusessolelyonMPAaspects.
Ingeneral,IUCNarguesforbothterrestrialandmarineprotectedareasystemstoincludeamixtureofcategories,includingespeciallystrictercategories(no-takeMPAs,alsosometimescalledmarinereserves).
Currently,no-takeMPAsareaverysmallfractionofthetotalMPAestate.
Thisproportionneedstobeconsiderablyincreasedtoprovideadditionalconservationbenefits.
SomeMPAsalsoincludesmallareasorzoneswherepublicentryisprohibitedandthereforeareunaffectedbydirecthumanuses.
IfdeemedtobepartofanMPA,theseareasaregenerallyconsideredasbeingCatIaandplayasignificantroleasscientificbaselinesorreferencesitesformonitoringchangewithouthumaninterference;thisisbecomingincreasinglyimportantasimpactsofclimatechangebecomemoreapparent.
Figure1:MarineprotectedareaswithinwideroceangovernanceHealthiestoceans&benefitstopeopleWiderOceanOtherregulationsMarineProtectedAreasHeaviestuseHighestprotectionMultipleUseareasNo-takeareasMPAsfallintoseveraldifferentcategoriesonacontinuumfromfullyprotectedareaswithnotake,throughtomultipleuseareas,asdefinedbytheguidelinesforapplyingtheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategoriestomarineprotectedareas.
Thebenefitstopeopleandcoastalcommunities,andthedegreeofdeliveryofconservationoutcomesgenerallyincreasewiththelevelofprotectionandeffectivemanagement,andbyacommensuratereductionintheintensityofuseandexploitation.
12Thedevelopmentofthisdocumenthasspannedseveralyears.
Weareverygratefulforallthosewhohavecontributedinformationandadviceandprovidedfinancialandin-kindsupportduringthatperiod.
ThesupportofthestaffofIUCN'sGlobalMarineandPolarProgrammeisgratefullyacknowledgedinmanagingthetranslations,layoutandpublicationofthefirstedition.
Keycontributors:JonDay,previouslyGreatBarrierReefMarineParkAuthority;nowARCCentreforCoralReefStudies,JamesCookUniversityNigelDudley,EquilibriumResearchMarcHockings,UniversityofQueenslandGlenHolmes,ThePewCharitableTrustDanLaffoley,IUCNWCPAThematicVice-ChairfortheMarineBiomeSueStolton,EquilibriumResearchSueWells,ConsultantLaurenWenzel,NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationResearchersandreviewersfor1stEdition:JenAshworth,PrincipalSpecialistMarine&CoastalEvidence,NaturalEnglandBradBarr,SeniorPolicyAdvisor,OfficeoftheDirectorNOAA/OfficeofNationalMarineSanctuariesJuanE.
BezauryCreel,RepresentanteenMéxicoyDirectorAsociadodePolíticaAmbiental–Latinoamérica,TheNatureConservancyCharltonClark,TemperateMarineConservation,DepartmentofSustainability,Environment,Water,PopulationandCommunitiesColleenCorrigan,SeniorProgrammeOfficer,ProtectedAreas,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme-WorldConservationMonitoringCentreRogerCrofts,WorldCommissiononProtectedAreasMimiD'Orio,NOAAAlistairGammell,UKSusanGubbayHeoHag-Young,ResearchFellow,RegionalBiodiversityConservationProgramme,IUCNAsiaRegionalOfficeRicardoHaroun,CenterofBiodiversityandEnvironmentalManagement,UniversityofLasPalmasdeGranCanariaKoheiHibino,JapanWildlifeResearchCenterStacyJupiter,FijiCountryProgramDirector,WildlifeConservationSocietyGraemeKelleher,AustraliaRichardKenchington,AustraliaCaroleMartinez,FrenchMPAAgencyAyaMizumura,UniversityofQueenslandJayNelson,PewEnvironmentGroupAcknowledgementsVictorNita,NationalInstituteforMarineResearchandDevelopment,RomaniaGiselaParedesLeguizamón,ProgramadereasProtegidas,UICNSURAllenPutney,WCPAThematicViceChairforWorldHeritageRichardRees,ManagingDirector,MaldivesWhaleSharkResearchProgrammeMarkD.
Spalding,SeniorMarineScientist,GlobalMarineTeam,TNCandConservationScienceGroup,DepartmentofZoology,UniversityofCambridgeIsabelleTurcotte,HabitatConservationAnalyst,LandscapesandProtectedAreasPolicyandPlanningSection,CanadianWildlifeService,EnvironmentCanadaRobVanderkam,GeospatialInformationManager,HabitatConservationSection,CanadianWildlifeService,EnvironmentCanadaTrevorWard,MarineandFisheriesEcologistLouisaWood,HeadofMarineProgramme,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme-WorldConservationMonitoringCentreKimWright,Manager,MarinePlanning&ProtectedAreasCampaign,LivingOceansSociety,VancouverImogenZethoven,Director,CoralSeaCampaign,GlobalOceanLegacy,PewEnvironmentGroup,AustraliaReviewersfor2ndEdition:AmajorstepindevelopingasecondeditionoftheguidelinestookplaceduringameetinghostedbythePewCharitableTrustsinWashingtonDCinJanuary2018.
Thanksareduetothepeoplewhoattendedandtookpartinthediscussions,inadditiontotheauthorsandmainreviewers,including:RiliDjohani,ChuckFox,SusanneFuller,JamesHardcastle,SabineJensen,NaomiKingston,HarveyLocke,ClaudioMaretti,LanceMorgan,DanMyers,StephaniePauwels,CarolPhua,KimSanderWright,JohnTanzer,MikeWalker,MikeWongandStephenWoodley.
Thefollowingalsoprovidedadetailedreviewoftheguidelines:MimiD'Iorio,NationalMarineProtectedAreasCenter,NOAAKirstenGorud-Colvert,OregonStateUniversityChristineFranklin,ThePewCharitableTrustsKathyMacKinnon,IUCNWorldCommissiononProtectedAreasMattRand,ThePewCharitableTrustsChristineSantora,StonybrookUniversitySarinavanderPloeg,IUCNAngeloVillagomez,ThePewCharitableTrusts131.
Introduction1.
1WhyaresupplementaryguidelinesneededforMPAsTheIUCNcategoriesareapplicabletoalltypesofprotectedareas,whetherterrestrialormarine.
The2008GuidelinesforApplyingProtectedAreaManagementCategories(hereafterreferredtoasthe2008Guidelines)provideconsiderabledetailontheuseandapplicationofthecategories,includingformarineprotectedareas(MPAs).
Specificsectionsofthe2008Guidelinesarereferredtothroughoutthesesupplementaryguidelines,andthesectioninthe2008GuidelinesthatdealswithMPAscanbefoundonpages55–58.
However,withthesmallernumberofMPAscomparedwithterrestrialprotectedareas,thereislessexperienceandunderstandingofapplyingthecategoriestoMPAs.
ApplicationofthecategoriestoMPAshasoftenbeeninaccurateandinconsistent.
Forexample,itisconsidered(Wood,pers.
comm.
,2012)that,ofthoseMPAsthathavebeencategorised,about50%havebeenwronglyallocatedbecausethenameoftheMPA(e.
g.
NationalPark,Sanctuary,etc.
)hasbeenusedtodeterminethecategory,ratherthanthemanagementobjectivesthattheMPAwasestablishedtoachieve.
Confusionhasalsoarisenwhensiteshavebeenincorrectlyassignedonthebasisofactivitiesthatoccurratherthanbyusingthestatedmanagementobjectives.
Whereprotectedareasincludebothlandandsea,theobjectivesforthemarinecomponentoftheprotectedareaareoftennotconsideredwhenassigningthesite'scategory.
Finally,since2008severalWorldConservationCongressresolutionshavechangedIUCNpolicyregardingprotectedareas,andthesearealsonotedinthissupplementaryguidance.
ThesesupplementarymarineguidelinesarethusaimedatensuringthattheIUCNcategoriescanbeeffectivelyappliedtoalltypesofMPAsaswellastoanymarinecomponentsofadjoiningterrestrialprotectedareas,providedasitemeetstheIUCNdefinitionofaprotectedarea.
Inconsistenciesintheapplicationof,andreportingon,thecategoriesreducetheefficacyanduseofthesystemasaglobalclassificationscheme.
Thesesupplementaryguidelinesshouldincreasetheaccuracyandconsistencyofbothassignmentandreporting.
ThecategoriesarerecognisedbyinternationalbodiessuchastheUnitedNationsandbymanynationalgovernmentsastheglobalstandardfordefiningandrecordingprotectedareas,andassuchareincreasinglybeingincorporatedintogovernmentlegislation.
FurtherinformationontheseinternationalconservationinitiativesisgiveninChapter7ofthe2008Guidelines.
1.
2WhoarethesupplementaryguidelinesforThesesupplementaryguidelinesareintendedprimarilyforpolicymakers,decisionmakers,seniormanagers,agenciesandotherinstitutionsinvolvedintheestablishmentandmanagementofMPAs.
TheguidelinesarelesslikelytobeofdirectrelevancetoMPAmanagersintheirday-to-daywork.
However,itisusefulforMPAmanagerstounderstandthecategories,asthecategorytowhichanMPAhasbeenassignedcanhelpamanagerguideplanningandimplementationtowardsmanagementobjectives.
Thesupplementaryguidelineswillalsobeusefultothoseinvolvedincollecting,analysingandreportingdataonMPAs,andtothoseinterestedintrackingprogressinmarineconservation.
WhereMPAsareadministeredbyfisheriesagencies,theguidelinesmaybeparticularlyusefulassuchdepartmentsdonotalwayshaveagoodknowledgeoftheIUCNcategoriessystem.
Theyalsomaynothaveacloserelationshipwiththemainnationalagencyresponsibleforterrestrialprotectedareas,whichusuallyhasresponsibilityfornationalreporting.
Inthesecases,itisparticularlyimportantthatfisheryagencyofficials,policymakers,andthoseagenciesandinstitutionsinvolvedinMPAmanagementreadthe2008Guidelinesbeforeusingthesesupplementaryguidelinestoensurethatthebasicprinciplesofthecategorysystemareunderstood.
1.
3HowtousetheseguidelinesTheprimaryguidancetoassigningcategoriesisthe2008Guidelines,whichprovidemoredetailonthegeneralprinciplesthanisgivenhere.
Thesesupplementaryguidelinesshouldthusbeusedinconjunctionwiththe2008Guidelinesandmustnotbeconsideredastand-alonedocument.
ThesesupplementaryguidelinesprovidespecificinformationandexamplesthatwillhelpwiththeapplicationofthecategoriestoMPAs.
IUCNWCPAhasalsoproducedmoredetailedinformationabouttheprocessforassigningtheIUCNdefinition,categoriesandgovernancetypesintheformofIUCN/WCPAstandardsontheprocessforrecognisingprotectedareasandassigningmanagementcategoriesandgovernancetypes.
Boththe2008GuidelinesandthesupplementaryguidelinesaretechnicaladvicefromIUCNandsetoutrulesandadvicetohelpcountries,regionsandtheworldtomakeconsistentdecisionsaboutprotectedareadefinitionandcategorisation.
Decisionsaboutwhatisorisnotaprotectedareaarenormallytheresponsibilityofnationalgovernments,or,inthecaseofdesignationssuchasNatura2000andWorldHeritageSites,committeesmadeupofmorethanonegovernmentestablishedunderinternationalagreements.
Countriesandsuchinternationalbodiesarethereforeaskedtorespectandfollowthisguidance,inordertoimproveour14understandingofwhatisbeingachievedinprotectedareasaroundtheworld,andtomaintainthevalueofthecategoriesasaglobalcategorisationsystem.
ThesupplementaryguidelinesalsoprovideexamplesofMPAsfromaroundtheworldtoillustratemanyofthepointsmade.
Wherepossible,hyperlinkshavebeenprovidedtowebsitesgivingfurtherinformationabouteachexample.
Thesesupplementaryguidelinesalsoincludeasummaryofthemainelementsofthefull2008Guidelines,includingtheprimaryobjectivesofeachcategory(foreachtopic,referencestorelevantpagenumbersintheprinted/PDFversionofthe2008Guidelinesarealsoprovided).
2.
1ThedefinitionofamarineprotectedareaInapplyingthecategoriessystem,thefirststepistodeterminewhetherornotthesitemeetsIUCN'sdefinitionofaprotectedareaasgiveninthe2008Guidelines(Chapter2,page8)whichstates:Aprotectedareaisaclearlydefinedgeographicalspace,recognised,dedicatedandmanaged,throughlegalorothereffectivemeans,toachievethelong-termconservationofnaturewithassociatedecosystemservicesandculturalvaluesIfamarineareadoesnotmeetthisdefinition,thenitcannotbeconsideredanMPA.
Adetailedexplanationofthedefinitionisprovidedinthe2008Guidelines(Chapter2,pages8–9).
ThisissummarisedinTable2below,withadiscussionofissuestoconsiderwhenapplyingthedefinitiontothemarineenvironmentandsomeexamplestoillustratethedefinition.
TheMPAexamplesprovidedthroughouttheseguidelinesareappropriateforillustrativepurposesasofOctober2019,beingthepublicationdateoftheseguidelines;however,somemaynotmaintaintheirrelevanceovertime.
Table2:ExplanationofprotectedareadefinitionPhraseExplanationprovidedinthe2008GuidelinesDiscussionandexampleofapplicationinthemarinerealmClearlydefinedClearlydefinedimpliesaspatiallydefinedareawithagreedanddemarcatedborders.
Theseborderscansometimesbedefinedbyphysicalfeaturesthatmoveovertime(e.
g.
riverbanks)orbymanagementactions(e.
g.
agreedno-takezones).
ThisimpliesthatMPAsmustbemappedandhaveboundariesthatarelegallydefined.
However,whilesomeMPAscanbeclearlydefined(e.
g.
anentirebayboundedbyheadlands),forothersitmaybedifficulttomarktheboundaries,especiallyiftheMPAisoffshore.
Evenboundariesonthelandwardside,wheretidelevelscanbeused(e.
g.
LowWaterMark),canbedifficulttoestablish(seeBox1).
Increasingly,MPAorzoneboundariesaredefinedbyhighresolutionlatitudeandlongitudecoordinates,asdeterminedbyGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)instruments.
Example:TheUSNationalMarineSanctuarySystemidentifiessanctuarieslegislatedundertheNationalMarineSanctuariesActwithboundariesdefinedinaseriesofassociatedmaps.
GeographicalspaceIncludesland,inlandwater,marineandcoastalareasoracombinationoftwoormoreofthese.
'Space'hasthreedimensions,e.
g.
aswhentheairspaceaboveaprotectedareaisprotectedfromlow-flyingaircraftorinmarineprotectedareaswhenacertainwaterdepthisprotectedortheseabedisprotectedbutwateraboveisnot:converselysubsurfaceareassometimesarenotprotected(e.
g.
areopenformining).
Allprotectedareasexistinthreedimensions,buttheverticaldimensioninMPAsisoftenasubstantialmanagementconsideration.
InMPAs,managementmayneedtoaddresstheairspaceabovetheseasurface,thewatersurface,thewatercolumn(orpartsofit),theseabedandthesub-seabed,orjustoneoracombinationoftwoormoreoftheseelements.
Forexample,someMPAsprotectjusttheseabed/benthosandnotthewatercolumnabove.
ItisthereforeimportantthatanMPAhasacleardescriptionofthedimensionsthatareactuallyprotected.
Verticalzoningcanbeproblematicbecausemanyoftheseelementshavestrongecologicalinteractions.
Inconsequence,IUCNhasastrongpresumptionagainstverticalzoningofMPAs(seealsosection5.
5).
Example:InAustralia'sGreatBarrierReefMarinePark(GBRMP),theboundaryisclearlydefinedbylegalproclamation.
ThezonesintheGBRMParelegallydefinedinthestatutoryZoningPlan.
TheMPAgoestoadepthof1000metresbelowtheseabedandaheightof915metres(airspace)abovethesurfaceofthewater.
2.
Whatisamarineprotectedarea15PhraseExplanationprovidedinthe2008GuidelinesDiscussionandexampleofapplicationinthemarinerealmRecognisedImpliesthatprotectioncanincludearangeofgovernancetypesdeclaredbypeopleaswellasthoseidentifiedbythestate,butthatsuchsitesshouldberecognisedinsomeway(inparticularthroughlistingontheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas–WDPA).
Example:TheGovernmentofCanadaandtheCounciloftheHaidaNationco-manageGwaiiHaanasNationalParkReserveandHaidaHeritageSite,andtheGwaiiHaanasNationalMarineConservationAreaReserveoffthePacificcoastofCanada.
DedicatedImpliesspecificbindingcommitmenttoconservationinthelongterm,throughe.
g.
:InternationalconventionsandagreementsNational,provincialandlocallawCustomarylawCovenantsofNGOsPrivatetrustsandcompanypoliciesCertificationschemes.
Example:TheGalápagosMarineReserveisdesignatedundernationallawandisalsoanintegralpartoftheGalápagosIslandsWorldHeritagesite.
ManagedAssumessomeactivestepstoconservethenatural(andpossiblyother)valuesforwhichtheprotectedareawasestablished;notethat'managed'canincludeadecisiontoleavetheareauntouchedifthisisthebestconservationstrategy.
Therequirementthatasiteismanagedappliestobothmarineandterrestrialsituations.
Asonland,manytypesofMPAmanagementarepossible.
Examples:BonaireNationalMarineParkintheNetherlandsAntilleshasclearlydefinedregulationsthatapplytoallusersofthepark.
ProtectedSeas.
netprovidesboundarydataandregulationsformarineprotectedareasandothermanagedareas.
LegalorothereffectivemeansMeansthatprotectedareasmusteitherbegazetted(thatis,recognisedunderstatutorycivillaw),recognisedthroughaninternationalconventionoragreement,orelsemanagedthroughothereffective,butnon-gazetted,means,suchasthroughrecognisedtraditionalrulesunderwhichcommunity-conservedareasoperateorthepoliciesofestablishednon-governmentalorganisations.
Asforterrestrialprotectedareas,'effectivemeans'includeagreementswithindigenouspeoplesgroups;Example:DhimurruIndigenousProtectedArea,anareaoflandandseaintheNorthernTerritoryofAustralia,ontheGulfofCarpentaria,isrunbytheDhimurruLandManagementAboriginalCorporationwhichworkswiththeTraditionalOwnerstomanagetheprotectedarea.
…toachieveImpliessomelevelofeffectiveness–anewelementthatwasnotpresentinthe1994definitionbutwhichhasbeenstronglyrequestedbymanyprotectedareamanagersandothers.
Althoughthecategorywillstillbedeterminedbyobjective,managementeffectivenesswillprogressivelyberecordedontheWDPAandovertimewillbecomeanimportantcontributorycriterioninidentificationandrecognitionofprotectedareas.
Asforterrestrialprotectedareas,thisimpliessomelevelofeffectivenessandthereforerequiresthattheMPAissubjecttomonitoring,evaluationandreporting.
Onewaytoaddressthisisbymeetingcertainagreedmanagementstandards,suchasthoseoftheIUCNGreenList.
Example:AnassessmentoftheTortugasEcologicalReserve,partoftheFloridaKeysNationalMarineSanctuary,foundthatthisno-takeareawasmeetingitsobjectives,benefittingbothfishpopulationsandrecreationalandcommercialfishers.
16PhraseExplanationprovidedinthe2008GuidelinesDiscussionandexampleofapplicationinthemarinerealmLong-termProtectedareasshouldbemanagedinperpetuityandnotasshort-termoratemporarymanagementstrategy.
Aswithterrestrialprotectedareas,long-termprotection(overtimescalesofhumangenerations)isnecessaryforeffectivemarineconservation.
Seasonalclosuresofanareaforaspecificpurpose(suchasfishspawning,whalebreeding,etc.
),intheabsenceofanyadditionalbiodiversityprotectionandanyprimarynatureconservationobjectivearenotconsideredtobeMPAs.
SeasonalprotectionofcertainspeciesorhabitatsmaybeausefulcomponentofmanagementinanMPA.
Examples:TheCockleBayShellfishSeasonalClosureareainNewZealandisNOTanMPAasitisonlyinforceforthemonthsofOctobertoAprilwhencollectionofshellfishisbanned.
IntheMarineMammalProtectionZoneoftheGreatAustralianBightMarinePark(CommonwealthWaters)theuseofvesselsisprohibited1May–31OctobereachyeartoprotectanimportantcalvingandbreedingareaforSouthernRightWhales.
ConservationInthecontextofthisdefinition,conservationreferstotheinsitumaintenanceofecosystemsandnaturalandsemi-naturalhabitatsandofviablepopulationsofspeciesintheirnaturalsurroundingsand,inthecaseofdomesticatedorcultivatedspecies,inthesurroundingswheretheyhavedevelopedtheirdistinctiveproperties.
Examples:EcologicalReservesintheFloridaKeysNationalMarineSanctuaryintheUnitedStatesaredesignedtoprovidenaturalspawningandnurseryareasforthereplenishmentandgeneticprotectionofmarinelifeandaimtoprotectandpreserveallhabitatsandspeciesfoundthroughouttheSanctuary.
Theprotectionofatleast20%ofall30reefand40non-reefbioregionswithintheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkprovidesinsituprotectionofrepresentativeexamplesofallspeciesandecosystemprocesses.
NatureInthiscontextnaturealwaysreferstobiodiversity,atgenetic,speciesandecosystemlevel,andoftenalsoreferstogeodiversity,landformandbroadernaturalvalues.
Allprotectedareas,whetherterrestrialormarineshouldaimtoprotectallthefeaturesofconservationimportancewithintheirboundaries.
Example:TheoverallstatutoryobjectiveoftheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkistoprovideforthelong-termprotectionandconservationoftheenvironment,biodiversityandheritagevaluesoftheGreatBarrierReefRegion(seesection2A(1)).
TheprimarystatutoryobjectiveoftheAlaskaMaritimeNationalWildlifeRefugeistheconservationofanimalsandhabitatsintheirnaturalbiodiversity.
AssociatedecosystemservicesMeanshereecosystemservicesthatarerelatedtobutdonotinterferewiththeaimofnatureconservation.
Thesecanincludeprovisioningservicessuchasfoodandwater;regulatingservicessuchasregulationoffloods,drought,landdegradation,anddisease;supportingservicessuchassoilformationandnutrientcycling;andculturalservicessuchasrecreational,spiritual,religiousandothernonmaterialbenefits.
MPAsprovideawiderangeofecosystemservices:Examples:Culturalecosystemservices:TheMPAnetworkinBelizehasbeenestimatedtocontributenearlyUS$20millionannuallyinreef-relatedvisitorexpenditure.
Regulatingecosystemservices,forexampleseagrassmeadows,mangrovesandtidalwetlandsascarbonsinks:MPAsinitiallydesignatedbytheMaltaEnvironmentandPlanningAuthorityaimedtoprotectMalta'sPosidonia(seagrass)beds,aNatura2000priorityhabitattypeforEuropeanwaters.
Areassetupforwave/windpoweraregenerallyNOTMPAs(seesection2.
3).
CulturalvaluesIncludesthosethatdonotinterferewiththeconservationoutcome(allculturalvaluesinaprotectedareashouldmeetthiscriterion),includinginparticular:Thosethatcontributetoconservationoutcomes(e.
g.
traditionalmanagementpracticesonwhichkeyspecieshavebecomereliant)Thosethatarethemselvesunderthreat.
AreassetasideforculturalvaluesareonlyprotectedareasundertheIUCNdefinitioniftheyhavenatureconservationasaprimaryaim.
However,manyMPAscontainsacredsitesorhavesignificantculturalandheritagevalue,andunderstandingofthisisimportant.
Examples:NosyVe,anislandinsouthernMadagascarprotectedunderalocal'dina'agreementisbothasacredsiteandanareaimportantforcoralsandasatropicbirdnestingcolony.
PapahānaumokuākeaMarineNationalMonumentintheNorthWestHawaiianIslandsisimportantforNativeHawaiiansatgenealogical,culturalandspirituallevels.
ItisalsoaWorldHeritagepropertydesignatedbecauseitsnaturalandculturalvaluesareconsideredtobeuniversallyoutstanding17Box1:BoundariesofMPAsThereareanumberofissuestoconsiderwhendeterminingtheboundariesofanMPA.
Onthelandwardside,itisimportanttomakeitveryclearastoexactlywhatboundaryisbeingused;forexample'MeanLowWater'isadifferentboundaryfromthatof'LowestAstronomicalTide'.
Whereverpossiblehighestastronomicaltideorhighwatermarkshouldbeused(highestastronomicaltidegenerallysuitsareaswithlargetidalranges,whereashighwatermarksuitssmalltidalranges).
Bothlowwaterandhighwatermarkscanresultinboundariesthataredifficultinlegalandadministrativetermsbecause:Thelowwatermarkisusuallycoveredbywater.
Itisthusdifficulttoinformthepublicofitspreciselocation,andthereforetoenforce;inaddition,lowwatermarkmoveswitherosionandaccretionandisoftennotmarkedonchartsordefinedinanypublicallyavailableway.
Boundariesbasedonhighwatermarkmaycauseproblemsas,forexample,whatmayappeartoberelativelystable'lines'canalsobeinfluencedbyerosionandaccretion.
Alsoestablishedrightsofuseoftenreflectterrestrialownershipoftheadjacentland.
Inrivers,estuariesornarrowbays,therearenoclearprinciplesfordefiningloworhighwateranditmaybeunclearastowhichbaysandchannelsarepartofanMPA,andwhichmayberegardedas'internalwaters'.
TheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationintheUnitedStateshaspublishedtechnicalguidanceonhowtoestablishMPAboundaries.
2.
2PrinciplesassociatedwiththeuseoftheprotectedareadefinitionandIUCNcategoryThe2008Guidelines(Chapter2,page10)includethefollowingprinciples(emphasishasbeenaddedtothemostfundamentalpoints)tohelpdecidewhetheranareameetsthedefinitionofaprotectedareaandwhatcategoryitshouldbeassignedto:ForIUCN,onlythoseareaswherethemainobjectiveisconservingnaturecanbeconsideredprotectedareas;thiscanincludemanyareaswithothergoalsaswell,atthesamelevel,butinthecaseofconflict,natureconservationwillbethepriorityProtectedareasmustprevent,oreliminatewherenecessary,anyexploitationormanagementpracticethatwillbeharmfultotheobjectivesofdesignationThechoiceofcategoryshouldbebasedontheprimaryobjective(s)statedforeachprotectedareaorlegally-definedzonewithinaprotectedareaThesystemisnotintendedtobehierarchicalAllcategoriesmakeacontributiontoconservationbutobjectivesmustbechosenwithrespecttotheparticularsituation;notallcategoriesareequallyusefulineverysituationAnycategorycanexistunderanygovernancetypeandviceversaAdiversityofmanagementapproachesisdesirableandshouldbeencouraged,asitreflectsthemanywaysinwhichcommunitiesaroundtheworldhaveexpressedtheuniversalvalueoftheprotectedareaconceptThecategoryshouldbechangedifassessmentshowsthatthestated,long-termmanagementobjectivesdonotmatchthoseofthecategoryassignedHowever,thecategoryisnotareflectionofmanagementeffectivenessProtectedareasshouldusuallyaimtomaintainor,ideally,increasethedegreeofnaturalnessoftheecosystembeingprotectedThedefinitionandcategoriesofprotectedareasshouldnotbeusedasanexcusefordispossessingpeopleoftheirlandorseaterritory.
2.
3WhenisamarineareathatmayachieveconservationoutcomesnotanMPAAprotectedareaasdefinedbyIUCNdescribesaprecisesetofmanagementapproacheswithlimits,andmusthavenatureconservationasaprimaryratherthanasecondaryaim,asexplainedabove.
Thereare,however,manymanagedareasthatprotectbiodiversity,eitherindirectly,incidentallyorfortuitously.
Indeed,itisaprincipleoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity's'ecosystemapproach'thatalllandandwatermanagementshouldcontributetoconservation,andasaresultthedistinctionbetweenwhatisandwhatisnotaprotectedareaissometimesunclear.
However,manymanagedareasdonotnecessarilyfulfiltheIUCNdefinitionofaprotectedarea.
Thisisparticularlythecaseinthemarineenvironmentwherethereisalonghistoryofspatialfisheriesmanagementandagrowinginterestinspatialplanningandspatialmanagementofotheractivitiesthatoftenhavenostatedaimorinterestinnatureconservation–itisjustanincidentalorapparentlink.
UnderstandingtheIUCNprotectedareadefinitionisthuscriticallyimportant.
AreassubjecttosomeformofmanagementcouldbeMPAsorpartsofMPAsinsomecases,butMPAstatusshouldnotbeassumedanddecisionsmustbemadeonacase-by-casebasis,theessentialcriterionbeingwhethernatureconservationistheprimaryobjective.
ThefollowingtypesofmanagementareaaretypicallynotMPAs:Fisherymanagementareasfocusedprimarilyonsustainableextraction(seesection2.
3.
1formoredetaileddiscussion)Communityareasmanagedprimarilyforsustainableextractionofmarineproducts,suchascoral,fish,shells(thesearediscussedbelowinsection2.
3.
2onindigenousandcommunityconservedareas)Areaswhereenvironmentallydamagingindustrialactivitiesand/orinfrastructuraldevelopmentsassociatedwiththoseindustries(e.
g.
mining,industrialfishing,oilandgasextraction)takeplace,irrespectiveofwhetherthoseactivitiesarelocatedin,adjacentto,orotherwisenegativelyaffect,anyprotectedarea.
18Marineandcoastalmanagementsystemsmanagedprimarilyfortourism,evenwherethesealsoincludeareasofconservationinterestWindfarmsandoilplatformsthatincidentallyhelptobuildupbiodiversityaroundunderwaterstructuresbyexcludingfishingandothervesselsMarineandcoastalareassetasideforotherpurposesbutwhichhaveanindirectconservationbenefit:militarytrainingareasortheirbufferareas(e.
g.
exclusionzones);disastermitigation(e.
g.
coastaldefencesthatalsoharboursignificantbiodiversity);communicationscableandpipelineprotectionareas;shippinglanes,etc.
Largeareas(e.
g.
regions,provinces,countries)wherecertainspeciesareprotectedbylawacrosstheentireregion.
Some,butbynomeansalloftheseareasmayintimebeidentifiedasOtherEffectiveArea-BasedConservationMeasures(OECMs),anewdesignationarisingfromwordingintheCBD's2010AichiBiodiversityTargets.
OECMscovercertainareasoutsideprotectedareasthatachieveeffectiveconservation,evenifnatureconservationisnottheirprimarymanagementobjective.
Likeprotectedareas,theyhaveaprecisedefinitionandaccompanyingsetofcriteria.
2.
3.
1.
FisherymanagementareasTemporaryorpermanentfishingclosuresthatareestablishedprimarilytohelpbuildupandmaintainreservestocksforfishinginthefuture,andhavenowiderconservationaimsorachievementsarenotconsideredtobeMPAs.
Forexample,Norway,IcelandandtheFaroeIslands(Denmark)closeareastofishingatshortnoticeifthepercentageofjuvenilesorby-catchgoesaboveacertainnumber.
TheseareasdonotqualifyasMPAs.
IUCN'sadviceisthatareassetasidepurelytomaintainfishingstocks,particularlyonatemporarybasis,shouldnotbeconsideredtobeprotectedareaseventhoughtheymaywellreflectgoodfisherymanagement.
ForsuchsitestomeetIUCN'sdefinitionofaprotectedarea,managerswouldneedtoaddresstheoverallhealthanddiversityoftheecosystemandhaveastatedprimaryaimtothiseffect.
Suchareas,however,maybeimportantcomponentsofthemanagementofanMPAiftheareaasawholehasaprimaryaimofnatureconservation.
Forexample,seasonalclosuresoffishspawningaggregationareasorpelagicmigratoryroutes,atspecificandpredictabletimesofyearforcertainspecieswhentheyareextremelyvulnerable,maybeessentialtotheeffectivemanagementofanMPA.
ExamplesofMPAswithseasonallyclosedzones:WithintheGreatBarrierReefMarinePark,Australia,thereareseasonalclosurestoallreeffishfishingforspecificperiodsatcertaintimesoftheyear.
TheGalapagosMarineReserveutilisesarangeoffisheriesmanagementtools,includingseasonalfishingclosures.
Exampleswheremanagementoffishingisessentialtonatureprotectionthroughoutthesite:EastportMarineProtectedAreasinCanadaconsistoftwoMPAs(DuckIslandandRoundIsland,bothofwhichareno-takeareas)withinthe400km2EastportPeninsulaLobsterManagementArea;thelargermanagementareaisopentocommercialexploitationoflobstersaccordingtothefisheriesmanagementregimeinplaceandisnotitselfanMPA,andthetwono-takeareas,eachofwhichmeetsthedefinitionofaprotectedarea,playakeyroleinthelobster'smanagement.
Belizehaselevenmulti-speciesfishspawningaggregationsitesthatareclosedtofishingpermanentlythroughmarinereservesthatrestrictallfishing.
2.
3.
2IndigenousPeoplesandCommunityConservedTerritoriesandAreas(ICCAs)IndigenousPeoplesandCommunityConservedTerritoriesandAreas(ICCA)aredefinedbyIUCNas:"naturaland/ormodifiedecosystemscontainingsignificantbiodiversityvalues,ecologicalfunctionsandbenefits,andculturalvaluesvoluntarilyconservedbyindigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunitiesbothsedentaryandmobile–throughcustomarylawsorothereffectivemeans".
DeterminingwhenanICCAisalsoaprotectedarea,andthereforeeligibleforlistingontheWDPA,ismorecomplexthanforsomeotherprotectedareagovernancetypes(see2008Guidelines,Chapter3,pages28–31)andhastwostages:Box2:OffshorewaterswithinandbeyondnationaljurisdictionOffshorewatersaregenerallyconsideredtobethosethatliebeyondacountry'sterritorialseas,i.
e.
beyond12nauticalmilesfromshoreinmostcases.
TheyincludethemajorpartofallExclusiveEconomicZones(EEZs–watersundernationaljurisdictionto200nauticalmiles),aswellasthehighseasandseabedbeyondthelimitofnationaljurisdiction.
ForMPAsinoffshorewaters,designationshouldfollowthe2008Guidelinesasforanyprotectedarea.
Thus,asiteinoffshorewatersincludingtheso-calledHighSeasmaybeconsideredasanMPAprovideditmeetsthedefinitionofanMPA,sothatit:a)isconservation-focusedwithnatureasthepriority,(b)isrecognisedbylegalorothereffectivemeans,(c)hasdefinedgoalsandobjectiveswhichreflectitsconservationvalues,(d)isofasuitablesize,locationanddesignthatwillenableconservationofthevalues,(e)hasadefinedandagreeduponboundary,(f)hasdistinctandunambiguousmanagementaimsthatcanbeassignedtoaparticularprotectedareacategory,and(g)hasorwillhaveamanagementplanorequivalent,whichaddressestheneedsforconservationofthesite'smajorvaluesandachievementofitsgoalsandobjectives'.
Examples:TheSouthOrkneyIslandsSouthernShelfMarineProtectedAreawasthefirstwhollyhighseasMPAtobedesignatedundertheConventionontheConservationofAntarcticMarineLivingResourceswithspecificmanagementaimsandaresponsiblemanagementbody:theCommissionfortheConservationofAntarcticMarineLivingResources(CCAMLR).
In2010,sixMPAsweredeclaredintheNorth-EastAtlanticundertheOSPARConventionasanetworkofhighseasMPAsdesignedtoprotecthighseasecosystems.
191.
Agreementbytheindigenouspeopleorcommunityinvolved:nocommunity-managedsiteshouldbeidentifiedasaprotectedareaorlistedontheWDPAwithoutexpressconsentbythecommunity.
Recognitionandlistingcanbringbenefitsbutalsocosts,suchasincreasedexposure.
2.
AlignmentwiththeIUCNdefinitionofaprotectedarea:the2008definitionofaprotectedareastipulatesthatforasitetobeaprotectedareaprioritymustbegiventonatureconservation;othervaluespresentmaybeofsimilarimportance,butintheeventofconflictbetweenvalues,natureconservationmustbeconsideredthemostimportant.
Asisthecasewithothergovernancetypes,communityareasmanagedprimarilyforsustainableextractionofmarineproductswouldnotbeconsideredprotectedareasaccordingtotheIUCNdefinitionunlessnatureconservationistheprimarystatedobjectiveofthemanagementregime.
ManyICCAshavebeenestablishedbycoastalcommunitiesinmarineecosystems.
TheICCARegistrywebsiteisanonlineinformationportalandsecuredatabase,developedbytheUNEnvironmentWorldConservationMonitoringCentrewithsupportbyUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram'sGEFSmallGrantsProgramme,thatdocumentsindigenousandcommunityconservationareasincludinginthemarineenvironment.
Itaimstoincreaseawarenessofthebiodiversityvaluesofareasmanagedbycommunities,andprovideawiderangeofinformation.
AdviceonreportingICCAsiscontainedintheICCARegistryManual.
AdditionalinformationisavailablethroughtheICCAConsortium,andtheprimaryreferencefordeterminingwhetheramarinecommunityconservationareaisanMPAshouldbethe2008Guidelines.
2.
3.
3MiningandindustrialactivitySincethe2016WorldConservationCongress,IUCNnowconsidersthatlarge-scaleindustrialactivities,suchasminingandfossilfuelextraction,areinappropriateinallcategoriesofprotectedareasincludingMPAs.
WCC-2016-Rec-102(seepages224-226forthespecificrecommendation).
"…CALLSONgovernmentstoprohibitenvironmentallydamagingindustrialactivitiesandinfrastructuredevelopmentinallIUCNcategoriesofprotectedarea,andtotakemeasurestoensurethatallactivitiesarecompatiblewiththeconservationobjectivesoftheseareas,throughappropriate,transparentandrigorouspre-emptiveappraisalprocesses,suchasinternationalbestpracticeenvironmentalandsocialimpactassessments,strategicenvironmentalassessments,andappropriateregulation.
"2.
4GovernanceTheIUCNprotectedareadefinitionandmanagementcategoriesareneutralabouttypeofownershipormanagementauthority.
Withrespecttowhoholdsdecision-makingandmanagementauthorityandresponsibilityaboutprotectedareas,IUCNdistinguishesfourbroadprotectedareagovernancetypes(governancebygovernments,sharedgovernance,privategovernanceandgovernancebyIndigenouspeopleandlocalcommunities),whicharedefinedanddescribedinthe2008Guidelines,withdefinitionsofeachgovernancetype,inChapter3ofthe2008Guidelines(pages25to32).
AllcombinationsofprotectedareacategoriesandgovernancetypesarepossibleinanMPA.
IUCNsuggeststhatthegovernancetypeofaprotectedareabeidentifiedandrecordedatthesametimeasitscategoryinnationalenvironmentalstatisticsandaccountingsystemsandinprotectedareasdatabases.
ProtectedareagovernanceisdescribedindetailinBorrini-Feyerabendetal.
,20129.
9Borrini-Feyerabend,G.
,Dudley,N.
,Lassen,B.
,Pathak,N.
andSandwith,T.
(2012).
GovernanceofProtectedAreas:fromunderstandingtoaction.
BestPracticeGuidelinesnumber20.
IUCN,GIZandICCAConsortium.
https://portals.
iucn.
org/library/node/29138203.
CharacteristicsofthemarineenvironmentthataffectprotectedareadesignationandIUCNcategoryapplicationThemarineenvironmenthasparticularcharacteristicsthatareoftenabsentorrelativelyuncommononland.
Asaresult,MPAspresentmanagementchallengesthatmayneeddifferentTable3:CharacteristicsofthemarineenvironmentthataffectprotectedareasCharacteristicHowdoesthischaracteristicaffectMPAsMulti-dimensionalenvironmentMPAsaredesignatedinafluidmulti-dimensionalenvironment.
Asaresult,insomecasesdifferentmanagementmaybeneededatdifferentdepths.
InsomeMPAsverticalzoninghasbeenusedtoachievethis.
InotherMPAs,theremaybenoverticalzoning,butthemanagementputinplacemayneverthelessvarywithdepth.
IUCNdoesnotrecommendtheuseofverticalzoning,asthereisincreasingevidenceofstronglinkagesbetweenbenthicandpelagiccomponentsoftheecosystem(seeSection5.
5below).
Moreover,verticallytieredmanagementisparticularlydifficult,ifnotimpossible,toeffectivelypoliceandenforce.
Givenlevelsofconnectivitybetweentheoverlyingwatercolumnandtheseabed,someMPAsaredeclaredincludingaspecifieddepthintotheseabed;similarly,givenlinkagesbetweenthewatersurfaceandtheoverlyingairspace,someMPAsalsoformallyincludeaspecifiedheightofairspacetoallowregulatorycontrols(e.
g.
forseabirdsortoregulatelow-flyingaircraft).
LackofcleartenureorownershipTenureandownershipinthemarineenvironmentisoftendifferentfromonland,wherethereisusuallyclearpublicorprivateownership.
UndertheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(UNCLOS),nationshavetherighttousetheirExclusiveEconomicZones(EEZs),whichextendfromshoreoutto200nauticalmiles,andtoestablishmanagementregimessuchasMPAs.
However,withinanEEZ,thereisgenerallynoindividualownershipofeithertheseabedorwatercolumnandtheEEZmayoftenbeusedandaccessedbyallthosebelongingtothenationconcerned.
Therearesomeexceptions,generallyininshoreareas.
Forexample,intheUK,theCrownEstateownsabout50%oftheforeshore(i.
e.
tidallandbetweenMeanHighWaterandMeanLowWater)aswellasmostoftheseabedfromMeanLowWateroutto12nauticalmiles(i.
e.
theterritorialsea);andinmanycountries,coastalcommunitiesmayownorhavetenureandrightsovercertainmarineareasorresources,asinFijiwherelocalcommunitieshavecustomaryrightsovertraditionalfishinggroundsknownas'qoliqoli'.
OutsidetheEEZs,i.
e.
ontheHighSeas,theoceansareinvariablyconsideredtobe'commons'whichmaybeusedandaccessedbyallnations.
MPAscanrepresentalegitimaterestrictiononsuchrightsundertheUNCLOSorRegionalSeaAgreements,accordingtoprovisionsoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)orRegionalFisheriesAgencies(seealsoBox2).
NewprovisionsforMPAsontheHighSeasarebeingconsideredbytheUnitedNations.
MultiplejurisdictionsOftenthewatercolumn,seabed,sealifeandforeshorearemanagedbydifferentjurisdictionsorgovernmentagencies,whichmaycreatedifficultiesfordesignationand/ormanagement.
BoundarydemarcationItisoftendifficulttoknowwheretheboundaryofanMPAis,bothseawards(whereelectroniccharts,aGlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)orsimilartechnologyareusuallyrequired),andonthelandwardsidewhereboundariesbasedonhighandlowwatermarksmaybedifficulttolocateinthefieldormaybeonlylooselydefined(seediscussioninSection2.
1).
Inafewcases,verticalzoninghasbeenattempted,andhorizontalboundarieshavebeenestablishedatcertaindepthsifanMPAdoesnotextendtoeithertheseasurface(suchasaprotectedareaforaseamount)ortotheseabed.
However,suchboundariesaredifficultifnotimpossibletoidentifyandenforce,andthereforeeffectiveandpracticalcomplianceisextremelydifficult,ifnotimpossible(seesection5.
5).
ThisisamongthereasonswhyIUCNhasastrongpresumptionagainstverticalzoning.
DifficultiesinenforcementandmanagementRestrictingentryto,andactivitiesin,anMPAisoftenmoredifficultthanforterrestrialprotectedareas(andoftenimpossible)asthereareusuallymultiplepossibleaccesspoints,thesitemayberemoteandthusdifficultandexpensivetopatrol,andunderinternationallaw,rightsof'innocentpassage'areaffordedtoallvessels.
Whilecontrollingactivitiesinthemarineenvironmentismoredifficultthanonland,modernsatellitetechnologyismakingiteasier.
approachestothoseusedforprotectedareasinterrestrialenvironments.
ThesearedescribedinTable3.
21CharacteristicHowdoesthischaracteristicaffectMPAsLackofvisibilityoffeaturesbeingprotectedBeingunabletoseesub-tidalfeaturesposesparticularproblemsintermsofmanagementandenforcement.
IllegalorunregulatedactivitiesmaydamagefeatureswithinanMPAwithoutanyoneknowing,unlessappropriatemonitoringorsurveillanceisundertaken(andthismaybeexpensive,requiringSCUBAdiving,oriftheMPAisverydeep,aremoteunderwatervehicleorothermeansofmonitoring).
ConnectivitybetweenecosystemsandhabitatsThescaleoverwhichmarineconnectivityoccurscanbeverylarge.
Connectivityiscriticalforthemovementofspeciesandmaterialacrossandthroughthemarineenvironment;itincludessuchprocessesasnutrientflows,migration,larvaldispersalandgeneflows,andisfundamentalforallaspectsofthemarineenvironment.
SincetheextentofconnectivitymaybecriticaltothehealthofanMPA,sufficientlylargeareasmustbeconsideredtoensureadequateprotectionofecosystemvalues.
Problemsofrestrictedconnectivityareincreasinglyrecognisedinmarineecosystems.
MPAsarealsosubjecttosurroundingand'downstream'influencesduetotidesandcurrents.
Thesearegenerallyoutsidethecontrolofthemanagerormanagementagency.
Althoughsimilartothesituationofairborneorwind-borneimpactsonterrestrialprotectedareas,MPAsareperhapsmoreconsistentlysubjecttosuchinfluences.
ThisillustratestheneedforMPAnetworksandinteragencyandinternationalpartnershipstotakeaccountofandwherepossiblemanageforregionalandglobal-scaleinfluences.
MangrovesandothercoastalhabitatsthatfrequentlyoccurinMPAstrapconsiderableamountsof'bluecarbon'andhelpmitigateclimatechangealongsideahostofotherecosystemservices.
DanLaffoley224.
TheIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategoriesasappliedtoMPAsThe2008Guidelinesgiveafulldescriptionofeachofthesixcategoriesofprotectedareamanagement(Chapter2,pages12–23)andTable9(Chapter6,pages57–58)providesnotesonapplyingthecategoriestoMPAs.
ThissectionexpandsonthisinformationandprovidesadditionalnotesandexamplestoimproveunderstandingofhowcategoriescanbeappliedtoMPAs.
Asoutlinedinoneofthekeyprinciples(section2.
2above),thechoiceofcategoryrelatestotheprimarystatedobjective(s)oftheprotectedarea.
CategoriesmaybeassignedtoawholeMPAoraseparatezonewithinamultiple-zoneMPA,ifthisisdefinedinlaw(seesection5.
3below).
Oneproblemthatisdifficultforcategoryassignmentinbothmarineandterrestrialprotectedareasisthefrequentlackofclarityinthewordingoftheobjectivesofaprotectedarea.
ManyMPAshavemultipleobjectives,havingbeensetupwithtourismorfisheriesbenefits,aswellasbiodiversityprotection,inmind,andthusaprimaryobjectivemaynotbeclearlyidentified.
Nevertheless,theexamplesoftheapplicationofthecategoriestotheMPAscitedbelow,andthenationalinitiativesinanumberofcountries(e.
g.
Australia,Belize)toassigncategoriestoallcomponentsoftheMPAsystem,demonstratethatthecategoriescanapplyinthemarineenvironmentoncetheyarewellunderstood.
Aswithterrestrialprotectedareas,IUCNcategoriesareindependentofthenamesofanMPA(see2008Guidelines,page11).
Thisisimportanttounderstand,giventhewidevariabilityintypologyofMPAsbothbetweencountriesandwithinasinglecountry:forexample,marinepark,marinereserve,closedarea,marinesanctuary,MACPAs/MCPAs(marineandcoastalprotectedareas),naturereserve,ecologicalreserve,replenishmentreserve,marinemanagementarea,coastalpreserve,areaofconservationconcern,sensitiveseaarea,biospherereserve,'no-takearea',coastalpark,nationalmarinepark,marineconservationarea,marinewildernessarea.
Inadditiontothewiderangeofnames,thesamenameortitleforanMPAmaymeandifferentthingsindifferentcountries.
Forexample,inKenya'marinereserves'haveamultipleuseapproachwhileinneighbouringTanzania'marinereserves'arestrictlyno-take.
Dependingonwhereyouareintheworld,theterm'sanctuary'takesondifferentmeanings;intheUScontext,asanctuaryisusuallyamultiple-useMPAdesignatedunderthejurisdictionoftheNationalMarineSanctuaryProgramwherefishingisallowedinmostplaces.
IntheUnitedKingdom,asanctuaryisoftenusedtorefertoastrictlyprotectedmarinereserveinwhichallextractiveusesareprohibited.
GalapagosfursealsaretypicallyfoundontherockyshoresofthewesternislandsoftheGalapagosArchipelago.
DanLaffoley23Examples:MPAsBigCreekStateMarineReserve(SMR)–USA.
ThisStateMarineReserveisoneofcentralCalifornia'soldestMPAsandwasestablishedin1994.
Itwasexpandedto22km2in2007pursuanttotheMarineLifeProtectionActandnowincludesdeepwaterhabitatdeeperthan100m.
TodayitismanagedbytheCalifornianDepartmentofParksandRecreationandthetakingofanymarineresourcesisprohibited.
Thereservehasbeenclosedtoallfishingsince1994andsinceitwasestablished,fewviolationshaveoccurred.
Divingandresearchbothrequireapproval.
MostofthestatemarinereserveswhichformpartofCalifornia'scoastalMPAnetworkarecategoryIaMPAs.
Intheseareas,itisunlawfultoinjure,damage,take,orpossessanyliving,geological,orculturalmarineresource,exceptunderaspecificauthorizationforresearch,restoration,ormonitoringpurposes.
ZoneswithinMPAsPreservationZonesintheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkareintendedas'no-go'scientificbaselinesorundisturbedareasagainstwhichtheimpactsofotheractivitiesordriverscanbeassessed.
AllactivitiesinthezonerequireapermitandresearchisonlyallowedifitcannotbereasonablyconductedelsewhereintheMarinePark,andisrelevantto,andapriorityfor,managementoftheMarinePark.
CategoryIaStrictlyprotectedareassetasidetoprotectbiodiversityandalsopossiblygeological/geomorphologicalfeatures,wherehumanvisitation,useandimpactsarestrictlycontrolledand/orlimitedtoensureprotectionoftheconservationvalues.
Suchprotectedareascanserveasindispensablereferenceareasforscientificresearchandmonitoring.
PrimaryobjectiveToconserveregionally,nationallyorgloballyoutstandingecosystems,species(occurrencesoraggregations)and/orgeodiversityfeatures:theseattributeswillhavebeenformedmostlyorentirelybynon-humanforcesandwillbedegradedordestroyedwhensubjectedtoallbutverylighthumanimpact.
OtherpossibleobjectiveswhichmayapplyinacategoryIaTopreserveecosystems,speciesandgeodiversityfeaturesinastateasundisturbedbyrecenthumanactivityaspossible;Tosecureexamplesofthenaturalenvironmentforscientificstudies,environmentalmonitoringandeducation,includingbaselineareasfromwhichallavoidableaccessisexcluded;Tominimisedisturbancethroughcarefulplanningandimplementationofresearchandotherapprovedactivities;Toconserveculturalandspiritualvaluesassociatedwithnature.
NotesrelatingtouseofcategoryIainMPAsCategoryIaareasshouldusuallybe'cores'surroundedbyothersuitablyprotectedzonesorareas(i.
e.
theareasurroundingthecategoryIaareashouldalsobeprotectedinsuchawaythatitcomplementsandensurestheprotectionofthebiodiversityofthecorecategoryIaarea).
Thus,forcategoryIaMPAsorzones,theuseofthesurroundingwaters,marineconnectivityandparticularly'up-current'influences,shouldbeassessedandappropriatelymanaged.
CategoryIacanalsobe'referenceareas'or'scientificbaselines'againstwhichtheimpactsofotheractivitiesordriverscanbeassessed.
Forexample,no-goareasareinvaluabletoassistintheassessmentoftheimpactsofclimatechangeonthemarineenvironmentwithoutotherconfoundinginfluences.
Althoughnotspecificallystatedinthe2008Guidelines(sincecategoriesareassignedaccordingtoobjective,notactivityrestrictions),removalofspeciesormodification,extractionorcollectionofresources(e.
g.
throughanyformoffishing,harvestingordredging)isconsideredtobeincompatiblewiththiscategory(seesection5).
However,therearelimitedexceptions:scientificresearchinvolvingcollectionmaybepermittedifthatcollectioncannotbeconductedelsewhereandifthecollectionactivityisminimisedtothatwhichisabsolutelynecessarytoachievethescientificgoalsofthestudy.
ExtractiontocontrolinvasivespeciesisalsopermittedinsomecategoryIaMPAs.
CategoryIbUsuallylarge10unmodifiedorslightlymodifiedareas,retainingtheirnaturalcharacterandinfluence,withoutpermanentorsignificanthumanhabitation,whichareprotectedandmanagedsoastopreservetheirnaturalcondition.
PrimaryobjectiveToprotectthelong-termecologicalintegrityofnaturalareasthatareundisturbedbysignificanthumanactivity,freeofmoderninfrastructureandwherenaturalforcesandprocessespredominate,sothatcurrentandfuturegenerationshavetheopportunitytoexperiencesuchareas.
OtherpossibleobjectiveswhichmayapplyinacategoryIbToprovideforpublicaccessatlevelsandofatypewhichwillmaintainthewildernessqualitiesoftheareaforpresentandfuturegenerations;Toenableindigenouscommunitiestomaintaintheirtraditionalwilderness-basedlifestyleandcustoms,livingatlowdensityandusingtheavailableresourcesinwayscompatiblewiththeconservationobjectives;Toprotecttherelevantculturalandspiritualvaluesandnon-materialbenefitstoindigenousornon-indigenouspopulations,suchassolitude,respectforsacredsites,respectforancestors,etc.
;Toallowforlow-impactminimallyinvasiveeducationalandscientificresearchactivities,whensuchactivitiescannotbeconductedoutsidethewildernessarea.
10Sizeislessoftenausefulguideforcategoriesinthemarineenvironment;MPAsofallcategoriesmaybelarge;andcategoryIbMPAsmaybesmallerthancategoryIaMPAs.
24CategoryIILargenaturalornearnaturalareassetasidetoprotectlarge-scaleecologicalprocesses,alongwiththecomplementofspeciesandecosystemscharacteristicofthearea,whichalsoprovideafoundationforenvironmentallyandculturallycompatiblespiritual,scientific,educational,recreationalandvisitoropportunities.
Theseareeffectively'no-take'areaswiththeonlyformoftakeallowedfor(a)scientificresearchifthatresearchcannotbeconductedelsewhere;(b)forinvasivespeciescontrol;and(c)insomecircumstances,sustainableresourceusebyindigenouspeopletoconservetheirtraditionalspiritualandculturalvalues,providedthisisdoneinaccordancewithculturaltradition.
PrimaryobjectiveToprotectnaturalbiodiversityalongwithitsunderlyingecologicalstructureandsupportingenvironmentalprocesses,andtopromoteeducationandrecreation.
OtherpossibleobjectiveswhichmayapplyinacategoryIITomanagetheareainordertoperpetuate,inasnaturalastateaspossible,representativeexamplesofphysiographicregions,bioticcommunities,geneticresourcesandunimpairednaturalprocesses;Tomaintainviableandecologicallyfunctionalpopulationsandassemblagesofnativespeciesatdensitiessufficienttoconserveecosystemintegrityandresilienceinthelongterm;Tocontributeinparticulartoconservationofwide-rangingspecies,regionalecologicalprocessesandmigrationroutes;Tomanagevisitoruseforinspirational,educational,culturalandrecreationalpurposesatalevelwhichwillnotcausesignificantbiologicalorecologicaldegradationtothenaturalresources;Totakeintoaccounttheneedsofindigenouspeopleandlocalcommunities,includingsubsistenceresourceuse,insofarasthesewillnotadverselyaffecttheprimarymanagementobjective;Tocontributetolocaleconomiesthroughtourism.
NotesrelatingtouseofcategoryIbinMPAsInthe2008Guidelines,categoryIbiscalleda'wildernessarea'buttheconceptof'wilderness'ismoredifficulttoapplytothemarineenvironmentthantoland.
Itisalsocomplexbecauseinmanycountriesitisaspecificlegaldesignation,whileinothers,itisamoregeneraldescription.
Providedamarineareaisrelativelyundisturbedandfreefromhumaninfluences,qualitiessuchas'solitude','quietappreciation'or'experiencingnaturalareasthatretainwildernessqualities'canbeachievedbydivingbeneaththesurface.
ThuscategoryIbareasinthemarineenvironmentshouldbesitesofrelativelyundisturbedseascape,significantlyfreeofhumandisturbance(e.
g.
directorindirectimpacts,underwaternoise,lightpollution,etc.
),worksorfacilitiesandcapableofremainingsothrougheffectivemanagement.
AswithcategoryIa,removalofspeciesandmodification,extractionorcollectionofresources(e.
g.
throughanyformoffishing,harvestingordredging)isnotconsideredcompatiblewiththiscategory(seesection5).
Exceptionsare:(a)aswithcategoryIa,collectionforscientificresearchifthatcollectioncannotbeconductedelsewhere;(b)forinvasivespeciescontrol;and(c)unlikecategoryIa,insomecircumstances,sustainableresourceusebyIndigenouspeopletoconservetheirtraditionalspiritualandculturalvalues,providedthisisdoneinaccordancewithculturaltradition.
Examples:MPAsAkpaitNationalWildlifeArea(NWA)–Canada.
AkpaitNationalWildlifeArea(NWA)wasdesignatedin2010onthenortheasttipoftheCumberlandPeninsulaofBaffinIsland,Nunavut.
ItismanagedbytheCanadianWildlifeServiceinpartnershipwiththeSululiitAreaCo-managementCommitteeofQikiqtarjuaq,Nunavut.
AccesstoAkpaitNWAisrestrictedexceptforNunavutbeneficiaries.
Forallnon-beneficiaries,apermitmustbeobtainedtoeitheraccessorconductanytypeofactivityintheNWA.
TheNWAcomprisesasignificantmarineportionsupportingnumerousseabirds,includingoneofCanada'slargestcoloniesofThick-billedMurre,(AkpaitistheInuktitutwordfor'murres').
TheNWAalsohasbreedingsitesforNorthernFulmarsandBlack-leggedKittiwakes,andprovideshabitatforpolarbear,walrusandseveralsealspecies.
GiventhedefinitionofcategoryIb,therecognitionofAkpaitNWAascategoryIbcouldbecompromisedifthereareincreasesincruiseshippingintheNWA.
However,accessbycruiseshipsisstrictlycontrolledandtheAreaCo-ManagementCommitteemustapproveapplicationsforpermits.
Furthermore,ifhydrocarbonexplorationordevelopmentweretooccur,theareasproposedformineralorhydrocarbonexplorationwouldnolongermeettheoverallprotectionstandardsdefinedforMPAsinCanadaandwouldneedtobeexcludedfromtheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(WDPA)asaresult.
However,theRegulationsgoverningtheNWAprohibitthecarryingoutofindustrialactivities.
ZoneswithinMPAsGlacierBayNationalParkandPreserveinsoutheastAlaskacoversanareaof13,300km2oflandandsea;some13%ofGlacierBay'swatersaredesignatedmarinewilderness,andthereforeareessentiallywithoutpermanentimprovementsorevidenceofmodernhumanoccupation.
AreaswithintheParkthatequatetocategoryIbincludesixinletswhereonlynon-motorisedwatercraftareallowed;criticalwildlifeareas(withclosures,someyear-round)andareaswherespecificnoiserestrictionsareenforced.
2511Shadie,P.
,YoungHeo,H.
,Stolton,S.
andDudley,N.
(2012).
ProtectedAreaManagementCategoriesandKorea:Experiencetodateandfuturedirections.
Gland,SwitzerlandandSeoul,RepublicofKorea:IUCNandKNPSCategoryIIISetasidetoprotectaspecificnaturalmonument,whichcanbealandform,seamount,submarinecavern,geologicalfeaturesuchasacaveorevenalivingcomponentsuchasaspecificcorallinefeature.
Theyaregenerallyquitesmallprotectedareasandoftenhavehighvisitorvalue.
PrimaryobjectiveToprotectspecificoutstandingnaturalfeaturesandtheirassociatedbiodiversityandhabitats.
OtherpossibleobjectiveswhichmayapplyinacategoryIIIToprovidebiodiversityprotectioninlandscapesorseascapesthathaveotherwiseundergonemajorchanges;Toprotectspecificnaturalsiteswithspiritualand/orculturalvalueswherethesealsohavebiodiversityvalues;Toconservetraditionalspiritualandculturalvaluesofthesite.
NotesrelatingtouseofcategoryIIIinMPAsCategoryIIIappliestoMPAsdesignedtoprotectspecificfeaturessuchas:seamountsorshipwreckswhichhavebecomeaggregationsitesforbiodiversityandhaveimportantconservationvalue;keyaggregationareasforiconicspecies;orothermarinefeatureswhichmayhaveculturalorrecreationalvaluetoparticulargroups,includingfloodedhistorical/archaeologicallandscapes.
Extractiveuse(oflivingordeadmaterial)isnotconsideredconsistentwiththeobjectivesofcategoryIII,otherthanextractionforresearch,invasivespeciescontrol,andsustainableresourceusebyindigenouspeopletoconservetheirtraditionalspiritualandculturalvalues,whichmaybecompatible,providedthisisdoneinaccordancewithculturaltradition(seesection5).
Examples:MPAsTruk(Chuuk)LagoonUnderwaterFleet,inMicronesiaisahistoricshipwrecksitesupportingoutstandingbiodiversity.
BlueHoleNaturalMonument–Belize.
ThishugemarinesinkholeisinthecentreofLighthouseReef,70kmfromthemainlandandBelizeCity.
Itistheworld'slargestnaturalformationofitskind,circularinshape(318macrossand124mdeep)andisaworldclassdivingdestination.
Avarietyofmarinelifeoccursthereincludingreefsharks,blacktipsharks,nursesharks,andgiantgroupers.
Themonumentissmall(4.
1km2)andispartofthemuchlargerBelizeBarrierReefReserveSystem,aWorldHeritageproperty.
Itisco-managedbytheBelizeAudubonSocietyandtheBelizeFisheriesDepartment(withintheMinistryofFisheries,ForestryandSustainableDevelopment).
NotesrelatingtouseofcategoryIIinMPAsCategoryIIareasshouldbemanagedfor'ecosystemprotection',butshouldalsoprovideforvisitation,non-extractiverecreationalactivitiesandnaturetourism(e.
g.
snorkelling,diving,swimming,boating,etc.
)andresearch.
Extractiveuse(oflivingordeadmaterial)isnotconsideredconsistentwiththeobjectivesofcategoryIIbecausesuchactivities(particularlyfishing),evenifundertakenatlowlevels,arerecognisedascausingecologicaldraw-downononeofmorecomponentsoftheoverallfoodweb,whichisincompatiblewithecosystemprotection.
However,aswithcategoryIb,insomecircumstances,extractionforresearch,invasivespeciescontrolandsustainableresourceusebyIndigenouspeopletoconservetheirtraditionalspiritualandculturalvaluesarepermitted,providedthisismonitoredandmanagedinsuchawaythatitdoesnotcauseecologicaldraw-down.
Examples:MPAsIntheRepublicofKorea,HallyeohaesangNationalPark(76%ofwhichismarine)andmostofDadohaehaesangNationalPark(80%ofwhichismarine)areassignedtocategoryII.
TheNationalParkswerepreviouslyassignedtocategoryVastheirmainpurposewassceneryprotection;howeverprioritiesundertheNationalParksActhavechangedandnationalparksarenowconsidered"regionsworthyofrepresentingthenaturalecosystem,natureandculturalscenery"(Shadieetal.
,2012)11.
Thesouthernmostgroupofislands,BaekdoIslands,withinDadohaehaesangNationalParkaremorestrictlyprotectedandarebeingassignedtocategoryIa.
ZoneswithinMPAsInrecentyears,manylargeMPAshavebeendeclaredcomprisingaspectrumofzonesincludingoneormorecategoryIIzones;examplesincludeGalapagosMarineReserve(Ecuador);MoretonBayMarinePark(Australia)andBonaireNationalMarinePark(DutchCaribbean).
TheMarineNationalParkZones(knownasgreenzones)withintheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkinAustraliaareno-takeareasassignedtocategoryII(seesection5.
4).
26CategoryVPlaceswheretheinteractionofpeopleandnatureovertimehasproducedanareaofdistinctcharacterwithsignificantecological,biological,culturalandscenicvalue;andwheresafeguardingtheintegrityofthisinteractionisvitaltoprotectingandsustainingtheareaanditsassociatednatureconservationandothervalues.
PrimaryobjectiveToprotectandsustainimportantlandscapes/seascapesandtheassociatednatureconservationandothervaluescreatedbyinteractionswithhumansthroughtraditionalmanagementpractices.
OtherpossibleobjectiveswhichmayapplyinacategoryVTomaintainabalancedinteractionofnatureandculturethroughtheprotectionoflandscapeand/orseascapeandassociatedtraditionalmanagementapproaches,societies,culturesandspiritualvalues;Tocontributetobroad-scaleconservationbymaintainingspeciesassociatedwithculturallandscapesand/orbyprovidingconservationopportunitiesinheavilyusedlandscapes;Toprovideopportunitiesforenjoyment,well-beingandsocio-economicactivitythroughrecreationandtourism;Toprovidenaturalproductsandenvironmentalservices;Toprovideaframeworktounderpinactiveinvolvementbythecommunityinthemanagementofvaluedlandscapesorseascapesandthenaturalandculturalheritagethattheycontain;Toencouragetheconservationofaquaticbiodiversity;Toactasmodelsofsustainabilitysothatlessonscanbelearntforwiderapplication.
AlaskaMaritimeNationWildlifeRefugeisassignedcategoryIV.
Thissitewasestablishedtoconservemarinemammals,seabirdsandothermigratorybirds,andthemarineresourcesuponwhichtheyrely.
ZonesofMPAsMontagueIslandHabitatProtectionZoneisacategoryIVprotectedareawithinthelargerBateman'sMarineParkinNewSouthWales,Australia,designedtoprotectGreyNurseShark(Carchariastaurus)criticalhabitat.
NotesrelatingtouseofcategoryIVinMPAsCategoryIVisaimedatprotectionofparticularstatedspeciesorhabitats,oftenwithactivemanagementintervention.
MPAsorzonesaimedatparticularspeciesorgroupscanbeclassifiedascategoryIV,e.
g.
seabird,turtleorsharksanctuaries.
ZoneswithinanMPAthathaveseasonalprotection,suchasturtlenestingbeachesthatareprotectedduringthebreedingseason,mightalsoqualifyascategoryIV.
Examples:MPAsIslaChaaralMarineReserve–Chile.
Located6kmoffshorefromthenortherncentralChileancoast,thissmallMPAincludesthesecondbiggestHumboldtpenguincolonyintheworld.
Togetherwiththeterrestrialportionoftwootherislands(IslaChorosandIslaDamas),theycomprisethelargerHumboldtPenguinNationalReservethathas80%oftheHumboldtpenguinworldpopulation.
Duetothepresenceofbottlenosedolphinsresidinginthereserve,therewasastrongincreaseintouristactivities,mainlyinrecentyears.
However,localfishermenhavereportedtheabsenceofdolphinswhichmaybeconnectedtotheselargelyunregulatedactivities.
Instead,BlueandHumpbackWhalesarepresentbetweenNovember-Marcheachyearandthereservealsohasimportantpopulationsofsealions,seaottersandseveralendangeredseabirds,suchasdivingpetrels,cormorantsandPeruvianboobies.
TheVamaVeche2Mai(AcvatoriulLitoralMarin)ScientificReserve,Romania.
ThisNatura2000siteisaimedatachievingagoodconservationstatusforanumberofhabitatslistedontheEUHabitatsDirective,aswellasanumberofmarinemammalspecieslistedinAnnexIIoftheHabitatsDirective(Nita,pers.
comm.
,2012).
CategoryIVAimtoprotectparticularspeciesorhabitatsandmanagementreflectsthispriority.
ManycategoryIVprotectedareaswillneedregular,activeinterventionstoaddresstherequirementsofparticularspeciesortomaintainhabitats,butthisisnotarequirementofthecategory.
PrimaryobjectiveTomaintain,conserveandrestorespeciesandhabitats.
OtherpossibleobjectiveswhichmayapplyinacategoryIVToprotectvegetationpatternsorotherbiologicalfeaturesthroughtraditionalmanagementapproaches;Toprotectfragmentsofhabitatsascomponentsoflandscapeorseascape-scaleconservationstrategies;Todeveloppubliceducationandappreciationofthespeciesand/orhabitatsconcerned;Toprovideameansbywhichtheurbanresidentsmayobtainregularcontactwithnature.
27NotesrelatingtouseofcategoryVinMPAsCategoryVwasoriginallydevelopedtoprotectlandscapes,aconceptthatismoredifficulttoapplyinthemarineenvironmentalthoughtheideaofprotectingseascapesisgainingcurrency.
Inamarinesituation,categoryVwouldapplytoareaswherelocalcommunitieslivewithinandsustainablyusetheseascape(seesection5),butwheretheprimaryobjectivesoftheareasareneverthelessnatureconservationprotection.
Examples:MPAsPointArenaStateMarineConservationArea(SMCA)–USA.
This17.
4km2offshoreareaprohibitsthetakeofalllivingmarineresources,exceptcommercialandrecreationalsalmontrolling.
Amajorupwellingzoneservesasanimportantsourceofnutrientsforfishandwildlife,andgreywhales,humpbackandbluewhalesregularlymigratepast.
TheSMCAadjoinsacoastalstatemarinereserveandispartofastate-widenetworkofMPAsalongCalifornia'scoastlinedesignedbylocaldivers,fishers,conservationists,andscientiststopreservesensitivesealifeandhabitatswhileenhancingrecreation,studyandeducationopportunities.
TheSMCAwasadoptedbytheCaliforniaDepartmentofFishandWildlifein2010aspartoftheMarineLifeProtectionActInitiative.
ApoIsland,inthePhilippines,mixestraditionaluseofmarineresourceswithecotourism,generatingrevenueforcommunities.
ChumbeReefSanctuaryisaprivatelymanagedmarineparkatChumbeIsland,Zanzibarwiththeprimaryobjectivetopreserveanddeveloptherichbiodiversityofthecoral.
Asuccessfulecotourismprojectsince1998,Chumbeistodaythefirstfinanciallyself-sustainingMPAinAfrica.
NotesrelatingtouseofcategoryVIinMPAsMPAsaimedatmaintainingpredominantlynaturalhabitatsbutallowingsustainablecollectionofsomespecies(e.
g.
foodspecies,ornamentalcoralorshells),canbeassignedtocategoryVI.
DeterminingwhetheranareaisafisheriesmanagementareaoranMPAdependsonwhetherornottheprimarymanagementobjectiveislong-termnatureconservation,asrequiredinanMPA.
Carefulconsiderationneedstobegivenastowhetheractivitiessuchassometypesofsustainablelocalfishingpracticesshouldbepermittedinregardtotheirinherentsustainability,andtheirconsistencewiththeobjectivesofthiscategory(seeSection5.
4below).
Aswithallothercategorytypes,industrialscaleactivitiesarenotcompatiblewithMPAsoranyIUCNprotectedarea.
Examples:MPAsCookIslandsMarinePark(MaraeMoana)-CookIslands.
TheMaraeMoanaActwaspassedinJuly2017creatingtheworld'slargestmultiple-useMPAatthattime.
CoveringtheCookIslands'entireEEZ(1.
97millionkm2),theareaincludesremoteatolls,highvolcanicislandsandseamountshostingrichmarinebiodiversityincluding136speciesofcoral,600+speciesoffish,21speciesofcetaceans(whalesanddolphins),3threatenedspeciesofturtles,aswellasmantaray,tunaandreefsharkspecies.
Fifteenareasthatspecificallyprohibitlarge-scalecommercialfishingorseabedmineralactivitiesalreadyexist,extending50nauticalmilesfromeachofthe15CookIslands.
OtherzoneswillbedrawnupinaNationalMaraeMoanaSpatialPlancoveringthewatersbetween12nm-200nmoftheCookIslandsoceanterritoryandincludingallmarinewatersofSuwarrowNationalPark.
Thesezoneswillbedeterminedbytheeconomic,cultural,socialandenvironmentalwantsandneedsofthelocalsunderthegovernanceoftheMaraeMoanaCouncilanditsTechnicalAdvisoryGroup.
GivenIUCNResolution(WCC-2016-Rec102-EN)approvedatthe2016WorldConservationCongressinHawai'i,ifseabedmineralminingisapprovedinanyspecificareas,thenthosespecificareaswillnolongerbeconsideredbyIUCNtobepartoftheMPA(note,nosuchareashaveyetbeendetermined).
Australia'sSouth-eastMarineReservesNetworkconsistsof14CommonwealthMarineReservesdesignedtoprotectrepresentativeexamplesofseafloorfeaturesandassociatedhabitatsinthisbiogeographicalregion.
EachreservehasbeenassignedtodifferentIUCNcategoriesaccordingtotheirobjectivesandzoning;elevenpartsofthesereserveshavebeenisassignedascategoryVI;forexample:theEastGippslandCommonwealthMarineReserveisentirelyaMultipleUseZone(IUCNcategoryVI).
ZoneswithinMPAsTheHabitatProtectionZone(darkbluezone)intheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkiscategoryVI(seesection5.
4).
CategoryVIAreasthatconserveecosystemsandhabitats,togetherwithassociatedculturalvaluesandtraditionalnaturalresourcemanagementsystems.
Theyaregenerallylarge,withmostoftheareainanaturalcondition,whereaproportionisundersustainablenaturalresourcemanagementandwherelow-levelnon-industrialuseofnaturalresourcescompatiblewithnatureconservationisseenasoneofthemainaimsofthearea.
PrimaryobjectiveToprotectnaturalecosystemsandusenaturalresourcessustainably,whenconservationandsustainableusecanbemutuallybeneficial.
OtherpossibleobjectiveswhichmayapplyinacategoryVITopromotelow-levelandsustainableuseofnaturalresources,consideringecological,economicandsocialdimensions;Topromotesocialandeconomicbenefitstolocalcommunitieswhererelevant;whilstconservingbiodiversity;Tofacilitateinter-generationalsecurityforlocalcommunities'livelihoods–thereforeensuringthatsuchlivelihoodsaresustainable;285.
ApplyingthecategoriestodifferentzonesinanMPA5.
1.
ApplyingacategorytoanentireMPAInmanycases,aswithterrestrialprotectedareas,anMPAwillhaveaprimarystatedaimofnatureconservationwithasetofobjectivesthatwillallowthesiteinitsentiretytobeassignedtoanIUCNprotectedareamanagementcategory.
Thisisthepreferredapproach,particularlywhereasiteissmall.
However,sincemanylargeMPAshavezoneswithdifferentobjectives,itispossibletoassignindividualzonestodifferentcategoriesasdescribedinsection5.
4below.
Insomeexceptionalcases,theremaybesmallareasofaprotectedareaallocatedtousesthatmightnotbecompatiblewiththeprimaryobjectiveoftheprotectedarea,butwhichareclearlyessentialorunavoidable.
Examplesincludeappropriatetouristaccommodationinlargeprotectedareas;orthehabitationofpeoplewhoselivelihoodsdependonthearea.
Insuchcases,whenassigningacategory,theprimaryobjectiveoftheprotectedareashouldapplytoatleastthree-quartersoftheprotectedarea.
Knownasthe'75%rule',asexplainedinthe2008Guidelines(chapter4,page35),thismeansthattheremaining25%oflandorwaterwithinaprotectedareacanbemanagedforotheressentialpurposessolongastheseusesarecompatiblewiththedefinitionofaprotectedareaandthemanagementcategoryitisbeingassignedto.
ExamplesofMPAswherethisappliesinclude:HabitationbytheMoken(SeaGypsies)intheMuKohSurinMarineNationalPark,Thailand(categoryII)(SudaraandYeemin,2011)12.
TheKosiBayNatureReserve,acoastal/brackishprotectedareawhichispartofthemuchlargeriSimangalisoWetlandParkinKwazuluNatal,SouthAfrica;withintheNatureReserveonlythelocalThongapeoplemayharvestintertidalinvertebratesandthisisalsopermittedinthemarinereserveofElHierroMardeLasCalmas,theCanaryIslands(partofSpain),bothofwhichareotherwisestrictlyprotected.
The75%ruleisnotanexcuse,forexample,toallowwidespreadlowlevelartisanalfishingwithinthecorecategoryI–IIIareaitself.
Alllivingpartsareinter-relatedwithinamarineecosystem,andclosureofanareatoextractionofallfishorlivingresourcesmeansjustthat–itisthecoreprincipleforcategoryI–IIIMPAsastheno-takeofmammals,birdsandvegetationisforterrestrialcategoryI–IIIprotectedareas.
5.
2.
CombinedoradjoiningterrestrialandmarineprojectedareasAseparatedeterminationoftherelevantIUCNcategorymaybeappropriatewhereapredominantlyterrestrialprotectedareaincludesamarinecomponent.
Insuchcases,thetwocomponentsshouldnotnecessarilybereportedastwoseparateprotectedareas(e.
g.
anMPAandaterrestrialprotectedarea).
The75%rulemaybeappropriateindeterminingtheappropriatecategoryforreportingpurposes,iftheterrestrialcomponentisatleast75%ofthetotalarea.
If,however,legislationisinplacerequiringdistinctmanagementarrangementsforthemarinearea,itmaybeappropriatetoconsiderthemarineportionofthesiteasanMPAinitsownright.
5.
3'Nestedsites'Oneormoreprotectedareasaresometimes'nested'withinanotherprotectedareawithadifferentcategory.
Themostcommonmodelisalarge,lessstrictlyprotectedarea(e.
g.
acategoryVorVIprotectedarea)containingsmaller,morestrictlyprotectedareas(e.
g.
categoryIIIorIVprotectedareas)whichhavedifferentobjectives.
Insuchcases,distinctprotectedareasnestedwithinlargerprotectedareascanhavetheirowncategory.
Essentiallythissituationisavariationonzoning,butinthiscaseeach'zone'meetsthestatusofanMPAitself.
AnexampleofthisistheChannelIslandsNationalMarineSanctuary,USA,with11MarineReserveswithinit.
5.
4.
ApplyingthecategoriestozoneswithinanMPAAsexplainedinthe2008Guidelines(Chapter4,pages36–38),categorisationofdifferentzoneswithinaprotectedareaisallowedprovidedthreespecificrequirementsaremet:(a)thezonesareclearlymapped;(b)thezonesarerecognisedbylegalorothereffectivemeansinthelongterm;and(c)eachzonehasdistinctandunambiguousmanagementaimsthatcanbeassignedtoaparticularprotectedareacategory.
Separatecategorisationofzonesisthuspossiblewhenprimarylegislationallowsorrequiresforthedescriptionanddelineateszoneswithinaprotectedarea,butnotwhenprimarylegislationsimplyallowsfortheconceptofzoningthrough,forexample,asubsequentmanagementplanningprocess.
Figure2inthe2008Guidelines(page38)givesadecisiontreefordecidingifazoneissuitableforhavingitsowncategory.
IUCNconsidersthatinsomecasesitmaynotbenecessarytoassigndifferentcategoriestozonesinprotectedareas,butitmaybeappropriateinlargemarineprotectedareaswhereindividualzonesarealmostprotectedareasin12Sudara,S.
andYeemin,T.
(2011).
DemonstrationSiteBaselineAssessmentReport:MuKohSurinMarineNationalPark,Thailand.
UnpublishedcasestudyforICRAN.
29theirownright(providedthezonesmeetthethreerequirementsmentionedabove).
ManyMPAsarezonedbecauseoftheirmultipleusenature,witheachzonetypehavingdifferentobjectivesandrestrictions(someallowinggreateruseandremovalofresourcesthanothers).
ManyAustralianMPAshavebeenzoned.
OneofthefirstwastheGreatBarrierReefMarinePark(GBRMP),withzoninginitiallyappliedinvarioussectionsoftheparkinthe1980sto1990s.
Theinitialzoninghasbeenperiodicallyreviewedandupdated,andsince2004theentireGBRMPhasbeencoveredbyasingleamalgamatedZoningPlan.
ZoningschemessubsequentlyimplementedbyotherjurisdictionsinAustralia(e.
g.
forQueensland(State)MarineParksandthefederalmarinereservenetwork)haveusedthebroadzoningframeworkdevelopedfortheGBRMP,buthavemodifiedthistosuittheirownsituations.
Inallcases,thezoneshaveastatutorybasisandmeetthecriteriaofthevariousIUCNcategories.
TheGBRMPisasingleverylargeMPAcovering344,400km2onthenortheastcoastofAustralia,inwhichawiderangeofcommercialandrecreationalactivitiesandusesareallowed,includingvariousformsoffishingandcollecting.
However,mininganddrillingforoilareprohibitedthroughoutthePark.
ThezonesareassignedtodifferentcategoriesasshowninTable4.
Table4:ZonetypeswithintheGreatBarrierReefMarinePark13ZoneNameEquivalentIUCNcategoryStatutoryObjectivesforeachZoneArea(km)%ofGBRMPPreservationZoneIatoprovideforthepreservationofthenaturalintegrityandvaluesofareasoftheMarinePark,generallyundisturbedbyhumanactivities.
710<1ScientificResearchZoneIa(a)toprovidefortheprotectionofthenaturalintegrityandvaluesofareasoftheMarinePark,generallyfreefromextractiveactivities;and(b)subjecttotheobjectivementionedinparagraph(a),toprovideopportunitiesforscientificresearchtobeundertakeninrelativelyundisturbedareas.
155<1CommonwealthIslandsII(a)toprovidefortheconservationofareasoftheMarineParkabovethelowwatermark;and(b)toprovideforuseofthezonebytheCommonwealth;and(c)subjecttotheobjectivementionedinparagraph(a),toprovideforfacilitiesandusesconsistentwiththevaluesofthearea.
185<1MarineNationalParkZoneII(a)toprovidefortheprotectionofthenaturalintegrityandvaluesofareasoftheMarinePark,generallyfreefromextractiveactivities;and(b)subjecttotheobjectivementionedinparagraph(a),toprovideopportunitiesforcertainactivities,includingthepresentationofthevaluesoftheMarinePark,tobeundertakeninrelativelyundisturbedareas.
114,53033BufferZoneIV(a)toprovidefortheprotectionofthenaturalintegrityandvaluesofareasoftheMarinePark,generallyfreefromextractiveactivities;and(b)subjecttotheobjectivementionedinparagraph(a),toprovideopportunitiesfor:(i)certainactivities,includingthepresentationofthevaluesoftheMarinePark,tobeundertakeninrelativelyundisturbedareas;and(ii)trollingforpelagicspecies.
9,8803ConservationParkZoneIV(a)toprovidefortheconservationofareasoftheMarinePark;and(b)subjecttotheobjectivementionedinparagraph(a),toprovideopportunitiesforreasonableuseandenjoyment,includinglimitedextractiveuse.
5,1602HabitatProtectionZoneVI(a)toprovidefortheconservationofareasoftheMarineParkthroughtheprotectionandmanagementofsensitivehabitats,generallyfreefrompotentiallydamagingactivities;and(b)subjecttotheobjectivementionedinparagraph(a),toprovideopportunitiesforreasonableuse.
97,25028GeneralUseZoneVItoprovidefortheconservationofareasoftheMarinePark,whileprovidingopportunitiesforreasonableuse.
116,53034Total344,40010013TheGBRMPdoesnotincludeStateislands,intertidalwaters,Queenslandinternalwaters,orportareas.
30ThestatutoryZoningPlanfortheGBRMPprovidesdetailsonwhat,andwhere,specificactivitiesareallowed,andwhichactivitiesrequireapermit.
Withineachzonetype,certainactivitiesareallowed'as-of-right'(thatis,nopermitisrequired,butusersmustcomplywithanylegislativerequirementsinforce),somespecifiedactivitiescanonlybecarriedoutwithapermit,andsomeactivitiesareprohibited.
Allthezonesaremappedusinglatitude/longitudecoordinates,recognisedinlaw,and,asshowninTable4,haveunambiguousobjectivesthatmeantheycaneachbeassignedtoanIUCNcategory.
5.
5.
VerticalzoningInaveryfewcases,partsofthewatercolumnwithinMPAshavebeenformallyverticallyzoned,totakeaccountofthethree-dimensionalnatureofthemarineenvironment.
Thusazonemaybedistinguishedforpartofthewatercolumnwithadifferentmanagementregimefromthatoftheseafloor:benthicfishingisusuallyprohibitedinthezonethatincludestheseabed,butpelagicfishingmaystillbeallowedinthewatercolumn.
IUCNisopposedtotheuseofverticalzoning.
Itoftendoesnotmakeecologicalsense,asinteractionsbetweenbenthicandpelagicsystemsandspeciesarenotyetfullyknown,andsurfaceormid-waterfisheriesmayinfactimpactthebenthiccommunitiesbelow.
EvidenceofecologicallinkagesbetweenseabedandopenwaterhabitatshavebeenreviewedbyOleary&Roberts(2018)14,particularlythosefacilitatedby14O'Leary,B.
C.
,&Roberts,C.
M.
(2018).
Ecologicalconnectivityacrossoceandepths:implicationsforprotectedareadesign.
Globalecologyandconservation,15,e00431.
https://www.
sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S2351989418301021oceanmegafaunaandmesopelagicfishthatare,orcouldbe,seriouslyimpactedbyexploitation.
Furthermore,enforcingverticalzoningisextremelydifficultifnotlegallyimpossible(seealsosection7forconcernsthatverticalzoningcanalsoresultindouble-countingwhenreporting).
Thethree-dimensionalnatureofthemarineenvironmentcanneverthelessberecognisedbydesignatingasinglezonethatclearlystipulateswhatcanandcannotoccurineachrealm–pelagicandbenthic.
Forexample,theHabitatProtectionZoneintheGreatBarrierReefMarineParkinAustraliaisdesignedtoprotectsensitivebenthichabitatsfromanydamagingactivitiessuchastrawlingbutallowsothertypesoffishing(e.
g.
trolling,linefishing,netting)tooccurintheoverlyingwaters.
However,thebenthicandpelagichabitatsarenotcategorisedseparately,eventhoughtheimportanceofmanagingdifferentpartsofthemarineenvironmentisrecognisedthroughanintegratedapproach.
Similarly,theGBRMPBufferZone(categoryIV)allowsfortrollingofpelagicfishonly,andprohibitsallotherfishingthusprotectingtheseafloorhabitatsandassociatedspecies,butthereisalsonoverticalzoning.
MPAsprovidesafehavensforspeciesofparticularconservationconcern,suchasthissolitarySunsetStarCoralLeptopsammiapruvotiintheIslesofScillySpecialAreaofConservation.
DanLaffoley316.
RelationshipbetweenthecategoriesanddifferentactivitiesTable5:MatrixofmarineactivitiesthatmaybeappropriateforeachIUCNmanagementcategoryActivitiesIaIbIIIIIIVVVIResearch:non-extractiveY*YYYYYYNon-extractivetraditionaluseY*YYYYYYRestoration/enhancementforconservation(e.
g.
invasivespeciescontrol,coralreintroduction)YYYYYYYTraditionalfishing/collectioninaccordancewithculturaltraditionanduseNY*YYYYYNon-extractiverecreation(e.
g.
diving)NYYYYYYLargescalehighintensitytourismNNYYYYYShipping(exceptasmaybeunavoidableunderinternationalmaritimelaw)NNN*N*YYYResearch:extractiveN*N*N*N*YYYRenewableenergygenerationNNNNYYYRestoration/enhancementforotherreasons(e.
g.
beachreplenishment,fishaggregation,artificialreefs)NNN*N*YYYFishing/collection:recreational(sustainable)NNNN*YYFishing/collection:localfishing(sustainable)NNNN*YYIndustrialfishing,industrial-scaleaquacultureNNNNNNNAquaculture–small-scaleNNNN*YYWorks(e.
g.
harbours,ports,dredging)NNNN*YYUntreatedwastedischargeNNNNNN*N*Mining,oilandgasextraction(seaflooraswellassub-seafloor)NNNNNNNHabitationNNNNNYNKey:NoNGenerallyno,astrongprerogativeagainstunlessspecialcircumstancesapplyN*YesYYesbecausenoalternativeexists,butspecialapprovalisessentialY*Variable;dependsonwhetherthisactivitycanbemanagedinsuchawaythatitiscompatiblewiththeMPA'sobjectives*Fishingandextractionofwildlivingresourcesisstillverywidespreadinthemarineenvironment,andmoresothanonland(marinefisheriesarethelastwildcommercial'harvest'intheworld).
Manypeoplestillmaketheirlivingfromtheexploitationofwildmarineresources,andrelyontheseresourcesforfood.
Asaresult,theconflictbetweenfishingandMPAstendstobeamuchgreaterissuethanthatofextractionoflivingresourcesinterrestrialprotectedareas.
Intheconservationcommunity,thereisageneralunderstandingthatthemorehighlyprotectedareas(categoriesI–III)shouldbeclosedtoextraction,andasaresultthesecategorieshavebecomeassociatedwithno-takeareas.
However,thereareotherswhofeelthatlimitedextraction(whetherforresearchortraditionaluse)carriedoutunderappropriatemanagementcanstillresultintheobjectivesofahighlyprotectedMPAbeingachieved.
32Asaresultofthisextensivedebate(forexample,Fitzsimons,2011;Robbetal.
,2011;CostelloandBallantine,201515),somepeoplemayforgetthatcategoriesarenotappliedtoprotectedareasaccordingtomanagementregimes(andthereforetheactivitiesthatoccur),butratheraccordingtothestatedobjectivesoftheMPA.
ForIUCN,thekeypointisthatallactivitiesallowedwithinaprotectedareamustbecompatiblewithitsstatedconservationmanagementobjectivesregardlessoftheIUCNcategory.
Theissueofwhetheranareaisno-takeshouldnotbethedrivingfactorduringtheassignmentprocess,asstrictregulationofexploitationisamanagementactionthatthenmustfollowonfromthisparticularobjective.
Table5providesgenericguidancetoillustratethebroadrelationshipandacceptabilityorotherwisebetweenactivitiesandthedifferentcategories.
Suchanexercisehasnotbeenundertakenforterrestrialprotectedareas,andthisissueisnotaddressedindetailinthe2008Guidelines.
ThistableshouldNOTbeusedasthebasisforassigningcategories,whichMUSTbebasedonthestatednatureconservationobjectivesfortheMPA.
6.
1SustainablelocalfishingandrecreationalfishingandcollectionoflivingresourcesRecreationalandsustainablelocalfishingpracticesmaybeincompatiblewiththeobjectivesofanMPA.
Fisheriesthatareadequatelymanagedtoprovidelong-termexploitationdonotnecessarilycomplywithecologicalstandardsfornatureconservation,inthat,forexample,theymayhaveindirecttrophicimpacts.
ForafisherymanagementareatomeetthedefinitionofanMPA,itwouldneedtohavenatureconservationasaprimaryobjective,andbemanagedinaccordancewiththatobjective(e.
g.
contributingtothemaintenanceofecologicallyappropriatemetrics,suchaspopulationstructures).
Manyresearchstudieshaveshownthesignificanceofno-takereservesbothforbiodiversityconservationandfisheriesmanagement(e.
g.
Gainesetal.
,2010;McCooketal.
,2010,LubchenkoandGorud-Colvert,2015)16.
Sincerecreationalandsustainablelocalfishingalwayshassomelevelofecologicalimpact,theseactivitiesareconsideredinconsistentwiththeobjectivesofMPAsincategoriesIa,IbandII,andfrequentlyIII.
However,useofMPAsincategoriesIbandIIbyindigenouspeoplefortraditionalspiritualandculturalvaluesandforsustainableresourceusemaybeacceptableifcarriedoutinaccordancewithculturaltraditionsandsubjecttoaformalagreementguidingtheseactivities.
RecreationalfishingisusuallyconsideredinappropriateincategoriesIaandIb,IIandIIIMPAs.
Manyrecreationalfishersuse'catchandrelease'whichisconsideredbysometobenon-extractive.
However,catchandreleasehasecologicalimpacts(e.
g.
post-catchmortality)andisalsonotconsideredtobeanappropriateactivityincategoryItoIIIMPAs.
Ingeneral,recreationalfishinginMPAsshouldberegardedinthesamewayasrecreationalhuntinginterrestrialprotectedareas.
CategoryIIprotectedareasareestablishedto"protectnaturalbiodiversity.
.
.
andsupportingenvironmentalprocesses",sosomepeoplemaintainthatalltypesofrecreationalactivitiesincludingrecreationalfishingshouldbeallowed.
Takingfreshwaterfishfromriversandstreamsonasubsistenceandlow-levelsportingbasisincategoryIIterrestrialparksmaybeallowedprovidedthisisnotdonethroughouttheentireprotectedarea(the75%ruleisapplied),asithaslessoverallimpact.
InMPAs,asexplainedabove,extractiveformsofrecreation(e.
g.
fishing,souvenircollection,etc.
)canhavedamagingconsequences.
ClosuretorecreationalandsustainablelocalfishingshouldthereforebeseenascriticaltocategoryIIMPAsinthesamewayasclosuretohuntingofmammalsandbirdsandharvestingofvegetationisforterrestrialcategoryIIprotectedareas,sincefish,invertebratesandalgaeareallinter-relatedcomponentsofthemarineecosystem.
CategoryIIIMPAsshouldalsobeclosedtorecreationalandlocalfishing.
WhetherornotsustainablefishingisallowedinacategoryIVMPAorzonewilldependonitsobjectives.
Insomecircumstances,fishing/collectingmaybepermissiblewheretheresourceusedoesnotcompromisetheecological/speciesmanagementobjectivesofthesite.
Large-scaleintensive(akaindustrial)fishingisnotcompatiblewithanyofthemanagementcategoriesandshouldnotoccurinoradjacenttoMPAs.
CategoryVorVIMPAsorzonesmayallowsustainablelocalorrecreationalfishing/collecting,consistentwiththeobjectivesoftheMPA.
Table6summarisesthegeneralguidanceontherelationshipbetweenfishing/collectionoflivingresourcesandthecategories.
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,Ayling,T.
,Cappo,M.
,Choat,J.
H.
,Evans,R.
D.
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aad544333Table6:Compatibilityoffishing/collectingactivitiesindifferentmanagementcategoriesIUCNcategoryLocalfishing/collectingRecreationalfishing/collectingTraditionalfishing/collectingIndustrial-scalefishingCollectionforresearchIaNoNoNoNoNo*IbNoNoYes**NoYesIINoNoYes**NoYesIIINoNoYes**NoYesIVVariable#Variable#YesNoYesVYes#YesYesNoYesVIYes#YesYesNoYesKey:*anyextractiveuseofcategoryIaMPAsshouldbeprohibitedwithpossibleexceptionsforscientificresearchwhichcannotbedoneanywhereelse.
**incategoryIbMPAstraditionalfishing/collectingshouldbelimitedtoanagreedsustainablequotafortraditional,ceremonialorsubsistencepurposes,butnotforpurposesofcommercialsaleortrade.
#whetherfishingorcollectingisorisnotpermittedwilldependonthespecificobjectivesoftheMPA.
6.
2Mining(includingoilandgasandmostsandandgravelextraction)–seealsosection2.
3.
3Miningisunsustainablebecauseitinvolvesextractionofafiniteresource.
Inaddition,asinthecaseofgravelextraction,itmayhavealong-termadverseeffectonthebenthos,andsowouldnotbeappropriateinanMPA.
InaccordancewithIUCNpolicyonmininginprotectedareas,agreedbyResolutionatthe2016WorldConservationCongress,theseactivitiesshouldnotbepermittedinanycategoryofMPAs.
Forexample,theGreatBarrierReefMarineParkAct1975specificallyprohibitsallminingoperationsorgeologicalstorageoperationswithintheboundariesoftheGreatBarrierReefRegion17.
17Seesections38AAand38ABinthelegislation(https://www.
legislation.
gov.
au/Details/C2017C00279)347.
ReportingtotheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreasandtheUNListofProtectedAreasOnceanIUCNcategoryandgovernancetypeisassigned,theinformationshouldbereportedtotheUNEnvironmentWorldConservationMonitoringCentre(UNEP-WCMC),sothatinformationcanbeincludedintheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(WDPA)andtheUNListofProtectedAreas.
TheWDPAisajointproductofUNEnvironmentandIUCN,preparedbyUNEP-WCMCandIUCNWCPAworkingwithgovernments,theSecretariatsofMEAs(MultilateralEnvironmentalAgreements)andcollaboratingNGOs.
Itprovidesaninformativeandaccessibleplatformforspatialanalysisandexplorationoftheglobaldistributionandstatusofglobalterrestrialandmarineprotectedareacoverage.
Inordertoconstructacurrentandcomprehensiverecordofmarineprotectedareas,dataarecompiledfromover600officialproviders,rangingfromgovernments,non-governmentalorganisationstolandownersandlocalcommunities.
Oncereceived,thedataareprocessedbyWCMCinordertoqualitycheckandformatittotheWDPAschemaandtotrackpotentialchangeswithinthedatabaseovertime.
Updatesoccurmonthly,withtheircontentsandhighlightssummarisedinanonlinerelease.
Dataareacceptedifthefollowingfourconditionsaremet:1.
TheareasubmittedmeetstheIUCNdefinitionstandardofprotectedareas2.
DataareinaspatialformatfromGISwithdescriptiveattributesattached3.
Thesourceinformationisprovidedbythedataprovider4.
A'datacontributoragreement'issignedoutliningclearlythebasisonwhichthedataisbeingshared.
ThecurrentmechanismforreportingisoutlinedintheWDPAmanual.
7.
1ReportingmultiplecategorieswithinaprotectedareaThereportingofcategoriesforprotectedareaswheredifferentzoneshavedifferentcategories(suchastheGreatBarrierReef)isdescribedinthe2008Guidelines(Chapter4,pages36–37)andinsection5.
4above.
InthecontextofMPAs,twosituationsareworthfurtherdiscussion:Whenreporting'nested'protectedareasitisimportanttoensurespatialdataiscorrecttoavoiddoublecounting,andsothatdatabasesdonotoverstatetheamountoflandorseathathasbeendesignated.
Forexample,theGreatBarrierReefMarineParkissometimesreportedasbeingcategoryVIoverall,butwithinthisbroadareaseveralothercategoriesarealsorecognised,Ia,II,IVandVI,(seeexamplesgiveninprevioussections).
InthecaseoftheMacquarieIslandCommonwealthMarineReserve(categoryIV),overonethirdofthereserve(58,000km2outofatotalof162,000km2)isdesignatedIUCNcategoryIaHighlyProtectedZone.
VerticalzonationcanresultindoublecountingwhenreportingontheIUCNcategories.
IUCN'scurrentadviceisthatMPAswithverticalzoningshouldbereportedaccordingtotheleastrestrictivecategorythathasbeenappliedwithinthesiteduetoIUCN'sseriousconcernswithcomplianceandenforcementandstrongpresumptionagainsttheuseofverticalzoning.
Forexample,ifthebenthicsystemisstrictlyprotectedandthepelagicareaisopentomanagedresourceusecompatiblewithcategoryVI,thewholeareashouldbeassignedacategoryVI.
ThusHuonCommonwealthMarineReserveshouldbereportedasIVeventhoughtheseabediscategorisedasIa.
HumpbackwhaleinGlacierBayNationalPark,AlaskaNPSPhoto/GlacierBayDanLaffoleyisthematicMarineViceChairfortheIUCNWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas,andSeniorAdvisoronMarineScienceandConservationintheGlobalMarineandPolarProgrammeofIUCN.
Forover30yearsDanhasbeenresponsibleforthecreationofmanyglobal,EuropeanandUKpublicandprivatesectorpartnerships,alliancesandframeworksthatunderpinmodern-daymarineconservation.
SueStoltonworksonissuesrelatingtoprotectedareas,includingtheassessmentofmanagementeffectiveness,understandingthewidervaluesandbenefitsthatprotectedareasprovideandthedevelopmentanduseoftheIUCNmanagementcategories.
SueestablishedEquilibriumResearchinpartnershipwithNigelDudleyin1991.
SueisViceChairoftheWCPAspecialistgrouponprivatelyprotectedareasandnaturestewardship.
SueWellsCoChairstheIUCNWCPA-MarineWorkingGroupontheGreenListandMPAManagementEffectivenessTaskForce.
ShehasworkedforanumberofconservationorganisationsincludingIUCN,andisnowaconsultant,withaparticularinterestbuildingcapacityforMPAmanagement.
LaurenWenzelisamemberoftheIUCNWorldCommissiononProtectedAreasandisDirectorofNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)anditsNationalMarineProtectedAreasCenter.
Herworkfocusesonconnectingandstrengtheningthemarineandcoastalprotectedareaprogramsthroughcapacitybuilding,informationandtools,andcommunicationandengagingstakeholders.
EditorbiographiesJonDay'scareercommencedinterrestrialparks,buthesubsequentlyspent28yearsplanningandmanagingtheGreatBarrierReef,including16yearsasoneoftheGreatBarrierMarineParkAuthority(GBRMPA)Directors.
Jon'sresponsibilitiesasaDirectorincludedconservation,heritage(particularlyworldheritage),theReefrezoning,IndigenouspartnershipsandcommencingthefirstOutlookReport.
Joniscurrentlyundertakingapost-careerPhDintheARCCenterforCoralReefStudiesinTownsville,Australia.
NigelDudleyisViceChairfornaturalsolutionsfortheIUCNWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas.
Heisaconsultant,workingparticularlyonissuesrelatingtoprotectedareasandbroadscaleapproachestoconservation,workingallovertheworld.
MarcHockingsisEmeritusProfessorintheSchoolofEarthandEnvironmentalSciencesattheUniversityofQueensland.
HeisViceChairforScienceandManagementoftheIUCNWorldCommissiononProtectedAreas.
MarcwastheprincipalauthoroftheIUCN'sbestpracticeguidelinesonevaluationofmanagementeffectivenessofprotectedareasandistheWCPAleadinthedevelopmentofanIUCNGreenListofProtectedandConservedAreas.
HeisanhonoraryFellowattheUNEPWorldConservationMonitoringCentreinCambridge,UKandisManagingEditoroftheIUCNjournalPARKS.
GlenHolmesisamarineecologistwhohasbeenworkingintheenvironmentalfieldforover20years.
Afterinitiallytrainingasachemicalengineerandworkingwithenvironmentalproblemsassociatedwithbothagricultureandindustry,hecompletedhismarineecologyPhDin2009.
CurrentlyworkingforThePewCharitableTrusts,Glenpreviouslyworkedasanindependentenvironmentaladvisoronmarineandcoastalecosystemissues.
HealsocoordinatedandlecturedcoursesinenvironmentalmanagementatTheUniversityofQueensland.
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