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JiddistikheuteYiddishStudiesTodayJiddistikEdition&ForschungYiddishEditions&ResearchISBN978-3-943460-09-49783943460094DervorliegendeSammelbanderneteineneueReihewissenschaftli-cherStudienzurJiddistiksowiephilolo-gischerEditionenundStudienausgabenjiddischerLiteratur.
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HerausgegebenvonMarionAptroot,EfratGal-Ed,RolandGruschkaundSimonNeubergBand1JiddistikEdition&ForschungYiddishEditions&ResearchHerausgegebenvonMarionAptroot,EfratGal-Ed,RolandGruschkaundSimonNeubergYiddishStudiesTodayJiddistikheuteYidish:oysgabesunforshungJiddistik:Edition&ForschungYiddish:Editions&ResearchHerausgegebenvonMarionAptroot,EfratGal-Ed,RolandGruschkaundSimonNeubergBand1Leket:yidisheshtudyeshayntLeket:JiddistikheuteLeket:YiddishStudiesTodayBibliografischeInformationDerDeutschenNationalbibliothekDieDeutscheNationalbibliothekverzeichnetdiesePublikationinderDeut-schenNationalbibliografie;detailliertebibliografischeDatensindimInternetüberhttp://dnb.
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IntroductionWiththeexceptionofthenortheasternYiddishoftheChabad-LubavitchJewsandother,mostlyminor,groupsbasedinJerusalem,HarediYid-dishtodayisofCentralor,toalesserextent,SoutheasternYiddishprov-enance.
TheSatmarJews,who,accordingtotheirtradition,originatefromtheso-calledUnterland,holdaparticularlyprominentpositionamongtoday'sHaredim.
TheUnterlandmainlyincludesthelow-lyingcountrybetweenthetributariesoftheTisa(theBodrog/LaborecandtheSome)inthenorthwesterncornerofRomania,inEastSlovakia,andinCarpathianRuthenia.
Inawidersense,italsocomprisestherestofTransylvaniaandthemountainouspartsofEastSlovakiaandCarpathianRuthenia.
ThisiscontrastedwiththeOyberland,whichin-corporates(present-day)Hungary,WestSlovakiaandtheBurgenland.
1TheUnterland,inthenarrowersenseoftheword,coincideslargelywiththeformerlyHungariancountiesofSzatmár,Máramaros,Ugocsa,BeregandUng.
AfterWorldWari,thenorthernpartoftheUnterland(EastSlovakiaandCarpathianRuthenia)wascededtoCzechoslovakiaandtheremainingpartstoRomania.
CarpathianRuthenia,whichin1938/1939cameunderHungariancontrolasCarpatho-Ukraine,wasan-nexedin1945totheSovietUnionand,in1946,becamepartofUkraine.
Theterm'Satmar'derivesfromthenameofthetownSatuMare(Hun-garianSzatmárnémeti),whichhasbeenpartofRomaniasince1920and,duringtheinterwaryears,grewtobecomeanimportantcenterforHasidism.
HarediJewsusuallynamethemselvesaftertheEasternandCentralEuropeantownswheretheirrespectiveHasidicdynastiesresidedbeforeWorldWarii.
Since1928theSatmarJewshavebeenledbytheTeitelbaumrabbinicdynasty.
IamgreatlyindebtedtoSarahJenningsandPeterSlomansonforproofreadingthemanu-script.
MyseveninformantsdeservespecialthanksforgenerouslysharingtheirnativeUnter-landYiddishwithme.
1Weinreich1964:249f.
StefffenKroghHowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish484ThefocusofthispaperistheYiddishoftheHarediSatmarJewslivinginandaroundNewYorkCity.
TheSatmarsformthelargestgroupamongtoday'sHaredimand,therefore,occupyakeypositionintermsoftheuseofYiddish.
ThisisbecausetheysupportandpromotetheuseofYiddishindailylifemuchmorevigorouslythanallotherHaredim.
Consequently,theyarebehindmostoftheHarediYiddish-languagepublicationsappearinginandaroundNewYorkCity.
Restrictingob-servationstotheNewYorkCityareaisjustified,sincethisareaisthemostimportantplaceofresidence,literacyandprintingfortheSatmarmovement.
Despitethefactthatwerefertotoday'sSatmarcommunityas'Hungarian'ingeneraland'Satmar'inparticular,thesedesignationsshouldnottemptustoviewthisgroupasanunbrokencontinuationoftheHasidimwholivedintheUnterlandbeforethewar;sinceitsfoun-dationbyJoelTeitelbaum(1887–1979)inthelate1940s,themodernSatmarmovementhasincludedadherentsoriginatingnotonlyfromHungary(withits1914borders),butalsofromPolandandUkraine.
However,anyonewhohasheardtheYiddishspokenbySatmarJewsinNewYorkCitytodayforthemselveswillbeinnodoubtthatitisinthefirstplaceCentralYiddishandinthesecondplace,forthemostpart,UnterlandYiddish.
ThefollowingarethepredominantcharacteristicfeaturesofCentralYiddish,astheyappearinHarediSatmarYiddish:21)ChangeofcommonEasternYiddish*eytoay,e.
g.
*eydel>aydl'polite,refined',*geyn>gayn'togo',*sheyn>shayn'beauti-ful',*shteyn>shtayn'stone'.
2)MonophthongizationofcommonEasternYiddish*aytoa:,e.
g.
*tsayt>tsa:t'time'.
3)ChangeofcommonEasternYiddish*autoou,e.
g.
*aus>ous'out'.
4)DiphthongizationofcommonEasternYiddish*e:toey,e.
g.
*le:ben>leybm'tolive'.
5)RaisingofcommonEasternYiddish*o:tou:thatwassubse-quently,inpart,shortenedtou,e.
g.
*klo:r>klu:r'clear',*zo:gen>zugn'tosay'.
6)FrontingofcommonEasternYiddish*u:and*utoi:andi,e.
g.
*bru:der>bri:der'brother',*gezunt>gezint'healthy'.
7)ChangeofcommonEasternYiddish*outooy,e.
g.
*vounen>voynen'tolive',*grous>groys'big'.
2Inthispaper,thetranscriptionofYiddishfollowsthestandardsystemdevisedbyyivoInstituteforJewishResearch.
InthespokenYiddishmaterial,vowellengthisindicatedbyacolon,andthesound[],asandhi-conditionedvariantof[χ],isrenderedbythesigngh.
HungarianandRomanianloanwordsandnameswhichoccurinthespokensequenceswithoutbeingphoneticallyintegratedareitalicizedandintheirtraditionalspelling.
StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish485WithinCentralYiddish,theapicalrinallpositionsisashibbolethofUnterlandYiddish.
IntherestofCentralYiddish,thedorsalr,whichisoftendroppedinfinalposition,predominates.
Asystematicanalysisofnon-HarediUnterlandYiddishandacor-respondingdescriptionofmodernHarediSatmarYiddishwouldhelptoclarifytherelationshipbetweenthetwoidioms.
Thepresentpaperattemptstofillthisgap,atleastpartially,bycomparingthreegrammati-caltraitsinthetwoidiomsmentioned.
Theevidenceisdrawnfromtwotypesofsources,which,atfirstglance,seemtobecomplementary.
Thefirstsourcecomprisesrecentoralrecordingsofsomeofthelastinsituinformants,i.
e.
nativespeak-ersofUnterlandYiddishwho,unlikethefoundersoftheHarediSatmarmovementinAmerica,neverlefttheirTransylvanianhomegrounds(exceptfortheirenforcedsojourninGerman,HungarianorRomanianconcentrationcampsduringWorldWariiandshort-termvisitsabroadafterthewar)andwereneversubstantiallyexposedtoanyothervarietyofYiddishthanthatoftheUnterland.
TheserecordingswereconductedbythisauthorinnorthwesternRomaniain2009,2010and2011.
Thesec-ondsourcecomprisesrecentpublishedmaterialinmodernHarediSat-marYiddishfromNewYorkCity.
Itcouldbearguedthatthesetwotypesofsources,bothoralandwritten,aretoodiffferenttoformaninformativeunity.
Ideally,usingoralmaterialexclusivelywould,ofcourse,offferthesafestgroundforin-vestigatingthegeneticbondsbetweenoriginalUnterlandYiddishandmodernHarediSatmarYiddish.
However,giventhatpreviousresearchinthisfieldisvirtuallynon-existent,itseemedadvantageous–asapre-liminarytoamorecomprehensivesurveyonHarediSatmarYiddish–toconsultwrittensources,which,withrespecttothefeaturesIhavesetouttoinvestigate,arenotfundamentallydiffferentfromwhatwewouldfindinoralmaterial.
Thematerialonwhichthesurveyisbasedisacorpusthatreflects,asbroadlyaspossible,thediversityofthedailyprivateandpublicwrittenlanguageoftheSatmarcommunityinNewYorkCity.
Itincludesissuesoftheweeklynewspapers,andandanissueofthemagazine.
TheoralmaterialfromRomaniaconsistsofextensiveinterviewswithsevenna-tivespeakersofYiddish,bornbetween1913and1926intheUnterland(inthewidersenseoftheword),theareafromwherethecoreofthepostwarSatmarmovementissaidtooriginate:MrGerson(Gershn)Schvarcz,b.
1913inrmihályfalva,theninHungary,since1920RomanianasValealuiMihai,nowresidinginOra-dea.
486MrEugen(Menakhem-Yehude)Grünfeld,b.
1920inZaudeCm-pie,c75kmsoutheastofCluj-Napoca,nowresidinginCluj-Napoca.
MrsMargareta(Malke)Mezei,b.
1920inSighetuMarmaiei,nowresidinginOradea.
MrMihai(Avrom-Khaim)Freundlich,b.
1921inBaiaMare,de-ceased2011inOradea.
MrLazar(Moyshe-Leyzer)Freund,b.
1922inBaiaMare,nowresid-inginOradea.
MrEugen(Yankev)Krausz,b.
1923inthevillageofZoreni,nearSnmihaiudeCmpie,c80kmnortheastofCluj-Napoca,nowresidinginCluj-Napoca.
MrsGolda(Goldi)Salamon,b.
1926inSighetuMarmaiei,whereshestillresides.
Eachoftheinformantswasinterviewedabouthisorherlife,especiallybeforetheHolocaust,andwassubsequentlypresentedwithaquestion-nairecontaininganumberofsentencesandwordsinHungarian,whichheorshewasaskedtotranslateintoYiddish.
3AllseveninformantshavenativeproficiencyinYiddishand(standard)Hungarian,asthesewerethelanguagesinwhichtheywerebroughtup.
Inmostcases,thestatelanguage,Romanian,wasacquiredlater,typicallyinconnectionwithformaleducation.
WiththeexceptionofbasicRussian,noneofthein-formantsspeaksaSlaviclanguage.
2.
TheCommonCentralYiddishBasisThetwoidiomsinquestion,UnterlandYiddishandHarediSatmarYid-dish,areundoubtedlyverycloselyrelatedvarietiesofthesameYiddishdialect.
Commontobothofthemis,forinstance,theconsistentre-placementofanominalindirectobjectbyaprepositionalphrasewithfar.
Thistrait,whichtomanyoutsiderswithacommandofsecularYid-dishhasbecomeavirtualhallmarkofHarediYiddish,4isalsofoundinPolishCentralYiddish,but–accordingtomyexperience–merelyasararevariantconstruction.
5OnlyinTranscarpathian(i.
e.
Unterlandand3Notalltranslationsprovidedbytheinformantswereusefulinthepresentinvestiga-tion.
Insomecases,thetranslationprovedinaccurateordidnotelicitthedesiredconstruc-tion(s).
4OnthespreadingofthisconstructionwithincontemporaryIsraeliHarediYiddish,whereitisevenusedtomarkhistoricallydirectobjects,cf.
Assouline,forthcoming.
5Itisgenerallyagreedonthatthedativeisamoremarkedcasethanthenominativeandtheaccusative.
Theinnovationinquestionmayhavebeentriggeredbyadesiretoindicatethishigherdegreeofmarkednessbymeansoficonicity.
ThedevicewasaprepositionalStefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish487Oyberland)6Yiddishisitthecanonicalmeansofforminganominalindirectobject.
ExamplesoccurinthewrittenHarediSatmarYiddishsourcesaswellasintheYiddishofmyseveninformants.
Examplesoc-curringinthewrittenHarediSatmarYiddishsourcesinclude:derporetshotfardingenmitasheyneporyortsurik,zaynkretshmefaraiddoindorf'ThelandownerrentedhisinnhereinthevillagetoaJewacoupleofyearsago'Divokh:6(2).
takedoshotuntergezogtfarhitler'nazdiveltiztsufridnmitvosertut'TheverysamethingpromptedHitlertothinkthattheworldwascontentwithwhathedid'Deridishergedank:60(2).
shpeter[…]hobnidisheaktivistnzeyerasakharoysgeholfnfardishvartsebafelkerungtsubakemfndinatsyonalediskriminatsyekegnzey'LaterJewishactivistshelpedtheblackpopulationverymuchinfightingnationaldiscriminationagainstthem'Derblat:12(3).
derfarkedeytsuvayznfar'nkenigazdosiznishtrikhtig,hotmord-khehatsadekgebetndemkenigerzolgebnreshusazidnzolnzikharoysshtelnunnekomenemenfunzeyeresonim'Therefore,Morde-caiHatzadik–toshowthekingthiswasnotright–askedthekingtopermittheJewstoriseandtakerevengeontheirenemies'DeridA:55(1).
InthespokenYiddishofmyseveninformantswefind:Schvarcz:(Inreplytothequestiontshaushesku[Ceauescu])erizgeveynagitermentsh–yo–erhodgegeybmalesfardeyi:dn(1.
06)'Hewasagoodman–yes–hegavetheJewseverything'Grünfeld:inderza:ttransilvanyevusiibergegeybmgevornfar[…]ungarn(ii.
1.
07)'inthepartofTransylvaniathatwascededtoHungary'phrasewithfar–aconstructionwidelyusedinYiddishtoexpressnotionsofbenefactivityandmalefactivity.
HungarianisnotlikelytohaveplayedapartinthisprocesssinceHungar-iandoesnotuseprepositionsatall.
6Cf.
Weinreich1964:257f.
488Mezei:vuzzolighzognfarda:nkhusn(0.
55)'WhatshallIsaytoyourfiancé'va:ldushodgefelnfaryeydn(1.
18)'becausethis[story]usedtopleaseeverybody'Freundlich:ghdertsaylesfaraleyi:dn(ii.
0.
11)'IsayittoallJews'duskenikhnishtmoykhlza:n–nishtfargot(ii.
0.
18)'ForthatIcannotforgiveGod'Freund:dehouzindzerehotmengegeybmfardedoytshe(0.
21;theinfor-mant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianOdaadtákaházatanéme-teknek)'OurhousewasgiventotheGermans'Krausz:deshouezhotmenjedzdgegeybmfardedoytshn(ii.
0.
26;thein-formant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianOdaadtákaházatanéme-teknek)'ThehousehasnowbeengiventotheGermans'Salamon:hobighgezuktfardemi:me(iii.
1.
12)'ThenIsaidtomyaunt'.
Inbothcorporafarisalsousedwithpersonalpronouns,e.
g.
:maynmeynungiz:dosmendarfdosyovayzenfarir'Myopinionisthatyoushouldshowittoher'Divokh:12(3–4).
deba:beesterhogezuktfarmir(Salamon,i.
1.
41)'GrandmaEsthersaidtome'.
TherecanbenodoubtthattheinnovationthatunderliesthisfeaturebyfarpredatestheHolocaust.
7Giventhatitisfirmlyestablished,notonly7InsongsinOyberlandYiddish,editedbyTaglikhtin1929(basedonhisrecollectionofyeshivahstudentsperformingthemc50yearsearlier),thereareinstancesofthisconstruc-tion,e.
g.
zugtsniksousfarkanem'Don'ttellanybodyanything'(Taglikht1929:300).
StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish489intheUnterland,butalsointheOyberland,andthatitisalsoattestedintherestoftheCentralYiddisharea,theinnovationmusthavehadamuchwidergeographicalrangethancommonlythought.
Today,theoriginofthefeatureisbeingobscuredbythefactthattheotherYiddishdialectsforwhichitusedtobecharacteristichaveeithervanishedorareonthevergeofextinction.
3.
FeaturesCharacteristicofHarediSatmarYiddishThefeaturesthatdistinguish,orappeartodistinguish,HarediSatmarYiddishfromitsancestraldialectinTransylvaniaarefoundprimarilywithinthedomainoflexicon8andsyntax.
Inthesections3.
1and3.
2,Iprovideadescriptionoftwoselectedsyntactictraitswhicharegener-allyconsideredtypicalofHarediSatmarYiddish,andwhichareindica-tiveofthecomplexdevelopmentthisvarietyofYiddishhasundergonesinceitstartedevolvinginthepostwaryears.
3.
1LossofgenderandcasedistinctionsOneofthemoststrikingfeaturesofHarediSatmarYiddish,notonlyinAmerica,butalsoinotherpartsoftheworld,9istheextensivelossofgenderandcasedistinctionsintheinflectionofthedefinitear-ticle,attributiveadjectives,certainpronouns(particularlyyeder'every',yener'that',andvelkher'which')andthenumeraleyner'one'.
Inspokenlanguage,thissyncretismhasdevelopedtosuchanextentthattheover-allformofthedefinitearticleis[d]andtheformsmentionedbeforeendin[],regardlessofgender,caseandnumber.
Inwrittenlanguage,thisstateofafffairsisreflectedinextensivemorphologicalvacillation.
Inwrittenusage,themostfrequentformsofthedefinitearticlearediandder,andthemostfrequentsufffixesoftheotherwordsare-eand-er.
ItisthisfeatureinparticularthathasgivenHarediSatmarYiddishthereputationofbeingdeviantandcorruptedYiddish.
Theanalyzedmate-rialshowsabundantevidenceofthissyncretism.
Afewexampleswillsuffficetodemonstratethispoint:dihunderterkhsidim,voshobengehatdemgroyseskhieonteyltsunemen'[…]thehundredsofHasidimthathadthegreathonortoattend'Divokh:3(1).
kristalnakht,dosershterofitsyelerblut-bodvosdidaytshekhayesyimakhshmomhobndurkhgefirtoyfidn'Kristallnacht,thefirstofffi-8Cf.
Krogh,forthcoming.
9OnHarediSatmarYiddishinGreatBritain,cf.
Mitchell2006:101–108.
490cialbloodbaththattheGermanbeasts–maytheirnamesbeerased–perpetratedontheJews'Deridishergedank:59headline.
demdinerhotzikhgeendigtmitgorgroyskhizekfaraleaskonim'Alltheleadersfeltveryfortifiedafterthedinner',literally:'Thedin-nerendedwithverygreatstrengtheningforalltheleaders'Derblat:110(5).
esiztakederlegitimerbalebosvelkheprubirtdostsunutsn'Itisthelegitimateholderhimselfthatistryingtouseit'DeridA:39(2).
InUnterlandYiddish,bycontrast,nominalphrasesaregenerallyseentobemorphologically'intact'.
Comparethefollowingexamples:Schvarcz:mirhobmgehatagroysnhoyf(0.
5)'Wehadalargeyard'ighgedenknokhha:nt–demkhaznvoshodgezingen(0.
15)'TodayIstillrememberthecantorthatsang'yonkiperigeveynagroysertuk(0.
18)'YomKippurwasagreatday'indergantserveldzenenzeyavek–deyi:dn–spetsyaliname:rike(0.
38)'Theydispersedintothewholeworld,theJews,especiallytoAmerica'Grünfeld:ighbingeveynbaderrumeynisherarmey(ii.
0.
10)'IwasintheRo-manianarmy'sizadorfnoragresererdorf(ii.
0.
15)'Itisavillage,butquitealargeone'demolsisis10farbrendgevorndezbeyshamigdesh(ii.
0.
58)'ThentheTemplewasburntdown'yeydnyu:rbrenktmenarousanayemkalendar(ii.
1.
00)'Everyyearanewcalendarisreleased'10WordswhichwererepeatedforreasonsofhesitationoruncertaintyandwordswhichwerearticulatederroneouslyandinstantlycorrectedbytheinformantsarenotincludedinthepresentEnglishtranslation.
StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish491Mezei:azoyzemergeblibmbizdeletstetsa:tvenmot–de:mgantnla:ger–ouzgelert(0.
3)'Thuswestayeduntiltheendwhentheentirecampwasemptied'mehotindzgegeynananderklayt(0.
9)'Weweregivenadiffferentdress'zodgebrenkt–aaazagrousntopmitkartofln(0.
35)'Shebroughtabigpotwithpotatoes'demanderntokfri:gaytara:ndedi:nstinba:detsimerintreftaynemshlufn(1.
11)'Thenextdaythemaidentersthebathroomandfindssomebodysleeping'Freundlich:yeydesleybmizaizaekstereaeksteremayse(i.
0.
23)'Everylifeisaspecialstory'varemvasermaghddemmentsh–shvekher(ii.
0.
0)'Warmwatermakesaperson–weaker'zemergekimenfindermikve(ii.
0.
13)'Wereturnedfromthemikva'dusizaningerisher[…]ma:khl(iii.
0.
0)'ThisisaHungariandish'erhodgenimenashi:tefaningerishn(iii.
0.
8)'HechoseaHungarianbusinesspartner'Freund:yeyderkhayderhodgehadza:nmelamet(0.
4)'Everyelementaryschoolhaditsownteacher'duizgeveynayidisherlitse:um(0.
6)'HerewasaJewishhighschool'finderpri:vungdirekttsin–ara:ngenimentsimarbet(0.
7)'Fromtheexamstraightto–draftedtolabor'insatmarizergeveynderru:f(0.
9)'InSatuMarehewastherabbi'492Krausz:baderyi:dishercomunitatevurtir(i.
0.
11)'WereyouattheJewishCommunityCenter'ertidzikhfarnemenmiddembesoylom(i.
0.
11)'Hetakescareofthecemetery'eriz–geveyn–aakomunist–agroyserkomunist(i.
0.
30)'Hewas–acommunist–agreatcommunist'varemvaser(i.
1.
00)'Warmwater'vendu:defakultatebolyaihotibergenimenyenemyenemlocal(ii.
1.
25)'WhenheretheBabes-BolyaiUniversitytookovertheotherbuilding'Salamon:homergehatagroysngu:rtndu:noghdershti:p(i.
0.
30)'Wehadalargegardenherenexttothehouse'yodemtelefonvilikha:ghgeybm(i.
2.
23)'Yes,Iwillgiveyoumytelephonenumber'demaynenzaydehobikhyogekent–zaydeyankl(ii.
0.
22)'Ididknowonegrandfather–GrandpaYankl'derrebayfingroyzveda:nigeveyznovderlavaye(ii.
0.
36)'TherabbifromOradeaattendedthefuneral'zemergeganenyeydninderfritsiderarbet(iii.
0.
35)'Everymorningwewenttowork'zehobndu:anaygenembu:tinashilinahotel(iii.
1.
09)'Heretheyhaveabathoftheirownandasynagogueandahotel'desfensterigeveyntsidergas(iii.
1.
51)'Thewindowfacedthestreet'ikhldirzugntsivelekhendokterdezolzdgayn(iii.
1.
52)'Iwilltellyoutowhichdoctoryoushouldgo'.
StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish493However,examplesthatcontrastwithStandardYiddishusagealsooc-curintheYiddishofallseveninterviewees.
Theseexamplesaremainlyinstancesofthedefinitearticleintheformde,whichisusedinvariantlyintheentiresingularandplural.
Itmusthavespreadfromthenomina-tiveandaccusativesingularfeminineandfromtheplural,whereitistheoriginalform(StandardYiddishdi),totherestoftheparadigm.
Whendeisfollowedbyanattributiveadjective,thisadjectiveoftenendsinthelikewiseinvariantinflectionalmorpheme-e.
Otherdeter-miners,suchasyeyder,yenerandvel(e)kher,canalsoendinthis-e.
Comparethefollowingexamples:Schvarcz:eghbingeboyrninashteytloberdeshteytlizashtot(0.
1)'Iwasborninshtetl,buttheshtetlisatown'dehoyfizfi:lgeveyznmitlayt(0.
5)'Theyardwasfullofpeople'denumengedenkikhnisht(0.
16)'Idon'trememberthename'Grünfeld:ikhhogelerntindetalmettoyre(i.
0.
20)'IwasstudyingintheTal-mudTorah'inyenefabri:kviikhhobgearbet(i.
0.
21)'InthatfactorywhereIusedtowork'tsevelekhegru:phaltikhtsevelekhekhsidishegru:pgeherikh(i.
0.
31)'WhichgroupdoIstaywithWhichHasidicgroupdoIbe-longto'derebedgehaysn–listigzayn–trinkenbromfnnishtkanvayn(i.
0.
40)'Therabbiordered:Becheerful!
Drinkliquor,nowine!
'infiftsikizarouzdertatemiddeklayneshvester(i.
1.
33)'In'50myfatherleft[thecountry]withmylittlesister'hogedarftarbetnfardearmey(ii.
0.
8)'Ihadtoworkforthearmy'494Mezei:azoyzemergeblibmbizdeletstetsa:tvenmot–de:mgantnla:ger–ouzgelert(0.
3)'Thuswestayeduntiltheendwhentheentirecampwasemptied'zolmerzikharolaygnindekokh(0.
34)'sothatwecanliedownintothekitchen'Freundlich:aplats[…]fardeesn(i.
0.
11)'aplacetoeat'desotsyalizmizhodgehadzaynekhatuim(i.
0.
24)'Socialismhaditsflaws'inyeydevokhhodzigemakht[…]inderhaymdraymu:lbroyt(ii.
0.
9)'Shewouldbakebreadthreetimesaweekathome'demameizarouzgekimenin[…]degas(ii.
0.
14)'Mymothercameoutintothestreet'detatehotindzgedektfardemame(ii.
0.
14)'Myfatherwouldscreenusfrommymother'Freund:deletstemu:l(0.
1)'thelasttime'detateindemame(0.
1)'Myfatherandmymother'dehouzhotmengegeybmmir(0.
21)'Thehousewasgiventome'Krausz:intshobmergehatfindefederaiedeysplats(ii.
1.
26)'WegotthisplacefromtheFederation[oftheJewishCommunitiesinRomania(fjcr)]'Salamon:demlsbinikhaynyu:rgeganndeungarisheshul(i.
0.
42)'BackthenIwenttotheHungarianschoolforoneyear'StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish495hobighgezuktfarderdokternaz[…]ovdelinknoygzeyikhnishtazoygit(i.
2.
17)'IsaidtothedoctorthatIdon'tseethatwellinmylefteye'erhotibergemaghddegantsehouz(ii.
0.
14)'Herenovatedtheen-tirehouse'yo–hobikhabiltfindetateinfindemame(ii.
0.
16)'Yes,Ihaveapictureofmyfatherandmymother'deyfrouvelokhekhhobirgemaghddehu:r(iii.
0.
38)'ThewomanwhosehairIusedtodo'inshulbinighgeganindeershteklas(iii.
0.
42)'AtschoolIwasinfirstgrade'hobighgezuktfardemi:me–dihostatokhter–makhda:ntokhterkhasenetsideshna:dernishtmikh(iii.
1.
12)'ThenIsaidtomyaunt:Youhaveadaughter,marryofffyourdaughtertothetailor,notme'irvaystaz[…]deykhasi:dishevelkhezekimengaynnishtara:nindesfardisheshil(iii.
1.
17)'YouknowthattheHasidimthatcomedon'tentertheSephardicsynagogue'erhotnordirektazoygezukt–degantsnveyk(ii.
1.
48)'Hesaidthatdirectly–alltheway'.
Apartfrominstancesinwhichthedefinitearticlewasreducedforobvi-ousphoneticreasons,e.
g.
beforeahomorganicconsonantinindemba:detsimer→indeba:detsimer(Salamon,iii.
1.
05)'inthebathroom',itwasnotpossibletodeterminewhytheinformantschosetoinflectregularlyinsomecasesbutnotothers.
Inthisrespect,theCentralYid-dishoftheUnterlandadoptsanintermediatepositionbetweenthemorenorthernCentralYiddish,inPoland,inwhichcasesyncretismisobligatoryintheentirefemininesingular(PolishCentralYiddishuni-formdeversusStandardYiddishdi,di,der),11andHarediSatmarYiddishinAmerica,inwhichgenderandcasesyncretism,aswasshownabove,hasbeengeneralizedtotheentireparadigmofdeterminersandtoallattributiveadjectives.
AlthoughtheUnterlandYiddishandtheHarediSatmarYiddishsystemdiffferconsiderably,therecanbenodoubtthatthelattermerelyrepresentsamoreadvancedstageoftheformer.
11Cf.
Herzog1965:130fig.
4:42.
496Giventhefactthat,intermsoftheinflectionofthedefinitear-ticleandtheotherwordsmentioned,HarediSatmarYiddishstronglyresemblescoterritorialEnglish,itispossibleintheorythatthedevelop-mentthatledtothepresentstateofafffairsinHarediSatmarYiddishwastriggeredbytheruleofnotinflectingdeterminersandattributiveadjectivesinEnglish.
However,itisimportanttonotethat,intheinflec-tionoftheattributiveadjective,HarediSatmarYiddishaddsanending,aschwa,notazero,asinEnglish.
Thepointofdepartureforthedevel-opmentinHarediSatmarYiddishis,therefore,morelikelytohavebeenthesyncretismthatexistedwithouthavingbeenfullydevelopedintheYiddishbroughttoAmericaafterWorldWariibythefoundersoftheHarediSatmarmovement.
3.
2PronominalreferenceInStandardYiddish,aswellasintheEasternEuropeanYiddishdia-lects,thepersonalpronounser'he'andzi'she'refertomasculineandfeminineantecedents,regardlessofwhethertheyarehumanornon-human.
Consequently,theycanrefernotonlytoderman'theman'anddifroy'thewoman'respectively,butalsotodervorem'theworm'anddimoyz'themouse'andeventoderzeyger'theclock'anddivant'thewall'.
IntheHarediSatmarYiddishofNewYorkCity,however,erandzireferalmostexclusivelytohumanantecedents,whereasallothernounsarereplacedbytheformalneuterses'it'anddos'that'.
Comparethefollowingexamples(therelevantneuterpronounsinsmallcaps):venamentshkumttsumheyligenkhoyze,nemterzaynneshomeunvashtdosoysunreyniktdosfunyedeshmitsunrost'WhenamanvisitstheHolySeer,hetakeshissoulandwashesitandcleansitofanydirtandrust'Divokh:19(1).
"ikhbinoyfaykhgoyzerazalspikuekhnefeshzoltiresndemzup,"derrebehotkeynbreyrenishtgehatunerhotdosgegesn'"Iorderyou,inaccordancewiththecommandmenttosavealife,toeatthesoup";therabbihadnochoicebuttoeatit'Deridishergedank:29(1).
erhotgeshribnazbloyzer,terinikols,mayklfortyerunzaynfroyhobngevustdetalnfundiatakeeydererhotesdurkhgefirt'Hewrotethatonlyhe,TerryNichols,MichaelFortierandhiswifeknewdetailsabouttheattackbeforehecarrieditout'Derblat:115(5).
nokhaninteresantetevevosdivolfarmogt,dosvenestsitarayninzikhflisigkayt,blaybtesnishtineveynigoyflang,unesgeytoykhStefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish497nishttsurikaroysdiflisigkaytfunvueskumtorginal'Anotherinter-estingqualitywoolhasisthat,whenitabsorbsliquid,itdoesnotstayinthereforlong,andtheliquiddoesnotgooutagaintowhereitorigi-nallycamefrom'DeridA:31(3).
Atfirstglance,itwouldseemreasonabletoconcludethatthischangemusthaveoccurredasaconsequenceofthecomprehensivegenderandcasesyncretisminHarediSatmarYiddishmentionedabove.
Whengenderandcasedistinctionsarelost,thetraditionalagreementingen-derbetweenapronounanditsantecedentbecomesirrelevant,andanewdiffferentiationbetweenhumanandnon-humanemerges,whichmakesreferencetonon-humanentitiesbymeansofaneuterpronounpreferable.
Comparablechangeshavetakenplaceinseveralothermod-ernGermaniclanguages,firstandforemostEnglish.
EventhesecularYiddishspokeninNewYorkCitytendstofavoresinsteadoferandziwhenreferenceisbeingmadetonon-humanantecedents,ascanbeseenfrominnumerableexamplesinthe.
InsecularYiddishinNewYorkCity,however,thechangemusthavecomeaboutforotherreasons,mostnotablytheinfluenceofEnglish,becausethisvarietyofYiddishhasnotundergonetheradicalgenderandcasesyncretismthatcharacterizesHarediSatmarYiddish.
TheUnterlandYiddishofmyseveninformantsdisplaysanambigu-ouspictureregardingpronominalreference.
Atfirstglance,itseemstobeinaccordancewithStandardYiddish,showingexampleslikethefollowing(therelevantpronounsareinsmallcaps):Grünfeld:dortizderhunt–mittsvayyu:rtserikhobikheymgekoyft(ii.
1.
28;theinformant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianOttvanakutyám.
Kétévvelezelttvettem)'Thereisthedog–Iboughtittwoyearsago'dortizma:nkats–mittsvayyu:rtserikhobighzigekoyft(ii.
1.
29;theinformant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianOttvanamacskám.
Kétévvelezelttvettem)'Thereismycat–Iboughtittwoyearsago'Krausz:siznishtkaynshtut–zihaystazoy–SnmihaiudeCmpie(i.
0.
0)'It'snotatown–it'scalledlikethis–SnmihaiudeCmpie'498samedikamentfabrikagroysemedikamentfabrikinyerusholaim–zihotaafilialinungarnoukh(i.
0.
5)'It'sapharmaceuticalcom-pany,alargepharmaceuticalcompanyinJerusalem–ithasabranchinHungaryaswell'deshil–zehotiberhindertyu:r(i.
0.
43)'Thesynagogue–it'smorethanahundredyearsold'erizgepaygert(i.
1.
08)'Itdied'(aboutafaygl'bird'mentionedinanearliersentence)dekats–fartsvayyu:rhobighze[…]gekouft(ii.
0.
23;theinfor-mant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianOttvanamacskám.
Kétévvelezelttvettem)'Thecat–Iboughtittwoyearsago'Salamon:erinishtkanshlekhterhint(i.
1.
45)'Heisnotabaddog'dugayddertsugvuserfu:rtkaynklouznburk(i.
1.
48)'ThereisthetrainthatgoestoCluj-Napoca'ighgebemdemgu:rtnerzolemhaltn(i.
1.
49)'Ileavethegardentohimsothathecantendit'dekafefiname:rikohobikhnishtlipnikhtringzenisht(iv.
0.
1;theinformant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianAzamerikaikávétnemszeretem.
Nemiszommeg)'Idon'tlikecofffeefromAmerica,andIdon'tdrinkit'.
However,theinformantsalsousetheneutersesanddus(des,deys)whenreferringtonon-humanantecedentsinthemasculineorfemi-nine12(therelevantneuterpronounsareinsmallcaps):12Thedeterminationofthe'proper'genderofanounmustbebasedonwhatisgenerallyknownaboutthegenderofthatnouninEasternYiddish,especiallyCentralYiddish(cf.
Viler1926),andonthepossibletestimonyofdeterminersandattributiveadjectives,e.
g.
dem+-(e)n(intheaccusative)andder+-erexcludingneutergender.
ThedeterminationofthegenderofnounsinUnterlandYiddishposessomefundamentalproblems.
Firstly,itisnotalwayspossibletodeducethegenderofanounfromitsgrammaticalsurroundings.
Determinersandattributiveadjectivesmaybelacking,andeveniftheyarepresent,theymayprovideambiguousornoinformationaboutthegenderofthenoun,cf.
theremarksaboveontheinvariantarticledeandthecorrespondingadjectivalending-e.
Secondly,thegenderofanounmayvacillateduetoinfluencefromHungarianwhichlacksgrammaticalStefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish499Grünfeld:trinkenbromfn–yo–indeystrinkendekhasi:dimtrinkendedemaystefindu–bromfn–darfezza:nfinisrael–zayzugndeysisku:sher(i.
0.
41)'Drinkliquor,yes,andtheHasidimdrinkthat,mostpeoplefromheredrinkthat–liquor.
ItmustbefromIsrael.
Theysaythatiskosher'dekhasi:dimfleygndeysdeystrinken–dedemsli:vovits(i.
0.
42)'TheHasidimusedtodrinkthat,theSlivovitz'deysigeveynalemu:lku:sher–dersli:vovits(i.
0.
42)'Thathasalwaysbeenkosher,theSlivovitz'Mezei:bammitukhotmengebrenktasupe–dushodgekritstinterde–tseynva:lsigeveynfilmit[…]bleter(0.
7)'Atnoonasoupwasserved.
Itscratchedbehindtheteethbecauseitwasfullofleaves'vusergligde:rhodgehadvenshtaufnberkhotemgelaygddebombedortn–aynerhotesavegeriktinyenerizgeshtorbm(0.
42)'HowluckyhewaswhenStaufffenbergputthebombtherenexttohim.
Somebodyremovedit,andtheotheronedied'Freundlich:desotsyalizmizhodgehadzaynekhatuim–ober[…]eshodgehadzaynezayneavantazhn(i.
0.
24)'Socialismhaditsflaws,butithaditsadvantages'ingu:rtnizaboym–ighzeyesfindu(i.
0.
31;theinformant'sYid-dishrenditionofHungarianAkertbenvanegyfa.
Innenlátom)'Thereisatreeinthegarden.
Iseeitfromhere'dortizmaynkats–ikhhab[!
]ezgekoyftfin–shoyntsvayyu:r(i.
0.
33;theinformant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianOttvanamacskám.
Kétévvelezelttvettem)'Thereismycat–Iboughtittwoyearsago'genderandgender-specificpronouns(alsonotedbyWeinreich1964:261f).
Insomecases,thegenderofanounmayhaveswitchedtoneuter,whichwouldaccountforwhythatnounisrepresentedbyesanddus(des,deys)inagivencontext.
500Freund:erhodzighgebrenktfinouslantskhoyre–hoterdesfarkoyft(0.
5)'Heusedtobringgoodsfromabroad.
Thenhesoldthem'ingu:rtnizaboym–ighzeyesfindu(0.
18;theinformant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianAkertbenvanegyfa.
Innenlátom)'Thereisatreeinthegarden.
Iseeitfromhere'dortizma:nkats–fartsvayyu:rhobikhezgekoyft(0.
19;theinfor-mant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianOttvanamacskám.
Kétévvelezelttvettem)'Thereismycat–Iboughtittwoyearsago'Krausz:deshil–zehotiberhindertyu:r–normehotsibergemakht[…]sizgeveynbombardirt(i.
0.
43)'Thesynagogue–itismorethanahundredyearsold–butithasbeenrenovated.
Itwasbombed'siznokhkolt–derzip(ii.
0.
1)'Itisstillcold,thesoup'ingu:rtnizduaynboym–ighzeyesfindu(ii.
0.
22;theinformant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianAkertbenvanegyfa.
Innenlátom)'Thereisatreeinthegarden.
Iseeitfromhere'derepliznizhdgutesesnishtouf(ii.
0.
22;theinformant'sYiddishrenditionofHungarianAzalmanemjó.
Needdmeg!
)'Theappleisnotgood.
Don'teatit!
'deshilbroukhttsebla:bmazoyvisizgeveyn[…]zehobnsrenovirthobnsreparirt(ii.
1.
27)'Thesynagogueshouldremainasitusedtobe.
Theyrenovatedit,repairedit'Salamon:siduayi:dishetsaytung–ofaynza:tshra:ptesrumeynishinovderandererza:tshra:ptesyi:dish(i.
0.
40)'ThereisaJewishnewspaper.
OnonepageitiswritteninRomanian,andontheotheritiswritteninYiddish'ikhhobagroysngu:rtn–ighgibesiberfaragoyvelokhererkosetinerfarkoyft–ighdarfnizhdgu:rnishtfindortnvaylikhhobesnishtmidveymentsibaarbetn(i.
1.
0)'Ihavealargegarden.
Ileaveittoagoywhocuts[thegrass]andsells[thefruitandvegetables].
Idon'tneedanythingfromtherebecauseIdon'thaveanybodytocultivateitwith'StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish501mehogemakhtafilm–afroufinbayama:refindu–afilm–zigekimenahe:rinindra:yfi:rmu:lhotmenezgeviznintelevízió–demfilm(i.
1.
42)'Afilmwasmade.
AwomanfromBaiaMarefromhere–afilm.
Shecamehere,andthreeorfourtimesitwasshownontelevision,thefilm'desizzayershta:rk(ii.
0.
6)'Itisverystrong'(withreferencetobroufn'liquor'whichhadbeenmentionedinanearliersentence)defotografye–vaysikhnishtinvelekhnyu:r–deelterenhobnezgemakht(ii.
0.
17)'Thephoto–Idon'tknowinwhichyearitwastak-en.
Myparentsarrangedforittobetaken'[InreplytothequestionVihotdigasgeheysndemolt'Whatwasthenameofthestreetinthosedays']finlank[…]hotezgehaysndeThklyt–inofrumeynishhotezgehaysnazoyvihidzdDragoVod–azoyhotezgehaysninyeneyu:rnoukhetinhitstoukhet(iii.
0.
59)'AlongtimeagoitwascalledThklyt,andinRomanian,ithadthesamenameasnow:DragoVod.
Ithadthatnameinthatperiod,anditstilldoes'irvaystaz[…]deykhasi:dishevelkhezekimengaynnishtara:nindesfardisheshil[…]desistrayfo(iii.
1.
17)'YouknowthattheHasidimthatcomedon'tentertheSephardicsynagogue.
Itisimpure'tomerdestmakhnadeurininsetza:nroytzolzdikhnizhddershre-kn–vayldeysisfindeytabletn–nordesttserik–bakimendefarbazoyvisigeveyzninpu:nem(iii.
1.
53)'Whenyoupassurineanditisred,don'tgetfrightenedbecauseit'scausedbythesepills.
Butyouwillgetthecoloringofyourfacebackasitusedtobe'.
Thisnewevidenceisastrongindicationthatthereplacementofthetraditionalmodeofpronominalreferencebythehuman/non-humandiffferentiationinHarediSatmarYiddishisnotaninnovationthatoc-curredduringthelastdecadesoverseas,butis,instead,atraitwhichoriginatedatasub-dialectallevelontheEuropeanhomegroundsoftheSatmarmovementandwasbroughtalongtoAmericainthewakeoftheHolocaust.
OnceinAmerica,itmusthaveintensifiedasaresultofthegenderandcasemorphologycollapse.
TheEuropeanlocusoftheinnovationmaynotevenhavebeentheUnterland(althoughthein-novationisinfactattestedthere),13butanotherregioninEasternEu-13IntheYiddishspokeninandaroundSatuMare,thecenterofJoelTeitelbaum'sprewarHasidicmovement,thistendencymayhavebeenstrongerthanelsewhereintheUnterland.
Unfortunately,Ihaven'tbeenabletolocateanyinsituinformantsfromSatuMareitself.
502rope,fromwhichmembersoftheSatmarmovementwererecruited.
TheinnovationinquestionisalsolikelytohavebeencarriedthroughinpartsofsoutheasternYiddish.
MikhoelFelzenbaum,thewell-knownIsrael-basedYiddishwriterandlinguist,confirms(p.
c.
)itspresenceinhisnativeBessarabianYiddishdialect,inaformwhichis,infact,moresimilartoHarediSatmarYiddishthantotheUnterlandYiddishthatIhavetriedtocoverthroughmyinsitufieldwork.
Sofar,Ihavediscussedpronominalreferenceonlyinthesingular.
Regardingreferencebetweenapronounandanantecedentnouninthepluralthereisasignificantdiffferencebetween,ontheonehand,HarediSatmarYiddishand,ontheotherhand,theUnterlandYiddishofmyin-formants.
Inthiscase,UnterlandYiddishapparentlycorrespondswithstandardYiddishandthebulkofEasternEuropeanYiddishdialects,us-ingthepluralofthepersonalpronoun,whereasHarediSatmarYiddishagaindistinguishesbetweenhumanandnon-human,usingzeyfortheformerand,notinfrequently,esordosforthelatter.
Comparethefol-lowingexamples(therelevantneuterpronounsareinsmallcaps):WhenIvisitedtherein2009,mysearchforYiddishspeakerswithaprewarbackgroundwasunsuccesful.
AccordingtothelocalJewishCommunityCenter,thelastYiddishspeakerofSatuMarehadpassedawayacoupleofmonthspriortomyarrival.
Atwenty-sixmin-utevideorecordingwitha(nowdeceased)YiddishspeakerfromSatuMare,withwhichPéterVarga(Budapest)kindlyprovidedme,andmyownrecordingsofBaiaMareYiddish(FreundlichandFreund–BaiaMareislocatedabout70kmeastofSatuMare)aretheclosestIhavecometoprewarSatuMareYiddish.
Intherecording,whichwasconductedbyPéterVargaapproximately10yearsago,therewerenorelevantexamplesofpronominalreference.
ThedigitalarchiveoftheShoahFoundationInstituteinLosAngelesincludesfourvideotestimoniesinYiddishbyJewswhowerebornandraisedinorveryclosetoSatuMare.
AllfourintervieweesemigratedfromRomaniaafterWorldWarii.
Consequently,theycannotbeconsideredinsituinformants,andthesignificanceoftheirYiddish,thoughentirelyfluent,naturalandfarfrombeingattrited,mustbetreatedwithcautionforthepurposesofthepresentstudy.
Oneoftheinterviewees,MrMeyir-ManoDaskal,bornin1906inSatuMareandresidingatthetimeoftheinterview(1998)inIsraelin–asappearsfromtherecording–anon-Haredienvironment,usesneuterpronounsseveraltimesduringtheinterviewwhenreferringtonon-humanantecedentsthatareeitherdefinitelyorinalllike-lihoodmasculineorfeminine,e.
g.
(therelevantneuterpronounsinsmallcaps):erhotagroysnva:ngu:rtn[…]deshodgehaysn–ofungarishhotezgehaysnderbargfinsatmer(i.
0.
22)'Heownsalargevineyard.
Thiswascalled–inHungarianitwascalledtheSatuMareMountain'dortizmenaru:vgegangen[…]ofabargaru:f–shodgehaysndeshpiglbarg(i.
0.
23)'Thereamountaincouldbeascended.
ItwascalledtheMirrorMountain'mhotintsara:ngefi:rtinblok–shodgehaysntsegaynerblok(iii.
0.
10)'Wewereledintothebarrack.
ItwascalledtheGipsyBarrack'hobakimenavu:rshtoberdesizdoghgeveynamilya:rdvert(iii.
0.
18)'Igotasausagebutafterallitwasworthabillion'.
StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish503tsulibdemhobenzikhdimashinenasakhshnelertsibrokhenhotmendosgebrengttsufarekhten'Therefore,theenginesbrokedownmuchfaster;thentheyweretakeninforrepair'Divokh:14(5).
ikhhofazmvetmekablzayndivertervosmhotdogeshmuest,mvetesmekablzayntsufarbeserndimaysim'Ihopethatattentionispaidtothewordsthatwereutteredhere.
Attentionwillbepaidsothatthedeedsmaybecomebetter'Deridishergedank:19(2).
geyendigaroysfunofishoterzikhdermantazdioybershteshuflodnhoternishtunterzukht.
erefntdosoyf'Onleavingtheoffficehere-calledhehadnotexaminedthetopdrawers.
Heopensthem'Derblat:56(2).
vendermentshvertelter,farlirndidisksateylfunemvaservosligtgevenlikhderin.
dosmakhtesmerboygzamunmeroysgeshteltazeszolzikhtseraysn'Asapersongrowsolder,hisspinaldiscslosesomeofthewaterthatisusuallyinthem.
Thatmakesthemmoreelasticandmorepronetobursting'DeridA:36(4).
Giventhatthisfeatureseemstobeabsentfromallcoterritoriallan-guagesinthehistoricalandpresentstagesofHarediSatmarYiddishinbothEasternEuropeandinAmerica–Slaviclanguages,Hungarian,RomanianandEnglish–itsgenesisisdiffficulttoexplain.
However,theparalleltothesameprocedureinthesingularcannotbeignored.
Thedevelopmentmusthavebeguninthesingularandspreadtotheplural.
Accordingtotheabove-mentionedMikhoelFelzenbaum(p.
c.
),exactlythesamestateofafffairscanbeobservedinBessarabianYiddish.
Theoriginoftheabandonmentofgenderagreementbetweenapronounanditsnon-humanmasculineorfeminineantecedentmaydatebacktothetimewhentheancestorsofUnterlandJewrystillre-sidedinGaliciaandwereexposedtocoterritorialSlaviclanguagesonadailybasis.
IncolloquialPolish,e.
g.
,14thereisatendency,whenrefer-ringdeicticallytoaninanimatenoun,toletto,theneuterofthedemon-strativepronounten'that',representthatnoun,regardlessofwhetheritismasculineorfeminine.
15ThisfeaturecouldhavebeenborrowedbyCentralYiddish,whereitsusecouldhavewidenedtoinclude,notonlythedemonstrativedus,butalsothepersonalpronounes.
Thisparticu-laruseofdusandesistypicalofcolloquialCentralYiddishfromPolandandhas,tomyknowledge,neverbeensubjectedtoscholarlyscrutiny.
14Cf.
Mendoza2004:294f.
15AsthistraitisalsofoundincolloquialGerman,e.
g.
whenA–pointingatanapple(Germ.
derApfel)–saystoB:Nimmdas!
,itmaynotbeborrowedinYiddishatall,butberootedinthecommonbasisofYiddishandmodernGerman.
504IntheCentralYiddishoftheUnterlandithasundergonefurtherwid-eningtoincludethenon-deicticuseofthepronounsand–atamoreadvancedstageincertainsub-dialects–toincludeanimals.
4.
SummaryInthispaperthreesalientgrammaticalfeaturesofHarediSatmarYid-dishhavebeenpresented.
Thefirst,thereplacementofanominalin-directobjectbyaprepositionalphrasewithfar,whichisequallywellestablishedinHarediSatmarYiddishandUnterlandYiddish(theas-sumedancestraldialectoftheformer),unmistakablyprecedesthefoundingofthemodernSatmarmovementinpostwarAmerica.
Theremainingtwotraits,comprehensivesyncretismwithinthegenderandcasesystem,andreferencetomasculineandfeminineantecedentsbymeansofneuterpronouns,displayanambiguouspicture,inasmuchastheyareprominentcharacteristicsofHarediSatmarYiddish,butmere-lyalternativeorperipheralconstructionsinUnterlandYiddish.
How-ever,oncloserinspection,itappearsthatthecurrenttraitsfeaturedbyUnterlandYiddishmustrepresentthefirststageofthemorphologicalcollapseandsubsequentrestructuringwithinnominalphrases,whichcanbeobservedinHarediSatmarYiddish.
Regardingoneaspect,how-ever–thepossibilityofreferringtoanantecedentnouninthepluralbymeansofaneuterpronouninthesingular–theresultofthepro-cesscannotbededucedfromUnterlandYiddishgrammar.
InHarediSatmarYiddish,thistraitmusthavebeeneithercausedbyarecentin-novationoradoptedfromoneoftheotherEasternEuropeanYiddishdialectswhichcontributedtotheformationofthisHarediYiddishva-riety.
BessarabianYiddishdisplaysanexactparalleltothefeatureinquestion.
Toprovethatthiscorrespondenceisnotpurelycoincidental,furtherresearchmustestablishfromwheretheSatmarmovementinAmericarecruiteditsmembersfromafterWorldWarii.
HarediSatmarYiddish–althoughatitscoreundoubtedlyCentralYiddishandUnterlandYiddish–mayturnouttobefarlessSatmarishthancommonlythought.
AndconsideringthatasignificantnumberofthosewhojoinedtheSatmarmovementafterWorldWariiinAmericaoriginatedfromplacesotherthantheverycityofSatuMare–theleg-endaryGrandRabbiJoelTeitelbaumhimselfwasbornandraisedinSighetuMarmaiei(thenMáramarossziget),andbothhiswivesinPo-land–thisisnotsurprising.
StefffenKrogh:HowSatmarishisHarediSatmarYiddish505A.
SourcesinHarediSatmarYiddish1.
NewspapersDerblat.
Tsaytshriftfunalveltlikhnortodoksishnidntum.
15June2001.
132pages.
Derid.
OrganfunumophengigenortodoksishenidentuminAmerike.
21March2008.
SectionsA–B.
SupplementDershiker'erid.
96+72+11pages.
Divokh.
30July1998.
32pages.
2.
JournalDeridishergedank2,18October1999.
96pages.
B.
SourcesinUnterlandYiddish1.
Oralinterviewsconductedbythisauthor:1)Lazar(Moyshe-Leyzer)Freund,interviewconductedon11May2011inOradea.
2)Mihai(Avrom-Khayim)Freundlich,interviews(quotedasi–iii)con-ductedon11and13May2011inOradea.
3)Eugen(Menakhem-Yehude)Grünfeld,interviews(quotedasi–ii)con-ductedon14July2010and15May2011inCluj-Napoca.
4)Eugen(Yankev)Krausz,interviews(quotedasi–ii)conductedon14July2010and15May2011inCluj-Napoca.
5)Margareta(Malke)Mezei,interviewconductedon11May2011inOra-dea.
6)Golda(Goldi)Salamon,interviews(quotedasi–iv)conductedon20July2009and14May2011inSighetuMarmaiei.
7)Gerson(Gershn)Schvarcz,interviewconductedon12May2011inOra-dea.
2.
OralinterviewsconductedonbehalfoftheShoahFoundationInsti-tute(availabletothepubliconlyatspecificsites,e.
g.
theUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseuminWashingtonD.
C.
):1)Meyir-ManoDaskal,interviewcode47019.
2)JosefKatz,interviewcode13639.
3)DavidRosenfeld,interviewcode20435.
4)SarahTaub,interviewcode28219.
506C.
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