Imigrante169pp

UCSanDiegoWorkingPapersTitleNegotiatingNationalIdentity:MiddleEasternandAsianImmigrantsandtheStruggleforEthnicityinBrazilPermalinkhttps://escholarship.
org/uc/item/7s65b9d6AuthorLesser,JeffreyPublicationDate2000-04-01eScholarship.
orgPoweredbytheCaliforniaDigitalLibraryUniversityofCaliforniaCCISCCISTHECENTERFORCOMPARATIVEIMMIGRATIONSTUDIESNegotiatingNationalIdentity:MiddleEasternandNegotiatingNationalIdentity:MiddleEasternandAsianImmigrantsandtheStruggleforEthnicityinBrazilAsianImmigrantsandtheStruggleforEthnicityinBrazilByJeffreyLesserByJeffreyLesserConnecticutCollegeWorkingPaperNo.
8WorkingPaperNo.
8April,2000April,2000UniversityofCalifornia-SanDiegoUniversityofCalifornia-SanDiegoLaLaJolla,California92093-0510Jolla,California92093-05102NegotiatingNationalIdentity:MiddleEasternandAsianImmigrantsandtheStruggleforEthnicityinBrazilJeffreyLesserTheroleofracehasdominatedscholarshipinthefieldofBrazilianstudies.
YetvirtuallyeveryexaminationhasassumedthatBraziliansocietyexistsalongablack/whitecontinuum.
UnlikeintheUS,wherethe"one-droprule"hastraditionallycreatedinflexible,andwidelyunderstood,racialcategories,inBrazil,racealwaysseemstobe,atsomelevel,upforgrabsaslongasitremainswithintheblack/whitespectrum.
Thus,whenIfirststartedstudyingBrazil,doingresearchonimagesofJews,Iplacedtheminthe"white"categoryalongwithallothersofEuropeandescent.
Yetthedocumentationtoldadifferentstory.
Jewswereneitherwhitenorblack:theywereinacategorythatthetraditionalscholarshipnevermentioned.
MyinitialassumptionwasthatthisplacementwasrelatedtotheveryspecifichistoryofJewish-GentilerelationsintheAmericas.
ButthenIreceivedaphonecallfromAlbertHourani,oneoftheforemostscholarsoftheArabexperience.
HewantedmetocontributeanessaytoavolumehewaswritingontheLebanesediaspora.
"Prof.
Hourani,"Iimplored,"IstudyJewsnotArabs.
"TheProfessorwasnotinterestedinmyexcuses,"Gobacktothedocuments"hetoldme,andofcourseIdid.
WhatIfoundshockedme.
VirtuallyeverypublicdiscussionofJewsinBrazilwasalsoaboutArabsandJapanese.
Whatcoulditmeanthatthesethreegroups,whoarrivedatdifferenttimes,insertedintotheeconomyindifferentways,andhadlittletodowitheachother,werelinkedoverandoveragainAndwhydidthetraditionalscholarshipignorethemillionsofmembersofthesegroupsbyfunctionallylumpingthemintothe"white"or"European"categoryAsIresearchedthesequestion,Ibegantorealizethatthelinkagesdidnotsimplyhappen.
RathereachofthesegroupsusedsimilarpublicstrategiestonegotiatetheiridentitiesasBraziliansanditisthesestrategies,andtheirmeaning,thatIwouldliketoexploretoday.
InordertobeginourdiscussionIwouldliketobrieflytellyoufourfoundationalfictionsthatarecommonlyheardinethnicBrazil:Myth1:ThismythisfrequentlyheardamongmembersofBrazil'sJewishcommunityofabout120,000peopleorlessthan1/10ofonepercentoftheBrazilianpopulation.
Theoverwhelmingmajorityofthiscommunityeitherimmigratedordescendsfromimmigrantswhoarrivedbetween1920and1940.
Accordingtothismyth,duringtheInquisition,JewsincolonialPortugalchosenon-Jewishnamesbasedonbiblicalanimalsandtrees.
TheclaimisthatanyonewithanamelikeCoelhoorCardosodescendsfromJews.
InarecentissueofGeraesthenewsletteroftheSoPaulo-basedSociedadeGenealogicaJudaicadoBrasilarecentarticleincludedagenealogicaltreesuggestingthatFernandoHenriqueCardoso,currentpresidentofBrazil,isdescendedfromJews.
11Geraes,[newsletteroftheSociedadeGenealogicaJudaicadoBrasil,SoPaulo],Volume1,no.
2,(May,1995),13.
3Myth2:ThisisamyththatstartedcirculatingaroundBrazilinthe1870'sandwaspickedupbyintellectualsofArabdescent.
ThereareaboutaquarterofamillionBraziliansofArabdescentinBrazil.
Beginninginthenineteenthcentury,anumberofwell-respectedFrenchcrackpottheoristssuggestedthatKingSolomonsailedtheAmazonRiverandthattheQuechuaandPortugueselanguageswereoffshootsofancientHebrew.
Suchtheorieswererepeatedfrequentlybythemostwell-knownArabintellectualofthe1930's,SalomoJorge,aprize-winningpoet,authorandradiocommentator.
JorgemodifiedthemythtosuggestthatKingSolomonwasthe"ancestoroftheSyrians"andthusBrazil'sindigenoustribesdescendedfromSolomonandbyextensionJesus.
2Myth3:The"LegendofthetownofMarataize"whichhasbeentoldtomebynumerousmembersofBrazil'sSiro-Lebanesecommunity"ThereoncewasagroupofpeddlerswhosoldtheirwaresintheinteriorofEspíritoSantos,goingfromplacetoplacebymule.
OneofthepeddlerswasnamedAzizandhiswifewasconsideredtheleaderofthewomenwhostayedbehindasthemenwentouttoselltheirgoods.
Thesewomenwentouteverydaytowashclothesinaplacecalledthe"Turkishbasin"(baciadasturcas).
Overtime,thetownthatgrewuparoundtheplacewherethewomenwashedtheirclothescametobecalledMarataizeinhonorofthewife(Marat)ofAziz.
"3Myth4:Between1908and1941about190,000JapaneseenteredBrazil.
Today,almostonemillionBraziliansclaimJapanesedescentandsome200,000oftheseself-definednikkeicurrentlyworkinJapan.
HachiroFukuhara,awealthybusinesspersonreturnedfromanexploratorytriptotheAmazonclaimingthatBrazilwas"foundedbyAsiatics"since"thenativeswholivealongtheRiverAmazonlookexactlyliketheJapanese.
Thereisalsoacloseresemblancebetweentheminmannersandcustoms.
.
.
(and)acertainChinesesecretaryintheGermanEmbassyatRio(has)madeacarefulstudy(oflanguage)andconcludedthattheseIndiansdescendedfromMongols.
"FukuharaevenstatedthatheknewofaBuddhistceremonyperformedintheHimalayaswhereawomanholdsatreeassheisbearingachildandherhusbandwalksaroundher,exclaiminghappily"IsawthesamethingintheAmazon.
"4Rokuro(RO-KRO)Koyama,anearly1920'simmigranttoBrazilandfunderofaninfluentialSoPaulo-basedJapanese-languagenewspaperagreed.
2VicomteEnriqueOnffroydeThoron,VoyagesdesflottesdeSalomonetd'HiramenAmerique:positiongeographiquedeParvaim,Ophir&Tarschisch.
(Paris:imp.
G.
Towne,1868).
"OReiSalomonoRioAmazonas"inJúniorAmarilio,AsvantagensdaimmigracaosyrianoBrasil:emtornodeumapolemicaentreosSnrs.
HerbertV.
LevyeSalomoJorge,no"DiariodeSoPaulo"(RiodeJaneiro:Off.
Gr.
daS.
A.
ANoite,1925),87-103.
ViriatoCorreia,"OReiSalomonoRioAmazonas.
"inSalomoJorge,AlbumdaColoniaSírioLibanesanoBrasil(SoPaulo:SociedadeImpressoraBrasileira,1948),471-479.
3ThisstoryhasbeentoldtomeinvariousformsofwhichIrepeatonlyone.
AslightlydifferentversioncanbefoundinClaudeFahdHajjar,Imigraoárabe:100anosdereflexo(SoPaulo:IconeEditora,1985),145.
4ArticlebyHachiroFukuhara,"BrazilfoundedbyAsiatics"inTheJapanTimesandMail26June1927.
TheKanegafuchiCotton-SpinningCompanywasknownforitsinnovativeuseofdormitoriesandhealthservicesasameansofmaintainingfemalelabor.
SeeE.
PatriciaTsurumi,FactoryGirls:WomenintheThreadMillsofMeijiJapan(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1990),154.
"NipponeseGets2,500,000AcresasaBasisforaVastColony"JapanTimesandMail,11May1930.
4KoyamaaskedintheintroductiontohisTupi-Japanese-Portuguesedictionary:"DidweJapaneseandTupi-GuaranioriginallycomefromandsharethesamePolynesianseedDowemeetagainnow,afterfourthousandyears"5Thesefourmythsallhavesomethingincommon.
Theyeachallowthegroupinquestiontoclaimamore"original"or"authentic"BraziliannessthanmembersoftheEuropeandescendedBrazilianeliteitself.
Thereasonsarenothardtofathom.
SinceBrazilisacountryinwhichthesocialinsecurityoftheeliteisparamount,hyphenatedidentitiesdonotexist.
Indeed,foratleastthepastonehundredyearsBrazilianshaveplacedsuccessfulpeopleinthe"white"category,regardlessoftheirskincolor.
ThisreflectsthewidelyacceptedupperandmiddleclassnotionthatBrazilianswhoseancestryismixedandincludessomeAfricanheritagehavebeenproblematicelementsinthebuildingofthenation.
ButwhataboutthemillionsofBrazilianswhotracetheirancestrytotheMiddleEastandAsia,whoitmightbesaidareneitherwhitenorblackCertainlythemessagesaboutthesegroupshavebeenmixed.
Ontheonehand,wemightseeintegrationifwelookedattheadvertisementfortheverypopular1980'ssoapopera"TheImmigrants"thatwent,"Portuguese,Japanese,Spanish,Italians,Arabs-Don'tMissTheMostBrazilianSoapOperaonTelevision.
"6YetadifferentimpressionemergeswhenweexaminethelanguagethatBraziliansusetodescribeethnicity:athirdgenerationBrazilianofJapanesedescentremains"Japanese,"andnotJapanese-Brazilian,whileafourthgenerationBrazilianofLebanesedescentmaybecalleda"turco,"an"arabe,"orevena"sirio.
"Overthecourseofthetwentiethcentury,beingaBraziliancitizenhasneverendedtheconditionofforeignness.
TodayIwillexaminetheprocessesbywhichethnicidentitiesandperceptionswereconstructedinthetwenties,thirtiesandforties,andhowthesefunctionasakindofmirrorinwhichnationalidentityconfronteditself.
Theseweredecadesofenormousdemographicchange,massiveeconomicgrowth,andauthoritarianrule.
Theywerealsoyearswhenwhatitmeantinapublicsensetobea"Brazilian"waswidelycontested.
ByexaminingsimilarstrategiesusedbySyrian-Lebanese(thetermusedtodescribethoseofmiddleeasterndescent)andnikkei(whichdescribesthoseofJapanesedescent)IwillshowhowmarkedlyBraziliannationalidentitywasredefinedpriortoWorldWarII.
Ihavechosenthesetwogroupsforthreereasons:firstthesecommunitieseachclaimoveronemillionpeople(therearemorepeopleofJapanesedescentinBrazilthanintherestoftheworldcombined,forexample);second,manywhodefinethemselvesasSyrian-Lebaneseandnikkeihavefoundwidesuccessinthepolitical,economicandsocialspheres;andthird,itwasexactlythe"non-whitenessandnon-blackness"ofthesetwogroupsthatmostchallengedelitenotionsofBrazilianidentity.
7Byexaminingpublicethnicityasexpressedinthelanguageofthemajority–innewspapersandbooks,onthepoliticalstage,andintheacademy-Iwanttosuggestthatthedefinitionsofvirtuallyallofthecomponentsofnationalidentity-ethnicity,class,color,gender,andeventheveryboundariesoftheBrazilianstate-weresuccessfullynegotiatedbycertaingroups.
Bythemid-twentiethcentury,eliteparadigmsaboutwhowasandwasnotanacceptableBrazilianchangedsomarkedlythatmanyEuropeangroupswerenolongerinthe"white"categorywhileatcertaintimesAsiansandMiddleEasternerswere.
5RojuroKoyama,TupiTangoShu(TheTupiLexicon)(SoPaulo:TeikokuShoin,1951),1.
6AdvertisementfortheBandeirantesTelevisionNetworktele-novela"OsImigrantes"(1981)inJornaldoImigranteIV:422(September,1981),p.
2.
7MariaStellaFerreiraLevy,"OPapeldaMigraoInternacionalnaEvoluodaPopulaoBrasileira(l872al972).
"RevistadeSaúdePública,supplement,8(l974):49-90.
"DiscriminaoporNacionalidadedosImigrantesEntrandonoBrasilnoPeríodo1884-1939.
"RevistadeImigraoeColonizao1:3,(July1940),617-638.
5Therearetwomainactorsinthisstory.
Ononesidearemembersofthemajorityelite,comprisedofpoliticians,intellectuals,journalistsandbusinesspeople.
Almostallwerewelleducated,generallyinthesamefewschoolsoflawandmedicinewheretheylearnedabouteugenicsandotherformsofscientificracism.
WhilethissharedlearningcreatedacommonmethodologyforunderstandingtheroleofimmigrantsandtheirdescendantsinBraziliansociety,itdidnotcreateacommonoutcome.
Insteadtheelitewassharplydividedbetweenthosewhosawthe"whitening"ofBrazilasagoalthatwouldbeachievedviathephysicaltransformationoftheskincolorofthemassesandotherswhosaw"whiteness"asrelatedtoeconomicgrowthanddomesticproduction.
FortheformeronlyEuropeanscouldbewhiteandAfricansandAsianssimplyhadtobebannedfromentering:thelatterpositionisbestsummedupbyaFederalDeputywhodeclaredin1935,"(T)heJapanesecolonistsareevenwhiterthanthePortuguese(ones).
"8Ontheothersidewasanimmigrantandminorityelite,alsocomposedofpoliticians,intellectuals,journalistsandbusinesspeople.
Theytoowerewelleducatedandtheirgoalwastoestablishaplacefortheirparticulargroup.
Likethoseinthemajority,theyweremarkedlydividedandthusthreeveryflexiblestrategiesemergedduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.
Prominentamongtheseresponseswasanapparentauto-deculturation,whereminoritiesinsistedontheirownwhiteness,placingthemselvesneatlyintoapantheonoftraditionallydesirablegroups.
Moremeasuredgesturesgravitatedtowardsabiculturalcompromisewhere"whiteness"wasnotanecessarycomponentofBrazilianness.
InsteadtheseminorityelitespromotedtheideathatBrazilwouldimprovebybecomingmore"Japanese"or"Arab,"formulationsthatpartakeofthebasicimpulsetoconstructanationalhierarchybyidentifiableethniccharacteristics.
Productivity,classstatusandnationalismthusbecamemarkersofidentity,allowingethnicitytobemaintainedevenasitsimportancewasdismissed.
Thefinal,andmostextreme,strategywasanapparentradicalultranationalism,asdifferentgroupsattemptedtorecreateanimaginedethnicfuture.
ThethreestrategiesthatIwillexploretodayallemergedintheearlyyearsofthecenturyandwereusedbynumerousgroupsoverthenextfiftyyears.
IwouldfirstliketoexaminehyphenationandtodosoIwilluseaSyrian-Lebaneseexample,althoughIwouldbehappytogiveotheroneslater.
MiddleEasternersbeganarrivinginBrazilinsignificantnumbersinthelate19thcenturyandby1939some107,000Arabs,mainlyMelkiteandMaronniteCatholics,entered,generallyfromSyriaandLebanon.
9ArabsweredifficultforBrazilianstocontextualize,giventhemultiplicityofimagesthatbeganwithIberia'sconquestbytheMoorsandcontinuedwiththethrillofEuropeanreconquest.
Arabsthushadaspecialplace,asbothfriendandenemy,asexoticallydifferentyetsomehowfamiliar.
ThesekindsofideasamonginfluentialBraziliansmatchedwithanotherelitedesire-economicgrowth.
MiddleEasternerswerecriticaltothisprocesssincetheywerethefirstlarge-scalepeddlersinthe8SpeechofAcylinodeLeo,18September1935.
RepublicadosEstadosUnidosdoBrasil,AnnaesdaCamaradosDeputados:Sessesde16a24deSetembrode1935,Vol.
17.
(RiodeJaneiro:Off.
GraphicaD'"ANoite,"1935),432.
9"DiscriminaoporNacionalidadedosImigrantesEntrandonoBrasilnoPeríodo1884-1939.
"RevistadeImigraoeColonizao1:3,(July1940),617-642.
"MovimentoImigratórionoBrasilde1819a1947"citedinJ.
FernandoCarneiro,ImigraoeColonizaonoBrasil(RiodeJaneiro:FaculdadeNacionaldeFilosofia,1950).
RevistadeImigraoeColonizaao[hereafterRIC]1:4(October1940),617-638.
MeirZamir,TheFormationofModernLebanon(London:CroomHelm,1985),15.
SeealsoTaufikDuoun,AEmigraoSirio-LibanesaasTerrasdePromisso(SoPaulo:TipografiaArabé,1944),89;RollieE.
Poppino,Brazil:TheLandandPeople(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1973),194;J.
FernandoCarneiro,ImigraoeColonizaonoBrasil(RiodeJaneiro:FaculdadeNacionaldeFilosofia,1950),64;ClarkS.
Knowlton,"SpatialandSocialMobilityofTheSyriansandLebaneseintheCityofSoPaulo,Brazil"(Ph.
D.
Dissertation,VanderbiltUniversity,1955),Table1,58-59.
PublishedinPortugueseasSirioseLibaneses(SoPaulo:EditoraAnhenmbi,l960).
6country,hadintroducedtheideaofcredittoruralareas,andasthetwentiethcenturyprogressedwerebuildingboththefactoriesandretailoutletsneededforBrazil'sexpandingindustrialbase.
Arab-Brazilianswereeconomicallydesirableandleadingmembersofthecommunityusedthistoreinforcetheirplaceinsociety.
EvidenceofmypointcanbefoundintheparticipationofSyrian-Lebaneseinthecelebrationssurroundingthe1922centennialofindependence,whenthestateusedmassivepublicevents,suchasthededicationofbuildings,bridges,roadsandmonuments,toreinforcenationalism.
LeadersoftheSyrian-LebanesecommunityunderstoodthatnationalistrhetoriccontainedthediscursivespacetopromoteArab-Brazilianidentity.
AcampaigntoraisemoneytobuildamonumenttotheSyrian-Lebanesecommunityledtodonationsfromrichandpoor,fromimmigrantandArab-Brazilian.
10Thesculptorcouldhavebeenanobodyandthestatuescouldhavebeenstuckattheendofalittlestreet.
Butthatisnotwhathappened.
InsteadEttoreXimenes,arenownedItaliansculptorwhoseworkwasassociatedwithBraziliannationalism,wascommissionedtobuildamonumentthatwouldbeplacedintheParqueDomPedroIIaspartofthecentennialcelebration.
Theword"Park"isabitofamisnomer:thisspacewasthemostprestigiousgovernmentareainBrazil'slargestcity.
Foreveryoneinvolved,amonumentbyXimenesintheParqueDomPedroIImeantyouhadmadeit.
"AmizadeSyrio-Libanesa"(Syrian-LebaneseFriendship),wasafiftyfoottowerofbronzeandgranite.
Thebasewasdividedintofoursections.
Eachofthreesidescontainedrelievesrepresenting"Syrian"contributionstoworldculture:thePhoeniciansaspioneersofnavigation,HaitamI'sdiscoveryoftheCanaryIslands,andtheteachingofthealphabet.
Thefourthsidewasthe"symbolofArabpenetrationinBrazil,"representedbythe"thecommerce[thathasledto]greatprosperity.
"Thetopofthemonumentwascomposedofthreelife-sizedfigures.
AtthebackstoodafemalefigurerepresentingtheBrazilianRepublic,"whosegloryisthegloryoftheBrazilianfatherland.
"Infrontofhera"pureSyrianmaiden"offersagifttoher"Brazilianbrother,"anindigenouswarrior,"withthesamelovewithwhichshewaswelcomeduponarrivinginthislandblessedbyGod.
"11Readingtherelievesin"AmizadeSyrio-Libanesa"asastorythatbeginsfromthebase,themessageisclear:ancientArabgreatnesschangedtheworld,allowingBraziltobe"discovered"andthenprosper.
BysuggestingthatArabswerepartofthecolonizationofBrazil,andassertingthatthethreefiguresatthetopofthemonumentwere"brothers,"theSyrian-LebanesecommunitybecamebiologicallyBrazilian.
Thesymbolism,however,shouldnotbereadasassimilationist.
Atthebaseofthemonumentisapoem,inbothArabicandPortuguese,byIlyasFarhat,whowouldlaterbecomeworldfamousforhisArabicwritings.
ThepoemtransformedtheMiddleEastintoaregionofmobileculturalandreligiousstrength,suggestingthatArabethnicitywasnotrelatedtoplacebuttopersonandcouldco-existeasilywithinothernationalcultures.
ArabswereattheheartofChristianityandwhileimmigrantswereindebtedtoBrazilforallowingthemtosettle,theArabpresencehadincreasedBrazil'sstatureasa"Christiannation.
"1210UgoFleres,EttoreXimenes:SuaVitaeSueOpere(Bergano:InstitutoItalianod'artiGrafiche,1928),175-180.
SoPaulo,PrefeituraMunicipal,CatálagodasobrasdearteemlogradourospúblicosdeSoPaulo:RegionalSé(SoPaulo:Dept.
doPatrimnioHistórico,1987),39.
11EttoreXimenes,quotedinOEstadodeS.
Paulo,3May1928.
P.
9.
ForashortdiscussionofasimilarmonumentconstructedbytheLebanesecommunityinTucumán,ArgentinaseeMichaelHumphries,"EthnicHistory,NationalismandTransnationalisminArgentineArabandJewishCultures,"ImmigrantsandMinorities16:1&2,(March/July1997),167-188.
12EliasFarhat,September,1922.
TranslatedintoPortuguesebyAfonsoNagibSabbag.
InEmilFarhat,DinheironaEstrada:Umasagadeimigrantes.
(SoPaulo:T.
A.
Queiroz,1986),3.
7Thepublicdedicationof"AmizadeSírioLibaneza"tookplacein1928.
Photographsshowthatitwasahugeevent.
Theceremony,openedinthenameofthePresidentofBrazil,celebrated"thetraditionalfriendshipthatunitesthehardworkingSyriancommunitytotheBrazilianpeople,"andincludedaparadebytwothousandsoldiers.
InaremarkabledisplayofcollectiveahistoricalmemorythatreflectshoweffectiveSyrian-Lebanesewereinassertingtheir"authentic"Brazilianness,thenewspaperOEstadodeS.
Pauloclaimedthat"SyriansandBrazilians"inthecrowd"exchangedexpressionsoftheancientfriendshipthatunitesthem.
"13NagibJafet,anindustrialistwhowasvice-presidentofthecommission,hammeredhomethepointishiskeynoteaddress,ashesoughttocelebrateancientancestryascreatingpowerinthepresent.
ThePhoenicians,heremindedthecrowd,were"thefathersofthecolonizerswhocamelater,theGreek,theRoman,thePortuguese,theSpaniardandtheEnglish.
"SyrianandLebaneseimmigrantsandtheirdescendantsweretherealfounder'sofBrazil.
14AsImentionedearlier,thestrategiesatplayhere-theuseoffoundationalfictionsandtheassertionsofhyphenation-werenotspecifictotheSyrian-Lebanese.
ButnowIwouldliketoshifttothenegotiationofwhitenessasaculturalcategorybyexaminingtheJapaneseimmigrantsandtheirdescendants.
Almost200,000JapanesesettledinBrazilbetween1908and1941,helpingtocreateanexplosioninBrazilian-Japanesecommercialrelations.
ManyexportswereproducedonimmigrantcoloniesandjustfifteenyearsafterthearrivalofthefirstJapanesesettlersricewentfrombeinganimporttooneofBrazil'stopexports.
YeteliteinterestinJapaneseimmigrantsandtheirdescendantswasnotonlyaboutproduction;manydesperatelywantedtomirrorJapaneseinternationalstatus,itspowerfulmilitaryanditsimaginedhomogenoussocietyandsawa"Japanized"societyaspartoftheanswer.
TheseimpressionsofJapanplacedNikkeiinastrongpositiontonegotiatetheirplaceinBrazil.
Forexample,whennikkeisuggestedthatJapan'sparticularlynationalisticculturemeantthattheyweresuper-patrioticBrazilians,theidearesonatedwidelyamongtheelite.
ThuswhenCassioKenroShimomotoandJoséYamashiro,studentsatSoPaulo'sprestigiousSoFranciscoLawSchool,volunteeredfortheSoPaulostateforcesduringtheunsuccessful1932Revolution,theywerehailedfortheirdecision,especiallyafterShimomotodeclaredtoareporterthathewas"beforeanything.
.
.
aBrazilian.
"15Yamashiro'smomentoffamecamewhenSoPaulo'slargestnewspaperpublishedaletterfromhisfarmerfatherthatcomplimentedJosé"asaBrazilianandPaulista,forobeyingthenaturalimpulsetopickuparmstodefendhisState.
"16Theuseoftheword"natural"iscriticalhere:IthinkthatitreallymeansbiologicalandthatitsuggeststhatnationalisticBrazilians-betterBrazilians-wouldbecreatedviaJapaneseimmigration.
Putdifferently,membersoftheJapanese"race"hadageneticpropensitytowardsloyaltyandthatmystery13OEstadodeS.
Paulo,4May1928.
14"ODiscursodoSr.
NagibJafet,"inDuoun,AEmigraoSirio-Libanesa,153-156.
15BrasileJapo:DuasCivilizaesqueseCompletam(SoPaulo:EmprezaGraphicada"RevistadosTribunaes,"1934),238-240.
16OEstadodeSoPaulo19September1932.
JoséYamashiro,TrajetóriadeDuasVidas:Umahistóriadeimigraoeintegrao(SoPaulo:AlianaCulturalBrasil-Japo/CentrodeEstudosNipo-Brasileiros,1996).
Thesectionontherevolutionof1932canbefoundonpages111-117.
8gene,inthechildrenofimmigrants,wouldmakethemsuper-patriotic.
WhowasabetterBrazilianthanonewhoseloyaltytothestatewasnatural17Nikkeididmorethanasserttheirgeneticpatriotism.
Theyalsoheavilyinvestedinthepromotionoftheirownwhiteness.
ThesenotionscametothebroaderBrazilianpublicvianewspapers,booksandmagazinesthatregularlypublishedphotographsof"Brazilian"lookingchildrenwhowere,atleastostensibly,ofJapaneseandEuro-Brazilianparentage.
18Thephotoswereuniform:JapanesemenmarriedtowhiteBrazilianwomenwhohadproducedwhitechildren.
EachgavethemessagethatJapaneseimmigrantswereanelite,onlyinterestedin,andabletoattract,thoseofhighracialstatus.
JapaneseimmigrantswerewhiteningBrazilevenastheymadeitmoreproductive.
AsBrunoLobo,aprofessorattheRiodeJaneiroMedicalSchool,notedinabookpublishedbytheBraziliangovernment,"itisnotanexaggerationtosaythatmorethan94,000Nipo-Brazilianchildrenhavealreadybeenborn,childrenofresidentJapaneseimmigrants,almost100,000littlefutureBrazilians.
"19WhilewhitenessandgeneticpatriotismseemobviouswaysinwhichagroupmightassertitsplacewithintheBraziliannation,theuseofultra-nationalismtargetedtowardsothercountriesmightnot.
Yetanumberofseeminglynon-Braziliannationalistmovementsbecamecriticaltothenegotiationsovernationalidentityinthefirstpartofthelastcentury.
TherevolutionthatcreatedmodernSyria,forexample,wasledbyamanwhocametoBrazilasachildandformedbothhisconcepts,andhispartyinBrazil.
YetformanySyrian-Lebanese,Arabnationalismwasnotloyaltytoanotherstate,butasuccessfulstrategyforremindingtheBrazilianmajorityoftheirimportance.
Wecandiscussthisexamplelater,butfornowIwouldliketofocusonseemingJapanese-nationalism,aphenomenathatwasstrongsincetheearlypartofthecenturyamongimmigrantsandnikkei,butshoweditsmostpublicfaceafterBrazilendeditsflirtationwithfascismandjoinedtheAlliesin1942.
Anofficial"Brazilianization"campaignbannedforeignlanguageschoolsandnewspapersandledtointenseanti-Japanesepropaganda.
BelaLugosi'sYellowPerilplayedtolargecrowdsinSoPaulo,Zeroscareswerecommon,andanti-Japaneselyricsfoundtheirwayintopopularsongs.
20Someimmigrantsandnikkeirespondedtothesechallengesbykeepingaslowaprofileaspossible;butothersrespondedtotheracistpoliciesanddiscoursebyformingsecretsocietiesthatinsistedJapanwonthewar.
Whatmakesthesegroupsparticularlyinterestingistheirsize-theyclaimedover150,000members-andthattheirinfluenceexplodedAFTERWorldWarIIended.
How,in1946and1947and1948,could150,000literatepeoplelivinginBrazilbelievethatJapanhadwonthewarThetechnicalreasonsarethattheideaofJapan'sdefeathadlittleresonanceamongimmigrantssincetheJapanese-languagemediawasbannedandfewinruralareashadaccesstoBraziliannewspapersornewsreels.
2117NippakShinbun21July1932.
18FolhadaManh(SoPaulo),5July1934;BrunoLobo,JaponezesnoJapo-NoBrasil(RiodeJaneiro:ImprensaNacional,1926),159;CalvinoFilho,ed.
,FactoseOpinesSobreaImmigraoJaponeza(RiodeJaneiro:np,1934),17,33,97,112;CruzamentodaEthniaJaponeza:Hypothesedequeojaponeznosecruzacomoutraethnia(SoPaulo:CentroNipponicodeCultura,1934).
19BrunoLobo,EsquecendoosAntepassados:CombatendoOsEstrangeiros(SoPaulo:EditorialAlbaLtda,1935),144.
20DiáriodaNoite30September,1942.
21Y.
KumusakaandH.
Saito,"Kachigumi:ACollectiveDelusionAmongtheJapaneseandtheirDescendantsinBrazil.
"CanadianPsychiatricAssociationJournal15:2(April,1970),169.
Pp.
167-175.
9ThismeantthatsecretnewspapersfoundawillingaudienceamongthemanyimmigrantseducatedtobelieveinJapan'ssuperiorityandinvincibility.
Ofcourseonedidnothaveto"believe"thatJapanhadwonthewartosupportthesocietiesintheirdemandforaspaceforJapanese-Brazilianethnicity.
Indeed,secretsocietieswereacounter-attackonthewaynationalidentitywasdefined.
ThemostpowerfulwastheShindoRenmei(WayoftheSubjectsoftheEmperor'sLeague)whichemergedinlate1945.
Thesociety'sinitialgoalsweretomaintainapermanentJapanizedspaceinBrazilthroughthepreservationoflanguage,cultureandreligionamongnikkeiandthere-establishmentofJapaneseschools.
22WhattheShindoRenmeididnotpromotewasareturntoJapan.
HomewasBrazilandbytheendof1945thegrouphad50,000memberswhobelieved,orclaimedtobelieve,thatJapanhadwonthewar.
23NewsofJapan'sdefeatwasdismissedasnothingmorethanU.
S.
propagandaandjustaweekafterEmperorHirohitobroadcasthissurrendermessage,theShindoRenmeireleaseditsownstatement:"'EmperorHirohitohasbeenforcedtoabdicateinfavorofaRegent.
.
.
TheImperialcombinedfleethasbeengiventheorderforimmediateaction,andinafuriousbattleinOkinawanwaterstheJapaneseNavyandAirForcedestroyedaboutfourhundredAlliedwarships,thusdecidingthecourseofthewar.
TheJapaneseemployedforthefirsttimetheirsecretweapon,the"HighFrequencyBomb.
"OnlyoneofthebombskilledmorethanonehundredthousandAmericansoldiersonOkinawa.
[Thisledtothe]'unconditionalsurrenderoftheAllies(and)thelandingofJapaneseexpeditionaryforcesintheUnitedStates.
'"24The"news"spreadquicklyandbymid-1946theShindoRenmeiclaimed130,000membersanditspropagandaincludedalteredphotosofPresidentTrumanbowingtoEmperorHirohitoand"press"reportsofJapanesetroopslandinginSanFranciscoandmarchingtowardsNewYork.
25Whenagroupof22HekisuiYoshii,"GokuchKaiko-roku"(MemoriesfromPrison),Manuscript,1948.
CitedintranslationbySusumuMiyaoandJoséYamashiro,"AComunidadeNipnicanoPeríododaGuerra"inComissodeElaboraodaHistóriados80AnosdaImigraoJaponesanoBrasil,UmaEpopéiaModerna:80AnosdaImigraoJaponesanoBrasil(SoPaulo:EditoraHucitec,1992),262.
TranslationofShindoRenmeidocumentscanbefoundin"PerigosaAtividadeNipnicaemSoPaulo"ArquivosdaPolíciaCivildeSoPaulo8:2(1944),567-571.
EmilioWillemsandHiroshiSaito,"ShindoRenmei:UmproblemadeAculturao,"Sociologia9(1947),143.
TwoexcellentstudiesoftheShindoRenmeiandsimilarmovementsareTakashiMaeyama,"Ethnicity,SecretSocietiesandAssociations:TheJapaneseinBrazil,"ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory15(April,1970),589-610andSusumuMiyaoandJoséYamashiro,"AComunidadeEnfrentaumCaossemPrecedentes"inComissodeElaboraodaHistóriados80AnosdaImigraoJaponesanoBrasil,UmaEpopéiaModerna:80AnosdaImigraoJaponesanoBrasil(SoPaulo:EditoraHucitec,1992),265-360.
23SeetranslationofShindoRenmeiobjectivesandstatutesinreportofJooAndréDiasParedestoMajorAntonioPereiraLira(StatePoliceChief,Paraná),30April1949.
SecretariadeEstadodeSeguranaPública,DepartamentodaPolíciaCivil,DivisodeSeguranaeInformaes.
No.
1971-SociedadeTerroristaJaponesa.
ArquivoPúblicoParaná,Curitiba.
MárioBotelhodeMiranda,ShindoRenmei:terrorismoeextorso(SoPaulo:EdioSaraiva,1948),11.
JamesL.
Tigner,"TheOkinawansinLatinAmerica.
"ScientificInvestigationsintheRyukuIsland(SIRI)Report#7.
Washington,D.
C.
:PacificScienceBoard-NationalResearchCouncil,DepartmentofArmy,1954),42.
24ArticlebyJoséYamashiroinPaulistaShinbun29April1947.
TranslatedandreprintedinJamesL.
Tigner,"TheOkinawansinLatinAmerica.
"ScientificInvestigationsintheRyukuIsland(SIRI)Report#7.
Washington,D.
C.
:PacificScienceBoard-NationalResearchCouncil,DepartmentofArmy,1954),44.
25OEstadodeSoPaulo26March1946;CorreiodaManh6April1946;ANoite(RiodeJaneiro)13April1946.
HerculanoNeves,Oprocessoda"Shindo-Renmei"edemaisassociaessecretasjaponesas.
(SoPaulo:np,1960),97,124.
10prominentnikkeicirculatedtheactualsurrenderdocumentstheywereaccusedofbeingtraitorsandthecommunityquicklydividedintotwocamps:thekachigumi(victorist)andmakegumi(MA-KAY-GOOMI)(defeatist)whocalledthemselvesesclarecidosinPortuguese(clear-headedorenlightened).
26WhatbroughttheShindoRenmeitotheattentionofthewiderpublicwasaseriesofkillingsbyyoungpeoplerecruitedtoassassinatecommunitymemberswhopubliclyinsistedthatJapanhaslostthewar.
ThepresssensationgrewstillmorewhencapturedShindoRenmeimembersinsistedthat"Japandidnotlosethewar.
AslongasthereisoneJapaneseonearth,evenifheisthelast,Japanwillneversurrender.
"27NotallnikkeiagreedwiththesetacticsandBrazil'sgovernment,itselfinamomentoftransitionafterVargaswasforcedtoleaveofficein1945,wasequallyconcernedaboutitsinabilitytocontrolthehostilities.
Thus,inmid1946fourhundredShindoRenmeileaderswerearrestedandBraziliandiplomatshadthenewJapanesegovernmentpreparedocumentsoutliningtheAlliedvictory.
Thepapers,however,wereimmediatelydismissedasfalse.
28TheBraziliangovernmenthadanumberofoptionsindealingwiththesituation.
Theycouldhaveignoreditasainternal"Japaneseproblem"sincepoliticalkillingswere,andare,farfromatypicalinBrazil.
Theycouldhavesentoutthearmy,mademassarrests,andimposedmartiallawincommunitieswithlargeJapaneseandnikkeipopulations.
Yetthisisnotwhathappened.
Rather,inJuly1946,oneofBrazil'smostpowerfulpoliticians,JoséCarlosdeMacedoSoares,invitedpolice,militaryofficials,diplomats,andShindoRenmeimembers,includingthoseinjail,toafriendlymeetingattheGovernor'sPalace.
Imaginethescene,oneofthetwoorthreemostimportantpoliticosinBraziltaking400peopleoutofjail,puttingtheminthesameroomwithotherleadersofasecretsocietyclaiming130,000membersandcallingthem"themostimportantpartoftheBrazilianpopulation.
"ThoseintheaudienceunderstoodtherulesofthegameandSachiko(SA-CHKO)Omasalaidoutthedeal:"WeJapanesedonotbelieve.
.
.
inJapan'sdefeat.
IfYourExcellencywanttoendthedisputesandterroristacts,beginbyspreadingwordofJapan'svictoryandorderthatallfalsepropagandaaboutdefeatbestopped.
"29AtthispointMacedoSoarescouldhavedismissedtheShindoRenmeiasabunchofkooksbuthedidnothingofthesort.
InsteadheprohibitednewspapersfrompublishingnewsofJapan'sdefeatandorderedtheterm"unconditionalsurrender"takenoutofallofficialcommunications.
Thekillingsstoppedandlarge-scalenikkeieffortstoraisefundsforJapanesevictimsofthewarhelpedtomarginalizetheextreme"victorist"groups.
Thelastgaspcameinearly1950whentheJapaneseOlympicswimmingchampionsarrivedinBrazil.
Anexhibitionmatchatamajorsoccerarenawasasell-outandincludedthepresenceoftheGovernorofSoPaulo.
Butduringaninterviewtheswimmersexpressedshockwhen26TomooHanda,OImigranteJaponês:HistóriadeSuaVidanoBrasil.
(SoPaulo:T.
A.
Queiroz:CentrodeEstudosNipo-Brasilieros,1987),651-655.
27TomooHanda,OImigranteJaponês:HistóriadeSuaVidanoBrasil.
(SoPaulo:T.
A.
Queiroz:CentrodeEstudosNipo-Brasilieros,1987),673.
28"AsatividadesdassociedadessecretasjaponesaseaaorepressivadapolíciadeSoPaulo,publicadaspelaimpressa.
"ArquivosdaPolíciaCivildeSoPaulo12:2(1946),523-530.
29Informationonthemeetingfrom:AGazeta20July1946,JornaldeSoPaulo20July1946,SusumuMiyaoandJoséYamashiro,"AComunidadeEnfrentaumCaossemPrecedentes"inComissodeElaboraodaHistóriados80AnosdaImigraoJaponesanoBrasil,UmaEpopéiaModerna:80AnosdaImigraoJaponesanoBrasil(SoPaulo:EditoraHucitec,1992),300-305.
11presentedwiththeideathatJapanhadwonthewar.
AsaresulttheremainingShindoRenmeiactivistsbeganapostercampaignclaimingtheswimmerswereKoreansmasqueradingasJapanese.
30Thesuggestionwasludicrousandpublicsupportforthesecretsocietiesended,inlargepartbecauseaspace,albeitacontestedone,fornikkeihademergedinpost-warBrazil.
TodayIhavetriedtoshowhowthediscoursesonBrazilianidentitywerecrackedopenandre-assembledviastrategicnegotiationsofrace,ethnicityandnation.
Byexaminingethnicityasafactorthatmakesnationalidentitycircularandever-changing,Ihavetriedtomoveawayfromthe"elite"/"popular"dichotomythathasdominatedLatinAmericanstudies.
Byexpandingtheblack/whiteorIndian/whiteparadigmsofraceandnation,wecanbetterunderstandwhatitmeansthatthePresidentofPeru,AlbertoFujimori,iscalled"elchinito,"orthatthegolpesledbyArgentineColonelMohammedAlíSeineldínincludedstrongdosesofmillenarianChristianity.
Thequestionremains,however,ifBraziliannationalidentityincludesthoseofnon-EuropeandescentCertainlythenarrownationalparadigmofa"white"or"European"BrazilwasexpandedduringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyasthenotionthatethnicityandBraziliancitizenshipcouldgohandinhandbecameincreasinglyaccepted.
Yetallthistookplacewithinacontextofopenprejudice.
Iamjustbeginninganewresearchprojectthatpicksupwheremypreviousworkhasended.
Byfocussingonpost-WorldWarIIBrazil,Iwanttoseehowethnicitywastransformedduringtheageofindustrialization,hyper-inflationandmilitarydictatorship.
Mypreliminaryworksuggeststhatinmanywayssuccessanddiscriminationgoeshandinhand.
Inthelastfifteenyears,forexample,somequarterofamillionnikkeihavesettledinJapan,andmanyspeakofdiscriminationathomeandasearchforidentityasmotivationsformigration.
Atthesametime,assertionsofwhitenessbyminoritygroupscarrywithitaracismofitsownanditappearsthatastrongfeatureofthepost-warminoritystruggleagainstdiscriminationwasanaggressivemimickingoftheracismofthemajority.
YoumaybeaskingyourselfiftheeventsIhavediscussedtodayaremorethansymbolic.
Forme,theanswerisaresoundingyes.
Inthepost-warperiod,tomarryaBrazilianofJapaneseorMiddleEasterndescentbecameapositive,regardlessoftheclassstatusoftheindividualxinvolved.
TheBrazilianstatepromotesitselfbyusingimagesofcertainethnicgroupsandamajorbankhasadvertiseditselfforthelast25yearswithaclose-upofanikkeiandthecaption"WeneedmoreBrazilianslikethisJapanese.
"Apowerfulfederalpolitician,whoseleftistpoliticsandOkinawanparentsinsurehislackofnikkeisupport,recentlydiscussedhissuccessfulcampaignstrategywithme.
"Ineedtoremindvoters"hetoldme,that"JapanesearethebestpossibleBrazilians:honest,hard-working,andwell-connected.
"ThisisjustthemostrecentformulationofthegreatBrazilianparadox-thatpoliciesconstructedtore-makeBrazilas"white"infactcreatedamulti-culturalsociety.
TodaythenikkeiandSyrian-Lebanesecommunitiesarebroadlysuccessfulintheeconomic,political,militaryandartisticarenas.
BothgroupsseemmorepartoftheBraziliannationthando,forexample,Afro-BraziliansorPolish-Brazilians.
3130FolhadaNoite(SP)21March1950.
TomooHanda,OImigranteJaponês:HistóriadeSuaVidanoBrasil.
(SoPaulo:T.
A.
Queiroz:CentrodeEstudosNipo-Brasilieros,1987),746-752.
31TherearenoreliablestatisticsonSyrian-Lebaneseeconomicacension.
A1995DatafolhasurveyfoundthateightpercentofnikkeifamiliesinSoPaulohadincomesofatleasttenminimunsalaries;overallonlythirtypercenthadsalariesthathigh.
Thesamestudyshowedthatfifty-threepercentofnikkeiadultshaduniversityeducationscomparedtoonlyninepercentoftheoveralladultpopulation.
FolhadeSoPaulo,19October1995.
BorisFausto,OswaldoTruzzi,RobertoGrün,andCéliaSakurai,ImigraoePolíticaemSoPaulo(SoPaulo:EditoraSumaré/FAPESP,1995).
VidaeSanguedePolacko,documentaryfilmdirectedbySilvoBack(Curitiba,Paraná),inColeoSilvioBack,MuseudeImageneSom,SoPaulo,C309/93.
OctavioIanni,RaaseClassesSociasnoBrasil(RiodeJaneiro:EditoraCivilizaoBrasileira,1972),169-198.
12AsIthinkaboutthedifferentstrategiesusedbyminoritygroupstonegotiatetheirBrazilianness,IcannothelpbutberemindedofGrielMarcus'commentthathistoryistheresult"ofmomentsthatseemtoleavenothingbehind,nothingbutthespectralconnectionsofpeoplelongseparatedbyplaceandtime,butsomehowspeakingthesamelanguage.
.
.
"32Theconnectionshereareindeedspectral:WereAsiansandArabswhiteIfAmazonianIndianshaddescendedbiologicallyfromJapaneseandArabancestors,werenewimmigrantsfromAsiaandtheMiddleEastmoreBrazilianthanmostmembersoftheeliteIntheend,Brazilemergedasanationthatismulti-culturalbuthyphenless.
32GreilMarcus,LipstickTraces:ASecretHistoryoftheTwentiethCentury(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1989),4.