product169pp

ReviewExploringtheplanetaryboundaryforchemicalpollutionMiriamL.
Diamonda,,CynthiaA.
deWitb,SverkerMolanderc,MartinScheringerd,e,ThomasBackhausf,RainerLohmanng,RickardArvidssonc,keBergmanh,MichaelHauschildi,IvanHoloubekj,LinnPerssonk,NoriyukiSuzukil,MarcoVighim,CorneliusZetzschnaDepartmentofEarthSciences,UniversityofToronto,22RussellStreet,Toronto,M5S3B1Ontario,CanadabDepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceandAnalyticalChemistry(ACES),StockholmUniversity,SE-10691Stockholm,SwedencEnvironmentalSystemsAnalysis,DepartmentofEnergyandEnvironment,ChalmersUniversityofTechnology,SE-41296Gothenburg,SwedendInstituteforChemicalandBioengineering,ETHZürich,Wolfgang-Pauli-Str.
10,8093Zürich,SwitzerlandeLeuphanaUniversityLüneburg,D-21335Lüneburg,GermanyfDepartmentofBiologicalandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofGothenburg,Box100,SE-40530Gothenburg,SwedengGraduateSchoolofOceanography,UniversityofRhodeIsland,SouthFerryRoad,Narragansett,RI02882,UnitedStateshSwedishToxicologySciencesResearchCenter(Swetox),Forskargatan20,SwedeniDepartmentofManagementEngineering,TechnicalUniversityofDenmark(DTU),NilsKoppelsAllé,Building426D,DK-2800Kgs.
Lyngby,DenmarkjResearchCentreforToxicCompoundsintheEnvironment(RECETOX),FacultyofScience,MasarykUniversity,Kamenice753/5,62500Brno,CzechRepublickStockholmEnvironmentInstitute,Linnégatan87D,Box24218,Stockholm,SwedenlStrategicRiskManagementResearchSection,CenterforEnvironmentalRiskResearch,NationalInstituteforEnvironmentalStudies,16-2Onogawa,Tsukuba,Ibaraki305-8506,JapanmDepartmentofEarthandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofMilanoBicocca,PiazzadellaScienza1,Milan20126,ItalynForschungsstellefürAtmosphrischeChemie,Dr.
Hans-Frisch-Str.
1-3,UniversittBayreuth,D-95448Bayreuth,GermanyabstractarticleinfoArticlehistory:Received14July2014Receivedinrevisedform29January2015Accepted1February2015AvailableonlinexxxxKeywords:PlanetaryboundaryChemicalpollutionChemicalemissionsStockholmConventionTippingpointGlobalthresholdPollutioncontrolsEcosystemhealthprotectionHumanhealthprotectionChemicalmanagementRockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)havewarnedthathumanitymustreduceanthropogenicimpactsdenedbynineplanetaryboundariesif"unacceptableglobalchange"istobeavoided.
Chemicalpollutionwasidentiedasoneofthoseboundariesforwhichcontinuedimpactscoulderodetheresilienceofecosystemsandhumanity.
Thecen-tralconceptoftheplanetaryboundary(orboundaries)forchemicalpollution(PBCPorPBCPs)isthattheEarthhasaniteassimilativecapacityforchemicalpollution,whichincludespersistent,aswellasreadilydegradablechemicalsreleasedatlocaltoregionalscales,whichinaggregatethreatenecosystemandhumanviability.
ThePBCPallowshumanitytoexplicitlyaddresstheincreasinglyglobalaspectsofchemicalpollutionthroughoutachemical'slifecycleandtheneedforaglobalresponseofinternationallycoordinatedcontrolmeasures.
Wesub-mitthatsufcientevidenceshowsstressesonecosystemandhumanhealthatlocaltoglobalscales,suggestingthatconditionsaretransgressingthesafeoperatingspacedelimitedbyaPBCP.
Assuch,currentlocaltoglobalpollutioncontrolmeasuresareinsufcient.
However,whilethePBCPisanimportantconceptualstepforward,atthispointsingleormultiplePBCPsarechallengingtooperationalizeduetotheextremelylargenumberofcom-mercialchemicalsormixturesofchemicalsthatcausemyriadadverseeffectstoinnumerablespeciesandecosys-tems,andthecomplexlinkagesbetweenemissions,environmentalconcentrations,exposuresandadverseeffects.
Aswell,thenormativenatureofaPBCPpresentschallengesofnegotiatingpollutionlimitsamongstsocietalgroupswithdifferingviewpoints.
Thus,acombinationofapproachesisrecommendedasfollows:developindicatorsofchemicalpollution,forbothcontrolandresponsevariables,thatwillaidinquantifyingaPBCP(s)andgaugingprogresstowardsreducingchemicalpollution;developnewtechnologiesandtechnicalandsocialapproachestomitigateglobalchemicalpollutionthatemphasizeapreventativeapproach;coordinatepollutioncontrolandsustainabilityefforts;andfacilitateimplementationofmultiple(andpotentiallydecentralized)controleffortsinvolvingscientists,civilsociety,government,non-governmentalorganizationsandinternationalbodies.
2015ElsevierLtd.
Allrightsreserved.
Contents1.
Introduction92.
Whyaplanetaryboundaryforchemicalpollution103.
Challengesofdeningaplanetaryboundaryforchemicalpollution114.
Stepstowardsglobalchemicalsmanagement12EnvironmentInternational78(2015)8–15Correspondingauthor.
http://dx.
doi.
org/10.
1016/j.
envint.
2015.
02.
0010160-4120/2015ElsevierLtd.
Allrightsreserved.
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirectEnvironmentInternationaljournalhomepage:www.
elsevier.
com/locate/envintAcknowledgments14AppendixA.
Supplementarydata14References141.
IntroductionRockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)presentednineanthropogenicimpactsofglobalrelevance,includingclimatechange,biodiversityloss,anthropogenicchangesofthenitrogenandphosphoruscycles,stratosphericozonedepletion,oceanacidication,globalfreshwateruse,changesinlanduse,atmosphericaerosolloading,andchemicalpol-lution.
Theauthorsproposedthathumanitymaybemovingbeyonda"safeoperatingspace"asthemagnitudeoftheseimpactsapproachesorexceedscertainthresholdsthatrepresenttippingpointsoftheglobalsystemoranaturallimitforprocesseswithoutclearthresholds(so-called"dangerouslevels"intheRockstrmetal.
articles)(Fig.
1).
Asdiscussedindetailbelow,theauthorsdeneda"safeoperatingspace"asthoseglobalconditionsthatallowforcontinuedhumandevelop-ment.
Rockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)challengedtheglobalscienticcommunitytodeterminethese"non-negotiable"thresholdsornaturallimits,whicharescience-basedlimitsoftheEarth'ssystems,reectingconditionsthatarefavorableforhumanlifeandculturaldevelopment,andthentodenehuman-determinedboundariesatanappropriatedistancefromtheselimitsthatallowhumanityto"avoidunacceptableglobalchange"(CarpenterandBennett,2011).
Acriticalgoalofdeningtheboundariesistomovegovernanceandmanagementawayfromapiecemealandsectorialapproach,towardsanintegratedglobalapproachthatisnecessarytoaddressglobalphenomena.
Forchemicalpollution,Rockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)didnotdenethescopeofchemicalsconsidered,naturallimits,oraplanetaryboundary,butstatedthattheseremaintobedetermined.
However,theysuggestedthatpossiblemeasurablecontrolvariablesfornaturallimitscouldbeemissions,concentrationsoreffectsofpersistentorganicpollutants(POPs),plastics,endocrinedisruptors,heavymetalsandnuclearwastes.
Perssonetal.
(2013)addedtothediscussionbysug-gestingthreeconditionsthatmustbemetsimultaneouslyforchemicalpollutiontopresentaglobalthreat.
Hereweconsiderabroadrangeofchemicalsincludingsyntheticorganicsubstancesandmetals,andthoseintentionallyandunintentionallyreleased.
Wedonotconsiderthenutrientsnitrogenandphosphorus,whichareconsideredunderaseparateplanetaryboundary,orsulfates,whichcanalsofallunderan-otherplanetaryboundary(atmosphericaerosolloading).
Alargebodyofprimaryliteratureandnumerousreviewsdocumenttheextentanddiversityofchemicalpollutionandattendantadversehealtheffectstohumansandecosystems(e.
g.
,UNEP,2012;AMAP,2004,2009;Letcheretal.
,2010;WHOandUNEP,2013;interalia).
In-deed,thenumberofscienticstudiesprovidingsuchevidencellsenvi-ronmentaljournalsandconferencehalls.
Examplesofwidespreadeffectsarediminishingpopulationsofwildlife(e.
g.
,Oaksetal.
,2004;Tapparoetal.
,2012;EFSA,2013)andincreasingburdensofhumanclin-icalandsubclinicalillnessrelatedtoenvironmentaltoxicants(WHOandUNEP,2013;GrandjeanandLandrigan,2006;Stillermanetal.
,2008).
Mountingevidencealsoindicatesthattheassessmentofindividualchemicalsisinsufcient,ascomplexmixturesmightcausesignicanttoxiceffects,evenifallindividualchemicalsarepresentonlyatindi-viduallynon-toxicconcentrations,asdiscussedbelow.
Thispatternhasbeenobservedrepeatedlyinabroadrangeofbioassaysatdiffer-entlevelsofcomplexityandfordifferenttypesofchemicals(seere-viewsbyKortenkampetal.
,2007,2009;Kortenkamp,2008;Backhausetal.
,2010;SCENIHRetal.
,2012).
Together,thisevidenceimpliesthatifemissionsofincreasingnumbersandamountsofchemicalscontinueatcurrentandanticipatedincreasingrates(UNEP,2012),concentra-tionsofsuchchemicalsinmanypartsoftheworld,aloneorasmixtures,willpushtheglobalsystembeyondthesafeoperatingspace.
Inturn,reachingthispointwillleadtoerosionofvitalecosystemsandecosys-temservices,andthreatenhumanwell-being.
Somearguethatthispointhasalreadybeenreached(WHOandUNEP,2013;interalia).
Fur-thermore,theboundaryofglobalchemicalpollutioncannotbeignoredbecauseitisinextricablyconnectedtotheotherplanetaryboundariesbythemanifoldimpactsacrossthelife-cycleofchemicalsataglobalscale,e.
g.
,energyandwateruseforextractionandmanufacturing,landusechangethataccompanieswastedisposalwithapotentiallossofbiodiversity.
Thispaperexploresthedenitionsandmeaningof,andargumentsfor,aplanetaryboundaryorboundariesforchemicalpollution(PBCP).
Wediscussthemanychallengesthatindicatethatdeningaboundaryorboundariesforchemicalpollutionisnoteasilywithinreach.
Ourin-tenthereisnottoreproduceorre-summarizeevidenceofwidespreadadverseeffectsduetochemicalpollution.
Rather,wesubmitthatthisevidencepointstotheneedforconsideringaplanetaryboundaryorFig.
1.
Illustrationoftheconceptoftheplanetaryboundary(a)forphenomenawithacleartippingpointorthreshold,wherethesystemmovesintoanewstate,suchasCO2-drivenclimatechange,and(b)withoutatippingpoint,wherethesystemisconstantlyeroded(modiedgurefromRockstrmetal.
(2009a),reprintedwithpermissionoftheStockholmResilienceCenter,StockholmUniversity,Sweden).
Wesuggestthataggregatedchemicalpollutionisillustratedby(b)wherethereisnocleartippingpoint.
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/EnvironmentInternational78(2015)8–15morelikelyboundariesforchemicalpollutiontohelphumanityremainwithintheEarth'ssafeoperatingspace.
Thus,thepapercloseswithrec-ommendationsforstepsthathopefullywillmovehumanitytowardsasafeoperatingspacewithrespecttochemicalpollution.
WestartthediscussionbyacknowledgingthatdeningnaturallimitsandaPBCP(s)ischallengingformanyreasons.
IntheframeworkpresentedbyRockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b),deningaPBCPismoredifcultthanforotherimpacts(e.
g.
forglobalwarming),duetothedif-cultyofidentifyingasingleorafewmeasurablecontrolvariables.
Acontrolvariableisdened,accordingtoRockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b),asameasureableparameterthatcanberelatedtoaspecicplanetaryboundary,e.
g.
,atmosphericCO2ortemperatureforglobalwarming.
However,agreeingononeormorecontrolvariablesforchemicalpollutionischallengingbecausechemicalpollutioniscausedbyanenormousnumberofchemicalsemittedfrominnumerablesourcesandinextremelydifferentamountsindifferentregionsoftheworld.
Inthesameway,theresponsevariableisdifculttodeneandmeasureinaclear-cutway,sincechemicalscauseawidevarietyofad-verseeffectsinasimilarlywidevarietyofspecies,includinghumans.
Thelinkstotherelatedboundaryofbiodiversityareevident(Steffenetal.
,2015).
ThecriticalpointisthattheEarth'sassimilativecapacity,orthenumberandcapacitiesofthesinkscapableofdegradingorimmobilizinganthropogenically-releasedchemicals,islimitedatthegloballevel,evenforreadilybiodegradablechemicals.
2.
WhyaplanetaryboundaryforchemicalpollutionSeveralpolicyinstrumentsaimedatcontrollingchemicalpollutionhavebeendevelopedandareinvaryingdegreesofimplementation(TableS1).
HowdoesaPBCPdifferfromexistinginstrumentsforchem-icalmanagementandhoworwhymightitbeusefulratherthanredun-dantInordertoanswerthesequestionswerstexpandontheconceptofplanetaryboundariesanda"safeoperatingspace"introducedbyRockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)andthenmovetoputaPBCPintothecontextofexistinginstrumentsforchemicalsmanagement.
Rockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)identiedthatseveralEarthpro-cessesandsubsystemsbehavenon-linearly,withthresholdsthat,oncecrossed,couldtipthemintonew,undesirablestates.
Fortheseprocess-es,asharp"tippingpoint"mayexistbeyondwhichthesystemmaytransitionintoaqualitativelydifferentstage,suchasmuchmorerapidglobalwarmingatCO2concentrationsaboveacertainvalue(Fig.
1a).
ExamplesofEarthsystemswithsuchglobalthresholdsortippingpointsincludetheglobalclimateandoceanacidication(e.
g.
,Lentonetal.
,2008;Doneyetal.
,2009,2014).
Theplanetaryboundarycanthenbesetatalevelsomewherebelowthetippingpoint.
Otherprocessesandsubsystemsmaynothavesharpthresholds(Fig.
1b),buttheircontinuederosionordepletionatcontinentaltoglob-alscalesmaycausefunctionalcollapseinanincreasingnumberofglob-allyinterconnectedsystems.
Here,examplesarefreshwateruse,landusechangeandlossofbiodiversity(May,1977;Gertenetal.
,2013;Barnoskyetal.
,2012;Brooketal.
,2013).
Forthese,theplanetarybound-arycanbesetatalevelwheretheriskoffunctionalcollapseisdeemedacceptablylow.
Inaggregate,planetaryboundariesmaythusbedenedasasetofcriticalvaluesforoneorseveralcontrolvariablesdenedbyhumanstobeatasafedistancefromsuchthresholdsordangerouslevels(ifnothresholdisevident)that,ifcrossed,couldleadtoabruptglobalenvironmentalchange.
Thedomainbelowtheboundarycanbeconsidereda"safeoperatingspace".
Althoughtheintentionwastodeneplanetaryboundariesforsys-temsorprocessesaffectingtheEarthattheglobalscale,Rockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)recognizedthatmanyoftheidentiedboundarieshavethresholdsthataremoreevidentatlocaland/orregionalscaleswheredisturbanceisconcentratedortheaffectedecosystemismoresensitive.
Thesewereidentiedas"slowprocesseswithoutknownglobalscalethresholds".
Assuch,theybecomeaglobalproblemwhentheyoccuratmanysitesatthesametime,aggregatingtoalevelthatunderminestheresilienceofecosystemsorthatadverselyaffectshumanhealth.
Inturn,theseeffectswouldmakeitmorelikelythatathresholdwithglobalconsequenceswillbecrossed.
Examplesincludebiodiversityloss,landusechange,globalnitrogenandphosphorusbio-geochemicalcycles,andchemicalpollution(Erismanetal.
,2013;Hooperetal.
,2012;DiazandRosenberg,2008).
Slowprocesseswithoutglobalthresholdsmayalsoexerttheireffectsbyaffectingotherplane-taryboundaries(Voeroesmartyetal.
,2010;Lenzenetal.
,2012;Steffenetal.
,2015).
Forexample,chemicalpollutioncanincreasethevulnerabilityofecosystemstospecieslossandland-usechange,notablydeforestation,canincreaseterrestrial-basedchemicalloadingstosur-facewaters.
Thedistancebetweentheplanetaryboundaryandthethresholdornaturallimitideallydependsontheuncertaintythatsurroundsthescienticknowledgeaboutthethresholdornaturallimit(Fig.
2).
Iftheuncertaintyishigh,alargerdistancebetweenthethresholdandtheboundaryisadvisable.
Fortheplanetaryboundarieswherecriticallimitswereestimated,mostofthesecouldbebasedononeortwospeciccontrolvariables,suchasatmosphericCO2concentrationsandradiativeforcingforcli-matechange.
Mostoftheplanetaryboundariesthatwerequantiedarepreliminary,roughestimateswithlargeuncertaintiesandforwhichknowledgegapswereacknowledged.
Althoughsomepreliminaryboundarieshavebeenproposed,Rockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)pointedoutthenormativequalityofa"safe"distance,asitisbasedonhowsocietiesdealwithriskanduncertainty.
Bynormativewemeanthatdecisionsonwhatconstitutesa"safeoperatingspace"aresocietaldecisions,supportedbyscienticevidence.
Thisimpliesthatthediversityofviewpointsheldbydifferentsocietalgroupshastobeheardinordertocometoadecisiononwhatconstitutesasafeoperatingspace.
WhatdoesthePBCPofferthatexistingpollutioncontrolinstrumentslackTheplanetaryboundaryconceptallowsustoexplicitlyaddresstheglobalaspectsofchemicalpollution.
Byrecognizingtheglobalnatureofchemicalpollution,includingaggregatedlocaleffectsorwheredis-tanceseparatesemissionsfromeffects,wehighlighttheneedforanin-tegratedglobalresponseandacknowledgethatpollutioncontrolactivitiesoflocaltonationalentitiesalone,areinsufcient.
Fig.
2.
Illustrationofwhereglobalimpactsarelocatedwithrespecttothesafeoperatingspace.
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/EnvironmentInternational78(2015)8–15Chemicalpollutionisaglobalissue.
Severalgroupsofchemicalsaredistributedaroundtheglobebyvirtueoftheirpersistenceandabil-itytoundergolong-rangetransport,forexamplechlorouorocarbons(CFCs)andpersistentorganicpollutants(POPs).
Others,suchashigh-production-volumemetals,whichareinherentlypersistent,areusedandemittedgloballybecauseoftheirhighproductionvolumes,globaltradeandwidespreaduseinabroadrangeofapplications.
Additionally,theglobaleconomyisundergoingchemical"intensication",asde-scribedbytheUNEP"GlobalChemicalsOutlook"analysis(UNEP,2013).
Chemicalintensicationisduetorapidlyincreasingglobalpro-ductionofchemicals(WilsonandSchwarzman,2009),totheincreasinguseofsyntheticsubstancestoreplacenaturalmaterials,andtotheuseofincreasinglycomplexchemicalsinmoreandmoreapplications.
Chemicalintensicationispredictedtoleadtoincreasingper-capitachemicalusageamongstagrowingglobalpopulation(UNEP,2013).
Inaddition,chemicalproductchains,whichspanthelife-cyclestagesfromresourceextractiontoproductmanufacturing,useanddis-posal,areincreasingincomplexity,oftencoveringseveralcontinentsanddecadesoftime,andoffernewchallengestopollutioncontrol.
Forexample,chemicalproductiontodaycanresultinfutureemissions,par-ticularlyforchemicalsininfrastructureandgoodswithlonglifetimes.
BrunnerandRechberger(2001)haveestimatedthatwhereas~10%ofallchemicalstocksarecontainedinwastedepositsfromprimarypro-ductionand~10%arecontainedinlandlledwaste,~80%arecontainedinin-useand"hibernating"stocks.
Mostdocumentationofuncontrolledreleasesconcernsthetwoformersources(i.
e.
,20%)butnotthe80%instocks(e.
g.
,BrunnerandRechberger,2001;Weberetal.
,2013;interalia).
Examplesofthe"20%"includelong-termemissionsfromtailings,wasterockpiles,nuclearwasterepositories,abandonedindustrialsites,andnumerouslandllsindevelopingcountries(Turketal.
,2007;Torresetal.
,2013;Weberetal.
,2011).
Oneexampleoflong-termemissionsfromanin-usechemicalstock(i.
e.
,the"80%")isthatofpolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCBs,listedasaPOPundertheStockholmConvention)fromequipmentthatwasstillinuseinCanadain2006despitethebanonPCBproductionnearly40yearsago(Diamondetal.
,2010;Csiszaretal.
,2013).
AnotherexampleisthatofCFCscontainedinblownbuildinginsulationthatissubjecttouncon-trolledreleasesasthegenerationofbuildingsusingthatfoamun-dergoesrenovationordestructionoverthenext30years(BrunnerandRechberger,2001).
Similarapplicationpatternsofchemicaltechnologiesandsimilarusesofchemicalproductsinalmostallregionsoftheworldresultinwidespreadchemicalreleases.
ChemicalmanufacturingandindustrialusagearerapidlyshiftingfromWesternindustrializedcountriestode-velopingcountriesandcountrieswitheconomiesintransition,includ-ingBRICScountries(Brazil,Russia,andespeciallyIndiaandChina,andmostrecentlySouthAfrica)(UNEP,2013).
Newandincreasingresourceextractionandchemicalmanufacturing,usageandwastedisposalareleadingtoincreasedchemicalpollution,particularlyinjurisdictionswithinsufcientcontrolmechanisms(Schmidt,2006;GottesfeldandCherry,2011).
Short-livedchemicalsarealsobeingreleasedinmanyregionsatratesthatexceeddegradationratesandhenceenviron-mentalassimilativecapacities.
Examplesofsuchchemicalsincludepharmaceuticals,highproductionvolumeplasticsandplasticizerssuchasbisphenolAanddi-esterphthalates,and"D4"and"D5"silox-anes(e.
g.
,WHOandUNEP,2013;Kolpinetal.
,2002;Rosi-Marshalletal.
,2013;PeckandHornbuckle,2004;Frommeetal.
,2002;FriesandMihajlovic,2011;Wangetal.
,2013).
Aspointedoutabove,theglobalnatureofchemicalpollutiondemandsaglobalresponseofinternationallycoordinatedcontrolmeasures,inadditiontomultiplelocal,regionalandnationaleffortscoveringdifferentgroupsofsubstances,whicharedisconnectedintimeandspace.
OneexampleofaglobalgovernanceinstrumentistheStockholmConventiononpersistentorganicpollutants(POPs),whichseekseliminationatbest,ormorebroadly,thesoundmanage-mentofasetofPOPsagreeduponthroughinternationalnegotiations(StockholmConvention,2008).
Whileachievingmanysuccesses(StockholmConvention,2012),theConventionislimitedtoasmallnumberofchemicalsorchemicalclasses(currently23arelisted,withfourmoreunderreview),includesnumerousexemptions,andhasnoinstrumentforsanctionstoensurenationalimplementation.
ThesmallnumberofchemicalscoveredisnotashortcomingoftheConven-tionbecausetheintentionoftheConventionisnottoaddressthetotal-ityofchemicalpollution.
Assuch,theStockholmConventionisnotadequateforthechallengepresentedbydevelopingaPBCP.
Similarly,theMontrealProtocolislimitedtosubstancesthatdepletethestrato-sphericozonelayer(UNEP,2010–2011)andtheMinamataConventionislimitedtomercury(UNEP,2015).
TheConventiononLong-rangeTransboundaryAirPollution,undertheaegisoftheUnitedNationsEco-nomicCommissionforEuropeandtowhichthereare51parties,ad-dressesarangeofchemicalpollutantsincludingmetalsandPOPs(UNECE,2004).
AnotherexampleofaglobalgovernancetoolistheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChangewhereglobalnegotiationsandagreementshaveledtoreductiongoalsforgreenhousegasesthatareintendedtobeimplementedatnationallevels(UNFCCC,2013).
In-ternationalclimatenegotiationshaveseentheemergenceofcontrolin-strumentsoflargelytwotypes.
TherstisanabsolutelimitfortotalCO2-equivalentemissions(a"cap")toassurethattotalglobalemissionsareontargettopreventtheglobalatmosphericCO2concentrationex-ceedinganagreed-uponboundary.
ThesecondtypeofcontrolschemelinksemissionstoactivityorintensitysuchasCO2-equivalentemissionsperunitofelectricitygeneratedorperkilometerdriven,ortoaneco-nomiccostresultinginreductionsofCO2-equivalentemissions/capita(AzarandRodhe,1997;EllermanandSueWing,2003).
Theseintensity-orefciency-basedemissioncontrolsacknowledgetheneedtoreducegreenhousegasemissionsbutcannotensurethatglobalemissionsarewithintheglobalsafeoperatingspacebecauseofpopulationandeco-nomicgrowththatincreasethedemandforenergyservices,mostofwhicharebasedonfossilfuels(IEA,2014).
ImplicitintheconceptofasafeoperatingspaceforCO2andothergreenhousegases,oceanacidication,nitrogenandphosphoruscycles,and"chemicalpollution",isthatthereisaniteglobalassimilativecapacity.
Herewedeneassimilativecapacityastheabilityofanecosys-temtorendersubstancesharmless,i.
e.
avoidingadverseeffects.
Bysee-ingtheprobleminthislight,itleadsustowardsexploringtheneedforagloballycoordinatedcapforemissions,ratherthanjurisdiction-specic,intensity-basedcontrols,whichmaybesufcientinsomecircum-stancesbutfailtoaccountforcumulative,globaleffects.
3.
ChallengesofdeningaplanetaryboundaryforchemicalpollutionMovingtheideaofaPBbeyondaconceptualmodelrequiresthattheimpactofananthropogenicstressor(s)onallecosystemscanbede-scribedandquantiedasafunctionofameasurablecontrolvariable(s)thatis(are)relatedtoameasurableresponsevariable(s).
ForaPBCP,theultimateeffectorresponsevariable(Fig.
1)subjecttocontroliswidespreadadverseimpact(s)toecologicaland/orhumanhealthcausedbyexposureto(a)substance(s).
Exposurecanbeidenti-edasthecriticalcontrolvariablesinceitisthenecessaryprerequisiteforanykindofchemicallyinducedeffectorresponsewewanttosafe-guardagainst.
Ideally,chemicalexposurecanbeusedtodeneathreshold(s)ornaturallimit(s)that,inturn,canbetranslatedintoaglobalboundary(boundaries)andasafeoperatingspace.
Asnotedabove,theboundary(boundaries)is(are)establishedbyhumansandis(are)aproductofsocietaldemands,needs,valuejudgmentsandne-gotiations.
Thecontrolvariable(s)mustalsobeamenabletotranslationintopossiblemitigationorcontrolactivities,whichinthiscasewouldreduceexposureand,thus,wouldmaintainhumanandecosystemhealthwithinthesafeoperatingspace,thelatterreectedinmaintainedbiodiversity,ecosystemfunctionalityandhumanhealth.
11M.
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First,operationalizing"exposure"asthecontrolvariableisdifcultbecauseofthehighandpoorlydenednumberofchemicalsthatfallundertheumbrellaof"chemicalpollution".
Morethan100,000substancesareincommerce(Egeghyetal.
,2012),includingpesticides,biocidesandpharmaceuticals,industrialchemicals,buildingmaterialsandsub-stancesinpersonalcareproductsandcosmetics(e.
g.
,HowardandMuir,2010,2011;ECHA,2013)andveryfewofthemhaveundergoneadequateriskassessmentforadverseeffects.
Arecentscreeningof95,000chemicalsforpersistence(P),bioaccumulation(B)andtoxic-ity(T)properties(REACHcriteria)identied3%orapproximately3000chemicalsaspotentialPBTchemicals(uncertaintyrangeof153–12,500chemicals)(Strempeletal.
,2012).
Similarly,93,000chemicalswerescreenedforP,BandlongrangetransportpotentialaccordingtotheStockholmConventioncriteria,plusT(REACHcriteria)resultingintheidenticationof510potentialPOPs(uncertaintyrangeof190–1200chemicals)(Scheringeretal.
,2012).
Unintentionallyproducedsub-stances,suchasthecombustionby-productspolycyclicaromatichydro-carbons(PAHs)andpolychlorinatedandpolybrominateddibenzo-p-dioxinsandfurans(PCDD/FandPBDDs/Fs),areemittedasaconse-quenceofhumanactivityandmanyemittedchemicalsaretransformedtoamultitudeofotherchemicalsbybiologicalandphysical–chemicalprocesses.
Whereassomelimitshavebeenplacedonafewselectedchemicalsthatarehighlypersistent,bioaccumulativeandtoxicsuchasPCDD/F,thosewithintermediatePBTpropertieshavereceivedinsuf-cientattention(MuirandHoward,2006;HowardandMuir,2010;Scheringeretal.
,2012).
Inaddition,anenormousnumberoforganismsinadiversityofecosystemsareexposedtochemicalpollution(whichisinvariablyacomplexchemicalmixture)andtheywillrespondinmyri-adways.
Moreover,chemicalshavespecicmodesofactionsandcanshowverydifferenttoxicologicalpotencies.
Humanstakeaspecicplaceamongstaffectedorganisms.
AnyapproachtoestablishingaPBCP(s)mustincludeimpactsonhumanhealth,evenifthisisincon-trasttotheframeworkofRockstrmetal.
(2009a,2009b)ofwhichtheobjectsofprotectionarebiogeochemicalsystemsandecosystems,e.
g.
,theclimatesystem,theozonelayer,andfreshwater.
Second,weacknowledgethatboundariesforchemicalpollutionhavebeendevelopedataglobalscaleforCFCs,POPsandmercury,andatlocalandregionalscalesforchemicalsinfoods,waterandair(TableS1).
However,onlyafewoftheseboundariesaccountforexpo-suretomultiplechemicalssimultaneouslythatcanactinanadditivefashion.
Movingbeyondachemical-by-chemicalapproachtoacknowl-edgemixtureeffectsisofgrowingimportanceiflimitsaretobeprotec-tive(e.
g.
,Kortenkamp,2007;Kortenkampetal.
,2007;Backhausetal.
,2010;Meeketal.
,2011;SCENIHRetal.
,2012).
Anincreasingbodyofev-idencesuggeststhat,defacto,theexistingboundariesarenotsufcient-lyprotectiveforendocrinedisruptingchemicalsthatcancausetransgenerationaleffects(e.
g.
,BaccarelliandBollati,2009;BollatiandBaccarelli,2010;Bouwmanetal.
,2012;Manietal.
,2012;WHOandUNEP,2013;interalia).
Thisisnotsurprisingsinceacceptedandvalidat-edmethodsforidentifyingandtestingendocrinedisruptingchemicals,particularlyafterexposureduringcriticalearlylifestages,aregenerallylackingorhavenotyetbeenimplementedinchemicalriskassessment(WHOandUNEP,2013;interalia).
Third,connectingexposureasthecontrolvariabletoan"action-able"activity(suchascontrollingemissions)isdifcultbecauseofthediversityoffateandtransformationprocessesatplaybetweenaninitialemissionofachemicalorachemicalmixtureandtheconcentration(s)resultinginexposureandthenanadverseeffect.
Establishingtherelease-fate-concentration-effectlinkageisnecessaryforotherplanetaryboundariessuchasCO2,stratosphericozone,phos-phorusandnitrogencycles.
Establishingthislinkageforchemicalpollu-tionisalsonecessarybutitismorechallengingbecauseofthelargenumberofchemicalsofvaryingpersistenceandtoxicitythatarecap-turedbythisboundary.
Finally,inadditiontothescienticchallengesofdeningaboundary(s),itmustberememberedthatmostoftheworld'scountriesdonothavethecapacityorresourcestomeasureacontrolvariablesuchasexposureandtoimplementeffectivecontrolssuchasthoselistedinTableS1(e.
g.
,Klanovaetal.
,2009;Adu-Kumietal.
,2012).
Further-more,asnotedabove,aboundaryisnormativeandassuch,adiversityofviewpointswillbeheldonwhatconstitutesan"acceptable"levelofpollution.
Thecombinationofnumeroussubstanceswithdifferentuseandemissionpatterns,affectingamultitudeofdifferentendpointsinaplethoraofexposedspeciesinthevastlydifferentecosystemsoftheworld,plusconsiderationofhumanhealth,makesthederivationofasinglequantitativePBCPormultiplePBCPsadaunting,ifnotimpossibletask.
However,thesituationofincreasingchemicalproduction,emis-sionsandadverseeffectscannotbeallowedtocontinueunabated.
Thus,webelievethattheconceptofaplanetaryboundaryorboundariesforchemicalpollutionisausefulframeworkforglobalaction,butthatitneedstobemodiedtoaccountforthesecomplexitiesandchallenges.
4.
StepstowardsglobalchemicalsmanagementAlthoughitmaynotbepossibletoestablishasingleorevenmultiplePBCP(s)atthistime,anincreasingbodyofevidencestronglysuggeststhatweneedmoreeffectiveglobalchemicalsmanagement.
WhathasbeenaccomplishedinglobalchemicalsmanagementGlobalcoopera-tionamongstnationshas,amongstothers,resultedintheStockholmConventiononPOPs,theMontrealProtocolonCFCs,theBaselConven-tiononControlofTransboundaryMovementsofHazardousWastes,andtheRotterdamConventiononthePriorInformedConsentProce-dureforCertainHazardousChemicalsandPesticidesinInternationalTrade.
TheseMultilateralEnvironmentalAgreementshavecometo-getherundertheaegisofUNEP.
TheStockholmandMontrealagree-mentsstrivetowardszero-emissionsofthelistedchemicals.
InJanuary2013,UNEPbrokeredtheMinamataConventiononmercury,thelanguageofwhichhasgainedsupportfrom94signatorycountries(UNEP,2015).
TheMinamataConventionspeciesthebanningofpro-duction,exportandimportofarangeofmercury-containingproducts,callsforthedraftingofstrategiestolimittheuseofmercuryinartisanalandsmall-scalegoldmining,andaimstoworktowardsminimizingmercuryemissionsfromcombustionsourcessuchasconventionalfossilfuelpowerplantsandcementfactories.
LiketheStockholmConvention,theMinamataConventionincludestheprovisiontodevelopacompli-ancemechanismthatwillbeestablishedthroughnegotiationaftertheofcialsigningoftheConvention.
Theseveagreementsaddressprioritychemicalpollutantsattheglobalscale,reecttheinsightthatglobaldilutionisnotthesolutiontolocalorglobalpollution,andthatenvironmentalsafeguardsaretherightofallcountries.
Wellover100countrieshaveadoptedthem(ex-ceptforthemostrecentMinamataConvention),whichinitselfisagreataccomplishment.
However,theseagreementshavelimitationsduetonumerousofcialexemptionsandunofcial"loopholes",theycoveronlyalimitednumberofchemicals,implementationcostsarelargelylefttoindividualcountriesofwhichmanylacksuchcapacity,andsanctionscannotbeleviedforalackofcompliance.
Assuch,theseagreementsarenotadequatetoaddressthetotalityofchemicalpollu-tion(whichhasneverbeentheirintent).
Importantly,thefactthattheseagreementshavebeenenactedisareectionthathumanityhascomeclosetoorcrossedboundariesforthesechemicals.
APBCPpro-videsanoverarchingconceptualbasistocharacterizetheachievementsoftheseagreementsandtoaccommodateadditionalnecessarycontrols.
ForchemicalslistedbytheStockholmandMinamataConventionsandtheMontrealProtocol,theplanetaryboundaryissetatademinimuslevel(ideallyzeroemissionsbutexemptionsoftenprecludethis).
Inadditiontothezeroemissionsboundary,severalothertypesofboundarieshavebeendenedduringthepastdecadesundermanyjurisdiction-specicregulationsandinitiativesspanninglocalto12M.
L.
Diamondetal.
/EnvironmentInternational78(2015)8–15nationalscales.
Examplesofsuchinitiatives,assummarizedinTableS1,whichcomefrominternationalagencies,Europe,Japan,NorthAmerica,China,IndiaandNigeria,includelimitstolevelsofpesticidesinground-waterandsurfacewater,levelsofprioritypollutantsinsurfacewaters,andacceptabledailyintakes(ADIs)forawiderangeoffoodcontami-nants.
However,asnotedabove,notalloftheseagenciesareabletomonitorfor,andenforcecompliance.
AnothermajorglobalinitiativeistheStrategicApproachtoInterna-tionalChemicalsManagement(SAICM),whichisalsoundertheaegisofUNEP.
TheultimategoalofSAICMistofacilitateactivitiestoensurethat"…chemicalswillbeproducedandusedinwaysthatminimizesigni-cantadverseimpactsontheenvironmentandhumanhealth"(SAICM,2006).
TheroleofSAICMisadvisorybyactingasasourceofinformationtogovernmentalandextra-governmentalbodiesregardingsafechemi-calmanagementandfundingprojectstofullltheaimoftheinitiative.
SAICMisanon-bindingagreementwithbroadparticipationofcountriesandotherstakeholderssuchasthechemicalindustry.
Incomparisontothevemultilateralenvironmentalagreements,SAICMismuchbroaderinscopebyaddressingallagriculturalandindustrialchemicalsfromcradletograve,aimingatoverallsoundchemicalsmanagement.
How-ever,SAICMdoesnothaveacompliancemechanism.
Tomovetowardsatrulyglobalapproachencompassingtheaggre-gatedimpactsfromallanthropogenicchemicalpollution,weneedtolearnfromexperienceandbuildonsuccesses(andfailures).
WhatarethekeylessonslearnedOnelessonlearnedisthatimplementationofstringentcontrolsbyspecicjurisdictionshasledtoimprovedlocalcon-ditionsinthosejurisdictions.
However,increasedglobaltradeandtheuidityofglobalnancehavemovedmorechemicalandgoodsproduc-tionandwastedisposaltolocationswithoutstringentcontrols(e.
g.
,Skeltonetal.
,2011;Breiviketal.
,2011;Sindikuetal.
,2014).
Thus,oneintentionofaglobalboundaryisavoiding"pollutionfree"ju-risdictionsattheexpenseofcreating"pollutionhavens"indevelopingnations(e.
g.
Gottesfeld,2013).
Examplesofdevelopednationsachiev-ingtheirpollutioncontrolgoalsbyshippingwasteandwasteproductstodevelopingnationshavebeendescribedelsewhere(Schmidt,2006;Breiviketal.
,2011,2014;Gioiaetal.
,2011;Abdullahetal.
,2013).
Asecondlessonlearnedisthatdespitethechallenges,asscien-tistsweneedtoavoidcallingformorescienticcertaintybeforeac-tionistakenasthisdelaysadoptionofcontrolmeasures,whichinthiscasetranslatestomeasuresthatwillhelpstemwidespreadchemicalpollution.
Geeandothers(Gee,2006;Geeetal.
,2013;Harremosetal.
,2001)havedocumentedexamplesofwherethecallformoreresearchtoimproveriskassessmentsofchemicalsoftenledtodelaysinactionofuptoseveraldecadesalthoughearlywarningsofadverseeffectswerealreadyapparent(e.
g.
tobaccosmokingandasbestos).
Perssonetal.
(2013)provideapersuasiveargumentinthisregard.
Asaresultoftheseconsiderations,wesubmitthatthePBCPisause-fulaspirationalframeworkthatallowsnaturalandsocialscientists,pol-icymakers,industryandcivilsocietytovisualizetheideaofasafeoperatingspace,seethelimitedassimilativecapacityoftheEarth,rec-ognizechemicalpollutionataglobalscale,andseetheinadequacyofcurrentcontrolmeasurestodealwiththetotalityofglobalchemicalpollution.
Havingsaidthat,werecognizethatdeningasingleormul-tiplequantitativePBCP(s),orevenasingleapproachforitsdenition,isnotnowwithinreach.
Rather,werecommendadvancinginmultipledirectionsthatinvolvegloballycoordinatedactioninscientic,techni-calandpoliticaldomains(e.
g.
,Conklin,2005;HornandWeber,2007).
Forthescienticdomainweproposethefollowing:1.
Exploreadvancingtheconceptof,andmethodsforquantifyingaPBCP(s).
Weadvocatemakingstepwiseprogressusingafewwell-knownchemicalssuchasPOPs,intermediatePBTchemicals(demon-stratedtoxicitybutmoderatepersistence,andhighpersistencebutasyetincompletelycharacterizedtoxicity),andafewhighproduc-tionvolumechemicalswithdemonstratedtoxicity.
2.
Continuetoidentifyanddevelopindicatorsofglobalchemicalpollu-tion,initiallybasedonproxiesforchemicalexposureandpotency.
In-formationonindicatorstatusshouldthenbeusedtogaugeprogresstowardsstayingwithinthesafeoperatingspaceforchemicalpollu-tion.
UsefulinformationtoguidethistaskcanbetakenfromtheDrivers,Pressures,States,Impacts,Responses(DPSIR)approach(OECD,1991;Harremos,1998),andsuggestionsofhowthiscouldbeaccomplishedaregivenintheSupplementaryMaterial.
Thispro-posalbuildsontheglobalmonitoringnetworksthathaveachievedconsiderablesuccesssuchasthoseundertheStockholmConvention(e.
g.
,theGlobalAtmosphericPassiveSamplingnetworkorGAPS(Gaworetal.
,2014)andHumanmilksurvey(UNEPetal.
,2013)).
3.
Conductresearchinto,andpromoteadoptionof,newtechnologiesandmethodsthatwillaidinimplementingthegoalsofthesixglobalmultilateralenvironmentalagreements(MontrealProtocol;Stockholm,Minamata,Rotterdam,BaselandUNECELRTAPConven-tions)andinloweringproductionandemissionsofnon-POPprioritychemicals.
Thisresearchincludesmethodsforidentifyingandchar-acterizingstocksofchemicalsscheduledforelimination,developingtechnologiesforefcientandeffectivedestructionofstockpiles,re-searchintosocietalandculturalconsiderationsthatwillmaximizethelikelihoodofpolicyimplementation,etc.
4.
ConnectactivitiesaimedatchemicalpollutioncontrolinthecontextofPBCPtoeffortsaimedatmovingtowardssustainableresourceuse.
Thisshouldincludeinvestigatingwaystochemically"de-intensify"economies,touse"greenchemistry"substitutesandnon-chemicalsolutions,andtoimplementsocialsolutionsaimedatreducingre-sourceconsumption.
Effortsareunderwayinthisregard,suchastheU.
S.
EPA'sDesignfortheEnvironmentProgram(U.
S.
EPA,2014)andtheGreenScreenforSaferChemicals(CleanProductionAction,2015).
Thesetwoissues,PBCPandsustainableresourceuse,areintertwinedsuchthatchemicalpollutionisamanifestationofunsustainableandinefcientresourceuse.
Thus,effortsdirectedto-wardsachievingbothgoalswouldbenetfromcoordinatedaction.
ProgressingtowardsaPBCPwillrequirescientic,political,socialandeconomicstrategies.
Inthepoliticaldomain,itwillbeimportanttoraisemoreawarenessforchemicalpollutionproblemsinallpartsoftheworld,andtoaidindividualcountriesinimplementingexistinglocalandregionalboundariesandinternationalagreements.
TheshiftofchemicalproductionfromOECDcountriesprimarilytotheBRICScountriesneedstobecomplementedbyaprocessthathelpstodevelopchemicalregulationandenforcementintheseregionstoalevelsimilarorbetterthanthatofOECDcountries.
Toaddresstheseneeds,organizationsatthegloballevelsuchasWHOandUNEPcanbedriversforeffectiveexchangeandcollaborationamongstthepublic,environmentalNGOs,industryandnationalgov-ernmentinstitutionstoenablesignicantpollutioncontrol.
Civilsocietyandlocaljurisdictionsalsohaveandcontinuetoimplementeffectivepollutioncontrolsusingavarietyoftools.
ExampleshereincludetheactivitiesoftheInternationalPOPsEliminationNetwork(IPEN),thePes-ticidesActionNetwork(PAN),andC40Citiesfor"GlobalLeadershiponClimateChange"(C40Cities,2013).
Inclosing,50yearsagoRachelCarsonpointedoutforthersttimethattheextensiveuseofpesticidesisdangerousnotonlytowildlife,butalsotohumans.
Thisisstillanongoingconcern,emphasizedbytherecentndingthatneonicotinoidpesticidesarecontributingtothemassivecollapseofbeepopulations(Tapparoetal.
,2012;Henryetal.
,2012;Whitehornetal.
,2012).
NowweneedtogobeyondRachelCarson'sclarioncallaboutpesticides.
Today'sphenomenonoflocallytogloballydistributedchemicalsthatarecausingadverseeffectsde-mandsthatawiderangeofchemicalproductsandusesberestrainedandmanychemicalsincommerceneedtobeusedwithmuchmoreprudenceandprecaution.
Itistimetoharnesstheknowledge,capacityandcommitmentheldbymanytoseeRachelCarson'svisionmovedtoatrulyglobalscale.
13M.
L.
Diamondetal.
/EnvironmentInternational78(2015)8–15AcknowledgmentsTheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgenancialsupportbytheSwedishResearchCouncilFORMAS(grantno.
2011-2171)andtheInternationalPanelonChemicalPollution,whichfundedaworkshoponthistopic.
AppendixA.
SupplementarydataSupplementarydatatothisarticlecanbefoundonlineathttp://dx.
doi.
org/10.
1016/j.
envint.
2015.
02.
001.
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