DIRECTORATE-GENERALFOREXTERNALPOLICIES

POLICYDEPARTMENTEP/EXPO/B/INTA/FWC/2016/10ENNovember2016-PE578.
025EuropeanUnion,2016STUDYEUtradepolicyandthewildlifetradeABSTRACTThewildlifetradeisoneofthemostlucrativetradesintheworld.
ThelegaltradeintotheEUaloneisworthEUR100billionannually,whiletheglobalillegalwildlifetradeisestimatedtobeworthbetweenEUR8and20billionannually.
Thetradeishighlycomplexanditslegalandillegalformsareoftenconnected.
Theillegalwildlifetradecannotbetackledviatheuseoftradepolicyalone;insteadtradeinstrumentsneedtobeusedinconjunctionwithbroadermeansofaddressingthewiderangeofreasonswhywildlifeistradedillegallyfirstplace.
Thisincludestheneedtoreducepovertyandinequalityinsourcecountries,demandreductioninconsumercountriesandtacklingcorruption,organisedcrime,poorenforcementandlowpenaltiesinmanysource,transitandendusermarkets.
TheEUisalsofacingsomenewchallengesinthelegalandillegalwildlifetrade,emanatingfromthegrowthofe-commerce,expansionofprivatemailingcentresandthegrowthofcontainerisation.
TheEUalreadyhasastrongtrackrecordinpromotingalegalandsustainabletrade,whilealsoattemptingtotackletheillegalwildlifetrade.
TheEUalreadyhasalegalframework(EUWTR)whichsetsoutstricterarrangementsthanCITESfortradinginwildlifeproducts.
IthasplayedanactiveroleatCITESsinceitjoinedasamemberin2015,andall20EUproposalswereacceptedatCITESCoP17in2016.
Itnowhasanopportunitytousetradepolicytoembedanddevelopthistrackrecordfurther.
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPoliciesThispaperwasrequestedbytheEuropeanParliament'sCommitteeonInternationalTrade.
English-languagemanuscriptwascompletedon6December2016.
PrintedinBelgium.
Author:RosaleenDUFFY,Professor,UniversityofSheffield,UnitedKIngdomOfficialResponsible:ElinaVIILUPEditorialAssistant:JakubPRZETACZNIK,GyrgyiMCSAIFeedbackofallkindiswelcome.
Pleasewriteto:elina.
viilup@europarl.
europa.
eu.
Toobtaincopies,pleasesendarequestto:poldep-expo@europarl.
europa.
euThispaperwillbepublishedontheEuropeanParliament'sonlinedatabase,'Thinktank'.
ThecontentofthisdocumentisthesoleresponsibilityoftheauthorandanyopinionsexpressedthereindonotnecessarilyrepresenttheofficialpositionoftheEuropeanParliament.
ItisaddressedtotheMembersandstaffoftheEPfortheirparliamentarywork.
Reproductionandtranslationfornon-commercialpurposesareauthorised,providedthesourceisacknowledgedandtheEuropeanParliamentisgivenpriornoticeandsentacopy.
ISBN:978-92-846-0385-5(pdf)ISBN:978-92-846-0384-8(paper)doi:10.
2861/221523(pdf)doi:10.
2861/60105(paper)Cataloguenumber:QA-05-16-049-EN-N(pdf)Cataloguenumber:QA-05-16-049-EN-C(paper)EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade3Tableofcontents1ThetradeinwildlifeintheEuropeanUnion111.
1EUregulationsonthewildlifetrade141.
2EUatCITESCoP17161.
3Europol,EurojustandInterpol182EUTradeAgreementsandtheWildlifeTrade182.
1CommonCommercialPolicy/CustomsUnion192.
2TheEUTradeforAllStrategy192.
3EUFreeTradeAgreements(FTAs)202.
4EUGeneralisedSchemeofPreferences(GSP+)212.
5TransatlanticTradeandInvestmentPartnership(TTIP)222.
6Trans-PacificPartnership(TTP)222.
7EUEconomicPartnershipAgreements233InternationalFrameworks233.
1WorldTradeOrganisation(WTO)233.
2UNSystemandtheSDGs243.
3InternationalConsortiumforCombatingWildlifeCrime(ICCWC)253.
4RegionalInitiatives254TheRoleofthePrivateSector254.
1PrivateSectorandSustainability254.
2CorporateSocialResponsibility(CSR)264.
3GlobalValueChains274.
4TheTransportSector284.
5E-Commerce295TrainingandEnforcement305.
1CustomsAgencies315.
2DataSharing316WildlifeTrade,DevelopmentandSustainableLivelihoods32PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies46.
1DemandReduction337Corruption,OrganisedCrimeandSecurity347.
1Organisedcrime347.
2Security358Conclusions369Recommendations37EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade5ListofAbbreviationsACPAfricanCaribbeanandPacificGroupofStatesAMLDAnti-MoneyLaunderingDirectiveASEANAssociationofSouthEastAsianNationsCariforumCaribbeanForumCBDConventiononBiologicalDiversityCBNRMCommunityBasedNaturalResourceManagementCITESConventionontheInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesCSRCorporateSocialResponsibilityDEFRADepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairsDfIDDepartmentforInternationalDevelopmentEACEastAfricanCommunityECEuropeanCommissionECDEnvironmentalCrimeDirectiveEIAEnvironmentalInvestigationAgencyEFFACEEuropeanUnionActiontoFightEnvironmentalCrimeEPAEconomicPartnershipAgreementEUEuropeanUnionEU-TWIXEUTradeinWildlifeInformationeXchangeEUWTREUWildlifeTradeRegulationsFATFFinancialActionTaskForceFIUFinancialIntelligenceUnitsFTAFreeTradeAgreementGIZDeutscheGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeitGSPGeneralisedSchemeofPreferencesGTIGlobalTaxonomyInitiativeGVCGlobalValueChainsICCWCInternationalConsortiumforCombatingWildlifeCrimeIFAWInternationalFundforAnimalWelfareInterpolInternationalCriminalPoliceOrganisationILOInternationalLabourOrganisationITCInternationalTradeCentreIUCNInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNaturePolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies6IUUIllegal,UnreportedandUnregulatedLATFLusakaAgreementTaskForceNDFNonDetrimentFindingROUTESReducingOpportunitiesforUnlawfulTransportofEndangeredSpeciesPartnershipSADCSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunitySDGsSustainableDevelopmentGoalsSMEsSmallandMediumEnterprisesTCMTraditionalChineseMedicineTSDTradeandSustainableDevelopmentTSITradeSupportInstitutionsTTIPTransatlanticTradeandInvestmentPartnershipTrafficTradeRecordsAnalysisofFloraandFaunainCommerceOECDOrganisationofEconomicCo-OperationandDevelopmentUNUnitedNationsUNCTADUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopmentUNODCUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrimeUNTOCUnitedNationsConventionAgainstTransnationalOrganisedCrimeUNEPUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeUSAIDUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentWCMCWorldConservationMonitoringCentreWENWildlifeEnforcementNetworkWCOWorldCustomsOrganisationWTOWorldTradeOrganisationsWWFWorldWideFundforNatureEUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade7ListofFiguresFigure1:MajortraderoutesofillegalwildlifetradeinEurope12Figure2:ProportionofseizuresbylocationaccordingtoEU-TWIX12Figure3:CountryofOriginofseizedwildlifeaccordingtoEU-TWIX13Figure4:Distributionof2497internationalseizurerecordsreportedby13EUMemberStatesacrosscommoditygroups,2015Figure5:TheGlobalValueChainforSouthEastAsianPythonSkins28AcknowledgementsSeveralpeopleprovidedimportantinformationforthisreport.
IwouldliketothankProfessorDanBrockington,UniversityofSheffield,ProfessorBramBüscher,UniversityofWageningen,NaomiDoak,TheRoyalFoundation,KatalinKecse-Nagy,ActingRegionalDirector–EuropeTRAFFIC,DrMarkLangan,UniversityofLeicester,DrSimonPooley,Birkbeck,UniversityofLondon,DrAdeniyiAsiyanbi,SOASUniversityofLondon,EdwardVanAsch,ICCWC,andDrMichaelt'Sas-Rolfes,UniversityofOxford.
IalsothankElinaViilupandtheteamattheEuropeanParliamentfortheirveryconstructiveinputintoanearlierdraft.
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies8ExecutiveSummaryThewildlifetradeisoneofthemostlucrativetradesintheworld.
ThelegaltradeintotheEUaloneisworthEUR100billionannually,whiletheglobalillegalwildlifetradeisestimatedtobeworthbetweenEUR8and20billionannually.
Thetradeishighlycomplexanditslegalandillegalformsareoftenconnected.
ThisreportprovidesanoverviewofthemainissuesandchallengesforEUtradepolicyforthewildlifetrade.
Thereportdetailshowtradepoliciescanfacilitatesustainableandlegalwildlifetrade,whilsttacklingillegalorunsustainabletrade.
Theillegalwildlifetradecannotbetackledviatheuseoftradepolicyalone;insteadtradeinstrumentsneedtobeusedinconjunctionwithbroadermeansofaddressingthewiderangeofreasonswhywildlifeistradedillegallyfirstplace.
Thisincludestheneedtoreducepovertyandinequalityinsourcecountries,demandreductioninconsumercountriesandtacklingcorruption,organisedcrime,poorenforcementandlowpenaltiesinmanysource,transitandendusermarkets.
Forexample,theEUcanprovidesupporttolocalcommunitiesinsourcecountriesviaAidforTradeordevelopmentassistanceforcapacitybuilding,trainingandprovisionofequipmentandsupporttheirbroaderaspirations.
TheEUisfacingsomenewchallengesinthelegalandillegalwildlifetrade.
Whiletheclaimthattheillegalwildlifetradecontributestoglobalinsecurityiswidelycirculating,theevidencebaseforthisisthin.
Rather,keychallengesemanatefromthegrowthofe-commerce,expansionofprivatemailingcentresandthegrowthofcontainerisation.
TheEUneedstofocusitsenergiesintomonitoring,enforcementanddemandreductionstrategiesasthemosteffectivewaysofdealingwithillegaltrading.
AsthesenewchallengesemergethereisanopportunityfortheEUtorespondtothemviatheuseoftradepolicies,includingtheuseofexplicitcriterialinkedtowildlifetradingincurrentandfuturetradenegotiations.
TheEUalreadyhasastrongtrackrecordinpromotingalegalandsustainabletrade,whilealsoattemptingtotackletheillegalwildlifetrade.
TheEUhasalegalframework(EUWTR)whichsetsoutstricterarrangementsthanCITESfortradinginwildlifeproducts.
IthasplayedanactiveroleatCITESsinceitjoinedasamemberin2015,andall20EUproposalswereacceptedatCITESCoP17in2016.
TheEUnowhasanopportunitytousetradepolicytoembedanddevelopthistrackrecordfurther.
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade9IntroductionThewildlifetradehastwoforms-thelegalandillegal-andbotharehighlyvaluableglobaltrades.
TrafficestimatesthelegaltradeofwildlifeproductsintotheEUaloneisworthnearlyEUR100billion1.
Thescaleofillegaltradeismoredifficulttoestimatebecauseofitsclandestinenature.
TheEUestimatesthattheglobalillegalwildlifetradeisworthbetweenEUR8billionandEUR20billionannually2,buttherangeofestimatesfromdifferentagenciesvalueitbetweenUS$7-23billionannually(Nelleman,C.
etal2016).
Valuingthetradeisevenmoreproblematicbecauseitisdifficulttoseparateoutlegalandillegaltradesinparticularspecies,becausetheyareoftendeeplyinter-twinedandprofilesofdemandandsupplycanchangeveryrapidly(Natusch,D.
J.
andLyons,J.
A.
2012;Challender,D.
etal2015).
Forexample,alegaltradeinpythonskinsispermitted,butitexistsalongsideanillegaltrade.
Theillegalpythonskintradeispotentiallyahighlylucrativebusiness;asingleshipmentof10,0003-metreReticulatedPythonskinsisestimatedtobeworthUS$900,000ontheinternationalmarket.
Illegallytradedpythonsskinscanbeconcealedaspartofshipmentsoflegallyproducedskins;orconsignmentsaredeliberatelymislabelledormisdeclared–forexampleascaptivebredratherthanwildcaught–toavoidinspectionbyCustomsofficers(Kasterine,A.
2012).
Furthermore,tradersinSingaporeoftenstockpileskinsimportedfromotherAsiancountries,forre-exporttoEuropeinthefuture.
IndeedajointreportbytheUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)andtheConventionontheInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpecies(CITES)recommendedthatasystembedevelopedtomarkalltradedpythonskinstoensuretraceability(UNCTAD2014).
Therefore,itisverydifficulttovaluethelegalandillegalwildlifetradesseparately.
Theunderlyingdriveroftheincreasesinlegalandillegalwildlifetradeisthatpeopleinwealthiercountrieshavebecomeaccustomedtoalifestylethatplacesheavydemandsonwildlifeproductsassourcesoffood,leathergoods,timber,medicinesandtextiles3.
Thisisevidentinthegrowingdemandforreptileskins(suchastheSouthEastAsianpython)toservetheneedsoftheglobalfashionindustry,theincreasesindemandforcertainspeciesaspets,thedemandforwildlifeproductsaspartofTraditionalChineseMedicine(TCM)andconsumptionofcaviarbywealthiercommunitiesaroundtheworld(seeElliot,L.
andSchaedla,W.
(eds)2016).
Oneofthekeychallengesisthatthewildlifetradecoversaverywiderangeofspecies,anddemandforcertainspeciescanchangerapidly.
Somearehighprofileandhaveattractedinternationalattention,suchaselephantivory,rhinohornortigerskins;howeverawholerangeofother,lessrecognisedspeciesarealsotradedaswholeliveanimalsorasparts/derivativesforthepettrade,formedicines,jewellery,ornaments,asfoodorclothing(Duffy,R.
2016).
Theprofileoftheillegalwildlifetradeisdistinctivecomparedwithotherillicittrade,becausetheprofileofdemandishighlyvariable–itisdrivenbythedemandformedicines,fashion,petsandfood(Wyatt,2016:129;OECD,2016:65).
Thevariabilityofdemandisdemonstratedbytheivorytrade-therisingdemandforivoryinthe1980salmosthalvedthenumberofelephantsinSub-SaharanAfrica;aftertheglobaltradebanunderCITESin1989demanddroppedsignificantly,andespeciallyintheEUandNorthAmerica,demandforivorycollapsedimmediatelyaftertheban(Duffy,R.
2013).
HoweverwithrisingincomesinEastAsiathedemandforivoryhasrisenagainsince2009,producingrisesinpoachinginAfrica;forexampleTrafficestimatesthatbytheearly2010sapproximately30,000elephantswerekilledeachyearandthatinTanzaniaaloneelephantnumbersplummetedfrom109,051in2009to43,330in20144.
1'WildlifeTrade'http://www.
traffic.
org/trade/(accessed13.
10.
2016);alsoseeSinaS,etal.
2016.
2http://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/traf_steps_en.
htm(accessed13.
10.
16);'WildlifeTrade'http://www.
traffic.
org/trade/(accessed13.
10.
2016).
AlsoseeAyling,J.
2013;OECD,2016:59;EuropeanUnion2016.
3http://www.
traffic.
org/trade/(accessed13.
10.
2016).
4http://www.
traffic.
org/elephants-ivory/(accessed04.
11.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies10ThechallengesofintegratingtheCommonCommercialPolicywiththeneedtoenforcewildlifetraderegulationisthatformanyspeciesalimited,regulatedlegaltradeispermitted;thiscanactasacoverforillegaltradeinthesamespecies.
Caviarisagoodexampleofthecomplexitiesofthelinksbetweenlegalandillegalwildlifetrade.
EUmemberstatessuchasFrance,GermanyandSpainareamongsttheworld'slargestimportersofcaviar(Sina,S.
etal,2016,32).
AllspeciesofsturgeonandpaddlefishwerelistedbyCITESin1998whichmeansallshipmentsmustbeaccompaniedbyCITESpermits;CITESfurtherrecommendedthatauniversallabellingsystemshouldbeadoptedtoallowlawenforcementagenciestotracktheoriginandlegalityofcaviarshipments.
InMay2006,theEUadoptedCommissionRegulation(EC)No.
865/2006,amendedbyRegulation(EC)No.
100/2008,whichmadethelabellingofallcaviarcontainersobligatoryinallEUMemberStates5.
Caviar(orsturgeonandpaddlefish)isoneofthefewexamplesofaCITESsplitlisting.
TheEuropeanSturgeonandShortnoseSturgeonarelistedunderCITESAppendixI,whichtranslatesintoatotaltradebanoncaviarobtainedfromthem,whileallothertypesarelistedunderAppendixII,whichallowsforamanagedlegaltrade(Engler,M.
andParry-Jones,R.
2007:33;Sellar,J.
2014).
ThisisfurthercomplicatedbythefactthatwildcaughtcaviarissubjecttoCITESdeterminedquotas,andtradeinfarmedcaviarisalsopermittedfromproducerslicensedbythenationalCITESManagementAuthority;thishasraisedconcernsthatillegallycaughtwildcaviarcanbedeliberatelymislabelledasfarmedandlegal,allowingillegalcaviartobelaunderedthroughthelegaltrade(Jahrl,J.
2013:39;theissueofmixinglegalandillegalshipmentsisdiscussedfurtherinthisreportinrelationtoSouthEastAsianpythonskins).
ThismeansitcanoftenbeverydifficulttoenforceCITESregulationsbecauseillegallyfishedcaviarcanbedisguisedandthentradedaslegallyproducedcaviar(Jahrl,J.
2013,34).
Detectionandenforcementarealsofraughtwithcomplexchallenges;forinstanceidentificationoflarge,charismaticanimalsmaybeeasy;however,themajorityoforganismsareinsects,plants,fungiandmicroorganisms,andrequireexpertskillsforcorrectidentification6.
Manyaretradedasmedicines(e.
g.
powderedrhinohorn),jewelleryandornaments(e.
g.
hawksbillturtles),andasfood(e.
g.
pangolins)orclothing(e.
g.
reptileleathershoes)7.
TheGlobalTaxonomyInitiative(GTI)oftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)isintendedtoaddresstheproblemofinadequatetaxonomicdatatoallownationalauthorities,includingcustomsagenciestodetermineifaspeciesistradedillegallyornot.
However,theprogressmadebyeachCBDmemberstatewasreviewedandpublishedbytheCBDin2016,whichindicatedthatsomemembershadmadenoprogressthusfar8.
Finally,illegaltradinginfloraandfaunaisresistanttoregulationandenforcementbystates,internationalorganizationsandNGOspreciselybecauseitisaveryprofitableenterprise(Ayling,J.
,2013).
Theillegalwildlifetradeisnotexclusivelyaproblemofextractinghighvaluewildlifeproductstogenerateprofitsfororganizedcriminalnetworks.
Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthetradeiscentraltolivelihoodstrategiesinsomeofthepoorestandmostmarginalisedcommunitiesintheworld(Roe,D.
etal,2014).
Thewildlifetradeprovidesvaryinglevelsofeconomicsupporttodifferentcommunitiesacrosstheworld;forsomeitisaregularsourceofincome,forothersitisasafetynetoralucrativebusiness(TRAFFIC,2008;Roe,D.
etal,2014).
5BlackGold:TheCaviarTradeinWesternEurope(TrafficInternational)http://www.
traffic.
org/publications/black-gold-the-caviar-trade-in-western-europe.
html(accessed04.
11.
2016).
6TheCBDGlobalTaxonomyInitiativehttps://www.
cbd.
int/gti/problem.
shtml(accessed30.
09.
2016).
7Foralistofspecificexamplesseehttp://www.
worldwildlife.
org/threats/illegal-wildlife-trade(accessed13.
10.
2016)AlsoseeWyatt2016,129;OECD2016,65.
8https://www.
cbd.
int/gti/review.
shtml(accessed30.
09.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade111ThetradeinwildlifeintheEuropeanUnionThetradeinwildlifeintotheEUhasbothlegalandillegalforms.
Thissectionprovidesanoverviewoftheprofileofthetrade,includingmajorroutesandestimatedvolumesoftrade.
ThevalueofEUimportsofCITES-listedanimalsandanimalproducts(excludingcaviarextract)in2014wasestimatedat~EUR641million(USD717)million,withanimalexports(excludingcaviarextract)estimatedtobemorethandouble,atapproximately~EUR1.
1billion(USD1.
2billion).
Forplants,importswerevaluedat~EUR261million(USD286million)whileexportswerevaluedat~EUR91million(USD102million).
Justunder95000importtransactionsofCITES-listedspeciesofwildfaunaandflorawerereportedin2014bytheEU.
Liveplants,leavesandstemswerethemosthighlytradedcommodities,followedbyreptileskinsandtimber.
Themajorityofimportswerewild-sourced.
TheEUalsoreportedjustunder200000(re-)exporttransactionsofCITES-listedspeciesofwildfaunaandflorain2014,morethantwicethenumberofimports,thesewerepredominatelyre-exportsforcommercialpurposes9.
DrawingoninformationprovidedbytheEUTradeinWildlifeInformationeXchange(EU-TWIX)database,Sina,S.
,etal,identifiedthefollowingfourimportantlegalandillegaltraderoutesintotheEU:1.
Africatomajortradehubs:TheEUhasseveralmajortradehubsforAfricanwildlifeandwildlifeproducts(egskins,ivory,medicineproductsandseahorses.
Theseincludemajorairports(e.
g.
Zaventem-Belgium,ParisCharlesdeGaulle,Frankfurta.
M.
)andmajorports(e.
g.
Antwerp)Africanwildlifeorproductsfromthatwildlife.
InthistradetheEUisatransitregionandtheproductsarere-exportedtoAsiancountrieslikeChina,KoreaandVietnam.
2.
Coastalsmuggling:ThewildlifetradeisalsoconductedviacoastalshippingtoimportillegalwildlifeintotheEU.
ThisisespeciallythecaseforSpain,Portugal,Italy,GreeceandEUcountrieswithaBlackSeacoast(BulgariaandRomania).
Themostmainproductsinthesetraderoutesareleeches,fishandcaviarandalsoNorthAfricanreptiles.
TheseproductsarelargelytoservedemandfromwithintheEU,especiallyforliveanimalsaspets.
3.
BirdtradeinSouthEasternEurope:ThereisatradeinendangeredbirdswithinEuropefromSouthEasternEurope(e.
g.
BosniaandRomania)toItalyorFrance.
4.
EasternEuropeanlandroutes:StatisticsontheseroutesarelessreliablebutseveralreportspointoutthattheEasternEuropeanlandbordersoftheEUplayanimportantpartintheillegalimportofparrots,tortoisesandwildlifeproductsofRussianwildlife(e.
g.
polarbears,brownbearsandcaviar).
ThefiguresbelowindicatethemaintradingroutesintotheEuropeanUnion,thesizeandlocationofseizuresandthetypesofwildlifeandwildlifeproductswhicharemostcommonlyseizedintheEU,basedondataderivedfromtheEU-TWIXdatabase.
9http://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/pdf/reports/Analysis_of_EU_annual_reports_to_CITES_2014.
pdf(accessed04.
11.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies12Figure1:MajortraderoutesofillegalwildlifetradeinEuropeSource:Sina,S.
etal2016,62.
Figure2:Proportionofseizuresbylocation(EU-TWIX).
Source:Sina,S.
,etal,2016,60).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade13Figure3:CountryofOriginofseizedwildlifeaccordingtoEU-TWIXSource:Sina,S.
,etal2016,61).
Figure4:Distributionof2497internationalseizurerecordsreportedbyEUMemberStatesacrosscommoditygroups,2015Source:2015OverviewofimportantinternationalseizuresintheEuropeanUnionJanuarytoDecember2015(compiledbyTrafficApril2016)10.
10http://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/pdf/2015_overview_important_seizures_in_EU.
pdf(accessed18.
10.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies14FromtheabovefiguresitisclearthattheEUconstitutesamajorimporter,exporterandtransitregionforthelegalandillegalwildlifetrades.
Forexample,EuropolidentifiedFrance,Belgium,theUK,theNetherlandsandGermany,asthemorecommonlyusedwildlifetraffickingtransithubs(Traffic2013,citedinSina,S.
,etal.
2016,62-67;OECD2016,69).
Thelegalandillegaltradeislargelyconductedviathemaintradehubs(notablyairportsandports).
TheEuropeanUnionActiontoFightEnvironmentalCrime(EFFACE)projectconfirmedthatHeathrowisamajorentryandtransitpointforwildlife(Sollund,R.
andMaher,J.
2015).
AstudybyChaber,A-L.
etal.
(2010)alsoidentifiedParisCharlesdeGaulleAirportasanimportanthubforbushmeatcomingfromAfrica.
However,newtradehubsareemerging,includingviasmallerEuropeanairportswithdirectconnectionstoAfricaandAsia(Sina,S.
,etal.
2016:1-27).
Thedemandforwildlifeaspartofthepettradehasbothlegalandillegalforms,dependingonthespecificspecies(Wyatt,2016:130).
EUmemberstatesareimportantconsumersandimportersofwildlifeaspartoftheinternationalpettradeaswell,especiallyofreptilesandbirds(seelaterdiscussionofthepsychedicrockgecko).
AsSina,S.
etal(2016,1-27)pointout,thistradeislargelyconductedEasternEuropeanlandborders,theMediterraneanandBlackSea,ratherthanairtransporthubs.
However,dataonthepettradeisnotreliable-uptodateinformationtodeterminethevolumesandvalueofthewildpettradeintotheEUisinsufficienttomakeanyjudgementaboutitsimpact.
TheRSPCAestimatesthatbetween5.
9and9.
8millionlivereptileswereimportedintotheEUin2009alone,asubstantialrisefromthe1.
6millionimportedin2005.
11AccordingtotheENDCAPCoalition12,theEUlacksaconsistentapproachtolegislationorlicensingrequirementsrelatingtothetradeinandkeepingofwildpets.
ManyspeciesarenotcoveredbyCITES(becausetheyarenotendangeredandthereforenotlisted)ortradelegislation.
ForexampletheTradeControlandExpertSystemTRACES13,andtheECEurostat14databasedonotrecordtheoriginofwildanimalsimportedintotheEU.
However,whiledataonseizuresareoftenusedtomapoutthevolumeandflowsoftheillegaltrade,suchinformationdoesneedtobeapproachedcarefully.
Theoveralltrendinwildlifecrimemeasuredinthenumberofseizureshasbeenroughlyconstantinrecentyears.
Themostfrequentlyseizedspeciesarereptiles,mammals,flowersandcorals.
Seizuresareconcentratedincountrieswithlargeoveralltradingvolumes,sooveralltheUK,GermanyandNetherlandswereresponsibleformorethan70%ofseizuresin2007-2014.
However,thehighnumberofseizuresmayalsobeattributabletowelldevelopedenforcementeffortsinthesecountries(Sina,S.
etal.
2016,8).
ThesedataalsoindicatethatitisnotpossibletoidentifyspecificEUmemberstatesasparticularproblemsforenforcement-ratherthesedataindicatethatallEUmemberstatescouldimprovetheirrecordontheillegalwildlifetrade.
1.
1EUregulationsonthewildlifetradeThetradeandmaininstrumentthattheEUcanusetoaddresstheillegalwildlifeandmonitorandcontrolthelegalwildlifetradeisCITES.
Thelegaltradeinnon-CITESlistedspeciesisgovernedbymoregeneraltradeagreements,suchastheFreeTradeAgreements(FTAs)discussedinsection2.
2,butasdiscussedabove,muchofitgoesunderreportedorunder-recorded.
AfulloverviewoftheEUwildlifetraderegulationscanbefoundathttp://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/legislation_en.
htm.
11RSPCAfigurecitedinhttp://endcap.
eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Report-Wild-Pets-in-the-European-Union.
pdf(accessed04.
11.
2016).
12ENDCAP,shortfor'EndCaptivity';TheENDCAPCoalitionproducedareportonthewildpettradeintotheEUwhichcanbeaccessedathttp://endcap.
eu/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Report-Wild-Pets-in-the-European-Union.
pdf(accessed04.
11.
2016).
13http://ec.
europa.
eu/food/animals/traces_en(accessed04.
11.
2016).
14http://ec.
europa.
eu/eurostat/web/environment/biodiversity(accessed04.
11.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade15Furthermore,theEUhasspecificregulationsonthelegalimportationofsporthuntingtrophiesorwildlifespecimensaspersonaleffects.
Thisallowsforalegaltrade,includingofspecieslistedunderCITESAppendixII,inaccordancewithobligationsunderCITES.
Afulloutlineisathttp://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/info_personal_en.
htm.
TheEUisthemostrecentpartytoCITES.
Itjoinedon9April2015andtheConventionenteredintoforcefortheEUon8July2015(Sina,S.
,etal.
2016,10).
CITESwasestablishedin1973,cameintoforcein1975andcovers30,000speciesoffloraandfauna15.
IthasdevelopedtheCITESStrategicVision2008-2020,whichhastwopurposes:toimprovetheworkingoftheConvention,sothatinternationaltradeinwildfaunaandfloraisconductedatsustainablelevels;toensurethatCITESpolicydevelopmentsaremutuallysupportiveofinternationalenvironmentalpriorities;andtotakeintoaccountnewinternationalinitiatives,consistentwiththetermsoftheConvention(CITES2008).
UntiltheEUjoinedasamemberin2015,CITESoperatedonthebasisofnationallevelimplementationauthorities,eventhoughtheGaboroneAmendmentin1983permittedregionalorganisationstobecomesignatoriestotheConvention(Sina,S.
,etal2016,24-27).
However,theEUalsodevelopedanEUlevellegalarchitecturepriortoitsmembership.
TheEUWildlifeTradeRegulations(EUWTR)provideacommonlegalframeworkfortheimplementationofCITESacrosstheEU(Sacre,V.
2016,478).
ThetwomainimplementingRegulationsforCITESare:(1)CouncilRegulation(EC)No338/97of9December1996ontheprotectionofspeciesofwildfaunaandflorabyregulatingtradetherein(EUWildlifeTradeRegulation338/97)and(2)CommissionRegulation(EC)No865/2006of4May2006layingdowndetailedrulesconcerningtheimplementationofCouncilRegulation(EC)No338/97ontheprotectionofspeciesofwildfaunaandflorabyregulatingtradetherein(Sina,S.
,etal.
2016,24-27).
TheseRegulationsimplementCITESinastrictermannerthanisrequiredbytheConventionitself.
Forinstancetheyincludecertainnon-CITESspecies,andalsocontainprovisionstoprohibitorrestrictimportsofspeciesthatareconsideredtobeathreattonativeEUfaunaandflora(Sina,S.
,etal.
2016,24-27).
UndertheEUHabitatsDirective16andtheEUBirdsDirective17,memberstatesalsohaveanobligationtoprotectlistedspecies.
TheDirectivesintersectwithandsupportEUcommitmentstoCITES.
On13October2016theEuropeanParliament'sEnvironmentCommitteealsovotedtobackafullandimmediateEU-widebanonivoryandrhinoceroshorntrade,andtosupportEUwidesanctionsagainstillegalwildlifetrade18.
AnoverviewoftheroleandimportanceofCITESisdetailedinthereportforENV1onWildlifeCrime(Sina,S.
,etal.
2016),theEUActionPlanAgainstWildlifeTraffickingandtheEFFACEreportonEnvironmentCrimeandtheEUbyGerstetter,C.
,etal.
2016).
ThisreportisintendedtointersectwiththeWildlifeCrimereport.
In2016theEUalsopublishedtheEUActionPlanAgainstWildlifeTrafficking.
TheActionPlansetsoutthefollowingthreepriorities:1.
Preventingillegalwildlifetraffickingandaddressingitsrootcauses2.
Implementingandenforcingexistingrulesandcombatingorganisedwildlifecrimemoreeffectively3.
Strengtheningtheglobalpartnershipofsource,consumerandtransitcountriesagainstwildlifetrafficking(EuropeanUnion2016).
15http://www.
cites.
org(accessed16.
08.
2016).
16EUHabitatsDirectivehttp://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.
htm(accessed30.
09.
2016).
17EUBirdsDirectivehttp://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/nature/legislation/birdsdirective/index_en.
htm.
(accessed30.
09.
2016).
18http://www.
europarl.
europa.
eu/sides/getDoc.
dotype=IM-PRESS&reference=20161010IPR46488&language=EN&format=XML(accessed18.
10.
16).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies16Thesethreeprioritiesarethenoperationalisedviaaseriesofobjectives,whicharerelevanttotradepolicyandtheyarediscussedunderappropriatesectionsinthisreport.
OneofthemostimportantEUinstrumentsinrelationtoenvironmentalcrimeistheEnvironmentalCrimeDirective(ECD).
ItrequiresEUMemberStatestocriminalisecertainactsthatbreachEUenvironmentallegislationornationalprovisionsthatimplementEUenvironmentallegislation.
WithintheEUtheDGJusticeisresponsiblefortheimplementationoftheEnvironmentalCrimeDirective.
Italsoprovidesjudicialtraining,developsinstrumentsformutualcooperationoncriminalmattersandissuesstudiesonenvironmentalcrime.
TheDGEnvironmentdealswithimprovinginspectionsinMemberStates,caninitiateinfringementproceedingsinthecaseofMemberStatesandworksontheimplementationoflegislationagainstcrimeslikeillegalwildlifetraffickingorlogging.
IndividualMemberStateshavealsodevelopedtheirownnationallevelinitiatives.
TwogoodexamplesareGermanyandtheUK.
TheGermanGesellschaftfürInternationaleZusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbHandFederalMinistryforEconomicCooperationandDevelopmentranatwoyearprogramme(2013-2015)onCombatingPoachingandtheIllegalWildlifeTradeinAfricaandAsia.
TheUKGovernmenthasalsotakenaleadinpromotingresponsestotheillegalwildlifetrade.
TheLondonDeclarationwassignedinFebruary2014by46countriesincluding15AfricanstatesattendingtheLondonConferenceontheIllegalWildlifeTrade.
Itcalledforfourbasicactions:eradicatingthemarketforillegalwildlifeproducts;ensuringeffectivelegalframeworksanddeterrents;strengtheninglawenforcement;andsustainablelivelihoodsandeconomicdevelopment.
TheDeclarationwasfollowedupbyaGBP15millionIllegalWildlifeTradeChallengeFund,andtwointernationalconferences(BotswanainMarch2015andVietnamin201619).
However,intheirreviewofCITES,Sina,S.
etalsuggestthatTrafficidentifiedawidespreadassumptionthatEUregulationsrelatingtowildlifetradewereoverlycomplex,whileaEuropeanCommissionreportin2014foundthatthemajorityofrespondentsfeltthattheexistinglegislationshouldnotbechanged(Sina,S.
etal.
2016,24-27).
Furthermore,arecentEurojust(2014)reportonenvironmentalcrimenotes'themoreinstrumentsareinforce,themorecomplicatedthesituationatnationallevelbecomesforpractitioners'.
Indeed,fromanEUperspective,themixtureofoldfirstpillarinstrumentsandthirdpillarinstrumentsthathavenow,sincetheLisbonTreaty,fallenundertheareaoffreedom,securityandjustice,withmuchmoreweightthanbefore,ischallengingfromapracticalimplementationpointofview.
Forinstance,onlyexpertscandeterminewithcertaintyifspeciesfoundareindeedendangered,thecategoryunderwhichtheyfall,andwhetherapenalresponsetotheillegaltradehasbeentriggered'(Eurojust2014,12).
Legalarrangementsatglobal,EUandnationallevelscancrosscuteachotherandhavethecapacitytobothsupportandundermineeachother.
Asdiscussedinthesectiononenforcement,adherenceandenforcementremainthekeyproblems,ratherthananeedforthedevelopmentofnewregulations.
1.
2EUatCITESCoP17CITESholdsaConferenceofPartieseverythreeyears,andthemostrecentwastheSeventeenthConferenceofPartiesofCITES(hereafterCITESCoP17),24Septemberto5October2016inSouthAfrica.
TheEUparticipatedforthefirsttimeasaParty,alongsideall28MemberStates20.
TheEUpreparedanumberofproposalsaimedatsupportinglegalandsustainabletradeinwildlife,whilstalsoleadingonproposalsto'uplist'somespeciestoAppendixI(ineffectatotaltradeban)becauseofconcernsthattrademightdrivethosespeciestoextinction.
ThereisnotspacetocoveralltheeffortsoftheEUatCITES19DEFRA/DfIDCallforfundingapplications,https://www.
gov.
uk/government/publications/the-illegal-wildlife-trade-challenge-fund(accessed15.
09.
2016).
20http://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/pdf/cop17/Cites_outcome_news_release.
pdf(accessed15.
10.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade17CoP17,andafullbreakdownoftheproposalssubmittedbytheEUtoCITESCoP17arelistedbytheEUEnvironmentDirectiveathttp://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/events_en.
htmandcoveredinthereportbyDavis,M.
etal.
2016.
inpreparationforCoP17.
All20proposalsputforwardbytheEUwereadopted21.
TwoindicativeexamplesareusefultoexamineinmoredetailsincetheydemonstratethewaysthattheEUcananddoesworkwithCITEStomeetitsobligationsasamemberoftheConvention.
First,theEUsubmittedaproposal(CoP17Docs39.
1)totightenregulationsontrophyhuntinginordertorespondtoconcernsthattrophyhunting(andtradeinresultantwildlifetrophies)mighthaveanegativeimpactonthelongtermsurvivalofcertainspecies.
Itstatedthatwell-managedandsustainabletrophyhuntingisanimportantconservationtoolwhichprovidesbothlivelihoodopportunitiesforruralcommunitiesandincentivesforhabitatconservation,andgenerateprofitswhichcanbeinvestedforconservationpurposes.
However,becauseconcernswereraisedabouttheimpactoftrophyhuntingonsomespecies,in2013and2014,theEuropeanUnionanditsMemberStatesconductedacomprehensiveassessmentofimportsintotheEUofhuntingtrophiesofspecieslistedinAppendixII(UNEP-WCMC2014)andin2015adoptednewrulesfortheimportofhuntingtrophiesofsixtaxa(Africanlion,polarbear,SouthernWhiterhino,AfricanElephant,hippoandargalisheep)forwhichitwasdemonstratedthattherewereconcernsregardingthesustainableorlegaloriginoftrophiesimportedfromcertainexportingcountries.
ImportsintheEUoftrophiesofthesetaxaarenowsubjecttotheissuanceofimportpermits22.
AtCoP17theCITESSecretariataskedtheEuropeanUniontoworkwithSouthAfricatodevelopajointdocumentontrophyhunting(SouthAfricahassubmittedasimilarproposal).
Theresultofthisco-operationwasCoP17Inf.
68.
TheEuropeanUnionexplainedtheybelieveditwastimeforCITEStohaveaclearframeworkonhuntingtrophiesandthattheyhadworkedwithSouthAfricatoproduceanewproposalforPartiestoconsider.
TheChairoftheFifthCommitteeproposedestablishingadraftinggroup,usingdocumentCoP17Inf.
68asabasistogeneratenewtextfortheCommittee'sconsideration.
Thegroupwasco-chairedbytheEuropeanUnionandSouthAfrica,andincludeBotswana,Canada,Kenya,Namibia,theUnitedStatesofAmerica,Zimbabwe,theConservationAllianceofKenyaandHumaneSocietyInternational23.
Asecondexample,isthattheEUalsojointlytabledamotionwithVietnamtouplistthepsychedelicrockgeckotoAppendixI,becauseofconcernsabouttheimpactofagrowingdemandfromthepettrade(primarilyontheinternet).
Since2013,themajorimportersofthisrareVietnameselizardwerememberstatesoftheEuropeanUnionandtheRussianFederation;anecdotally,livepairswereofferedforapproximatelyEUR2500-3500atreptileshowsinEuropeandtheRussianFederation24.
TheEU-VietnamproposalonthegeckowasacceptedandthedecisiontoupliftthespeciestoAppendixIeffectivelyoutlawedtradeinthisspecies25.
ThisisagoodexampleofEUleadershipindevelopingjointeffortstotacklethewaysthatinternationaltrademightaffectthelong-termsurvivalofwildlife.
21ibid.
22InterpretationandImplementationoftheConvention:HuntingTrophiesfromSpeciesListedonAppendixIorIIhttp://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/pdf/cop17/Res%20+%20dec%20hunting%20trophies.
pdf(accessed13.
10.
2016).
23https://cites.
org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/17/Com_I/SR/E-CoP17-Com-I-Rec-05.
pdf(accessed13.
10.
2016).
24Fulltextoftheproposedresolutionisathttp://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/cites/pdf/cop17/Cnemaspis%20psychedelica.
pdf(accessed13.
10.
16).
25https://www.
iucn.
org/news/iucn-informs-key-decisions-cites-conference-wildlife-trade(accessed13.
10.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies181.
3Europol,EurojustandInterpolTwoofthemostimportantorganisations,especiallyregardingthecross-borderdimensionofenvironmentalcrimeinEurope,areEUROPOLandEUROJUST,createdforpoliceandjudicialcooperationrespectively.
Europolinparticular,hasalsogainedimportanceinthisarea;in2013,itissuedaThreatAssessmentonEnvironmentalCrimeintheEU,whichnotedtheemergingthreatposedbytraffickinginendangeredspeciesintermsofimpact,highvalue,modusoperandianddimension,intheEUaswellasworldwide(Eurojust2014,12).
AccordingtoChapter4oftheLisbonTreaty,theroleofEurojustistosupportandstrengthencoordinationandcooperationbetweennationalinvestigatingandprosecutingauthoritiesinrelationtoseriouscrimeaffectingtwoormoreMemberStates,andtotacklecrimesthataffectthefinancialinterestsoftheEU26.
Interpolhas190membercountriesandeachmemberhasaNationalCentralBureau;however,itdoesnothavepolicingpowersofitsown,insteaditactsasacoordinatingagency;itsEnvironmentalCrimeProgrammeandhasbeenaco-ordinatinghubtorespondeffectivelytotheillegalwildlifetrade.
ItalsodevelopedtheEcomessagesystemtofacilitateinformationexchangebetweenmemberstoanalysetrendsinenvironmentalcrimeandbettertargetenforcement(Pink,G.
2016,444-449).
IncooperationwithEuropol,InterpolsupportsenforcementandhasanEnvironmentalCrimeCommitteeandanEnvironmentalComplianceandEnforcementCommittee.
EnvironmentalNGOsarealsoimportantactorsinmonitoringthewildlifetradeandenhancingenforcementeffortsbyEuropolandInterpol.
Forexample,InternationalFundforAnimalWelfare(IFAW)andEnvironmentalInvestigationAgency(EIA)cooperatewithInterpolonProjectWisdomandProjectWorthy,whichincludeprovisionoftrainingforenforcementagenciesdealingwithwildlifetrafficking27.
2EUTradeAgreementsandtheWildlifeTradeTheOrganisationforEconomicCo-OperationandDevelopment(OECD)(2012)statesthateconomicincentivescanonlyworkfullyinaframeworkofgoodgovernanceandlawenforcement.
Otherwisetheyriskexacerbatingillegalactivity,creatingnewopportunitiesforit,orshiftingittootherregionsorcountries.
Furthermore,OECDpointsoutthateconomicincentivestoreduceillegalwildlifetradingwillonlyworkiftheyarepartofaco-ordinatedrangeofinterventions,includingtheprovisionofalternativestoillegaltrading(OECD2012;Wyatt,T.
2016,139).
AstheOECDnotes,whendesigningnationalenvironmentalpolicymeasuresitisimperativethatthepotentialforencouragingillegalbehaviour(includingtrade)isconsidered,sothattheconsequencescanbeassessedandconsidered(OECD2012;alsoseeChallender,D.
etal,2015).
Theuseoftradeinstrumentscanbeuseful,butonlywhentheyarepartofawider,moreholisticapproachwhichtacklestheunderlyingreasonsforpoaching,traffickingandunsustainableharvestinginthefirstplace(asdiscussedinChapter6onsustainablelivelihoods.
)Onamorepositivenote,thesecomplexdriversalsomeanthatinterventionsbytheEUaimedatreducingcorruptionortacklingorganisedcrimeandmoneylaunderingcanhavespinofbenefitsforproducingasustainablelegaltradeandpreventingunsustainableillegaltradeinwildlifeproducts.
26http://www.
eurojust.
europa.
eu/(accessed13.
10.
2016).
27http://www.
ifaw.
org/united-kingdom/our-work/wildlife-trade/ifaw-and-interpol-working-together-fight-wildlife-crime(accessed13.
10.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade192.
1CommonCommercialPolicy/CustomsUnionTheCommonCommercialPolicy28offersharmonisedapproachesacrossEUmemberstates,includingtheremovaloftradebarriersbetweenEUmemberstates,andthedevelopmentofasinglecustomsunionwithacommonexternaltariff.
Thiscanhelptofacilitatealegalandsustainablewildlifetrade.
However,theCustomsUnionalsopresentsadditionalenforcementchallenges;astheEurojustreportnotes,environmentalcrimealsoofteninvolvesacross-borderdimension,andtheincreaseofinternationaltradeandtheabolitionofbordercontrolswithintheSchengenareaaddtothescopeoftheproblem(Eurojust2014,4).
Returningtotheexampleofcaviar,sincetheCommonCommercialPolicyallowsforfreemovementofgoodswithintheUnion,theopportunitiestointerceptanddetecttheseshipmentsisreduced.
AsJarhl,J.
suggestseffectiveenforcementisavitalandthisrequirestightinlandandbordercontrols–especiallyattheexternalfrontieroftheEUi.
e.
toMoldova,UkraineandTurkey–andgoodnationalandcrossbordercooperationwithintheEUitself(Jarhl,J.
2013,42;SinaS.
,etal,2016,32).
InacomprehensivereportonthecaviartradeinRomaniaandBulgaria,Jahrl,J.
,demonstratesthatillegallyfishedcaviaristransferredonferriesandshipswhichcrosstheBlackSeaintoBulgariaandRomania,whereitissoldinrestaurantsorprocessed,repackaged,andmislabelledthusjoiningtheinternationallegaltradeincaviar(Jahrl,J.
2013,34).
IfadditionalchecksarenotcarriedoutbycustomswithintheEU,thisreducesopportunitiestointerceptillegalshipments.
ThisisrelevantforawiderrangeofCITESlistedspecies,notjustcaviar.
UnderWTOrulesadditionalchecksandregulationsarepermittedincaseswheretradecouldnegativelyaffecttheenvironment.
2.
2TheEUTradeforAllStrategyTheEUTradeforAllStrategyaimstoprovidetheunderlyingprinciples/approachtoallowforneweconomicopportunitiesandpromotetradeinwaysthatsupport'Europeanvalues';ChapterFourdetailstheaimswithregardtogoodgovernance,sustainabledevelopmentandhumanrights(EuropeanUnion2015,20-27).
ForexampleitstatesthattheEU'stradeandinvestmentpolicymustrespondtoconsumers'concernsbyreinforcingcorporatesocialresponsibilityinitiativesandduediligenceacrosstheproductionchain(EuropeanUnion2015,20).
RegulatorycooperationcanalsohelppromotehighstandardsviaexchangeofideasandbestpracticesandpromotionofEUstandards(EuropeanUnion2015,20).
ThestrategyalsoaspirestouseEUtradeandinvestmentpolicytodevelopinclusivegrowthintradingpartners(EuropeanUnion2015,22).
Furthermore,chapterfourofthestrategyagainstcorruptionandpromotinggoodgovernancecanalsobeusedtosupportattemptsatenforcementandimplementationofCITES.
ForexamplethestrategystatesthatFreeTradeAgreements(FTAs)canbeusedtomonitoreffortstocombatcorruptionandthattheEUwillpursuegoodgovernanceandanti-corruptionasthemesinTrans-AtlanticTradeandInvestmentPartnership(TTIP)negotiations(EuropeanUnion,2015,26).
roughwhichtheEUcansupportlegalandsustainabletradeinwildlife,howeveritspotentialisasyetuntestedbecauseitisarecentdevelopmentandisasetofprinciplestoguidetraderatherthanhavingbindingpowersonmemberstates.
28http://eur-lex.
europa.
eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/uri=URISERV%3Aa20000(accessed19.
10.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies202.
3EUFreeTradeAgreements(FTAs)TheEUaimstoconcludeDeepandComprehensiveFreeTradeAgreements(DCFTA)thatremovetariffs,openupmarketsonservices,investment,publicprocurementandincluderegulatoryissues29.
TheEUhascompletedFTA'swithSouthKorea,hasagreed(butnotyetimplemented)FTAswithVietnamandSingapore,andiscurrentlynegotiatinganFTAwithJapan.
TodateFTAagreementstendnottoreferspecificallytothelegalorillegalwildlifetrade,withtheexceptionoftheFTAwithVietnam.
Theinclusionofspecificobjectiveslinkedtosupportingalegalandsustainablewildlifetrade,orpreventinganillegalwildlifetradecouldbeanareafordevelopmentinfutureFTAnegotiations.
TheEU-SouthKoreaFTAenteredintoforcein2011;itwasthefirsttradedealbetweentheEUandanAsiancountry,andareviewofitsperformanceisduein201730.
Oneoftheaimsoftheagreementistoliberalisetradeinawaythatissustainable,andopenopportunitiesforforeigndirectinvestmentinwaysthatdonotreduceenvironmentalstandards.
Theagreementcontainsspecificchaptersonsustainabledevelopment-especiallywithregardtosustainablefishingandpreventingdeforestation.
Itincludesprovisionsforcooperationinpromotingthedevelopmentandimplementationofmultilateralenvironmentalagreementsandtradefavouringsustainabledevelopment,butthesearefocusedoneco-labellingandenergyefficientproducts,ratherthanthetradeinwildlifeperse.
Eco-labellingschemesareperhapsthemostrelevantforthewildlifetrade,andcanbeameansofdevelopingsystemstoensurethatwildlifeproductsarebeingtradedinasustainableandlegalway(EuropeanCommission2016(c),315).
TheEU-VietnamFTAhasbeenagreed,butisyettobeimplemented.
Itincludesachapteronsustainabledevelopment,anditisarequirementthatallpartiesadheretoCITESandthatDomesticAdvisoryGroupsbedevelopedtoallowarangeofinterestedstakeholderstosharetheirviewsontheintersectionsbetweentheFTAandsustainabledevelopment(EuropeanCommission2016(b),8-10)TheEU-VietnamFTAexplicitlyacknowledgesthatVietnamfacesimportantchallengesintheillegalwildlifetrade,andthattheGovernmenthastakenstepstoaddressthis–includingtheadoptionbythePrimeMinisterofadirectiverecognisingtheseriousnessoftheissueandrequestingalltherelevantministriestoadoptaseriesofmeasuresagainstwildlifetrafficking(inFebruary2014).
VietnamadoptedtheForestandWildlifeCrimeToolkitdevelopedbytheICCWC,whichlaysoutinacomprehensiveandstructuredmannerwhatneedstobedonetoeradicatewildlifetrafficking.
TheEUstatedthatitsupportstheseimportantinitiativesandthatcontinuedsupportdependsontheireffectiveimplementation(EuropeanCommission2016(b),13;EuropeanCommission2016(a)).
TheEU-SingaporeFTAwasagreedin2014,andisyettobeimplemented.
EventhoughSingaporeisaleadingimporter,re-exporterandconsumerofwildlifeproducts,bothlegalandillegal,thewildlifetradeisnotspecificallyreferredtointheFTA.
Insteadthetextwhichreferstoproductsderivedfromanimalsisconcernedwithsanitaryissuesandbiosafety–onlywildmeatismentionedspecifically31.
Biosafetyisimportantinthelegalandillegalwildlifetradesbecauseofcapacityforwildlifeandwildlifeproductstospreaddiseasestohumansanddomesticatedanimals.
ChapterThirteenoftheFTAisconcernedwithtradeandsustainabledevelopment,andaswithotherFTAsitreiteratestheneedtoensurethattradeliberalisationiscompatiblewithenvironmentalsustainability,viaforexamplesupportingtheobligationsofmemberstomultilateralenvironmentalagreements32.
TheEU-JapanFTAisstillundernegotiation,butitdoesnotspecificallyrefertothelegalorillegalwildlifetrade.
ThemainenvironmentalconcernsundertheFTAarethetradeinfisheriesincludingIllegal,29http://ec.
europa.
eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/agreements/(accessed10.
10.
2016).
30http://eur-lex.
europa.
eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/uri=OJ:L:2011:127:FULL&from=EN(accessed10.
10.
2016).
31http://trade.
ec.
europa.
eu/doclib/docs/2013/september/tradoc_151740.
pdf(accessed10.
10.
2016)32Ibid.
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade21UnreportedandUnregulated(IUU)fishing,andthetradeintimber(EuropeanCommission2016(f),215),ratherthanthelegalorillegalwildlifetrade.
In2016theEuropeanCommissionpublishedthefinalreportoftheTradeSustainabilityImpactAssessmentofFreeTradeAgreementbetweentheEuropeanUnionandJapan;itconcludedthatwhilethepotentialeconomicgainscouldbesubstantial,theenvironmentalandsocialrisksarenegligible,oroffsetbynewtechnologiesandopportunitiesprovidedbytheagreement(EuropeanCommission2016(f),19).
FTAscouldofferproductiveroutesthroughwhichtosupportlegalwildlifetrade,andpreventillegalwildlifetrade.
AsnewFTAsaredeveloped,thereisanidealopportunitytoincludeprovisionrelatingtothewildlifetradewhereappropriate–aswasthecaseinnegotiationsfortheEU-VietnamFTA.
Eco-labelling,asdetailedintheEU-SouthKoreaFTAmightofferausefulroutethroughwhichtheEUcansupportthedevelopmentofalegalandsustainabletradeinwildlifeproducts.
Morebroadly,theimportanceoftradeforsustainabledevelopmentintheFTAs(todate)canprovideawidercontextinwhichtheEUcansupportattemptstodevelopalegalwildlifetrade,whisttacklingillegalandunsustainabletrade.
TheexampleofthenegotiationstowardsanEU-JapanFTAprovideausefulillustration.
TheTradeSustainabilityImpactAssessmentin2016notestheneedtosupporttheattemptsbytheEUandtheJapanesegovernmenttomaintainJapan'senvironmentalperformance,whichequalsmanyEUmemberstates.
TheSustainabilityImpactAssessmentnotesthatthemainimpactsoftheFTAontheforestproductssectorandonforestswillariseprimarilyfromthegeneralexpansionineconomicactivityconsequentontheFTA,ratherthanfromanydirectimpactsonbilateraltrade;furthermorethoseimpactswillbefeltincountriesfromwhichtimberissourced,ratherthaninJapan(EuropeanCommission2016(f),233-240).
2.
4EUGeneralisedSchemeofPreferences(GSP+)TheEUGSPsprovideadditionaltradeincentivestodevelopingcountriestoimplementthecoreinterestsofconventionsonhumanrights,labourrights,sustainabledevelopmentandgoodgovernance(EuropeanUnion2015,23)33.
WhilethegeneralGSParrangement(StandardGSP)generallygrantstariffreductionsorsuspensionstodevelopingcountriesonabout66%ofEUtarifflines,theGSP+offersadditionaladvantagesthroughcompletedutysuspensionsforessentiallythesamegoods(EuropeanCommission2016(c),7).
WhenacountryappliesforaGSP+,itisrequiredtohavealreadyratifiedandeffectivelyimplementedthe27coreinternationalconventionslistedinAnnexVIIIoftheGSPRegulation.
Theseconventionscoverhumanandlabourrights,environmentalprotection,andgoodgovernance,andoneofthemisCITES(EuropeanCommission2016(c),12).
SeveralofthecountriescoveredbyeitherGSPorGSP+areconsumersandexportersofwildlife.
Thereisanopportunitytosupportattemptstocurbillegalwildlifetraffickingbymakingenforcementanexplicitcriterion.
However,aswithallformsofconditionalitylinkedtoaidandtrade,suchinstrumentsneedtobecarefullyconsideredpriortoimplementation.
TheexampleofthePhilippines,isusefulbecauseitisrecognisedbyCITESasacountrywithveryhighlevelsofbiodiversityandithasagreedaGSP+withtheEU.
AspartofitsobligationsunderGSP+andunderitsmembershipofCITESithasreportedonnumerousactivities,includingtheenactmentoftheWildlifeResourcesConservationandProtectionActandmeasurestotacklewildlifetraffickingthroughtrainingwildlifeenforcementofficers,theestablishmentofataskforce,PhilippineOperationsGroupsonIvoryandIllegalWildlifeTrade,thedestructionof4tonnesofsmuggledelephantivory,filingofcriminalcomplaints,carryingoutbuy-bustoperationsonillegalwildlifetradersandlawenforcementoperations,carryingoutcapacity-buildingactivities;andthecelebrationofWorldWildlifeDay.
However,italsoreportedconstraintsonmeetingitsobligationsincludingalimitedbudgettosustainenforcementoperations,lackofcooperationamongthelocal33EUGeneralisedSchemeofPreferences,http://ec.
europa.
eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/development/generalised-scheme-of-preferences/index_en.
htm(accessed04.
08.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies22governmentunitsintheenforcementoflaws;andrulesandregulationsgoverningwildlife(EuropeanCommission2016(c),281).
2.
5TransatlanticTradeandInvestmentPartnership(TTIP)TheEUmightconsiderthecurrentTTIPnegotiationsTheEUstatesthatsustainabilityisakeyconcernwhichwillbepartofTTIP.
MuchofthematerialheredrawsonthenegotiatingtextsoftheEUinTTIP,andassuchisbasedonthepossibleapproachesfavouredbytheEUsincethenegotiationsareyettobeconcluded34.
TheChapteronTradeandSustainableDevelopment(TSD)inTTIPisespeciallyimportantforthewildlifetrade.
InitialstatementsaboutTTIP,andtheTSDparticularly,pointoutthatoneoftheaimsistoenhancetradeinlegalandtimber,fish,orwildlifeproductsaswellasotherissuesrelatedtobiodiversityandecosystems35.
TheEUpositiononTTIPisthatitshouldcontributetosustainabledevelopmentviaconservationofbiodiversity.
ItwillalsosupportandencouragegreaterlevelsofinformationexchangeontradebetweenTTIPparties,whichcouldassistinregulatingthelegaltradeandcurbingtheillegaltrade36.
ItishopedthattheseprovisionswillincludeCITESobligationsandenhanceenvironmentalprotection.
Howeverthisisnotauniversalview,andGreen10,agroupoftenleadingenvironmentalorganisationswithintheEU(includingGreenpeace,WWF,BirdlifeInternationalandFriendsoftheEarth-Europe)havealsoopenlyexpressedconcernsthatTTIPcouldunderminetheabilityoftheEUtomeetitsobligationstosustainabilityasagreedunderotherconventions,iftradeconsiderationsweretobeaccordedprimacyoverenvironmentalconsiderations(Green102014).
2.
6Trans-PacificPartnership(TTP)TheTrans-PacificPartnership(TPP)wassignedin2016betweenAustralia,Brunei,Canada,Chile,Japan,Malaysia,Mexico,NewZealand,Peru,Singapore,theUSandVietnam.
TTPstillneedstoberatifiedbyeachmemberbeforeitcanenterintoforce.
EventhoughitdoesnotincludetheEU,muchcanbelearnedfromthenegotiationsandthechallengesproducedbyitsimplementationastheEUnegotiatesTTIP.
UnderTPPagreementspartiesarerequiredtobesignatoriesofanumberofmultilateralenvironmentalagreements,includingCITES.
Article20.
17ofTTPspecificallystatesthatsignatoriesmustalsobepartiestoCITESandcommittoimplementationoftheConvention.
TTPincludesdetailedstatementsontheneedtopreventwildlifetrafficking,andtheneedformechanismstoco-operatebetweensignatoriestocombatwildlifecrime.
However,theremovaloftradebarriersalsoallowsfordevelopmentofasustainablelegaltradeinwildlifeproducts37.
Forexamplearticle20.
13ofTPPstatesthat'eachPartyshallpromoteandencouragetheconservationandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversity,inaccordancewithitslaworpolicy'38.
ItwillbeimportanttoretainthesecriteriaasTTIPisfinalised.
However,merelybeingasignatorytoCITESisnot,onitsown,sufficientsinceitreliesonadequatelevelsofenforcement.
However,itisnotjustthestipulationslinkedtotheillegalwildlifetradewhichareimportant.
TTPspecificallyidentifiestheneedtoaddresstransnationalenvironmentalcrimes,includingwildlifetrafficking-butalsodatasharingonillegalfishingofsharksandturtlesaswellasIUUofcommercialfishspecies.
Furthermore,TTP'sfocusontransparencyandanti-corruptioncanalsosupporttheeffortsbyTPPsignatoriestoaddresswildlifetrafficking.
TheTPPchapteronenvironmentincludescommitmentsto34EUpositionpaperonTTIP,2014,http://trade.
ec.
europa.
eu/doclib/press/index.
cfmid=1230(accessed04.
08.
2016).
35TradeandSustainableDevelopmentChapter/LabourandEnvironment:EUPaperoutliningkeyissuesandelementsforprovisionsintheTTIP,athttp://trade.
ec.
europa.
eu/doclib/docs/2015/january/tradoc_153024.
pdf(accessed13.
10.
2016).
36TradeandSustainableDevelopmentChapter/LabourandEnvironment:EUPaperoutliningkeyissuesandelementsforprovisionsintheTTIP,athttp://trade.
ec.
europa.
eu/doclib/docs/2015/january/tradoc_153024.
pdf(accessed13.
10.
2016).
37FulltextoftheTPPchapteronenvironmentcanbefoundathttps://ustr.
gov/sites/default/files/TPP-Final-Text-Environment.
pdf(accessed03.
11.
2016).
38https://ustr.
gov/sites/default/files/TPP-Final-Text-Environment.
pdf(accessed03.
11.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade23combatanyillegaltradeinwildlife,plantsandfish,regardlessofwhethertheyarelistedunderCITES.
TPPalsoencouragessharingofinformationoninvestigationsintowildlifetrafficking39.
2.
7EUEconomicPartnershipAgreementsTheEUcanconsiderproactivelyusingtheEUEconomicPartnershipAgreements(EPAs),theEU-ChinaInvestmentAgreementaswellasotherbilateralFTAstotackletheillegaltradeinwildlife,butalsotosupportlegaltradeswhichsustainlivelihoodsinpoorercommunitiesand/orcountries.
TheEUhasenteredintoEPAswithregionalgroupingsofAfrican,CaribbeanandPacific(ACP)statesincludingtheCaribbeanForum(Cariforum),theEastAfricanCommunity(EAC)andthemostrecentagreementiswiththeSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC),whichenteredintoforcein2016.
TheEUhasalsosignedEPAswithseveralACPcountriesthataresourcesofwildlifeproductsand/orconsumersofthem.
TheseincludeCameroon,Madagascar,Zimbabwe,ZambiaandIvoryCoast.
Inbrief,theseagreementsareultimatelybasedontheCotonouAgreementin2000whichcontainsprovisionsonhumanrights,sustainabledevelopmentanddialoguewithcivilsociety40.
However,ingeneralthelegalandillegalwildlifetradesarenotcoreareasofconcern41.
InsteadthelegalwildlifetradecanbedealtwithunderexistingprovisionsunderEPAslinkedtotradefacilitationtoallowpartnercountriesfullaccesstotheEUmarket.
TheEUsignedanEPAon10June2016withtheSADCEPAGroupcomprisingBotswana,Lesotho,Mozambique,Namibia,SouthAfricaandSwaziland.
Angolahasanoptiontojointheagreementinfuture.
TheothersixmembersofSADCregion–theDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,Madagascar,Malawi,Mauritius,ZambiaandZimbabwe–arenegotiatingEconomicPartnershipAgreementswiththeEUaspartofotherregionalgroups(CentralAfricaorEasternandSouthernAfrica).
Thetextoftheagreementdoesnotrefertothewildlifetradepersebutismorefocusedonagriculture,investmentandservicesamongstotherthings.
423InternationalFrameworksThissectionsetsoutsomeofthemaininternationalframeworksthatfacilitatelegalandsustainablewildlifetrade,whiletacklingillegalwildlifetrading.
Itisbynomeansexhaustive.
3.
1WorldTradeOrganisation(WTO)In2015CITESandtheWTOproducedajointstatementtocementco-operationbetweenthem.
WTOandCITESagreedthatthatthewell-beingofeconomies,habitats,andsocietiesareinextricablylinked.
ThisledCITESandtheWTOtoembarkonmoreactiveformsofcooperationtoassistgovernments(includingperiodicinstitutionalandpolicydialogues,andjointtechnicalassistanceandcapacitybuildingactivities)(WTOandCITES2015,1-2).
In1994theWTOministersagreedtosetuptheCommitteeonTradeandEnvironment(CTE)andCITEShasbeenapermanentobserveratCITESsince1997.
TodatetherehavebeennodisputesbetweenWTOandCITES(WTOandCITES2015,4).
AlthoughtheWTOprimarilyactsasaregulatoryframeworktofacilitateinternationaltrade,memberscanadoptmeasuresaimedatprotectingandconservingnaturalresources,andmeetingobligationsunderCITESisoftentheunderlyingrationaleforrequeststo39AsummaryandfulltextofTPPcanbefoundathttps://ustr.
gov/tpp/#text(accessed03.
11.
2016).
40http://ec.
europa.
eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/regions/sadc/(accessed03.
11.
2016).
41http://ec.
europa.
eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/agreements/#_other-countries(accessed10.
10.
2016)42http://ec.
europa.
eu/trade/policy/countries-and-regions/regions/sadc/(accessed03.
11.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies24implementsuchmeasures;indeedtheWTOformallyacceptsthatexceptionstofreetraderulesareveryimportantinenvironmentrelatedissues(WTOandCITES2015,7-8).
AttheWTO,discussionsontherelationshipbetweentheWTOandMEAsarepartoftheDoharoundofmultilateraltradenegotiations(forfurtherdiscussionoftheDohaRoundseeWilkinson,R.
,Hannah,E.
andScott,J.
2016).
However,littleprogresshasbeenmadetodate43.
TheWTOtakestheviewthattradefacilitationcancontributetothegoalsofsustainabledevelopmentviaconservationandsustainableuse(WTOandCITES2015,12).
Furthermore,66membersoftheWTOhaveagreedtotheWTOTradeFacilitationAgreement,whichwillcomeintoforceonceitreachestwo-thirdsmajority.
TheAgreementallowsforsimplificationoftradeformalities,includingstreamliningofborderproceduresandautomationofborderprocessesinordertomakeinternationaltradingeasier44.
ThisisconsistentwithoneoftheobjectivesoftheCITESStrategicVision:2008-2020:"cooperationwithrelevantinternationalenvironmental,tradeanddevelopmentorganisationsisenhanced"(WTOandCITES2015,11;CITES2008).
TheInternationalTradeCentre(ITC)isajointinitiativeoftheWTOandUNCTAD45.
Itworkswithsmallandmediumenterprises(SMEs)andtradesupportinstitutions(TSIs)todevelopsustainabletradeinbiodiversity-basedproducts46.
ItaimstomainstreamsustainabilityintoAidforTradeprogramming.
ITCdesignsAidforTradeprojectsthatenablepoorcommunitiestoderiveincomefromthesustainablemanagementoftheirbiodiversityresources.
InMadagascar,ITCsupportswomen'sassociationsofraffiaproducerstoimproveclimate-adaptationmeasures,productqualityandbusinesscapacity.
ITCalsoworkswiththeInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)andtheprivatesectortostrengthensustainablesourcingofpythonandcrocodileskinsfortheluxuryfashionindustry(Cooney,R.
etal.
2015,i).
3.
2UNSystemandtheSDGsTheEUiscommittedtotheimplementationoftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)announcedin2015,whichalsohasasignificantbearingonitsapproachtoboththelegalandillegaltradeinwildlife.
SustainableDevelopmentGoal15isto'protect,restoreandpromotesustainableuseofterrestrialecosystems,sustainablymanageforests,combatdesertification,andhaltandreverselanddegradationandhaltbiodiversityloss.
Goal15.
7specificallyreferstotheillegalwildlifetradeandisto'Takeurgentactiontoendpoachingandtraffickingofprotectedspeciesoffloraandfaunaandaddressbothdemandandsupplyofillegalwildlifeproducts',while15.
cisto'Enhanceglobalsupportforeffortstocombatpoachingandtraffickingofprotectedspecies,includingbyincreasingthecapacityoflocalcommunitiestopursuesustainablelivelihoodopportunities'47.
Therefore,theEUhasobligationstotackleillegalwildlifetrade,butalsotohelpsupportthedevelopmentofsustainablealternativelivelihoodsforpoorercommunities,whichcanincludethedevelopmentofsustainablelegaltradeofwildlifeproducts.
TheUnitedNationshighlightedthelinksbetweenthelegalandillegalwildlifetradeandbiodiversitylossesandsustainabilityinsuccessiveUNsummitsandreports.
Forexample,TheWorldSummitonSustainableDevelopment,Johannesburg2002,endorsedthetargettoachieve,by2010,asignificantreductionoftherateofbiodiversitylossatglobal,regionalandnationallevelsasacontributiontopovertyalleviationandtothebenefitofalllifeonearth.
In2012theUnitedNationspublishedtheFuture43http://ec.
europa.
eu/environment/integration/trade_en.
htm(accessed13.
10.
2016).
44http://www.
wcoomd.
org/en/about-us/what-is-the-wco/customs-environment.
aspx(accessed02.
08.
16).
AlsoseeWTOandCITES2015:1-2).
45http://www.
intracen.
org/default.
aspx(accessed02.
08.
2016).
46http://www.
intracen.
org/itc/sectors/biodiversity/(accessed02.
08.
16).
47UNSustainableDevelopmentGoal15,https://sustainabledevelopment.
un.
org/sdg15(accessed22.
09.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade25WeWantasafollowupreporttothe1987BruntlandReport;itstressedtheimportanceofimplementingtheStrategicPlanforBiodiversity2011-2020,andachievingtheAichiBiodiversityTargetsadoptedattheTenthConferenceofthePartiestotheCBD48.
3.
3InternationalConsortiumforCombatingWildlifeCrime(ICCWC)TheICCWCwasestablishedin2010becauseoftheincreasingsophistication/involvementoforganisedcrimenetworksinwildlifecrime,asawellasthefracturedorinadequateresponsesatnational,regionalandinternationallevels(vanAsch,E.
2016,469).
ItwasaninitiativeofInterpol,CITES,theWorldBank,TheWorldCustomsUnionandtheUNOfficeonDrugsandCrime,andallfiveorganisationsareequalpartners.
OneofthefirstinitiativesoftheICCWCwastheWildlifeandForestCrimeAnalytictoolkitin2012.
Thepurposeistoprovideco-ordinatedsupporttonationalwildlifelawenforcementagencies,aswellasregionalnetworks,soforexampleICCWCprovidedspecialisedtrainingfornationalagenciesin201349.
ICCWCsupportcountriesatthenationallevel,forexamplebydeployingaWildlifeIncidentSupportTeamtoMadagascar,SriLankaandUAE(vanAsch,E.
2016,473).
CITESCoP17in2016alsoheldthefirsteverGlobalPartnershipsCoordinationForum,convenedbytheICCWC50.
3.
4RegionalInitiativesArangeofotherregionalinitiativesseektoaddressthewildlifetradeinwaysthatrecognisedthereisaneedforamulti-sectoralapproach.
Forexample,TheLusakaAgreementTaskforce(LATF)waslaunchedin1996andspecificallyfocusesoncombatingtheillegalwildlifetradeinSub-SaharanAfrica.
ItfacilitatescooperationbetweenthewildlifeagenciesofCongo,Kenya,Tanzania,Uganda,ZambiaandLesotho51.
TherearealsoregionalWildlifeEnforcementNetworks(WENs),suchastheAssociationofSouthEastAsianNations(ASEAN)WEN,whichtakesaregionalandmulti-sectoralapproach52.
4TheRoleofthePrivateSectorObjective1.
3oftheEUActionPlanAgainstWildlifeTraffickingistoincreasebusinesssectorengagementineffortstocombatwildlifetraffickingandencouragesustainablesourcingofwildlifeproducts(EuropeanUnion2016).
Thisencompassesthetransportsector,privatemailingcentresande-commerce.
4.
1PrivateSectorandSustainabilityOvertheperiod2004-2014theEUhasprovidedanaverageofEUR350millionperyearforprivatesectordevelopment53.
Insodoing,theEuropeanCommissionstatesthatitwilllookfornewwaysofharnessingthepotentialoftheprivatesectorasafinancingpartner,implementingagent,advisororintermediarytoachievemoreeffectiveandefficientdeliveryofEUsupport,notonlyinthefieldoflocalprivatesectordevelopment,butalsoinotherareasofEUdevelopmentcooperationsuchassustainableenergy,sustainableagricultureandagribusiness,digitalandphysicalinfrastructure,andthegreenandsocialsectors54.
Suchcommitmentsareimportantforthedevelopmentofsmallscalebusinessesinthelegal48https://sustainabledevelopment.
un.
org/topics/biodiversityandecosystems(accessed22.
09.
16);alsoseehttps://sustainabledevelopment.
un.
org/futurewewant.
html(accessed22.
09.
2016).
49seehttp://www.
cites.
org/eng/prog/iccwc.
php;http://www.
Interpol.
int/Crime-areas/Environmental-crime/International-Consortium-on-Combating-Wildlife-Crime(accessed13.
10.
2016).
50https://cites.
org/eng/news/pr/CoP17_hosts_first_ever_wildlife_crime_partnerships_forum_26092016(accessed13.
10.
2016).
51http://lusakaagreement.
org/(accessed03.
09.
2016).
52http://www.
asean-wen.
org/(accessed03.
09.
2016).
53EuropeanCommissionCommunicationCOM(2014)263-AStrongerRoleofthePrivateSectorinAchievingInclusiveandSustainableGrowthinDevelopingCountrieshttp://ec.
europa.
eu/europeaid/node/37440(accessed22.
09.
2016),p.
2.
54Ibidp.
3.
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies26wildlifetradeandthestrategicuseofgrantsandfundsundertherubricofDevelopmentAssistancefromtheEU(anditsindividualmemberstates)couldbetargetedatsmallandmediumscalebusinesseswhichseektoengageinthelegalwildlifetrade.
Forexample,theEuropeanCommissioncandeliversupportthroughtrainingandcapacitybuildingforproducerassociations,cooperativesandsocialenterprises(asinthetradeinbaobabproductsdiscussedbelow).
Theapproachofaidblending(amechanismwhichcombinesEUgrantswithloansorequityfrompublicandprivatefinanciers)canalsobeusedtoenhanceprivatesectorcooperationandengagementintacklingtheillegalwildlifetradeaswellasengaginginalegalwildlifetrade.
Forexample,privatesectorfinanceandsupportcanbeharnessedtoencouragethecreationorfurtherdevelopmentofsustainableandlegalwildlifetradingbusinesses55.
4.
2CorporateSocialResponsibility(CSR)BrieflytheEUdefinesCSRas'theresponsibilityofenterprisesfortheirimpactsonsociety'56.
CSRintheEU'stermsthenencompassesrespectforapplicablelegislation,andforcollectiveagreementsbetweensocialpartners.
InordertomeetthedefinitionofCSR,theEUconsidersthatenterprisesshouldhaveinplaceaprocesstointegratesocial,environmental,ethical,humanrightsandconsumerconcernsintotheirbusinessoperationsandcorestrategy57.
TheEUCSRstrategyprovidesanexcellentbasisforresponsibleengagementbetweenEuropeancompaniesandlegalwildlifetraders,aswellasprovidingaframeworkfordevelopingapproachestotacklethewaysillegaltradersmightusetheirbusiness(seethesectionontransportandshippingcompanies).
TheCommissionencouragescompaniestoadheretointernationallyrecognisedguidelinesandprinciples,includingtheUNGlobalCompact,theUNGuidingPrinciplesonBusinessandHumanRights,theInternationalLabourOrganisation(ILO)TripartiteDeclarationofPrinciplesConcerningMultinationalEnterprisesandSocialPolicy,theISO26000GuidanceStandardonSocialResponsibilityandtheOECDGuidelinesforMultinationalEnterprises58.
OneareaforthedevelopmentofCSRisinthecomplexwebofprivatecompanieswhichprocesswildlifeproductstoturnthemintothecommoditieswhichconsumersdemand;agoodexamplearethefurriercompanieswhichprocessfursandturnthemintofashionitems.
AsWyattpointsout,becausetheillegaltradesintheseproductsismixedinwithlegaltrades,thecompaniesandindividualsinvolvedinprocessingcouldbecriticaltocurbingillegalsupplybecauseillegaltradersarealsolikelytobeengagedinlegaltradingaswell(Wyatt,T.
2016,131).
55EuropeanCommissionCommunicationCOM(2014)263-AStrongerRoleofthePrivateSectorinAchievingInclusiveandSustainableGrowthinDevelopingCountries,http://ec.
europa.
eu/europeaid/node/37440(accessed22.
09.
2016).
56ArenewedEUstrategy2011-14forCorporateSocialResponsibility[COM(2011)681final].
http://eur-lex.
europa.
eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.
douri=COM:2011:0681:FIN:en:PDF(accessed22.
09.
2016),p.
6.
57Ibid.
58Ibid.
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade274.
3GlobalValueChainsThedevelopmentofGlobalValueChains(GVC),inwhichdifferentcountriesacrosstheglobeaddvaluetoaproductasitisdevelopedandtransportedfromrawmaterial/sourcetofinalproduct/consumer59hasimportantimplicationsforlegalwildlifetrading.
TheOECDInitiativeonGlobalValueChains,ProductionTransformationandDevelopmentaimstoimprovemeasurementandevidenceonnewtrendsinglobalorganisationoftradeandproduction;andidentifyconcretepolicyrecommendationstoimplementeffectivepoliciestopromotedevelopmentthroughbetterintegrationintoGVCs60.
Itiscommonlyarguedinconservationcirclesthatpoaching,smugglingandillegalwildlifetradingisdrivenbypovertyinsourcecountries,andthateffectiveconservationandsustainableuseofwildliferesourcesisbestservedviathedevelopmentoflocallevelinitiativeswhichallowcommunitiestoderiveeconomicbenefitsfromwildlifeintheirarea(Duffy,R.
etal.
2015).
ThisrunscountertoGVCapproachestolegalwildlifetrading.
Inthelegalwildlifetrade,theroleofGVCsisevidentintheprocessingandpreparationofreptileskins.
SouthEastAsianpythonsarelistedunderCITESAppendixIIwhichmeansthatalegal,monitoredtradeispermittediftheScientificAuthorityinthecountryoforigincandemonstratethattradedoesnotposearisktothesurvivalofthespecies;underCITESthisisreferredtoasaNonDetrimentFinding(NDF)61(Kasterine,A.
etal.
2015,5).
TheCommissionRegulation(EC)No.
865/2006(theImplementingRegulation)forCITESintheEUpermitsimportofcaptivebredanimalsandanimalpartswiththeappropriatepermits.
TheEUistheprimarydestinationforSouthEastAsianpythonskins;thetradeservicesthefashionindustryandhasbeenimportantformorethan50years.
Forexample,eachyearapproximately350,000reticulatedpythonsaretradedfromIndonesiaandMalaysiaalone;however,73%aresourcedfromthewild,ratherthanbeingcaptivebred(Kasterine,A.
etal.
2015,13;UNCTAD2014).
Thereislittleinformationavailableonhowthepythonsupplychainoperates,andsotheBoaandPythonSpecialistGroupoftheInternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)andTrafficcommissionedareportin2015;thereportexaminedtheflowoftrade,value-additionstages,loopholesinthepermittingsystemthatallowillegality,sustainabilityofharvestsandanimalwelfareissues.
Thefigurebelowshowsthevalueadditionalongthesupplychain.
Forexample,ahuntedsnakesoldforslaughterforUS$30representsaround0.
5%ofthefinalvalueofahigh-endpythonskinhandbag(Kasterine,A.
etal.
2015,26).
Valueisaddedwhentheanimalisslaughteredandtheskinisdried,readyforprocessing;furthervalueisaddedatthetannerystage,thenatthestageofmanufacturingandretail.
ManufacturersarelocatedmainlyinItaly,France,Switzerland,GermanyandSpain.
Anestimated30%ofthemanufacturersarebasedintheUnitedStates,theRepublicofKorea,Japan,MexicoandBrazil.
AleatherbagmadefromonlyhalfaskincanbesoldbyaluxuryfashionretailerforbetweenUS$5,000toUS$10,000(Kasterine,A.
etal,2015,27-35;UNCTAD2014).
59GlobalValueChains,OECDhttp://www.
oecd.
org/sti/ind/global-value-chains.
htm(accessed22.
09.
2016).
60OECDInitiativeonGlobalValueChains,ProductionTransformationandDevelopmenthttp://www.
oecd.
org/dev/abouttheinitiative.
htm(accessed22.
09.
2016).
61NDFisdifficulttoestablishbecausemanysourcecountriesdonothaveadequatebaselinepopulationsurveyswhichactasthebasisforaccurateestimatesofwhatwouldconstituteasustainableofftakeinwildpopulations;alsoseeChallender,D.
etal.
2015:141;Nijman,V.
2010.
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies28Figure4:TheGlobalValueChainforSouthEastAsianPythonSkinsSourceKasterine,A.
etal.
2015,26.
TheEUcouldoffersupporttolocallevelinitiativestoallowthemtodevelopandcapturemoreofthe'addedvalue'ofthewildlifeintheirarea(egcapacitybuildingtoassistlocalcommunitiestoderivemoreincomefromprocessingskinsandhides).
ReturningtotheexampleofSouthEastAsianpythonskins,UNCTAD(2014)recommendedthat'benefitsharing'couldandshouldbeenhanced;forexample,thatthefashioncompaniesusingpythonskinscouldengageina'matchedfunding'programmeforsourcecountries,tobuildupcapacityamongstlocalorganisationstoensureasustainabletradeanddevelopbestpracticeforcaptivebreedingandslaughtering(UNCTAD2014,47).
4.
4TheTransportSectorThegrowthbothinthevolumeofinternationaltradeand,astheOECDpointsout,incontainerisationrendersitincreasinglydifficulttodetectillegaltrade.
Licensingschemescanbeanimportanttoolinhelpingtodetectandregulateflowandareanattempttoregulateparticularlyproblematictradingsectorsinthecontextofincreasingremovaloftradebarriers(OECD2012,5-6;UNEP2014,26-29).
Thechallengeofmeetingobligationsnottoengageinillegalwildlifetradinghasbeenrecognisedbythetransportandshippingindustriesthemselves,ofteninconjunctionwithconcernedNGOs.
Forexample,in2016theCEOsandseniorfiguresofairlines,shippingfirms,portoperators,signedtheDeclarationoftheUnitedforWildlifeInternationalTaskforceontheTransportationofIllegalWildlifeProducts.
ThesignatoriesincludeChinaCOSCOShippingCo.
Ltd,KenyaAirways,InternationalAirTransportAssociation,InternationalAssociationofDryCargoShipowners,InternationalChamberofShipping,InternationalMaritimeOrganisationandJamesFisherEverard62.
ItalsoproducedtheBuckinghamPalaceDeclarationwhichsetoutthecommitmentstosupportprivatesectorattemptstopreventtransportandshippingofillegalwildlifeproducts63.
62Seehttp://www.
unitedforwildlife.
org/#!
/2016/03/what-is-the-transport-taskforce(accessed22.
08.
2016)forafulllistofsignatories.
63http://www.
unitedforwildlife.
org/#!
/2016/03/the-buckingham-palace-declaration(accessed22.
08.
2016)EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade29Thereareotherimportantnewinitiativesinthetransportsectoraswell.
In2015USAIDcommittedtofiveyearsoffundingfortheROUTES(ReducingOpportunitiesforUnlawfulTransportofEndangeredSpecies)Partnership,ledbyTraffic.
Thepartnershipistoenhancecollaborationandimplementationofactivitiestoassistthetransportsectorineffortstoreducewildlifetraffickingvialand,seaandair.
ThepartnershipisbetweentheFreelandFoundation,theInternationalAirTransportAssociation,Traffic,USAID,CenterforAdvancedDefenseStudiesandWWF64.
AswiththeTransportTaskforce,ROUTESisveryrecentandisstilldevelopingsoitisdifficulttodeterminehowsuccessfultheyare.
4.
5E-CommerceE-commerceisrapidlydevelopingintermsofvalueandvolume.
TheWCOacknowledgesthatcross-bordere-commerceisincreasingbecauseofadvancinginternettechnology,economicdevelopmentindevelopingcountries,theexpansionofexpressdeliveryservicesandmobilityoflabourforce.
AccordingtoestimatesmadebyUNCTADin2013,business-to-businesse-commercewasvaluedataboutUS$15trillionandbusiness-to-consumere-commerceatmorethanUS$1trillion,withthelattergrowingfasterinthelastfewyears65.
Sina,S.
etalconcludedthatthegrowingimportanceofinternet-basedtradeshouldbetakenintoaccount,forexample,bydevelopingEUguidelinestotheprivatesectoractiveinthisareaorbytakingaconsistentandcollectiveapproachtomonitoringtheinternet(Sinaetal,2016:106).
Theinternetwillhaveanincreasinglysignificantroleinbothlegalandillegalwildlifetrading.
Forexample,theinternetisincreasinglyimportantintermsoflinkingupconsumersandproducersofwildlifeproducts(Sollund,R.
andMaher,J.
2015;UNEP2014,26-29).
Thedevelopmentofe-commerceviainternetandsocialmediacanprovidearouteforlocalcommunitiestoselllegallyproducedandsustainablewildlifeproductsdirecttoconsumersinwaysthatallowthemtocaptureagreatershareofthebenefitsthaniftheyoperateusing'middlemen'.
Howeverthisisonlyviableifcommunitieshavethenecessaryskillsandcapacityaswellaccesstorelevantinfrastructureincludingregularandreliablepostalandshippingservices(forfurtherdiscussionofthechallengesincommunitybasednaturalresourcemanagement(CBNRM)seeDressler,W.
etal2013).
Itisimportanttoapproachsuchlocallevelschemesintheirwidercontext,ratherthaninisolation;forexampleitrequiresprioridentificationofviablemarketsforthewildlifeproductsandheremustbeadequateinfrastructureandsystemstomovethegoodsreliablyandquicklyfromproducertoconsumer.
Theillegalwildlifetradeisincreasinglyconductedvianewtechnologies,includingtheinternetandsocialmedia.
ProjectWeb,acollaborationbetweenInterpolandIFAWidentifiedtheinternetasanimportantmeansoftradingivoryillegally,yetthelegislativeframeworkattheCITESandEUlevelisnotcapableofaddressingit(Sina,S.
etal2016,37;Hernandez-Castro,J.
andRoberts,D.
L.
2015;Milliken,T.
andShawJ.
2012,147;Hinsley,A.
etal.
2016).
Greateruseofsocialmediahasalsofacilitatedillegaltradingofwildlife(Hinsley,A.
etal.
2016),andsuchtradingpresentsadditionalchallengeswhencomparedwiththemajorinternetauctionsitessuchaseBay.
Forexample,TraffichasworkedwithWeChat66,oneoftheworld'slargestsocialmediaorganisations,andwithAliBaba67,aninternettradingplatform.
WeChatandAliBabaarebothsignificantforinternalandexternaltradeinChina.
In2012IFAWalsopersuadedBaidu,aChinese-languageon-lineforum,toshutdown13forumswhichdiscussedtheillegalwildlifetrade,andasearlyas2008theChineseon-linetradingplatform,Taobao.
com,bannedthetradeoftigerbone,ivory,rhinohorn,bearbile,turtleshell,pangolinscaleandsharkonitssite68.
China'sblackmarketinillegalwildlifeproductsisroughlyestimatedatUS$10billionperyear(Jiao,Y.
2016,256).
Thehighprofile64http://www.
traffic.
org/routes/(accessed23.
08.
16).
65http://ww\w.
wcoomd.
org/en/about-us/what-is-the-wco/customs-environment.
aspx(accessed03.
08.
16).
66http://www.
wechat.
com/en/(accessed02.
08.
2016).
67http://www.
alibaba.
com(accessed02.
08.
2016).
68http://www.
ifaw.
org/international/our-work/wildlife-trade/reducing-markets-wildlife-products-china(accessed20.
10.
16).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies30wildlifeproductsillegallytradedtoChinaincludebearpaws,leopardpelts,tigerpeltsandbones,ivory,pangolinscalesandmeat,snakes,tortoisesandrhinohorn,andthemainssuppliersareIndonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Vietnam,Thailand,DRC,Kenya,SouthAfrica,Tanzania,IndiaandtheRussianFarEast(Jiao,Y.
2016,257-8).
Theroleofsocialmedia,suchasWeChat,inillegalwildlifetradingislikelytoincreaseandthisisanimportantareafortheEUtoconsiderforthefuture,atleastintermsofcooperatingwithsocialmediaorganisationstopreventillegaltradingviatheirsystems.
Theincreasingvolumeofmailasaresultofe-commercealsorepresentsachallengeforenforcingwildlifetraderegulationsandespeciallyforCustomsauthorities.
Notonlyisthenumberofsmallerandmediumsizedparcelsgrowing,butprivatecontractorsincreasinglyoffermailsystemsandmailingcentres.
Suchmailingcentresmightbesitesfortheprivatesectortodevelopsystemsandgreaterpossibilityfordetectingillegalshipmentsofwildlifeproducts,andforenforcingwildlifetraderegulationsmorebroadly;thiswouldfitwiththeTradeforAllStrategytoencouragecorporatesocialresponsibilityintheprivatesectortosupportsustainabledevelopment.
FurthermoreitwouldbeusefulforCustomsofficialstobeabletoinspectprivatelyownedmailingcentres,inordertoenforceregulationstopreventillegalwildlifetrading.
UndertheremitoftheCommonCommercialPolicyandthesustainabilitysectionsoftheTradeforAllStrategytheEUcouldoffergreaterincentivesandsupporttotheprivatesectortodevelopsuchstructuresandinitiatives.
5TrainingandEnforcementTacklingtheillegalwildlifetradeisrenderedevenmoredifficultbythelackoftrainedofficerswithdedicatedresponsibilityinmanystates(Sina,S.
etal.
2016,72).
MostMemberStateswhorepliedtotheQuestionnairelaunchedbyEurojustbeganbyrecognisingthelownumberofcasestheyaredealingwithintermsoftraffickinginendangeredspecies.
Theyalsogenerallyrecognisedthatthiswasnotbecausesuchcrimesdonotexist,butratherthatsuchcrimesarenotlabelledas'serious'atthenationallevel(Eurojust2014,11).
TheEuropeanUnionActiontoFightEnvironmentalCrime(EFFACE)fundedbytheEUbringstogetherresearchersandthinktankstoassesstheimpactsofenvironmentalcrime.
ThewildliferesearchpolicybriefrecommendstotheEUareviewofmemberstates'regulations,fortificationofborders,empoweringofthecriminaljusticesystem,intelligencegathering,increasingsynergyamongrelevantinstitutions,andtheneedforresearch-basedapproachestoreducingdemandforwildlifeproducts(Sollund,R.
andMaherJ.
2015,2)ManyMemberStatesdonothavespecialisedpoliceforces,prosecutors'officesandjudgestodealwithenvironmentalcrime,includingwildlifecrime.
Thismeansenvironmentalcrimesaredealtwithviathegeneralpoliceforces,whichlackofspecialisation,areunlikelytobeabletoadequatelydetectenvironmentalcrimesthroughproactivemonitoring.
Furthermore,prosecutorsmaynotaccordenvironmentalcrimeahighpriority.
ForexamplearecentEurojustreportstatedthat'generallyspeaking,despitebindingEUlegislationbothfromaprotectionandcriminallawpointofview,casesoftraffickinginendangeredspeciesonlyleadtoverylenientsanctioning….
Thelackofawarenessoftheimpactandscopeofthiscrimeshouldbecorrectedatnationallevel,andbefollowedbyclear,practicalenforcementchanges.
'(Eurojust2014,13).
Sina,S.
etalrecommendedtheadoptionofnationalactionplansforcoordinationofenforcement,thatallrelevantenforcementagenciesshouldhaveadequatefinancialandpersonnelresourcesfortheenforcementofRegulation(EC)No338/97,andthatpenaltiesforinfringementsofRegulation(EC)No338/97actasadeterrentagainstwildlifetradecrime(Sina,S.
etal.
2016,24-32).
OnegoodexampleisOperationCobraIIIinMay2015.
Itwasthebiggestevercoordinatedinternationallawenforcementoperationtargetingtheillegaltradeinendangeredspecies.
Itincludedlawenforcementteamsandagenciesfrom62countriesinEurope,Africa,AsiaandtheUnitedStates.
EuropolEUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade31facilitateditviainformationexchangeandcoordinationofpolice,customs,forestryandotherlawenforcementauthoritiesfrom25participatingEUMemberStates.
TheoperationwasorganisedbytheregionalorganisationsAssociationofSoutheastAsianNationsWildlifeEnforcementNetwork(ASEAN-WEN)andtheLusakaAgreementTaskForce(LATF)(Europol2015;Sina,S.
etal.
2016,47).
5.
1CustomsAgenciesIn2015TheEuropeanCommissionadoptedanewUnionCustomsCode,whichcomesintoforcein2016.
ItsaimistointegratetheEUcustomssystem,supportcrossbordertradeandallowforagreaterdegreeofco-operation69.
TheWCOrecognisestheimportanceofcustomsauthoritiesintacklingtheillegalwildlifetrade.
InitsDeclarationontheIllegalWildlifeTradein2014theWCOdeclareditssupportfortheprinciplesoftheMarrakechDeclaration(a10-pointActionPlantoCombatIllicitWildlifeTraffickingadoptedinMay2013),theLondonDeclarationontheIllegalWildlifeTradeadoptedinFebruary2014,andotherinternationalinstrumentsdealingwiththisissue.
Thedeclarationalsohighlightstheneedforgreatercoordinationandcooperationbetweencustomsagencies,andtheneedforzerotoleranceoncorruptionincustoms(WCO2014).
TheGreenCustomsInitiativebringstogetherthesecretariatsoftherelevantmultilateralenvironmentalagreements(Basel,Cartagena,CITES,Montreal,RotterdamStockholm),Interpol,theOrganisationfortheProhibitionofChemicalWeapons,UNEPandtheWCO.
Itaimstofacilitatethelegalandsustainabletradeinenvironmentallysensitivecommodities,andcruciallytoenhancedetectionandpreventionofillegalanddamagingtrade70.
ItproducedaGreenCustomsGuidewhichisintendedtobeatrainingmanualforcustomsauthorities(UNEP2014).
DespitethecommitmentfromWCO,andvariousinitiativestoassistCustomsagencies,theystillfacesignificantchallengeswhendealingwiththewildlifetrade.
AsareportbyEurojust(2014)pointsoutwildlifeandwildlifeproductscaneasilybemovedbetweenEUMemberStateswithoutmonitoringduetotheabsenceofinternalbordercontrols(alsoseeSina,S.
etal.
2016,38).
ForexampleCustomsauthoritiesinaparticularcountrymaybeawarethatcertainfreightforwardingcompaniesareusedbyillegalwildlifetraderstomoveproductsfromsourcetodestinationmarkets;however,nationalcustomsauthoritiesmaynotpassthisinformationontotheauthorisationthedestinationcountytoassistthemintargetingchecksonparticularshipments.
5.
2DataSharingSeveralmechanismsexistfordatasharingbetweenEUMemberstatesonillegalwildlifetrafficking,howeverthesystemsoftrackinglegaltradeinnon-CITESlistedspeciesarelacking,asdiscussedinthesectiononthepettradeabove.
Atthispoint,themainchallengerevolvesaroundensuringthatdifferentagenciesfulluseofthedatasharingmechanismthatareavailable,suchasEU-TWIX.
UNEPstatesthatmonitoringthelegaltradeandcurbingtheillegaltradeinwildliferequiresgoodinformationexchangeandcooperation,involvingimporting,exportingandtransitcountries.
Therefore,UNEPrecommendsthatmechanismsneedtobeenhancedtofacilitaterapidexchangesofintelligencebetweenenforcementagencies(UNEP2014).
Monitoringactivityforthelegalandillegalwildlifetradeiscarriedoutbynationalauthorities,NGOsandinter-governmentalorganisations.
TheseincluderelevantGovernmentMinistries,thenationalauthorities69UnionCustomsCodehttp://ec.
europa.
eu/taxation_customs/customs/customs_code/union_customs_code/ucc/index_en.
htm(accessed06.
08.
2016).
70GreenCustomsInitiativehttp://www.
greencustoms.
org/index.
htm(accessed06.
08.
16).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies32responsibleforCITES,EU-TWIXdatabase,nationalpoliceforces,InterpolandTrafficInternationalamongstothers.
Forexample,theWCMC-CITESdatabasereportsallrecordsofimportexportandre-exportofCITES-listedspeciesasreportedbyParties71.
Therangeoforganisationsinvolvedinmonitoringanddatacollectionmeansthereisaneedforgreaterdegreesofcoordinationandinformationsharingtosupportthelegaltradeandenhanceenforcementeffortsagainsttheillegaltrade.
Thereareseveralexistingmechanismstoencouragegreaterdegreesofinformationexchangeontheillegalwildlifetrade.
Thekeychallengeisimplementationandenforcementratherthanthecreationofadditionalplatformsfordataexchange,sincethemechanismsalreadyexist.
CITEShasdevelopedguidelinesfortheimplementationofelectronicpermitswhichareavailablethroughtheCITESe-permittingtoolkit.
TheguidelinesareincludedintheWorldCustomsOrganisationdatamodel,aglobalstandardoncross-borderdataexchangeforthereleaseandclearanceofgoodsthroughcustoms.
Thedatamodelisoftenusedinthedevelopmentof'SingleWindow'systems,whichallowtraderstosubmitallimport,export,andtransitinformationrequiredbyregulatoryagenciesviaasingleelectronicgatewayorwindow,insteadofsubmittingthesameinformationnumeroustimestodifferentgovernmententitiesforprocessing.
TheincorporationofCITESe-permitguidelinesintotheWorldCustomsOrganisation(WCO)datamodelmakesitpossibletoincludeCITESe-permitsinSingleWindowsystems(WTOandCITES2015,12).
OneofthemostimportantsourcesofdatafortheEUistheEU-TWIXdatabase72,whichwasestablishedin2005,itisfundedbytheEuropeanCommissionandiscurrentlymanagedbyTraffic(Brusselsoffice)whichrunsitforusebyEUenforcementofficials.
ItusesCITESAlertsforrapidexchangeofinformationonseizuresinmemberstates.
Accesstothedataisnormallyrestrictedtoenforcementofficials.
Oneexampleofthebenefitsofeffectiveinformationexchangeisthatin2010CustomsOfficialsinGuyanaarrestedaDutchnationalwhowassmugglinghummingbirds,andtheinformationwassharedwithFrenchCustoms;thecustomsauthoritiesinFrancethensharedtheinformationviaEU-TWIXwhichallowedDutchauthoritiestotraceawidernetworkofcriminalssmugglingexoticbirds(Sacre,V.
2016,480-481).
6WildlifeTrade,DevelopmentandSustainableLivelihoodsTherecentlyannouncedEUActionPlanAgainstWildlifeTrafficking(2016-2020)identifiedtheneedtoengagewithruralcommunitiesandaddresstherootcausesoftheillegalwildlifetrade.
Objective1.
2ofthePlanistoensurethatruralcommunitiesinsourcecountriesaremoreengagedThisisanareawhichEUtradepolicycouldsupportlocalcommunitiesintheirattemptstoengageinalegalandsustainabletradeinwildlifeconservation,andensurethattheybenefitmorefromit(EuropeanUnion2016).
TheAidforTradeprogrammecouldassistindesigningandstrengtheningnaturalresourcemanagementandtheoutcomesforbiodiversityandthepoor(Cooney,R.
etal.
2015,2-3).
Indeed,onegoodexampleisthedevelopmentofbaobabtradebyPhytoTradeAfrica.
WhatthecaseindicatesisthatsignificantresourceswereinvestedingettingtheEUtoagreetoallowtheplanttobetradedintotheEU–itneededtomeetstringentconsumersafetytests73.
InasimilarinitiativethecaseofBaobabProductsMozambiqueindicatesthatcommunitiesneedsignificantlevelsofsupportandassistancetoensuretheyareabletocapturethefullvalueoftheproductstheyprovide;inthecaseofBPMcommunitymembersweretrained71http://www.
unep-wcmc.
org/citestrade.
(accessed13.
10.
2016).
72EU-TWIXdatabase,http://www.
eutwix.
org/,(accessed04.
08.
2016).
73'Baobab-tradingtheonceforbiddenfruit',http://www.
new-ag.
info/en/developments/devItem.
phpa=640(accessed23.
08.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade33toprepareandprocessbaobabproductsinordertocapturemoreoftheireconomicvalueatthelocal/sourcelevel74.
Furthermore,theITCsupportsforbaobabtradefromSouthernAfricaaswell(Cooney,R.
etal.
2015,19).
Thelegalwildlifetradecanbeanimportantlivelihoodstrategyforsomecommunities.
Cooney,R.
etal(2015)pointoutthatthestructureofthesupplychainhasstrongbearingontheincentivesforconservationandtheopportunitiesforpoorpeopletoparticipateandbenefitfromthetrade.
Forexample,thecostsofproductionmaybeabarriertoentryforthepoor;longersupplychainsmaymeanthatbenefitsaremorewidelydistributed,withfewerreturnstocommunitiesinvolvedintheearlystagesofharvestandprocessing;concentratedmarketpowermayfavourorhampercommunitylivelihoods,dependingonwhichstageofthesupplychainismonopolised(Cooney,R.
2015,16;Roe,D.
2008;Clemente-Munoz,M.
A.
2016).
Provisionofeconomicalternativesforthoseengagedinunsustainableand/orillegalwildlifetrademayalsoonlybepartofthesolution.
Cooneyetalarguethatpropertyrightsgoverningtheuseoflandandwildliferesourcescanhavesignificantimplicationsforthecommercialviabilityofalegalwildlifetrade,fortheincentivesforsustainableuseandtheassociatedlivelihoodbenefits.
OnesuccessfulcaseasreportedbyCooneyetalisthatofthelegaltradeintheyellowanaconda(Eunectesnotaeus)in2003alongsidearegionalcommunitymanagementschemeinArgentina.
Theschemehasimprovedwetlandmanagementandpopulationsustainability,andhasprovidedsupplementaryincometoaround300localpeoplefromLaEstrellaMarsh(Cooney,R.
etal2015,15;Brashares,J.
S.
etal.
2014).
6.
1DemandReductionAnimportantapproachtotacklingtheillegalwildlifetraderestsontheideathatitisultimatelydrivenbydemandinendusermarkets.
IndeedSina,S.
etalconcludedthatdemandreductionisakeychallengeandrecommendedthattheEUshouldtakeactiontoprovideadequateinformationtothepublicandstakeholdersinordertoraiseawarenessaboutthenegativeimpactsofillegalwildlifetrade(Sina,S.
etal.
2016,27-32).
OneofthethreepillarsoftheEUActionPlanonWildlifeTraffickingisprevention(EuropeanUnion2016),whichincludesmeasurestoreducedemandforandsupplyofillegalwildlifeproducts,bothwithintheEUandglobally.
TheActionPlanstatesthattheCommissionwillprepareguidelinesbytheendof2016aimingtosuspendtheexportofoldivoryitemsfromtheEUandensuringthatintra-EUtradeinoldivoryitemsisstrictlyscrutinisedbyEUMemberStates75.
SeveralNGOsandEUmemberstateshavedemandreductioncampaignsandinitiatives.
Forexample,NGOssuchasIFAW76,HumaneSociety-InternationalandWildAidactivelycampaigntoreducedemandforwildlifeproductsinconsumermarkets.
ForexampletheHumanSocietyInternationalproducedastorybookandfilmaimedatVietnamesechildren,entitled'I'maLittleRhino'77.
TheUKGovernmenthasdemandreductionasoneofthethreepillarsofitsIllegalWildlifeTradeChallengeFund(discussedearlierinthisreport);andthefundhasbeenusedtosupportanumberofdemandreductionprojects.
Oneoftheproblemschallengeswithdemandreductionisthatitcantakeaverylongtimetoshowanyresultsbecausebehaviouralchangecanbeslow.
Demandreductionneedsawhole-societyapproachwhichtacklestherangeofmotivations(cultural,health,economic)whichshapedemandforwildlifeproducts(Ayling,J.
2016).
Zain,S.
(2012)arguesthatbehaviouralchangeamongstconsumersoftigerpartswillbeaneffectiveresponsetothethreatoftigerextinctionbecauseraisingawarenesswillreducethedemand,whichwillremoveincentivesforillegaltigerhuntersandtraders.
Suchinitiativeshavebeen74https://www.
seed.
uno/awards/all/2014/1371-baobab-products-mozambique.
html(accessed23.
08.
2016).
75http://europa.
eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-16-388_en.
htm(accessed13.
10.
2016).
76http://www.
ifaw.
org/international/our-work/wildlife-trade/reducing-markets-wildlife-products-china(accessed20.
10.
16).
77http://www.
hsi.
org/issues/rhinoceros_poaching/facts/little_rhino_book.
html#id=album-217&num=content-3717(accessed20.
10.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies34successfulinthepast–demandforivoryinJapanhasbeensubstantiallyreduced,andtheinternationaltradebanin1989effectivelyendeddemandforivoryinEuropeandNorthAmerica(Duffy,R.
2013)numberofcountriestodatesuchasJapan,SouthKorea,Taiwan/ChineseTaipeiandChina.
Milliken,T.
(2013)statesthatthereisnoreasontoassumeVietnamwillbeanydifferentdespitetherelativelynewusesforrhinohorninthatcountry(alsoseeRademeyer,J.
2013).
TheestimatedpriceofrhinohorninVietnamin2013wasUS$65,000perkilogram,andevenuptoUS$75,000,promptingheadlinesthatrhinohornwasworthmorethangold(Ayling,J.
2013,60;Rademeyer,J.
2013,274-276;t'SasRolfes,M.
2012,13).
7Corruption,OrganisedCrimeandSecurityThewildlifetradeintersectswithcorruption,organisedcrimeandsecurityissues,whichalsoshapetheeffectivenessofattemptstomanageit.
Objective1.
4oftheEUActionPlanAgainstWildlifeTraffickingistotacklecorruptionassociatedwithwildlifetrafficking(EuropeanUnion,2016).
Forexample,theEurojustreportonenvironmentalcrimepointsoutthatincasesofwildlifecrimethemostcommonlinksaretooffencesrelatedtocorruption,thefraudulentobtainingoflicencesorforgeryofthelatter(includingcustomsofficialdocuments),moneylaunderingand,asthecasemaybe,otherillegalactivitiessuchasdrugtrafficking(Eurojust2015,14).
TheOECDTaskforceonChartingIllicitTrade,TaskforceonCounteringIllicitTrade(TF-CIT)aimstocoordinateinternationalexpertiseinmappingillicitmarketstounderstandtraffickinginordertoinformmoreeffectivepoliciestotackleit.
Itsmainfociaredrugs,arms,persons,toxicwaste,counterfeitconsumergoodsandwildlife.
Therefore,itaddressesthewildlifetradeaspartofawiderconcernabouttrafficking,andhasbeguntoaggregatepubliclyavailabledatainordertomapthemaintraffickinghotspots(OECD2016,59).
TheOECDpointsoutthatgreateruseofeconomicincentivescancomplementtraditionalcommandandcontrolapproachestoregulation,andmayhelptoreduceillegaltradeflows;howeversuchmechanismscanonlyworkinaframeworkofgoodgovernanceandlawenforcement,andaspartofapackageofmeasurestoaddressthefullrangeofcausesofillegaltrade(OECD2012).
7.
1OrganisedcrimeTheEuropolthreatassessmentdrawsthelinkbetweenwildlifetraffickingandorganisedcrimegroups(Eurojust2014,15;Europol2013(a)).
Similarly,theUNODC(2010(b))reportTheGlobalisationofCrime:ATransnationalOrganisedCrimeThreatAssessmentidentifiedenvironmentalcrimeasamajorarenafortransnationalorganisedcrimenetworks,thisincludestraffickingofwildlifeandtimber.
Wildlifetraffickingisattractivetoorganisedcrimenetworksbecauseitisperceivedtohavealow-riskdetectionandprosecution,butishighlyprofitablebecausewildlifeisahigh-valuecommodity(Sina,S.
etal2016,32-34;Wyatt,T.
andKushner,A.
2014;Wyatt,T,2013).
Interpolestimatedthatin2013asignificantportionofivoryreachinginternationalmarkets,especiallyinAsia,wasderivedfromelephantpopulationsinTanzaniaandthattheincreaseinlargescaleshipmentsindicatedtheparticipationoforganisedcrime,withtraffickingsyndicatesoperatinginmultiplecountriessimultaneously.
Thesecrimesyndicatessourcedivoryfromseveralhundredelephantsforeachshipment,andtheyboretheprimaryresponsibilityforthedrasticdeclineofAfricanelephantpopulationssincethelate2000s(Interpol2014,1-2).
Thereisasignificantgapinliterature/policiesonmoneylaunderingandwildlifecrime.
TheUnitedNationsConventionAgainstTransnationalOrganisedCrime(UNTOC)andtheUnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime(UNODC)provideaframeworkforapproachingtransnationalorganisedcrime,whichincludeswildlifeandtimbertrafficking.
TheroleofUNODC78istosupportmemberstatesinaddressingenvironmentalcrimes,butitsinitiativesaroundwildlifecrimearestillintheirinfancy(Broussard,G.
2016,465).
From2012allactivitiestoaddresswildlifeandforestcrimewerebroughtunder78https://www.
unodc.
org/unodc/en/wildlife-and-forest-crime/index.
html(accessed22.
08.
2016).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade35thefirstUNODCGlobalProgrammeonCombatingWildlifeandForestCrime,managedbytheUNODCheadquartersinVienna(Broussard,G.
2016,463).
ThesupportprovidedbyUNODCundertheGlobalProgrammecomprisesarangeofmeasuresincludinglegislativeassistance,trainingandprovisionofessentialequipment.
TheProgrammeaimstobenefitpolice,customs,borderofficials,forestry/wildlifeofficials,prosecutors,judiciaryandcommunitygroups79.
Furthermore,thoseinvolvedinillegalwildlifetradingoftendealinotherillegalcommoditiesincludingdrugs,weapons,peopleandstolencars.
Therefore,measurestotackletheseothertradescanalsohavepositivespinoffbenefitswhichassisttheEUinmeetingtheirobligationstopreventillegalwildlifetrade.
Forexample,In2015theEuropeanParliamentandEuropeanCouncilalsopassedthe4thAnti-MoneyLaunderingDirective(AMLD):Directive(EU)2015/849onthepreventionoftheuseoftheEUfinancialsystemforthepurposesofmoneylaunderingorterroristfinancing(EuropeanCommission2015,4;Nelleman,C.
etal.
2016,30).
TheActionPlanaimstodevelopalistof'highrisk'thirdcountriesin2016,andthesemayoverlapwithimportantsourcesanddestinationsofillegalwildlifeproducts,forexampletheEUhasbeenprovidingsupporttotheKenyanGovernmenttoimplementbestpracticetopreventmoneylaunderingandfinancingofterrorism,anditisalsoanimportantsourceofillegallyobtainedwildlifeproducts(notablyivory).
7.
2SecurityFromapproximately2007onwardstherehasbeenagrowingconcernabouttherelationshipsbetweenwildlifetraffickingandterroristfinancing(White,N.
2014;Lawson,K.
andVines,A.
2014;Duffy,R.
2014;Wyatt,T.
andKushner,A.
2014).
In2016theEuropeanCommissionissuedaCommunicationontheEUActionPlanonthefightagainstterroristfinancing(COM(2016)50final),whichdrewalinkbetweentheillegalwildlifetradethefinancingofmilitiaandterroristgroups(EuropeanCommission2016(d);Acharya,N.
andMühlen-Schulte.
,A.
2016;UNEPetal.
2013:12).
ItrefersdirectlytotheEUActionPlanonIllegalWildlifeTraffickingasameansoftargetingsourcesoffundingforterrorism.
TheActionPlanaimsinclude'cuttingoffsourcesoffinance,makingithardertoescapedetectionwhenusingthesefunds,andusinganyinformationfromthefinancingprocesstobesteffectcanallthereforemakeapowerfulcontributiontothefightagainstterrorism'(EuropeanCommission2016(f),2;EuropeanCommission2015).
ItrecommendsgreaterexchangeofinformationbetweentheFinancialIntelligenceUnits(FIUs)ofdifferentcountriesandwiththeprivatesector(EuropeanCommission,2015(c):7).
AtaninternationalleveltheworkoftheFinancialActionTaskForce(FATF)isalsoimportant.
TheobjectivesoftheFATFaretosetstandardsandpromoteeffectiveimplementationoflegal,regulatoryandoperationalmeasuresforcombatingmoneylaundering,terroristfinancingandotherrelatedthreatstotheintegrityoftheinternationalfinancialsystem.
TheFATFisthereforeapolicy-makingbodywhichworkstogeneratethenecessarypoliticalwilltobringaboutnationallegislativeandregulatoryreformsintheseareas80.
SeveralEUMemberStatesaremembersoftheFATF,andtheCommissionalsoparticipates.
KeystandardsincludethoseembodiedintheFATF'40Recommendationsoncombatingmoneylaunderingandthefinancingofterrorismandproliferation'(EuropeanCommission2016(d),2).
However,drawinglinksbetweentheillegaltradeinwildlifeandterroristfinancingneedtobetreatedcautiously.
ArecentreportfromUNEPandInterpolonenvironmentalcrimequestionstheaccuracyofthelinksbetweenivoryandterroristfinancing,especiallyforAlShabaab.
TheauthorsstatethatclaimsAlShabaabwastrafficking30.
6tonnesofivoryperannum(representing3600elephantsperyear)throughsouthernSomaliaare'highlyunreliable'andthatthemainsourcesofincomeforAlShabaabremaincharcoaltradingandex-patfinance(Nellemann,C.
etal.
(eds)2014,78-81;Duffy,R.
2016).
79https://www.
unodc.
org/unodc/en/wildlife-and-forest-crime/index.
html(accessed22.
08.
2016).
80http://www.
fatf-gafi.
org/about/(accessed30.
09.
2016).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies368ConclusionsThelegalandillegalwildlifetradeareextremelycomplexandhighlyvaluabletrades,andanypolicyinterventionsneedtobecarefullyconsideredbecause'one-size-fits-all'approachesareunlikelytobeeffective,andcouldevenbecounter-productive.
Nevertheless,EUtradepolicycanfacilitateasustainableandlegaltrade,whilsttacklingillegalorunsustainabletrade.
Inthecaseoftheillegaltrade,suchpoliciesneedtobeusedinconjunctionwithbroaderapproachestotackletherangeofreasonswhywildlifeistradedillegallyinthefirstplace.
Theseinclude(butarenotlimitedto)povertyandlackofalternativeopportunitiesinsourcecountries,corruptioninsource,transitandend-usercountries,theinvolvementoforganisedcrimegroupsandthelowpenaltiesassociatedwithwildlifecrime.
TheEUfacesgrowingchallengesfromtheexpansionofe-commerceforlegalandillegaltrading,thecomplexityoftheglobaltransportandshippingsystems,thegrowthofcontainerisationanduseofprivatemailingcentres.
AsthesenewchallengesemergethereisanopportunityfortheEUtorespondtothemviatheuseoftradepolicy.
TradepoliciesintheEUcanbeusedtosupportandfacilitatealegalandsustainabletrade.
ThesecanincludetheexplicituseofwildlifetradecriteriainthenegotiationsfornewFTAsandGSP+agreements,greaterlevelsofsupporttolocalcommunitiesinsourcecountriesviaAidforTradeordevelopmentassistanceforcapacitybuilding,trainingandprovisionofequipmenttoallowthemtocaptureagreaterdegreeofthevalueofwildlife.
TradepoliciesintheEUcanalsobeusedtoenhanceeffortstotackletheillegalwildlifetradeandmeetEUobligationstoCITES.
TheEUalreadyhassomeofthestrictestlegalframeworksforcurbingtheillegalwildlifetrade,buteffectiveimplementationandenforcementremainthekeychallenges.
Inthecaseoftheillegaltrade,theroutesfortraffickingillegalwildlifeproductsdifferaccordingtospeciesandprofileofsupplyanddemand,thereforeeachrequiresatailoredapproach.
Nevertheless,criterialinkedtothewildlifetradecouldbeimportantbargainingchipsinEUFTA,TTIPandGSP+negotiations.
Theillegalwildlifetradecanalsobetackledviatheuseofinstrumentsandcriterianotrelatedtowildlifeperse,butwhichcanstillhaveanimportantimpact.
Forexample,theinclusionofanti-corruptioncriteriaintradenegotiationsandagreementscansupporteffortstoimplementandenforcemeasurestocurbtheillegalwildlifetrade.
Insum,theEUhasalreadybeenactiveinpromotingalegalandsustainabletrade,whilealsoattemptingtotackletheillegalwildlifetrade.
TheEUnowhasarangeofimportantopportunitiestousetradepolicytoembedanddevelopthisrecordfurther.
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade379Recommendations1.
TheEUshouldfocusonimplementingandenforcingexistingcommitmentstotacklingtheillegalwildlifetrade,ratherthandevelopingnewlegislativeframeworks.
2.
Effortsshouldbedirectedatensuringdatasharingplatforms,suchasEU-TWIX,areusedmoreeffectively3.
ThecurrentandfuturenegotiationsforFTAsshouldincludeprovisionslinkedtolegalandillegalwildlifetrade,whereappropriate.
4.
EnforcementofregulationstocurbtheillegalwildlifetradeshouldbemadeamoreexplicitcriterionofGSP+agreements.
5.
TheEUshouldincludeexplicitcriteriarelatedtotackingtheillegalwildlifetradeandfacilitatingalegalandsustainabletradeincurrentandfutureTTIPnegotiations.
6.
TheEUshoulddeliversupportthroughtrainingandcapacitybuildingforproducerassociations,cooperativesandsocialenterprisestoallowlocalcommunitiestodevelopandcapturemoreofthe'addedvalue'ofwildlifeproducts.
7.
Aidblendingcanbeusedtoenhanceprivatesectorco-operationandinvolvement.
8.
TheAidforTradeprogrammeshouldbeusedtoassistindesigningandstrengtheningnaturalresourcemanagementandtheoutcomesforbiodiversityandmarginalisedorpoorercommunities.
9.
TheEUshouldsupportthedevelopmentofe-commercetosupportsustainablelegalwildlifetradeviadirectsellingfromproducerstoconsumer;theEUshouldalsoco-operatewithsocialmediaorganisationstocurbtheillegalwildlifetrade.
10TheEUshoulddevelopguidelinesforprivatesectoractorsactivelyinvolvedinthelegalwildlifetrade-theseincludetransport,shippingandmailingcompanies.
11.
TheEUshoulddevelopgreaterpowerstoinspectprivatemailingcentrestodiscouragetheirusebyillegalwildlifetraders.
12.
TheEUshouldengageinandsupportdemandreductioninitiativesasthemosteffectivesolutiontoillegaltradingofendangeredspecies.
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies38SelectedReferencesAcharya,N.
andMühlen-Schulte.
,A.
,TheFinalRound:CombatingArmedActors,OrganisedCrimeandWildlifeTrafficking,BICCPolicyBrief3\2016.
BICC,Bonn,2016Adams,W.
M.
etal.
,'Biodiversityconservationandtheeradicationofpoverty,'Science306,2004,pp.
1146–1149.
Ayling,J.
,'Reducingdemandforillicitwildlifeproducts:craftinga'whole-society'response,'inElliot,L.
andW.
Schaedla(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016,pp.
346-368.
Ayling,J.
,'WhatSustainsWildlifeCrimeRhinoHornTradingandtheResilienceofCriminalNetworks,'JournalofInternationalWildlifeLaw&Policy16,2014,pp.
57-80.
Biggs,D.
,Courchamp,F.
Martin,R.
,andPossingham,H.
P.
,'LegalTradeofAfrica'sRhinoHorns',Science339,2013,pp.
1038-1039.
Brashares,J.
S.
etal.
,'WildlifeDeclineandSocialConflict',Science345,2014,pp.
376-378.
Broad,S.
,Mulliken,T.
,andRoe,D.
,'TheNatureandExtentofLegalandIllegalTradeinWildlife,'inS.
Oldfield(ed.
),TheTradeinWildlife:RegulationforConservation,Earthscan,London,2003,pp.
3–22.
Brockington,D.
,Duffy,R.
,andIgoe,J.
,NatureUnbound:Conservation,CapitalismandtheFutureofProtectedAreas,Earthscan,London,2008.
Broussard,G.
,'TheevolvingroleoftheUnitedNationsOfficeinDrugsandCrimeinfightingwildlifeandforestcrimes,'inElliot,L.
andW.
Schaedla(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016,pp.
457-468.
Burn,R.
W.
,Underwood,F.
M.
,andBlanc,J.
,'Globaltrendsandfactorsassociatedwiththeillegalkillingofelephants:ahierarchicalbayesiananalysisofcarcassencounterdata',PLoSONE6:e24165,2011,doi:24110.
21371/journal.
pone.
0024165.
Chaber,A.
-L.
,Allebone-Webb,S.
,Lignereux,Y.
,CunninghamA.
A.
andRowcliffe,J.
M.
,'TheScaleofIllegalMeatImportationfromAfricatoEuropeviaParis',ConservationLetters,3,2010,pp.
317–21.
Challender,D.
,Harrop,S.
R.
andMacMillan,D.
C.
,'Towardsinformedandmulti-facetedwildlifetradeinterventions,'GlobalEcologyandConservation,2015,3:129–148.
Challender,D.
andMacMillan,D.
C.
,'Poachingismorethananenforcementproblem,'ConservationLetters,7,2015,pp.
484-494.
CITES,CITESStrategicVision2008-2020,CITES,Geneva,2008.
CITES,ProposaltotransferthepopulationoftheUnitedRepublicofTanzaniafromAppendixItoAppendixII,Proposition15.
4,15thMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiesofCITES,Qatar,(2010(a)).
CITES,ProposaltotransferofthepopulationofZambiafromAppendixItoAppendixII,Proposition15.
5,15thMeetingoftheConferenceofthePartiesofCITES,Qatar,(2010(b)).
CITES,Elephantconservation,illegalkillingandivorytrade:ReporttotheStandingCommitteeofCITES.
62ndmeetingoftheStandingCommittee,DocumentreferenceSC62Doc46.
1,CITES,Geneva,2012.
CITES,InterpretationandimplementationoftheConvention:SpeciestradeandconservationRhinoceroses,ReportoftheSecretariatCITESdocumentCoP16Doc.
54.
2(Rev.
1),CITES,Geneva,2013a,CITES,StatusoflegislativeprogressforimplementingCITES,CoP16Doc.
28,Annex2(Rev.
1),CITES,Geneva,(2013(b)).
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade39Clemente-Munoz,M.
A.
,'TheroleofCITESinensuringasustainablelegaltradeinwildfloraandfauna,'inElliot,L.
andW.
Schaedla(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016,pp.
433-443.
Cooney,R.
etal,TheTradeinWildlife:AFrameworktoImproveBiodiversityandLivelihoodOutcomes,xii,29pages(Technicalpaper)Doc.
No.
:SC-15-311.
E,ITC,Geneva,2015.
Cooney,R.
andJepson,P.
'Theinternationalwildbirdtrade:What'swrongwithblanketbans,'Oryx,40,2006,pp.
18–23.
CounciloftheEuropeanUnion,AidForTrade,Brussels,CounciloftheEuropeanUnion,Brussels,2007.
Davis,M.
etal,EUAccessiontoCITES–MainIssuesandPositionsforthe17thCOPIP/A/ENVI/2016-06,Brussels,EuropeanParliament,2016.
Dressler,W.
etal'FromHopetoCrisisandBackAgain:ACriticalHistoryoftheGlobalCBNRMNarrative,'EnvironmentalConservation,37,2013,pp.
1-15.
Duffy.
R.
,NatureCrime:HowWe'reGettingConservationWrong,YaleUniversityPress,NewHaven,CTandLondon,2010.
Duffy,R.
,'GlobalEnvironmentalGovernanceandNorth-SouthDynamics:TheCaseofCITES,'EnvironmentandPlanningC:GovernmentandPolicy,31,2013,pp.
222-239.
Duffy,R.
,'WarbyConservation,'Geoforum,69,2016,pp.
238-248.
Elliot,L.
andSchaedla,W.
(eds)(2016)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016.
Elliott,L.
'Governingtheinternationalpoliticaleconomyoftransnationalenvironmentalcrime,'inPayne,A.
andPhillips,.
(ed.
),HandbookoftheInternationalPoliticalEconomyofGovernance,EdwardElgar,London,2014,pp.
450-468.
Ellis,S.
'OfElephantsandMen.
PoliticsandNatureConservationinSouthAfrica,'JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies,20,1994,pp.
53-69.
Emslie,R.
H.
,Milliken,T.
,Talukdar,B.
AfricanandAsianRhinoceroses–Status,ConservationandTrade,AreportfromtheIUCNSpeciesSurvivalCommission(IUCN/SSC)AfricanandAsianRhinoSpecialistGroupsandTRAFFICtotheCITESSecretariat,pursuanttoResolutionConf.
9.
14(Rev.
CoP15),CoP16Doc.
54.
2-rev1,2012.
EuropeanCommission,EU-VietnamFreeTradeAgreement.
EC,Brussels,2016(a).
EuropeanCommission,HumanRightsandSustainableDevelopmentintheEU-VietnamRelationswithspecificregardtotheEU-VietnamFreeTradeAgreement,FinalcommissionstaffworkingdocumentSWD(2016)21.
EC,Brussels,(2016(b))EuropeanCommission,TheEUSpecialIncentiveArrangementforSustainableDevelopmentandGoodGovernance(GSP+)coveringtheperiod2014–2015,JointStaffWorkingDocument,SWD(2016)8final.
EC,Brussels,2016(c).
EuropeanCommission,ActionPlanforstrengtheningthefightagainstterroristfinancing.
COM(2016(e))50final,EC,Brussels,2016(d).
EuropeanCommission,TradeSustainabilityImpactAssessment(FinalReport)FreeTradeAgreementbetweentheEuropeanUnionandJapanEuropeanCommission/Directorate-GeneralforTrade,EC,Brussels,2016(f).
EuropeanCommission,TradeForAll:TowardsaMoreResponsibleTradeandInvestmentPolicy.
EC,Brussels,2015(a).
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies40EuropeanCommission,AidForTradeReport2015.
SWD(2015)128final,Directorate–GeneralforInternationalCooperationandDevelopment,EC,Brussels,2015(b).
EuropeanCommission,EuropeanAgendaonSecurity,COM(2015)185Final,EC,Brussels,2015(c).
EuropeanUnion,EUActionPlanagainstWildlifeTrafficking,2016-2020,COM(2016)87Final,EC,Brussels,2016.
Eurojust,StrategicProjectonEnvironmentalCrimeReport,Eurojust,DenHaag,2014.
Europol,ThreatAssessment2013–EnvironmentalCrimeintheEU,Councildoc.
15915/13,Europol,DenHaag,2013.
Gerstetter,C.
,etal.
,EnvironmentalCrimeandtheEU:SynthesisoftheResearchProjectEuropeanUnionActiontoFightEnvironmentalCrimeEFFACE,ReportintheframeworkoftheEFFACEresearchproject.
EcologicInstitute,Berlin,2016.
Green10,Green10positiononTransatlanticTradeandInvestmentPartnership,2014,availableathttp://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.
cloudfront.
net/downloads/green_10_position_on_ttip_.
pdfHarrison,J.
R.
,Roberts,D.
L.
andHernandez-Castro,J.
,'Assessingtheextentandnatureofwildlifetradeonthedarkweb',ConservationBiology,'30,2016,pp.
900–904.
Hernandez-CastroJ.
andRoberts,D.
L.
,'Automaticdetectionofpotentiallyillegalonlinesalesofelephantivoryviadatamining,'PeerJournalofComputerScience1:e10https://doi.
org/10.
7717/peerj-cs.
10,2015.
Hinsley,A.
,etal,Estimatingtheextentandstructureoftradeinhorticulturalorchidsviasocialmedia.
ConservationBiology.
doi:10.
1111/cobi.
12721,2016.
IFAW,KillingwithKeystrokes:AnInvestigationoftheIllegalWildlifeTradeontheWorldWideWeb,IFAW,Brussels,2008.
Interpol,ElephantPoachingandIvoryTraffickinginEastAfrica:AssessmentforanEffectiveLawEnforcementResponse.
Interpol,EnvironmentalSub-Directorate,Lyon,2014.
Jahrl,J.
,IllegalCaviarTradeinBulgariaandRomania,WWFAustria/Traffic,Vienna,2013.
Jiao,Y.
,GreaterChinaandtransnationalenvironmentalcrime:understandingcriminalnetworksandenforcementresponses,'inElliot,L.
andSchaedla,W.
,(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016,pp.
255-274.
Kasterine,A.
,etal,TheTradeinSouth-EastAsianPythonSkins.
InternationalTradeCentre.
ITC,Geneva,2012.
Langan,M.
,RegulatoryPolicySpaceforPrivateSectorDevelopmentandDecentJobs,andPrivateSectorEngagement,PolicyBriefing,DirectorateBPolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPoliciesoftheUnion,EuropeanParliament,Brussels,2011.
Lawson,K.
andVines,A.
,GlobalImpactsoftheIllegalWildlifeTrade:TheCostsofCrime,InsecurityandInstitutionalErosion,ChathamHouse,London,2014.
Leader-Williams,N.
,'Regulationandprotection:successesandfailureinrhinocerosconservation,'inS.
Oldfield(ed)TheTradeinWildlife:RegulationforConservation,Earthscan,London,2003,pp.
89-99.
Leakey,R.
,WildlifeWars:MyBattletoSaveKenya'sElephants,Pan,London,2001.
Lunstrum,E.
2014'GreenMilitarisation:Anti-PoachingEffortsandtheSpatialContoursofKrugerNationalPark,'AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers,104,2014,pp.
816–832.
McNamaraJ.
,etal.
,CharacterisingWildlifeTradeMarketSupply-DemandDynamics,PLoSONE11:e0162972.
doi:10.
1371/journal.
pone.
0162972,2016.
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade41Milliken,T.
,andShaw,J.
,TheSouthAfrica–VietNamRhinoHornTradeNexus,Cambridge,TrafficInternational,2012.
Milliken,T.
,Emslie,R.
H.
andTalukdar,B.
,AfricanandAsianRhinoceroses–Status,ConservationandTrade,AreportfromtheIUCNSpeciesSurvivalCommission(IUCN/SSC)AfricanandAsianRhinoSpecialistGroupsandTRAFFICtotheCITESSecretariat,pursuanttoResolutionConf.
9.
14(Rev.
CoP14)andDecision14.
89,CoP15Doc.
45.
1,2009.
Milner-Gulland,E.
J.
andLeader-Williams,N.
,'Amodelofincentivesfortheillegalexploitationofblackrhinosandelephants;poachingpaysinLuangwaValley,Zambia,'JournalofAppliedEcology29,1992,pp.
388-401.
Natusch,D.
J.
D.
andLyons,J.
A.
,2012,'Exploitedforpets:theharvestandtradeofamphibiansandreptilesfromIndonesianNewGuinea,'.
BiologicalConservation,11,pp.
2899–2911.
Nellemann,C.
,etal(eds)TheRiseofEnvironmentalCrime–AGrowingThreatToNaturalResourcesPeace,DevelopmentAndSecurity,AUNEP-INTERPOLRapidResponseAssessment,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandRHIPTORapidResponse–NorwegianCenterforGlobalAnalyses,2016.
Nellemann,C.
,etal(eds)TheEnvironmentalCrimeCrisis–ThreatstoSustainableDevelopmentfromIllegalExploitationandTradeinWildlifeandForestResources,AUNEPRapidResponseAssessment,UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandGRID-Arendal,NairobiandArendal,2014.
Nijman,V.
,'AnoverviewoftheinternationalwildlifetradefromSoutheastAsia.
'BiodiversityConservation,19,2010,pp.
1101–1114.
Nijman,V.
andShepherd,C.
R.
,'TheroleofAsiaintheglobaltradeinCITESII-listedpoisonarrowfrogs:hoppingfromKazakhstantoLebanontoThailandandBeyond,'BiodiversityConservation,19,2010,pp.
1963–1970.
OECD,IllicitTrade:ConvergingCriminalNetworks.
OECD,Paris,2016.
OECD,IllegalTradeinEnvironmentallySensitiveGoods.
OECD,Paris,2012.
Phelps,J.
,Biggs,D.
andWebb,E.
L.
,'Toolsandtermsforunderstandingillegalwildlifetrade,'FrontiersinEcologyandtheEnvironment,doi:10.
1002/fee.
1325,2016.
Phelps,J.
,Carrasco,L.
R.
,andWebb,E.
L.
,'Aframeworkforassessingsupply-sidewildlifeconservation,'ConservationBiology,28,2013,pp.
244–257.
Phelps,J.
,etal,'BoostingCITES,'Science330,201,pp.
1752–1753.
Pink,G.
,'INTERPOL'sNEST:Buildingcapabilityandcapacitytorespondtotransnationalenvironmentalcrime'inElliot,L.
andSchaedla,W.
,(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,London,EdwardElgar,2016,pp.
444-456.
Rademeyer,J.
,KillingforProfit:ExposingtheIllegalRhinoHornTrade,ZebraPress,CapeTown,2012.
Reeve,R.
,Policingtheinternationaltradeinendangeredspecies:TheCITEStreatyandcompliance,RoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs/Earthscan,London,2002.
Rivalan,P.
etal,'Canbansstimulatewildlifetrade,'Nature447,2007,pp.
529–530.
Robinson,J.
E.
,etal,'Dynamicsoftheglobaltradeinlivereptiles:Shiftingtrendsinproductionandconsequencesforsustainability,'BiologicalConservation,184,2015,pp.
42-50.
Roe,D.
etal,BeyondEnforcement:EngagingCommunitiesinTacklingWildlifeCrime,IIED,London,2015.
Roe,D.
etal,Conservationandhumanrights:theneedforinternationalstandards,IIED,London,2010.
PolicyDepartment,Directorate-GeneralforExternalPolicies42Roe,D.
,TradingNature:AReportwithCaseStudies,ontheContributionofWildlifeTradeManagementtoSustainableLivelihoodsandtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals,TRAFFICInternationalandWWFInternational,Cambridge,2008(a).
Roe,D.
,'Theoriginsandevolutionoftheconservation-povertydebate:areviewofkeyliterature,eventsandpolicyprocesses,'Oryx,42,2008(b),pp.
491-503.
Roe,D.
,'Blanketbans:conservationorimperialismAresponsetoCooney&Jepson,'Oryx,40,2006,pp.
27–28.
Sacre,V.
,'EU-TWIX:tenyearsofinformationexchangeandcooperationbetweenwildlifelawenforcementofficialsinEurope,'inElliot,L.
andSchaedla,W.
,(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016,pp.
478-488.
Sanderson,S.
E.
andRedford,K.
H,'Contestedrelationshipsbetweenbiodiversityconservationandpovertyalleviation,'Oryx,37,2003,pp.
1–2.
Sellar,J.
,TheUN'sLoneRanger:Combatinginternationalwildlifecrime,WhittlesPublishing,Dunbeath,2014.
Sina,S.
etal,WildlifeCrime,StudyfortheENVICommittee,IP/A/ENVI/2015-10,EuropeanParliament,Brussels,2016.
Sollund,R.
andMaher,J.
,TheIllegalWildlifeTrade:ACaseStudyReportontheIllegalWildlifeTradeintheUnitedKingdom,Norway,ColombiaandBrazil,StudyintheFrameworkoftheEFFACEResearchProject,UniversityofOsloandUniversityofSouthWales,OsloandWales,2015.
South,N.
andWyatt,T.
,'Comparingillicittradesinwildlifeanddrugs:Anexploratorystudy,'DeviantBehavior,32,2011,pp.
538-561.
Stiles,D.
,'Theivorytradeandelephantconservation,'EnvironmentalConservation,31,2004,pp.
309–321.
Todd,M.
,TradeinMalagasyreptilesandamphibiansinThailand,TrafficSoutheastAsia,PetalingJaya,Selangor,2011.
TrafficWhat'sDrivingtheWildlifeTradeAReviewofExpertOpiniononEconomicandSocialDriversoftheWildlifeTradeandTradeControlEffortsinCambodia,Indonesia,LaoPDRandVietnam,TrafficInternational/WorldBank,Cambridge/WashingtonDC,2008.
t'SasRolfes,M.
,TheRhinoPoachingCrisis:AMarketAnalysis,2012,http://www.
rhinoresourcecenter.
com/pdf_files/133/1331370813.
pdfUNCTAD,TraceabilitySystemsforaSustainableInternationalTradeinSouthEastAsianPythonSkins,UnitedNations,NewYork,2014.
UNEP-WCMC,Reviewoftrophyhuntinginselectedspecies,UNEP-WCMC,Cambridge,2014.
UNEP,UNEPYearbook,UNEP,Nairobi,2014.
UNEP,CITES,IUCNandTraffic,ElephantsintheDust–TheAfricanElephantCrisis.
ARapidResponseAssessment.
UNEP,Nairobi,2013.
UNEP,GreenCustomsGuideToMultilateralEnvironmentalAgreements,Naiobi:UNEP,Nairobi,2008.
UnitedNations,ReportoftheSecretaryGeneralontheActivitiesoftheUnitedNationsRegionalOfficeforCentralAfricaandontheLord'sResistanceArmyaffectedareas,ReportreferenceS/2013/297,UN,NewYork,2013.
VanAsch,E.
,'TheInternationalConsortiumonCombatingWildlifeCrime(ICCWC)',inElliot,L.
andSchaedla,W.
(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016,pp.
469-477.
WCO,DeclarationontheIllegalWildlifeTrade.
WCO,Brussels,2014.
EUTradePolicyandtheWildlifeTrade43White,N.
,'TheWhiteGoldofJihad:violence,legitimisationandcontestationinanti-poachingstrategies,'JournalofPoliticalEcology21,2014,pp.
452-474.
WhiteHouse,NationalStrategyforCombatingWildlifeTrafficking.
ExecutiveOrder13648ofJuly1,2013,FederalRegister78(129),USGovernment,Washington,DC,2014.
Wittemyer,G.
,etal,'IllegalkillingforivorydrivesglobaldeclineinAfricanelephants,'ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,111,2014,pp.
13117-13121.
Wilkinson,R.
,Hannah,E.
,andScott,J.
,'TheWTOinNairobi:thedemiseoftheDohaDevelopmentAgendaandthefutureofthemultilateraltradingsystem,'GlobalPolicy,7,2016,pp.
247-255.
WTOandCITES,CITESandtheWTO:EnhancingCo-OperationforSustainableDevelopment,WTO/CITES,Geneva,2015.
Wyatt,T.
,TheUncharismaticandunorganisedsidetowildlifesmuggling,'inElliot,L.
andW.
Schaedla(eds)HandbookofTransnationalEnvironmentalCrime,EdwardElgar,London,2016,pp.
129-145.
Wyatt,T.
,WildlifeTrafficking:ADeconstructionofTheCrime,TheVictimsandTheOffenders,PalgraveMacmillan,Basingstoke,2013.
Wyatt,T.
,'TheillegaltradeofraptorsintheRussianFederation,'ContemporaryJusticeReview,14,2013,pp.
103-123.
Wyatt,T.
andKushner,A.
GlobalIllicitWildlifeProductTrafficking:Actors,Activities,andAssessment,NationalConsortiumfortheStudyofTerrorismandResponsestoTerrorism,UniversityofMaryland,2014.
Wyler,L.
S.
andSheikh,P.
A.
,InternationalIllegalTradeinWildlife:ThreatsandU.
S.
Policy.
CongressionalResearchServiceReportRL34395.
USCongress,WashingtonDC,2013.
Zain,S.
,BehaviourChangeWeCanBelieveIn:TowardsaGlobalDemandReductionStrategyforTigers,TRAFFICInternational,Cambridge,2013.