featuressonyawalger

37CHAPTER3EmpireofRiches:VisionsofDutchCommercialImperialism,c.
1600–1750ArthurWeststeijnIftherewasanythingexceptionalabouttheearly-modernDutchempire,itwasthattheDutch,unlikeanyotherglobalpowerintheearly-modernworld,livedinaRepublic.
AllEuropeancompetitorswhocon-tendedwiththeDutchworldwidethroughouttheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,betheyPortuguese,Spanish,English,French,DanishorSwedish,weresubjectsofmonarchicalstates.
Singlerulersalsogovernedallnon-Europeanimperialpowers,fromtheOttomansultanatetotheTokugawashogunateandfromtheMughalempiretotheAshantiempire.
ThismonarchicaldominanceformsaclearcontrastwithDutchimperialism,whichtookwingontheverymomenttheDutchRepubliccameintobeinginthelatesixteenthcenturyasaconfederate,kinglessstate.
Indeed,thesubsequentdevelopmentofDutchcolonialruleinthefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcenturywasessentiallyjustifiedasananti-im-perialprojecttoundermineclaimsforHabsburguniversalmonarchy.
Dutchcolonialexpansion,itspropagandistsargued,protectedlibertyagainsttyrannyworldwide.
1TheAuthor(s)2019R.
Koekkoeketal.
(eds.
),TheDutchEmpirebetweenIdeasandPractice,1600–2000,CambridgeImperialandPost-ColonialStudiesSeries,https://doi.
org/10.
1007/978-3-030-27516-7_3A.
Weststeijn(*)UtrechtUniversity,Utrecht,TheNetherlandse-mail:a.
v.
weststeijn@uu.
nl38A.
WESTSTEIJNInactualcolonialpractice,the'republican'dimensionoftheDutchempiremadelittledifference,forDutchimperialismclearlysharedmanycharacteristicswithotherimperialstates—notleast,asCatiaAntuneshasshown,withtheSpanishandPortugueseempires.
2Yetonthemoreabstractlevelofintellectualhistory,Dutchimperialself-justificationintermsofaglobalcompetitionbetweenlibertyandtyrannyhasmoresig-nificance,foritrevealstheconceptualoppositionbetweenrepublicanism,commonlydefinedasalanguageoflibertyinthesenseofnon-domina-tion,andimperialismasalanguageofdomination.
3Indeed,theDutchRepublic,despitebeingoneofEurope'smostexpansionistandbelliger-entpolicies,neverinitshistorycalleditselfanempire.
Unlikethecon-ceptualandideologicalconstructionof,forexample,the'BritishEmpire'overtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,therewasnointellectualdevelopmentofaclear-cut'Dutchempire'.
4Howtoaccountforthisabsenceofimperialself-awarenessinear-ly-modernDutchhistoryThischapterarguesthatthetensionbetweenrepublicanlibertyandimperialdominationresultedinaparticularcommercialinterpretationofempirethatwasdevelopedfromtheveryonsetofDutchimperialismaround1600onwards.
5Inthisprocess,theactualpracticeofDutchcolonialruleoverseas,basedonconquest,occupationandregaldisplay,wasmitigatedthroughmetropolitanrep-resentationsthatproclaimeditsbeneficialnatureasa'republicanempire'ofworldwidecommercialcooperationandprosperity.
6Theideolog-icalconstructionofthis'empireofriches',Iargue,canbeconsideredacounternarrativetothe'embarrassmentofriches'thatSimonSchamafamouslycharacterizedasafoundationalaspectofDutchculture.
7ForDutchimperialadvocatesintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,worldlyricheswerenotjustareasonforembarrassmentbutratherforself-confidence:globaltradewasconsideredtobethefoundationalprin-cipleofarepublicanempirethatmergedcommercialself-interestwiththerespublica,thecommongoodofthecommonwealthand,byexten-sion,ofhumanity.
Toexplorethedevelopmentofthisrepublican-imperialnarrative,Ifocusonanumberofcasestudiesofmoralandculturalframingofempirewithinearly-modernDutchsociety,buildinguponinsightsonthesignificanceofhumanisthighcultureintheearly-modernSpanishandBritishempires,8andonscholarshipregardingtheimperialdimen-sionofnineteenth-andtwentieth-centurymetropolitancultures.
9ThisfocusonthemetropolitancontextoftheDutchempiredoesnotimply3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…39astrictly'national'approach,forlocalaswellasinternationalcontextsandactorsinteractedinthecreationofearly-modernDutchvisionsofempire.
Indeed,theanalysisofthesevisionsrevealshowanationalcon-ceptionof'Dutchempire'didnotmaterializebecauseofthepersistentnotionofapurelycommercialenterprisebaseduponurbanandcorpo-ratepersonificationsofempire.
Thisimperialself-presentationintermsofaCompany-RepublicmayhavebeentypicalfortheDutchcontext,butthisdoesnotwarranttheconclusionthattheDutchrepublicanfram-ingofcommercialempirewasaltogetherexceptional.
Acomparableemphasisoncommercepervadedseventeenth-andeighteenth-centuryvisionsofempireinBritain,10whiletherepublicanempireoftheUnitedStatesofAmericahasalsotriedtosolvethetensionbetweenlibertyanddominationby'hiding'itsimperialnature.
11TheDutchcaseisrelevantpreciselybecauseitshowshowanalternativeideaofempireintermsofglobalcommercialexchangeforthesakeofprofitdevelopedandwhythisidearemainsinvogueinapostcolonialworld.
CiceronianEthicsandtheIntellectualOriginsofDutchCommercialImperialismInthesummerof1601,Sa'idal-Din,thesultanofTernateintheMoluccas,receivedaremarkableletterfromtheothersideoftheglobe.
TheparchmentletterwaswritteninelegantArabic,butthesignatureandredlacquersealattachedtoitrevealeditcamefromanunlikelysource:Maurice,PrinceofOrange,themilitaryleaderoftheDutchRepublic.
AsmallDutchdelegationhadrecentlyarrivedatTernateanddeliveredthelettertothesultanwiththefollowingrequest:Sincewehaveconsideredthatitisnotonlyhonourable,butalsoexpe-dientforourRepublicthatwenotonlymaintainloveandpeacewithourneighbours,butalsoestablishfriendshipandconcludetreatiestotheextentofourabilitieswithforeignnationsanddistantpeoples,and[havingconsidered]thatthepeopleofourlands,drivenbynaturalinclination,aredesiroustotravelabroadandseefar-flungcountries,wehaveseenfittofacilitatetheirendeavourandfulfiltheirardentdesireandtograntthemanopportunitybyconcludingandconfirmingamutualcovenantandtreatywiththeinhabitantsofthoseparts.
12ForSa'idal-Din,thiswasanofferhecouldnotrefuse.
ThesultanregardedtheDutchasusefulalliesintheongoingcompetitionwith40A.
WESTSTEIJNtheneighbouringislandofTidore,whichwascontrolledbytheircom-monenemy,thePortuguese.
HavingreadtheArabicletter,hethereforegrantedtheDutchpermissiontolaunchanattackagainstthePortuguesefortressonTidore.
Atfirstsight,thisparticulardiplomaticepisodewasnotexceptional,anditalsohadnosignificantconsequencesontheground(theattackagainstthefortressonTidorefailedmiserably).
Intheyearsaround1600,therewerenumerouscomparablecasesofcollaborationbetweenlocalsovereignsinSoutheastAsiaandDutchinterloperswhotriedtooutplaythePortugueseoverseas.
13Indeed,twoyearsbefore,sultanSa'idal-DinhadsentaroyalletterofhisowntothePrinceofOrange,togetherwithagiftofclovestoshowhiswillingnesstocooperate.
14ThisparticularinstanceofglobaldiplomacybetweenrulersinSoutheastAsiaandtheDutchRepublicwasthereforenotsurprising.
MoresignificantisthespecificwordingoftheArabicletter,whichexemplifieshowtheDutchthoughtofthemselvesandpresentedthemselvesonthisglobaldiplomaticstage.
Atitsveryinception,DutchcolonialismappropriatedthevenerablelanguageofCiceronianethicstolegitimizeitsrepublicanimperialendeavour.
ThecrucialpassageoftheArabicletterconcernsthephrase'notonlyhonourable,butalsoexpedient'.
Thismayseemafairlygeneralstate-mentoflittlesignificance,butitgainsweightconsideringthattheauthoroftheletterwastheFrenchscholarJosephJustusScaliger,professoratLeidenUniversityandarguablythemostprominenthumanistinEuropearound1600.
15ScaligerhadbeenrequestedtomaketheArabictextonbehalfoftheOldEastIndiaCompany(OudeCompagnie),oneofthefirstDutchcompaniesforcolonialtrade.
Theletter,signedandsealedbythePrinceofOrange,wasevidentlymeanttogaintheconfidenceofsovereignrulersinSoutheastAsiaandtoshowthegoodintentionsofthenavalexpeditionorganizedbytheCompany.
Toaddressitsintendedaudience,theCompanymadeaPortugueseaswellasanArabicversionoftheletter,sincePortugueseandArabicwereusedregularlyininterna-tionalcommunicationinSoutheastAsia.
TherewasonlyonemanintheDutchRepublicuptothetaskofmakingtheArabictext,andthatmanwasScaliger.
Truetohisnatureandfameasahumanistscholardeeplysteepedintotheclassicaltradition,Scaligerclearlyregardedthetaskasanopportu-nitytoputEurope'sclassicalvocabularyintoatime-honoured,exoticlanguage(Scaligerwasaself-taughtArabistandhadnevermetanative3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…41speakerofArabic).
Toaccomplishhisaims,hehadathisdisposalanearlierArabicpatentlettermadeforthefirstDutchvoyagetotheEastIndiesin1595,16aswellashisownhandwrittenArabic-Latinlexicon.
ThislexiconprovidestheclueforScaliger'sunderstandingoftheDutchcolonialexpedition,whichsetsailsomefourweeksafterhefinishedtheletteron1June1600.
ThelexiconshowsthattheArabicphrasingScaligerusedfor'honourable'(hasan)and'expedient'(nafi')isbasedonhisArabictranslationsoftwokeyLatinterms:honestumandutile.
17GivenScaliger'shumanistcredentials,thesourceofthecouplingofthesetwotermsisobvious:itderivesfromCicero'sDeofficiis,thedomi-nantclassicalhandbookonethicsinEuropeanhumanism.
Discussingthepotentialconflictbetweenmoralityandutility,Cicerofamouslyclaimedthetwoareinseparable:thatwhichismorallyright,orhonourable(hon-estum),isalsoexpedient(utile),andviceversa.
18Inthelightofthisclassicalframework,Scaliger'sprominentcouplingofhonourableandexpedientattheverystartoftheArabicletterthereforehasasignificantconnotation:itismeanttopresentDutchinterlopinginSoutheastAsiaasatokenofCiceronianethics.
ThesignificanceofScaliger'sstatementisfurthercorroboratedbythefrequencywithwhichthesametermswereusedinhumanistcirclesanddiscussionsaboutcolonialtradeintheDutchRepublicaround1600.
AcrucialroleinthisregardwasplayedbyDirckCoornhert,atower-ingfigureinearlyDutchhumanismwhohadtranslatedCicero'sDeofficiisintoDutchin1561.
19InhismoralisticdialogueTheMerchant(Decoopman)from1580,Coornhertarguedthatahonourablemer-chantengagesinexpedienttrade.
20OnceDutchcolonialtradetookofftowardstheendofthesixteenthcentury,theCiceronianlanguagethatCoornherthadmadepopulargainedmomentum.
From1594onwards,manydifferentcompaniesforoverseastradewereestablished;whentheStatesofHollandadvisedin1601tomergethemtogether,theyarguedthisunitedcompany'wouldnotonlybehonourableandexpedientbutnecessaryfortheconservationoftrade'.
21Tomaintaininternalconcordandtooutdoexternalcompetition(embodiedin1600bythefoundationoftheEnglishEastIndiaCompany),itwasdeemednecessarytobringavarietyofcommercialintereststogetherunderasingleorganizationwhich,consistingofdifferentchambersindifferentcities,mirroredtheconfederalpoliticalstructureoftheDutchRepublic.
22Thesubsequentestablishmentin1602oftheUnitedEastIndiaCompany(VereenigdeOost-IndischeCompagnie,orVOC)followedthis42A.
WESTSTEIJNlogic.
Intheprocess,thedominantfigureinthecreationoftheVOC,thestatesmanJohanvanOldenbarnevelt,addedasignificantthirdtermtotheCiceronianequation.
ExplainingthereasonswhytheVOCshouldbegrantedanexclusivecharterbytheDutchStatesGeneral,heclaimedthatthiswouldbe'honourable,expedientandprofitable'.
23VanOldenbarneveltthustriedtoexplicateCicero'sambiguouslanguageforacommerce-mindedaudience,mergingtheclassicalvocabularyofhon-estumandutilewithamodernemphasisonstraightforwardprofit.
Thestrategyworked,andthistripartiteexplanationofCiceronianethicsendedupprominentlyinthepreambleoftheofficialchartergrantedtotheVOCin1602:Itwouldnotonlybehonourable,expedientandprofitablefortheUnitedProvinces,butalsoforallwhohadcommencedandparticipatedinthiscommendabletrade,iftheCompanyisunitedandcommerceisshared,managedandexpandedunderafixedandsecureunity,orderandgovern-ance,foralltheresidentsoftheUnitedProvinceswhowouldliketopar-ticipateinit.
24TheVOCcharterthusconnectedtheself-interestofaprivatecompanytothecommoninterestofthenascentDutchRepublic.
TheprominenceoftheCiceronianthemeintheintellectualori-ginsofDutchcommercialimperialismismademanifestintheworkofHugoGrotius,Scaliger'sstarstudentatLeiden,closecollaboratorofVanOldenbarneveltandlegaladvisertotherecentlyfoundedVOC.
InhismanuscripttreatiseDejurepraedae,commissionedbytheVOCtojustifytheseizureofaPortuguesevesselintheStraitofSingapore,GrotiusarguedwithintricatehumanistreasoningthattheDutchactofpiracyhadbeenhonestumaswellasutile.
25Moreover,GrotiusfollowedScaliger'sleadinpresentingDutchcolonialtradeastheembodimentofglobalcommercialcooperation.
WhileScaliger'sArabicletterfrom1600manifestlyemployedtermssuchaslove,peace,friendshipandtreatytopresentDutchinterlopinginSoutheastAsiaasabenignenterprisebasedonmutualcollaboration,Grotiuscontinuedwiththeclaimthatcolonialtradefulfilledthepurposeofinterhumaninteraction:'Anaturalbent(sotospeak)formaritimeenterprisecharacterizesourpeople,whoregarditasthemostagreeableofalloccupationstoaidhumanity,whilefindingareadymeansofself-support,throughaninternationalexchangeofben-efitsfromwhichnoonesuffersloss'.
26Inthisway,Grotiuscombined3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…43theconstructionofarepublicanDutchidentitybasedonmaritimecom-mercewiththeidealofaglobalexchangeofcommoditiessanctionedbynaturallaw.
Dutchself-interest(which,forGrotius,primarilyentailedtheinterestoftheprovinceofHolland)wasideologicallycoupledtothegeneralinterestofhumanityatlarge.
Thedominanceofhumanistreasoningaround1600meantthattheconstructionofthiscommercialrepublicanidentitywasfirmlybaseduponaclassicalmodel:thatoftheBatavians,theancienttribethatalleg-edlyhadremainedindependentfromtheRomanEmpire.
Originally,this'Batavianmyth'hadclearanti-imperialovertones,beingemployednotonlyasatokenofanintrinsicDutchfreedomfromdomination(initsRomanandHabsburgguises),butalsoasatokenofagrariansimplicity,unstainedbycommercialexpansionandtheresultingwealth.
27Grotius,however,gaveanimportanttwisttothistraditionalviewbypresentingtheDutchasaseafaringpeoplewhoexploredtheouterconfinesoftheglobetoseekfor'honourableprofit'.
Thiscommercialambition,Grotiusargued,wastheoppositeofterritorialimperialism.
Withacuriouslin-guisticexplanationthattypifiedhishumanistapproach,GrotiusstatedthatitcouldnotbeacoincidencethattheDutchtermforimperium,'rijk',isalsotheDutchwordfor'rich'.
28Inotherwords,thenascentDutchempireshouldnotbeinterpretedasastandardexpansionistempire,butassomethingdifferent:anempireofriches.
EmpireAbroadvs.
EmpireatHome:Batavia,AmsterdamandtheImperialMetropolisIn1619,thehumanistinterpretationofempirethatpermeatedDutchcultureatthestartoftheseventeenthcenturywasmaterializedincon-cretecolonialpracticewiththecreationofBatavia,thecentreoftheDutchempireinAsia.
Thenewcity,raisedupontheruinsofJayakarta,wasbaptizedontheexplicitinstigationofthegoverningboardoftheVOCasaphysicalincarnationoftheBatavianmyth.
Thismanoeuvrehowevercouldnotconcealthedeepriftbetweentheintellectualcon-structionofempireanditsactualmanifestationontheground.
Clearly,theallegedoppositionbetweenaterritorialempirebasedonwar-fareandconquestandacommercialempirebasedonpeaceandtradedidnotcorrespondtocolonialreality.
TheVOCfrequentlyengagedinopenwarfare,notonlyagainstitsEuropeancompetitorsbutalsoagainst44A.
WESTSTEIJNerstwhilealliesinSoutheastAsia,thegenocideontheBandaIslandsin1621beingthemoststrikingexample.
Indeed,theperpetratorofthisgenocide,VOCgovernor-generalJanPieterszoonCoen,effectivelycol-lapsedthedistinctionbetweenbellicoseandcommercialimperialismwithhisfamousdictum:'Tradewithoutwarorwarwithouttradecannotbemaintained'.
29Tellingly,theAmsterdamchamberreactedtoCoen'saggressivepol-iciesinSoutheastAsiawiththeclaimthatfromtheircommercialpointofview,honourablebehaviourdoesnotconsistin'exercisingviolenceandinjustice'butin'makingprofit'—aninsight,theystated,'princesandpotentates'didnotunderstand.
30Profitabilitywasthusconsideredastheessenceofarepublican,non-monarchicalmorality.
InthetraditionalCiceronianbalancebetweenhonestumandutile,theemphasishadbeenshiftedtowardsexpedienceinsheercommercialtermsofprofitability.
AcomparabledevelopmentofacommercialideologyofcolonizationtookplaceincontemporaryEngland,althoughtheconceptualprom-inenceof'profit'intheDutchcontextslightlydifferedfromEnglishdiscussionsintermsof'greatness'.
WhileEnglishcolonialwritersandactorssuchasRobertJohnsonprimarilydiscussedcommercialwealthinthecontextoftheformationof(monarchical)statepower,DutchvisionsfocuseduponthemercantileinterestsoftheVOCasacorporateorgani-zationintertwinedwiththeconfederalDutchbodypolitic,aCompany-Republic.
31Theresultingembraceofprofitcouldalsobelegitimizedreligiously,forexampleintheworkofthebusinessman-pamphleteerWillemUsselincxortheCalvinistclericGodefridusUdemans,whoarguedthatcommercialexpansionshouldnotbeseenasanendinitselfbutratherasameanstospreadtheProtestantfaithovertheglobe:profitthencountedastheproofofmissionaryzeal.
32'Gainandgodliness',inthefelicitousphrasingofCharlesBoxer,thuscametogetherinDutchvisionsofcommercialempire.
33Dutchcolonialpracticeoverseas,however,followedatrajectorythatcontrastedwiththerepublicanandcommercialself-imageconstructedinthemetropolis.
AsScaliger'sArabicletteralreadymadeclear,theopen-ingmovesofDutchcolonialexpansioninAsiamergedarepublicanwithamonarchicalself-presentation,especiallycentreduponthePrinceofOrangeasallegedsovereignruler.
Toenhancetheirstandinganddip-lomaticleverage,DutchdelegationsinAsiaclaimedtheyrepresenteda(non-existing)'kingofHolland'.
SeekingtoimpressAsiansovereigns,theytriedtomakecleartheyservedapowerfulmilitarysovereign,for3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…45examplein1602whentheygavetheSinhalesekingVimaladharmasuriyaaportraitofPrinceMauriceonhorsebackonthebattlefield.
34Thisregalself-presentationfurtherincreasedafterthefoundationofBatavia,whichstrengthenedthesovereignclaimsoftheVOCitselfandespeciallyofitsgovernor-general.
ThebuildingofalargefortressatBatavia,whichhousedtheresidenceofthegovernor-generalandthegovernmentalofficesoftheCounciloftheIndies,clearlymeanttoenhancetheimpe-rialpostureoftheVOCanditsofficials.
Aseighteenth-centuryobserversnoted,thegovernor-generalwas'providedwithnolessPompandStatethanthePrincesofEurope',becomingknownas'theRayadeJaccatraoftheHollanders,thatistheKingofJaccatra'.
RulersthroughouttheIndianOceanbasin,fromAbyssiniatoTonkin,addressedtheirdiplo-maticcorrespondencetothe'kingofBatavia'.
35Theclear-cutimperialnatureofDutchcolonialismbecamemanifestaswellintheAtlantic.
AfterthecreationoftheWestIndiaCompany(WIC)in1621,a'granddesign'ofopenwarfareandterritorialcon-questwasdevelopedtodealadecisiveblowagainsttheHabsburgempireintheAmericas.
36TheoccupationofNortheasternBrazilfrom1630onwardsinparticularrevealedtheimperialfeaturesofDutchcolonial-ism,notleastbecauseDutchmilitaryexploitsreceivedintensecoverageincontemporarynewsmedia.
37ThepresenceonBraziliangroundofascionoftheHouseofOrange,JohanMauritsvanNassauSiegen,andhisprincelycourtatRecifebetween1636and1644,furtherintensifiedtheregalcharacterofDutchcolonialruleintheAtlantic.
WhiletheDutchempirethusturnedincreasinglyimperialinthecolo-nialarena,itsself-presentation'athome'continuedthecreedofcom-merceandcollaborationthathadbeencreatedaround1600.
ThelastingdominanceofthishumanistperspectiveisespeciallyclearinAmsterdam.
Thecity'sdominantroleinDutchcolonialexpansionwasfirstcelebratedshortlyaftertheestablishmentoftheVOC,whentheburgomastersofthecitycommissionedacelebratorydecorationofAmsterdamasRuleroftheWorld(Image3.
1).
Theimage,paintedin1606uponthelidofaharpsichordplayedatformalevents,portraysAmsterdaminaclassicalRomanposeasempressoftheglobe,overlookingthecontinents,'placesonearthofwhicheventheAncientshadnoknowledge',astheaccom-panyingtextproudlyproclaims.
38Thisself-confidence,atypicalgestureofhumanistrivalrywiththeclassicsthatwasalsomanifestinthecon-temporaryworksofGrotius,grewevenmoreobviousinlaterdecades,untilbeingimmortalizedintheveryheartofthecity.
Intheimperial46A.
WESTSTEIJNimaginationthatAmsterdamprojecteduponitselfandtheworld,thenarrativeofabenigncommercialempiretookcentrestage.
39AcrucialmomentinthedevelopmentofthisnarrativewasthevisitofMariade'MedicitotheDutchRepublicin1638.
Tocelebrateitsownimportance,AmsterdamwelcomedtheFrenchQueenMotherwithaceremonialroyalentrythathighlightedthecity'scentralroleinglobaltrade.
UndertheguidanceofP.
C.
HooftandCasparBarlaeus,twooftheleadinghumanistauthorsoftheday,anelaborateiconographicalpro-grammewasdesignedwithlargedisplaysandfestivities.
40Theoverallthemeoftheprogrambecamemanifestuponthequeen'sentrancetothecityatDamSquare,whereamonumentaltriumphalarchwaserected,crownedwithalargecog,theshipofAmsterdam'scoatofarms.
AsBarlaeusexplainedinthetexthewrotefortheoccasion,theshipsymbol-izedDutchglobaltrade'throughwhichweenjoytheprofitandpleasureoffarawaycountries'.
41Toexpoundthismessageofimperialprosperity,theprocessioncon-tinuedtotheOudezijdsVoorburgwal,whereanothertriumphalarchallegoricallyrevealedMariade'Medici'sentranceonatriumphalcarriagepulledbyfourlions.
GuisedasBerecynthia,theRomanCybelethatintheAugustantraditionwasconsideredtheprotectingMagnaMaterofempire,sheisreceivedbythepersonificationofAmsterdam,secondedImage3.
1PieterIsaacsz,AmsterdamastheCentreofWorldTrade.
HarpsichordLidshowinganAllegoryofAmsterdamastheCenterofWorldTrade,c.
1604–1607.
Rijksmuseum,Amsterdam3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…47byfourfiguresthatrepresentthefourcontinents.
Significantly,thesceneiscrownedwiththephraseLaetadeumpartu('Happyinaprogenyofgods'),takenfromapassageinVirgil'sAeneidthatcelebratestheglobaldestinyoftheRomanEmpire.
42Forallitshumaniststudiousness,themessageofthearchisclear:Mariade'MedicihonourswithherdivinepresencetheimperialmetropolisofAmsterdam—thenewRome.
ButAmsterdamwasaparticularincarnationofRome,theheartofanempirenotbuiltbylegionnaires,butbytrade.
Passingthroughthearch,Mariade'MedicireachedtheOost-IndischHuis,theheadquartersoftheAmsterdamchamberoftheVOC,whereshereceivedawarmwelcomeintheboardroom,decoratedwithpaintingsofDutchcolonialoutpostsinAsiaandexhibitionsofweapons,silk,spicesandothertradinggoodsfromtheDutchempire.
Asumptuousbanquetcompletedthescene,withdishesandingredientsfromallovertheworld—meanttogiveMariade'Medicitheimpression'shewastheguestofIndians,Moluccans,Persians,Arabs,JapaneseandChinese'.
Amsterdamwasthusturnedintoaglobalvillage,thecentreofamulticulturalworldallegedlycreatedbycooperativecommerce.
BarlaeusdidadmitthattheVOC,apartfrombeingacom-mercialcompany,hadevolvedintoawarlikesovereign,'performingandactinginwaysthatdonotdiffermuchfromthoseofgreatRulers'.
43ForBarlaeus,theCompanyandtheRepublicbasicallycoalesced.
WhenMariade'MedicivisitedtheWICheadquartersontheothersideoftown,hestatedthattheVOCandWICtogetherformedastrongfoundationfortheDutchRepublic'tospreaditsempirewherevertheSunisshining'.
44Thisgrandiloquentexpressionofimperialself-esteem,hailingtheDutchempireasanewRomewherethesunneversets,arguablyformedtheculminationofhumanistimperialismintheDutchRepublic—indeed,thesinglemostmanifestexpressionofempire(Barlaeususesthetermimperium)intheseventeenthcentury.
Itwasalsowidelydisseminated,forBarlaeus'celebratorytext,printedinaloftyLatinedition,wassub-sequentlytranslatedintoDutchandFrench.
Moreover,Barlaeuscontin-uedhisimperialistfervouradecadelaterinhisfamoustreatiseonJohanMauritsvanNassauSiegeninBrazil.
45YetBarlaeus'outspokenimperi-alizingtonecontinuedtohighlightthecommercialnatureoftheDutchempire,allegedlynotbasedonterritorialconquestsbutontheinsatiablelustforprofit.
AfterthelossofBrazilin1654andthestagnationofVOCexpansioninAsia,thiscoreelementoftheDutchimperialnarrativewasintensifiedinthefurthermonumentalizationofAmsterdamasacom-mercialimperialmetropolis.
48A.
WESTSTEIJNByfarthemostprominentillustrationofthisprocessistheAmsterdamTownHall,inauguratedin1655.
ThedesignanddecorativeschemeofthismagnificentbuildingmergesdifferenticonographicalandallegoricalreferencestoBiblicalandRomanantiquityunderthegeneralclaimthatAmsterdamshouldbeconsideredthecentreoftheworld,ifnottheuniverse.
46Mostprominently,thetwofaadesoneithersideoftheclassicalbuildinggivearemarkablesynopsisoftheDutchimperialself-image,carvedintostoneandvisibletoall.
ThefaadeatDamSquareiscrownedbyabronzestatueofPeace,underwhichapedimentshowsAmsterdamrulingtheseas.
ThepedimentontheothersidecontainsapersonificationofTraderestingontheglobewhilethefourcontinentspaytribute.
Insideofthebuilding,onthefloorofthecentralhall,twolargemarblemapsrevealtheWesternandEasternhemisphereandthelatestDutchnavalcampaignsattheendoftheworld.
47IntheTownHall,Amsterdam'scitizensthusliterallytrodtheglobe.
Thesameself-confidentmessageofglobaldomination,tradeandpros-perityspreadthroughoutthecityintheyearsaround1660.
OntheirwayfromDamSquaretowardstheVOCheadquarters,citizensandvisitorsfirstencounteredthestockexchange,thefinancialheartoftheRepublic,andthenthenewbuildingoftheAmsterdamAdmiralty,theorganizationformaritimecontrolthatplayedanimportantroleinDutchimperialpol-icy.
Itsclassicalfaadefrom1662,clearlyinspiredbytheTownHall,wascrownedwithapedimentthatshowstheDutchlionprotectingHolland,flankedbyLadyJustice,thegodMarsandtheseagodNeptune.
Inthesameyear,theboardroomintheVOCheadquartersaroundthecor-nerwasembellishedwithanewseriesofpaintingsportrayingimportantplacesforDutchcolonialtradeinAsia,includingCantoninChinaandAyuthayainThailand,wheretheVOCheldtradingprivileges,CochinandCananor,tworecentlyconqueredcitiesinIndia,andBandaNeiraintheMoluccas,thelocationofCoen'snotoriousgenocidefrom1621(nowbeingportrayedasawell-orderedandserenecolonialoutpost).
48Themostprominentpainting,placedabovetheboardroom'schimney,depictedthecentreoftheDutchempireinAsia:Batavia.
Significantly,theartist,AndriesBeeckman,tookaviewpointoutsideofBatavia'sfor-tress,capturinganapparentlypeacefulurbansceneinwhichthedifferentculturesofthecolonialcityhappilymingleandexchangegoods.
Theset-tingofacheerfulandprosperouscolonialorderofinterculturalcooper-ation,setagainstthebackdropofanimposingfortressandexoticpalmtrees,perfectlyfittedtheimperialillusionsoftheVOCboard.
493EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…49Amsterdam'simperialself-representationconcludedinthecity'sharbourwiththeconstructionoftwocolossalclassicalbuildings,bothdesignedbythecity'schiefarchitectDanielStalpaert.
50Thefirstbuild-ing,placedatastrategiclocationoverlookingtheharbourin1655,servedastheAdmiralty'smaritimearsenal;thesecond,anenormousconstructionfrom1665,containedtheOost-IndischMagazijn,thewarehousesoftheVOC.
51ErectedinamonumentalandimposingstylemeanttoimitateRomanantiquity,thesetwobuildingsmadeadecisiveimpactonAmsterdam'surbanoutlook.
Indeed,whenanotherscionoftheMedicifamily,CosimoIIIofTuscany,visitedAmsterdamin1668,theveryfirstbuildingshevisitedwerethosebelongingtotheVOCandtheAdmiralty.
52SomeseventyyearsaftertheonsetofDutchcolonialexpansion,AmsterdamhadbeenturnedintoanimperialmetropolisthatcouldnotonlyeasilycompetewithRenaissanceFlorencebutalsowiththecolonialcapitalsofParis,London,MadridandLisbon.
ButunliketheLouvre,Whitehall,theBuenRetiroorthePaodaRibeira,thepalacesthatrepresentedAmsterdam'simperialmightwerenotconnectedtoarulingmonarchyproudofitsvictoriesonthebattlefield,buttoarepub-licanelitethatcelebratedtheexploitsofglobalcommercialenterprise.
53EmpireIsaLady:CelebratingtheCompany-RepublicIn1702,ontheoccasionoftheVOCcentenary,Amsterdam'simperialself-imagewasaptlyepitomizedinaclassicistpaintingmadebyNicolaasVerkoljefortheAmsterdamChamberoftheVOC(Image3.
2).
54ItshowsafemalerepresentationoftheCompany,dressedinfullarmourandseatedonthethroneofempire,flankedbyrepresentationsofnavi-gationandtrade.
WhiletwoputtiemptyacornucopiaofAsianspices,ashipsetssailbeyondthePillarsofHercules,aimingfortheOrient.
ThepaintingrevisitedmanyoftheiconographicalelementsthathadbecomestapleimagesofDutchimperialisminseventeenth-centuryAmsterdam,fromthe1606harpsichordtotheTownHallfaade.
Inthistradition,theclassicaldepictionofempireasanenthronedwomanwasgivenadecisivecommercialandmaritimetwistwiththeclaimthattheDutchhadgonebeyondthelimitsoftheancientworldtotradeinexoticspices.
Atthismoment,bythestartoftheeighteenthcentury,DutchpowerintheAmericashadsubsidedwhiletheVOCinAsiaessentiallysoughttoconsolidateitssovereigncontroloverkeyareasandtodevelopexist-ingtradingnetworkswithoutfurtherterritorialexpansion.
Asaresult,as50A.
WESTSTEIJNBenjaminSchmidtargues,DutchpublicationsoftheperiodincreasinglyemphasizedthecontinentalEuropeanperspectiveofempire,graduallyelidingtheDutchroleasacolonialactor.
55Theverynotionofa'Dutchempire',whichhadonlybrieflysurfacedintheworkofBarlaeusaround1640,wasneverdevelopedintoastraightforwardideologicalconcept.
Nonetheless,thehumanistideaofaspecificallycommercialempire,cre-atedaround1600,continuedtodominatetherepresentationofDutchimperialpowerthroughoutthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcentury.
Indeed,anhonorarymedalstruckontheoccasionoftheVOCcente-nary,againshowingafemaleimperialfigureandashipthatsailsbeyondthePillarsofHercules,isframedwiththemessageInalterasaeculapergo,'Igooninanothercentury'.
56Thisself-assuredexpressionofcon-tinuingVOCpowereventuallyevolvedintoawidespreadiconographicalcelebrationoftheDutchCompany-Republicasasuccessfulcommercialempire,publicizedtonationalandinternationalaudiencesattheheightoftheEnlightenment.
Image3.
2NicolaasVerkolje,ApotheosisoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany.
AllegoryoftheAmsterdamChamberofCommerceoftheVOC,c.
1702.
Rijksmuseum,Amsterdam3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…51OneoftheleadingfiguresinthedevelopmentofthisiconographicalcelebrationwasBernardPicart,theFrenchengraverandprotes-tantconvertwhomadeasuccessfulcareerinAmsterdam.
Apartfromhisground-breakingengravingsonglobalreligiousdiversityforthemulti-volumeCérémoniesetcoutumesreligieusesdetouslespeuplesdumonde,PicartalsoprovidedelaborateillustrationsforaseriesofworksonDutchandgeneralhistory.
57First,in1722,hemadethenotewor-thyfrontispiecetoHistoiredesProvinces-UniesdesPays-Bas,oneofthefinalworksofJeanLeClerc,thecontroversialSwisstheologianwhohadalsomigratedtoAmsterdamwherehebecamealeadingEnlightenmentscholar.
ThistreatiseonthehistoryoftheDutchRepublic,publishedinthreevolumesinAmsterdambetween1723and1728,openswithPicart'sfull-pageallegorywhichisclearlyindebtedtothetraditionalrepresentationsoftheDutchcommercialempire:aseatedwoman,pro-tectedbyalionandflankedbypersonificationsofReligion,Liberty,Peace,Navigation,Trade,FortuneandAbundance,receivesthetreasuresfromAmerica,AfricaandAsia,againstthebackgroundofasailingfleet(Image3.
3).
58ForPicart,theDutchRepubliccouldbeepitomizedasaglobalcommercialpowerwhosereignwasbasedonfreedomandinter-nationalexchange.
Acoupleofyearslater,PicartfurtherelaboratedthisthemewithanillustrationforamassiveDutchtreatiseonworldhistory,authoredbyGeerlofSuikersandpublishedposthumouslyinfivevolumesbetween1721and1728bytheleadingAmsterdamprintinghouseoftheWetsteinfamily.
Forthevolumedealingwiththesixteenthandearlysev-enteenthcentury,dedicatedbytheWetsteinstotwoAmsterdamburgo-mastersandCompanydirectors,PicartmadeanengravingwhichdepictstwofemalerepresentationsoftheVOCandWIC.
Onceagain,thesefig-uresareaccompaniedbypersonificationsofLibertyandTrade,togetherwithLadyJusticeandaputtoholdingaRomanfasces,theemblemofimperium.
WiththedominatingfaadeoftheAmsterdamTownHallinthebackground,differentpeoplewhorepresentthenon-Europeanworldprovideanarrayofexoticgoods,includingchinawareandasmallstatueofBuddha.
Inthededicatorytextthataccompaniestheengrav-ing,theWetsteinsexplaineditmeanttoshowtheimportanceof'theCompaniesfortheexpansionofourpatriots'tradetowherethesunrisesandsets'.
59TheglobalreachoftheVOCandWICwasthusconnectedtonotionsofurbanpatriotismandmercantilepride.
52A.
WESTSTEIJNImage3.
3BernardPicart,frontispiecetoJeanLeClerc,HistoiredesProvinces-UniesdesPays-Bas,vol.
1(Amsterdam:FranoisL'HonoréandZachariasChatelain(II),1723)3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…53Yetthisimageofalocal-globalcommercialempirewasnotonlyintendedforDutchreadersbutalsoforaninternationalaudience.
In1730,PicartmadeathirdengravingthatcombinedtheelementsofhisfirsttworepresentationsoftheDutchempire,nowasthefrontispieceforaFrenchtreatiseonthepoliticalandeconomicsituationoftheDutchRepublic.
Thisimageshowsthreefemalefigurestogether:theDutchRepublicinthemiddle,flankedbytheVOCandWIC.
ReligionandTradeadmirethescene,Neptuneresigns'theempireofthesea'totheRepublic,andaputtounveilsamapof'theworldwheresheextendshercommerce'.
60TheDutchRepublicandthetwocompaniesforcolonialtradearemergedintoatrinityofmaritimecommercialimperialism.
Picart'sengravingsformthecontexttoarguablythemostimpor-tantdepictionoftheearly-modernDutchempire:thelavishfrontispiecetothemulti-volumetreatisebyFranoisValentyn,whohadservedasaDutchministerindifferentareasinSoutheastAsiabeforewritinganextensivehistorical,geographicalandethnographicaloverviewoftheareaswheretheVOCwasactive.
ThetitleofValentyn'sfamouswork,publishedbetween1724and1726,prominentlymentionsthatitgivesananalysisofNederlandsmogentheydor'Dutchauthority'intheEastIndies–theonlycontemporarytreatisetousethisexplicitconceptionofDutchcolonialpower.
61Thisimperialclaimisexemplifiedbythefrontis-piece,designedbytheAmsterdamartistGerardMelderandengravedbyAndriesvanBuysen(Image3.
4).
ClearlymodelledafterPicart'sallegoryoftheDutchRepublicfrom1722,thefrontispieceshowsacrownedwomanseatedonathrone,withtheacronymVOCembroideredonherbreast.
ThisisLadyVOC,protectedbytheDutchlionandwithherfeetplaceduponacornucopiaandahelm,abundleofarrows,andMercury'sstaff—theinsigniaofnavigation,concordandcommerce.
Thepersonifi-cationofTimeunveilstheglobe,nexttothefigureofLibertywhoholdshersymbol,aPhrygianhat,aboveLadyVOC.
Thenakedtruth,wav-ingapalmleaf,pullsawayacurtainthatrevealsanorientalscene,whileFortuneblowshertrumpetintheskies.
NeverbeforewastheDutchempirevisualizedsopowerfully.
ComparedtoPicart'sallegoryfrom1722,thecrucialchangeinValentyn'sfrontispieceisthatLadyVOChasliterallytakentheplaceoftheDutchRepublic,asanillustrationoftheinterchangeabilityofCompanyandRepublic.
Followingtheiconographicaltraditionofthefourcontinentspayingtribute,theCompany-Republicispresentedasthemistressoftheworldwhobecomesrichthroughglobalexchange,54A.
WESTSTEIJNImage3.
4AndriesvanBuysenafterGerardMelder,frontispiecetoFranoisValentyn,OudenNieuwOost-Indin,vervattendeeennaaukeurigeenuitvoer-igeverhandelingevanNederlandsmogentheydindiegewesten,vol.
1(Dordrecht:JohannesvanBraam;Amsterdam:GerardonderdeLinden,1724)3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…55receivingtheluxuryproducefromAfrica,AsiaandAmerica,whileEuropeobservesthesceneinfrontofaship.
AnotherelementofthefrontispieceisalsoslightlyadaptedfromPicart's1722image:theangelofHistoryintheforeground,whowritesthelettersofapsalmwhileputtiopenacabinetfilledwithimagesandartefactsoftheOrient.
TheBiblicalverseswrittenbytheangelarefromPsalm107:23–24:'Theythatgodowntotheseainships,thatdobusinessingreatwaters;TheseseetheworksoftheLord,andhiswondersinthedeep'.
ThisBiblicalmessage,whichwasoftenusedintheearlyEnlightenmenttoclaimthereligioussignificanceofgatheringempiricalknowledge,clearlyreferredtoValentyn'sowncareerasaministerwhoturnedintoascholar,com-bininggodlywithscientificpursuits.
ThisreferencetoValentyn'sownpersonaisembodiedbythedarkfigureontheright,amaninanorien-taldresswhorepresentstheauthorhimself:themiddlemanbetweentheempireoftheVOCanditsimmortalizationinthebookofhistory.
62TherepresentationoftheDutchempireasapowerfulCompany-Republicremainedenvogueforthenextcoupleofdecades,reappear-ingforexamplein1739asthefrontispiecetoaworkonDutchhistorybytheprominenthistorianJanWagenaar,63in1740asthefrontispiecetoalongcolonialistpoemonBataviabytheAmsterdammerchantandplaywrightJandeMarre,64andinthe1750sasanAllegoryoftheVOC,engravedbythedesignerSimonFokke.
65Theiconographicalstrengthofthisportrayalofcommercialempireisshownbythefactitwasalsoemployedineighteenth-centurydepic-tionsoftheBritishEmpire.
Forexample,theceilingoftheUpper-HallatGreenwhichHospital,paintedbySirJamesThornhillbetween1718and1725,showsagrandscenethatcentresuponQueenAnne,with'thefourcontinentsadmiringourMaritimePower'.
66In1778,theVenetian-GreekartistSpiridioneRomacontinuedthisthemeinhisallegoricalceil-ingpiecefortheEastIndiaHouseinLondon,titledTheEastOfferingitsRichestoBrittania.
67Inthesecases,thecentralfemalefigureexplicitlyrepresentsBritainassuch,eitherpersonifiedbythemonarchyorintheguiseof'Britannia'.
Indeed,inthe1730sand1740stheconceptionofa'BritishEmpire'increasinglygainedmomentum,perhapsbestepito-mizedbythepatrioticsong'Rule,Brittania!
'from1740.
68IntheDutchRepublic,however,thisamalgamationbetweenempireandnation-statedidnotmaterialize.
Intheabsenceofamonarchicalfig-uretorepresenttheunityofnationandempire,theDutchempirecouldonlybeembodiedbythefigureoftheCompany-Republic,basedupon56A.
WESTSTEIJNcorporateandlocalvisionsofempiredevelopedovermorethanacen-tury,especiallyinthecontextoftheVOCandthecityofAmsterdam.
AlthoughtheactualcolonialpoliciesofthisCompany-Republicdifferedlittlefromthoseofotherimperialpowers,theDutchnarrativeofempireremainedfirmlybaseduponthenotionconstruedaround1600ofapurelycommercialenterpriseofprofit-seekingforthecommongood.
Asaresult,theconceptofa'Dutchempire'neverbecameacomprehensiveideologicalconstruct.
ConclusionThevisionsofcommercialempirethatwerecreatedanddisseminatedfrom1600onwards,permeatedearly-modernDutchpoliticalcul-ture,fromthefoundational'Batavianmyth'tothebookshopsoftheEnlightenment.
Inavarietyofpublicmedia,includingwrittendocu-mentssuchasdiplomaticcorrespondenceandtheofficialVOCcharter,visualrepresentationssuchasthepaintingsintheVOCheadquartersandPicart'sfrontispieces,andurbanarchitecturesuchasthetriumphalarchesforMariade'MediciandtheAmsterdamTownHall,theDutchempirewaspresentedasabenigncommercialenterprisebaseduponglobalcooperationandprosperity.
Foreignobserversandcompetitorswerenoteasilydeludedbythisnarrative.
In1682,forexample,theCourtofCommitteesoftheEICinLondonwarnedanembassyfromtheJavanesesultanateofBantenthattheDutchsought'EmpireofallthoseCountries,totheenslavingofmanynoble&ancientPrinces'.
69Thislanguageof'empire'wasnotadoptedintheDutchRepublicitself.
ProtagonistsinthedevelopmentoftheDutchimperialself-imagesuchasthehumanistscholarBarlaeusorthecolonialministerValentynoccasionallyusedtheterminologyofimperiumanditsDutchequivalentmogentheydtodescribeandlegitimizeDutchcolonialrule.
However,theirphrasingdidnotimplyaconnectedpoliticalsystemofthemetropolisanditscolonies(a'Dutchempire'),butratherreferredtotheextentofDutchpoweroverseas(theimperiumandauthor-ity'oftheDutch').
UnlikeinBritain,whereacomparablenarrativeofcommercialempireeventuallyevolvedintotheideologicalconceptionofthe'BritishEmpire',Dutchvisionsofempireremainedwithintheframe-workestablishedattheveryonsetofDutchcolonialexpansionaround1600:thatofacorporateenterpriseseekingforprofit,morallysanctionedbyitsconflationofmercantileself-interestwiththecommongood.
3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…57Arguably,thisnarrativeofaCompany-Republichadbecomesodom-inantoverthecourseoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesthatitlargelyremainedinplacealsoafterthedemiseoftheDutchRepublic,thedissolutionoftheVOC,andthecreationofan'imperialnation-state'around1800.
70Stilltoday,popularallusionsintheDutchpublicspheretotheearly-moderncolonialpastoftencontinuetheenduringvisionsalreadycreatedaround1600—moststrikinglyperhapsintherecurrentreferencestothealleged'VOC-mentality'ofcommercialenter-prise.
Onereasonforthislastingdominanceoftheideaofan'empireofriches'maybethelong-termstabilityofitspublicincarnationsfromtheseventeenthcentury,forexampletheAmsterdamTownHallwhichstilltowersoverDamSquare,theceremonialcentreoftheNetherlands.
Butalsolessprominenttracesoftheearly-modernimperialnarrativeremaininplaceastiesbetweenpastandpresent,suchastheAdmiralty'sarsenalinAmsterdamharbourwhichisnowtheNationalMaritimeMuseum,visiblycelebratingthecountry'scolonialhistorywithalargereplicaofaneighteenth-centuryEastIndiaman,ortheboardroomoftheVOCheadquarters,whichhasbeenreconstructedtoitsdesignfromthe1660sandnowservesasalecturehallforhistorystudentsoftheUniversityofAmsterdam.
Recentinterventionsinthepublicdebatehavestartedtoexposethiscontinuouslinkagebetweenthecolonialpastandthepostcolonialpresent,forexampleaddressingthepredominantlypos-itivepresentationofcolonialobjectsandpaintingsinthecollectionoftheRijksmuseum.
71TounderstandwhysuchuncriticalattitudestotheDutchempireremainentrenchedincontemporarysociety,afirststepistorealizethattheygobackasfarastheoriginsoftheDutchempireitself.
Notes1.
BenjaminSchmidt,InnocenceAbroad:TheDutchImaginationandtheNewWorld,1570–1670(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001).
Seealsoforpracticalimplicationsincolonialpractice,MarkMeuwese,BrothersinArms,PartnersinTrade:Dutch-IndigenousAlliancesintheAtlanticWorld,1595–1674(Leiden:Brill,2011);andfortheDutchinAsia:MartinevanIttersum,ProfitandPrinciple:HugoGrotius,NaturalRightsTheoriesandtheRiseofDutchPowerintheEastIndies(1595–1615)(Leiden:Brill,2006).
2.
Seetheprecedingchapterinthisvolume.
58A.
WESTSTEIJN3.
Thedominantinterpretationofearly-modernrepublicanismispresentedinQuentinSkinner,LibertyBeforeLiberalism(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998).
4.
OntheBritishcase,seeDavidArmitage,TheIdeologicalOriginsoftheBritishEmpire(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2000).
5.
Thepersistentclaimsinrecenthistoriographyconcerningthe'excep-tional'natureofDutchimperialismarediscussedinChapter5ofthisvol-umebyJenniferForay.
6.
IfirstexploredtheconceptofaDutch'republicanempire'inArthurWeststeijn,'RepublicanEmpire:Colonialism,Commerce,andCorruptionintheDutchGoldenAge,'RenaissanceStudies26(2012):491–509.
7.
SimonSchama,TheEmbarassmentofRiches:AnInterpretationofDutchCultureintheGoldenAge(NewYork:AlfredA.
Knopf,1987).
8.
AndrewFitzmaurice,HumanismandAmerica:AnIntellectualHistoryofEnglishColonisation,1500–1625(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2003);DavidA.
Lupher,RomansinaNewWorld:ClassicalModelsinSixteenth-CenturySpanishAmerica(AnnArbor:TheUniversityofMichiganPress,2003);andSabineMacCormack,OntheWingsofTime:Rome,theIncas,Spain,andPeru(PrincetonandOxford:PrincetonUniversityPress,2007).
9.
Seee.
g.
FelixDriverandDavidGilbert,ImperialCities:Landscape,DisplayandIdentity(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2003);CatherineHallandSonyaO.
Rose,AtHomewiththeEmpire:MetropolitanCultureandtheImperialWorld(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2006);andJohnM.
MacKenzie,ed.
,EuropeanEmpiresandthePeople:PopularResponsestoImperialisminFrance,Britain,theNetherlands,Belgium,GermanyandItaly(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2011).
10.
Cf.
Armitage,IdeologicalOrigins;PeterJ.
CainandAnthonyG.
Hopkins,'GentlemanlyCapitalismandBritishExpansionOverseasI:TheOldColonialSystem,1688–1850,'EconomicHistoryReview39,no.
4(1986):501–525;AndrewFitzmaurice,'TheCommercialIdeologyofColonizationinJacobeanEngland:RobertJohnson,GiovanniBotero,andthePursuitofGreatness,'TheWilliamandMaryQuarterly64,no.
4(2007):791–820.
11.
Cf.
DanielImmerwahr,HowtoHideanEmpire:AHistoryoftheGreaterUnitedStates(NewYork:Farrar,Strauss&Giroux,2019).
12.
Quoted(translationslightlyaltered)fromArnoudVrolijk,'ScaligerandtheDutchExpansioninAsia:AnArabicTranslationforanEarlyVoyagetotheEastIndies(1600),'JournaloftheWarburgandCourtauldInstitutes78(2015):277–309;translationon309.
TheletterisheldintheOrientalcollectionsofLeidenUniversityLibrary,MSOr.
1365(3).
3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…59IamverygratefultoArnoudVrolijkforhishelpintheinterpretationofthetext.
13.
Forfurtherbackground,seeRomainBertrand,L'histoireàpartsegales:Récitsd'uneencontreOrient-Occident(XVIe–XVIIesiècle)(Paris:Seuil,2011);cf.
ArthurWeststeijn,'ProvincializingGrotius:InternationalLawandEmpireinaSeventeenth-CenturyMalayMirror,'inInternationalLawandEmpire:HistoricalExplorations,ed.
MarttiKoskenniemi,WalterRech,andManuelJiménezFonseca(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2017),21–38.
14.
TheHague,KoninklijkHuisarchiefMSKHA13XII-B-2.
SeeVrolijk,'Scaliger'sArabicPatent,'288.
15.
OnScaliger,seeespeciallytheextensiveworkbyAnthonyGrafton,JosephScaliger:AStudyintheHistoryofClassicalScholarship,2vols.
(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1983–1993).
16.
ThispatentletterwastranslatedandprintedbyFranciscusRaphelengius,professorofHebrewatLeidenUniversityuntilhisdeathin1597.
SeeHermandeLeeuw,'TheFirstDutch-IndonesianTreaty:ARediscoveredArabicTranslationbyFranciscusRaphelengius,'ManuscriptsoftheMiddleEastIV(1989):115–122.
17.
ThesauruslinguaeArabicae,LeidenUniversityLibraryMSOr.
212,fols.
78band141b.
Cf.
alsothePortugueseversionofthepatentwhichusesthephrasing'naosomentehonesto,masproveitoso':HendrikHoogenberk,DerechtsvoorschriftenvoordevaartopOost-Indi,1595–1620(Utrecht:Kemink,1940),appendixIII,232–233.
18.
Cicero,Deofficiis,III.
12–14.
ForthelongstandingimpactofCiceronianethicsonimperialthinking,seePeterN.
Miller,DefiningtheCommonGood:Empire,ReligionandPhilosophyinEighteenth-CenturyBritain(CambridgeUniversityPress,1994).
19.
OfficiaCiceronis,leerendewatyeghelijckinallenstatenbehoorttedoen,bescreuenintLatijn,trans.
DirckCoornhert(Haarlem:JanvanZuren,1561).
20.
DirckCoornhert,DeCoopman.
Aanwysended'oprechteconsteomChristelyckendemeteenengelyckenmoedein'twinnenendeverliesencoophandeltedryven,ed.
S.
vanderWoude(Amsterdam:Corvey,1969).
21.
ResolutiesvandeStatenvanHolland,15–21May1601,quotedinJ.
K.
J.
deJonge,ed.
,DeopkomstvanhetNederlandschgezaginOost-Indi(1595–1610),13vols.
(TheHague:Nijhoff,1862–1895),vol.
1,138:'nietalleeneerlijkendienstig,maartotdenconservatievandenvoors.
handelnodig.
'OntheestablishmentoftheVOC,seeOscarGelderblom,AbedeJong,andJoostJonker,'TheFormativeYearsoftheModernCorporation:TheDutchEastIndiaCompany,1602–1623,'JournalofEconomicHistory74(2013):1050–1076.
60A.
WESTSTEIJN22.
ForacomparativeanalysisoftheDutchandEnglishEastIndiaCompanies,seeAdamClulowandTristanMostert,eds.
,TheDutchandEnglishEastIndiaCompanies:Diplomacy,TradeandViolenceinEarlyModernAsia(Amsterdam:AmsterdamUniversityPress,2018).
23.
QuotedinDeJonge,ed.
,Opkomst,vol.
1,146:'eerlyck,dienstelyckenproffytelyck.
'24.
VOCCharter(1602),from:https://www.
vocsite.
nl/geschiedenis/octrooi.
html:'dateerlijk,dienstigenprofytig,nietalleenvoordevereenigdeLanden,maarookvoorallendengenen,diedezeloffelykehandelingbydehandgenomenhadden,endedaarinnewarenparticiperende,zoudewezen,datdezelveCompagnievereenigt,endedevoorschrevehandelingondereenvasteendezekereeenigheid,ordre,endepolitie,zoudemogengemeengehouden,gedreven,endevermeerdertwerden,vooralledeingezetenendervereenigdeLanden,diedaarinzoudenbelieventeparticiperen.
'25.
HugoGrotius,Dejurepraedaecommentarius,ed.
H.
G.
Hamaker(TheHague:Nijhoff,1868),esp.
ChaptersXIVandXV.
OnGrotius'read-ingofCicero,seetheexpertanalysisinBenjaminStraumann,RomanLawintheStateofNature:TheClassicalFoundationsofHugoGrotius'NaturalLaw(CambridgeUniversityPress,2015).
Ontheconcretecolonialbackground,seeVanIttersum,ProfitandPrinciple;andPeterBorschberg,HugoGrotius,thePortugueseandFreeTradeintheEastIndies(Singapore:NUSPress,2011).
26.
QuotedfromHugoGrotius,CommentaryontheLawofPrizeandBooty,ed.
MartinevanIttersum(Indianapolis:LibertyFund,2006),247–248.
27.
Cf.
CoenMaas,'"NonerubescatHollandia":ClassicalEmbarrassmentofRichesandtheConstructionofLocalHistoryinHadrianusJunius'Batavia,'inTheQuestforanAppropriatePastinLiterature,ArtandArchitecture,ed.
KarlEnenkelandKoenOttenheym(Leiden:Brill,2019),361–382.
OntheoriginsoftheBatavianMyth,seeKarlEnenkelandKoenOttenheym,Oudheidalsambitie.
Dezoektochtnaareenpassendverleden,1400–1700(Nijmegen:Vantilt,2017),137–166.
28.
HugoGrotius,Parallelonrerumpublicarum.
Libertertius:demori-busingenioquepopulorumAtheniensium,Romanorum,Batavorum,ed.
JohanMeerman,4vols.
(Haarlem,1801–1803),vol.
3:9,59.
ForfurtherbackgroundtoGrotius'argumentation,seeArthurWeststeijn,'CommonwealthsforPreservationandIncrease:AncientRomeinVeniceandtheDutchRepublic,'inAncientModelsintheEarlyModernRepublicanImagination,ed.
WygerVelemaandArthurWeststeijn(Leiden:Brill,2017),62–85.
29.
Coentopatria,27December1614,inJanPietersz.
Coen,BescheidenomtrentzijnverblijfinIndi,ed.
H.
T.
Colenbrander(TheHague:Nijhoff,1919),vol.
1,98:'denhandelsonderd'oorloge,nochd'oorlogesonderdenhandelnyetgemainteneertconnenwerden'.
3EMPIREOFRICHES:VISIONSOFDUTCHCOMMERCIALIMPERIALISM…6130.
AmsterdamChambertoCoen,14April1622,inCoen,Bescheiden,vol.
4,539:'dattenonsenaensien(alscoopluydensijnde)died'eereheeft,diewelendeniemantgeweltoftonrechtdoende,'tproffijtheeft,'twelckbuytendeconsideratienvanprincenendegrotepotentaten.
'31.
Cf.
Fitzmaurice,'CommercialIdeologyofColonization,'andidem,'TheDutchEmpireinIntellectualHistory,'BMGN—LowCountriesHistoricalReview132,no.
2(2007):97–109.
32.
SeeSchmidt,InnocenceAbroad,176–183,244–245;WillemFrijhoff,FulfillingGod'sMission:TheTwoWorldsofDominieEverardusBogardus,1607–1647(Leiden:Brill,2007),290–293.
33.
C.
R.
Boxer,TheDutchSeaborneEmpire,1600–1800(London:Hutchinson,1977),113.
34.
PaulineLunsingh-Scheurleer,'UitwisselingvanstaatsieportrettenopCeylonin1602,'inAandeoverkant:OntmoetingenindienstvandeVOCenWIC,ed.
LodewijkWagenaar(Leiden:LeidenUniversityPress,2015),165–197.
35.
QuotedinAdamClulow,TheCompanyandtheShogun:TheDutchEncounterwithTokugawaJapan(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2014),67–69.
36.
WimKlooster,TheDutchMoment:War,Trade,andSettlementintheSeventeenth-CenturyAtlanticWorld(CornellUniversityPress,2016);SeealsoAlexanderBick,GoverningtheFreeSea:TheDutchWestIndiaCompanyandCommercialPolitics,1618–1645(PhDdissertation,PrincetonUniversity,2012);andPepijnBrandonandKarwanFatah-Black,'"FortheReputationandRespectabilityoftheState":Trade,theImperialState,UnfreeLabor,andEmpireintheDutchAtlantic,'inBuildingtheAtlanticEmpires:UnfreeLaborandImperialStatesinthePoliticalEconomyofCapitalism,ca.
1500–1914,ed.
JohnDonoghueandEvelynJennings(Leiden:Brill,2015),84–108.
37.
MichielvanGroesen,Amsterdam'sAtlantic:PrintCultureandtheMakingofDutchBrazil(Philadelphia:PennsylvaniaPress,2017).
38.
SeeElmerKolfin,'OmphalosMundi:ThePictorialTraditionoftheThemeofAmsterdamandtheFourContinents,Circa1600–1665,'inAemulatio:Imitation,EmulationandInventioninNetherlandishArtfrom1500to1800.
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