改良seasonalwinds

StatueofTsutoNitobeinTaisoJinjainTowadacitywithhissonJujiroNitobe'sintheback.
SourcePhotographedbyYoshiyukiKudo,publishedinTowadashiShisekiBunkazaimap,TowadacityCulturalHeritagePreservationCommittee,June2016Chapter8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWaterManagementHeritageofSanbonkihara,JapanIzumiKuroishiAbstractUntiltheendofthenineteenthcentury,agricultureformedthebasisofculturalidentityinthemanypartsofJapanwherelandandwaterwerelocallymain-tained,managed,andsustained(Wigen1995;Toyama1993).
ThischapterexpandstheJapaneseideaofheritagebeyondthequestionofbeautytoincludeagriculturalsocialsystemsandwatermanagement,exploringthelong-terminteractiverelation-shipbetweenwaterresources,theriverinelandscape,andlocalpeople(Soja2003).
Itdoessobyunravelingtheformationandtransformationofthelegendoftheirrigationpioneers.
TsutoNitobe,asamuraioftheNanbuclan,islegendaryforhispioneeringwaterresourcemanagementandlandreclamationinJapan'sSanbonkihararegioninthenineteenthcentury(MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheries2018).
Afterhisdeath,hisirrigationprojectwastheprideoftheregion;partoftheleg-endisthatsubsequentirrigationprojectsinheritedthespiritofhiswork(NortheastAgriculturalAdministrationBureau2018).
Thelegendchangedovertime:theMeijigovernmentandpostwargovernmentalofcialsdevelopedthenationinNitobe'sname;andtodayLandImprovementDistricts(LID),orwateruserassociations,andagriculturalbureausexaltNitobeasthespiritualsymbolofagriculturalsocietyanditsculturallandscapes.
However,inon-siteresearch,wediscoveredthatmanyuntoldpeopleputtogethertheseprojects.
Thischaptershowsthatthetangibleheritageoftheirrigationprojectisinseparablefromthearea'shistoricalidentityorintangibleheritage.
KeywordsInaoiRiver·Irrigation·Landreclamation·Legend·Tangibleheritage·JapanesemodernizationI.
Kuroishi(B)AoyamaGakuinUniversity,Tokyo,Japane-mail:izumi-k@sccs.
aoyama.
ac.
jpTheAuthor(s)2020C.
Hein(ed.
),AdaptiveStrategiesforWaterHeritage,https://doi.
org/10.
1007/978-3-030-00268-8_8153154I.
KuroishiFig.
1ThephotoofInaoiRiverlandscapeatthebeginningofMeijiperiodshowingNitobe'shugescaleinoldagriculturallandscape.
SourceHistoryofLandImprovementProjectofInaoiRiver,2010;releasedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.
0InternationalLicenseIntroductionLegendscirculatingthroughoutAsiadescribewaterassacredandhighlightitsimpor-tanceinsustaininglife.
Althoughthischapterwillnotexaminemythologicalunder-standingsofwaterinJapan,weholdthatitisnonethelessimportanttorecognizethecloserelationshipbetweenmythology,historicallegend,andtangiblewaterheritage(Bruner2003)andexaminehowlegendsandpersonalnarrativesaboutwaterhavebeenkeptaliveandallowedtothriveinthefaceofpoliticalandeconomicrestruc-turing.
Inparticular,weunraveltheformationandtransformationofthelegendofTsutoNitobe.
AsamuraioftheNanbuclan,NitobeislegendaryforhispioneeringwaterresourcemanagementandlandreclamationinSanbonkiharainthenineteenthcentury.
HecreatedtherstintakefromtheOiraseRivertocreateInaoiRiver,whichlaterconnectedtheOiraseValleyandTowadaLaketothePacicOcean.
OiraseVal-leyandSanbonkiharaarenowlistedasJapanesewaterlandscapeheritagestructures.
However,inon-siteresearch,wediscoveredthatthelegendchangedovertime,andinparalleltothechangeinthestoryofNitobethesignicanceofwaterinthisregionalsoshifted,fromanagriculturalresourcetoatreasuredphysicalandsymbolicele-mentinthenationallandscape.
HistorianshaveconsistentlyexcludedotheractorsanddynamicstocreatethesymbolicimagesofNitobe(Fig.
1).
TheHistoryofWaterManagementSystemsandSocietyinJapanBeforediscussingtheroleplayedbyNitobeingreaterdetail,itisnecessarytoconveythehistoryofJapaneseagriculturalwatersystems,toillustratethewaysinwhichthecommunitysystemandlegalsystemsofwatermanagement(particularlythatof8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…155agriculturalpaddyeldwater)areintertwinedandformthecommunity'svalues.
ThisworkframesthememoriesandlegendarystoriesoftheancestorNitobe–anintangibleheritage–which,inturn,helpstocreatethecommunalmeaningofculturalidentity,asitisinscribedinthetangibleheritageoflandreclamation(Anderson1983).
Ingeniouspoliticalsystemsintegratedwatermanagementwithinthevillagecom-munitysystemfromtheEdoperioduntilafterWorldWarII(Kimura2010;Komori1996;Yamasaki,ed.
byIshiietal.
1996).
IntheEdoperiod(1603–1867),newlawsandpoliciesshapedtherelationshipbetweenthewaterright,ownershipofland,thevillagecommunitysystem,andtaxation.
TheTokugawagovernmentformedthewatermanagementassociationofvillagesineachregiontoorganizeirrigation–ineffect,toensurethecollectiveoperationandmaintenanceofwaterfacilitiesaswellastoregulatebothwaterrightsanddistributionsystemsineachvillage(Akimoto2004).
Asaresult,bothlandandwaterweremanagedandownedbyallvillageresidentsandagriculturalworksandenvironmentalmanagementbecameaneverydaymatterinvillagegovernance.
Thegovernmentregulatedthewaterrightmuchasithadearlierregulatedriversystems(Ishiietal.
1996).
IntheMeijiperiod,allwaterandlandwithnoclearownershipbelongedtothegovernment:theyweremadepublicresources.
In1896,theMeijigovernmentestablishedtheRiverLawunderwhichthenationalgovernmentdecidedeveryissuepertainingtorivers.
In1898,theMeijiCivilCodeapprovedtheorganizedwaterrightsystemoftheEdoperiodascustomarylawandestablishedaruletoprioritizetheolder,localwaterrightoverthenewernationalone(Okuda2010;Yamasaki1996).
In1909,thegovernmentrevisedregulationsfortheimprovementofthedrainagesystem;andin1923,itstartedtoimprovethemaindrainagenetworkandtoinvestheavilyinlandimprovementprojectstomodernizetheagriculturalwaterrightsystem(Miyazaki2009).
In1949,theLandImprovementLawextendedpre-warwatermanagementsystemsintothepostwaragriculturalreform.
ThelawformedLandImprovementDistrictsorwateruserassociations.
TheLIDsthenmaintainedandorganizedwatersystemsandcoordinatedwatermanagementwithindividuallandowners.
Theyimprovedandman-agedagriculturalwaterfacilitiesthatsupplyanddrainwater;improvedagriculturallandinfrastructure,suchasundergrounddrainage;createdlandmarks,agriculturalland,andgrasslands;constructedfarmroads;repairedirrigationpondsandinstalleddisasterpreventiondevicestoagriculturalland;andmanagedriversthatservedasresourcesforfarmingandconsumption,aswellassurroundinglandscapesthatcon-tainedsewersandroads(Shobayashietal.
2017;MinistryofAgriculture,ForestryandFisheriesProduction2017).
Later,withtheadventofindustrializationofwateruseandcities'growingdemandforwater,thegovernment(in1964)revisedtheRiverLaw,suchthat,whiletheyrespectedthecustomarywaterright,publicinstitu-tionscontrolledthewatersupply.
So,then,governmentsustainedboththeLID'sandcustomarylaw,inordertostabilizetheeconomicandsocialstructureofthenationaswellastocodifythewaterenvironmentduringthisperiodofmodernizationofJapanesesociety(Kide1984).
156I.
KuroishiReviewofExistingStudiesIntangibleheritage,memories,andthehistoryofwaterresourcemanagementareinfactconnectedtothetangibleheritageoftheJapanesewaterlandscape.
Whileagri-culturalscholars,ethnographers,historians,andgeographershaveanalyzedhowthesocialmanagementsystemformedagriculturalsocietyandhaveexaminedhistoricalguresandnarratives,theyhavenotextendedtheirstudiestolandscapeandheritage(Yanagita1997;Nitobe1898).
LandscapeheritagestudyinJapanwasfoundedontheideaofidentifyingbeautifulandcharacteristichistoricallandscapesfortourism(Shiga1995).
Andthesescholarsdidnotmovebeyondtheseboundstocriticallyexaminethetripartiterelationshipbetweenspatiality,sociality,andhistoricity(Wat-suji1979;Higuchi1975).
Toprovidesomecontext,untiltheendofthe1960s,Japaneseregionalandurbanplanningstudiesemphasizedeffectiveplanningtomod-ernizeruralareasfromanengineeringviewpoint(Ishida2004).
Itwasinthe1980sthaturbanstudiesscholarsbegantostudythewaterenvironmentinJapan,joiningarchitecturalscholars(Kawahara2001).
AndalthoughJapanestablishedachapterofICOMOS,theinternationalNGOwhichprotectsheritagein1972,itdidnotbecomeapartyoftheUNESCOWorldHeritageConventionuntil1992,asthenationalgov-ernmentcouldnotpromisetoprotecthistoricalmonumentsandsitesaspublicvaluesuntilthen.
HeritagehistorianslikeEmmaWatersonandLaurajaneSmithhaveaddressedthedifcultyofintegratingsocialhistoryintodiscussionsoftangibleheritage.
Theyarguethatdenitionsofheritageoftencontainidealizedconceptionsofcommunitythatperpetuateconstructionsof"others"whichtheheritageprocesstheninstitu-tionalizes(WatersonandSmith2010).
Forexample,studiesofhistoricalandagri-culturalsociallifehaveoftenconstructednationalistandromanticimagesofruralareas,whichthetourismindustrythenusesinitsadvertisingcampaigns.
Themod-ernizationofruralSanbonkiharaandthestoriesofthatmodernizationhelpusthinkaboutconstructionsofcommunityandheritage,andexploretheinterrelationshipofagriculturalwatersystemswithlocallandscapesandlocalhistories.
GeneralHistoryofSanbonkihara'sReclamationDevelopmentsSanbonkiharawaslongabarrenlandlledwiththevolcanicashandgravelleftbehindbytheeruptionofMt.
HakkodaamillionyearsbeforeandtheformationoftheTowadaLakecaldera.
TheSanbonkiharaplateauisintheeastofthenorthernpartofthemainJapaneseislandofHonshuandincludesmanymunicipalities(TowadaCity,RokunoheTown,ShimodaTown,HyakkokoTown,MisawaCity,TowadaLakeTown,ShichinoheTown,andKamikitaTown).
Theareameasurestwenty-sevenkilometersfromeasttowestandeightkilometersfromnorthtosouth.
Thesubstantialdifferenceinelevation—ofmorethanthirtymeters—betweentheSanbonkiharaplateauand8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…157theOiraseRiver,coupledwithpoorwaterretentioncapacityofthesoil,madetheplateaudifculttoirrigateandthusunsuitableforricecultivation.
Sanbonkiharaisfurthermoresusceptibletocoldwindsinthesummer.
Inhabitantsoftensufferfamine.
Farmersontheplateauplantedeldcrops,likemilletandsoybeans,andrearedhorsesasagriculturalactivity.
ThesedifcultconditionshavemadeSanbonkiharaoneofJapan'sthreemajorhistoricalcultivationregionsthathaveovercomenaturaldifcultiestoachieveagriculturalproductivity(theothertwoareKawaminamichoofMiyazakiprefectureandYabukichoofFukushimaprefecture)(Fig.
2).
Fromtheseventeenthcentury,smallscaleprimitivehydrophobicdevelopmentsutilizingnaturalterrainwereconstructedbetweenseveralvillagesinSanbonkiareaandOiraseRiver(Fig.
3).
In1853,TsutoNitobegatheredsixty-vecomradestoinitiatearstmassiveirrigationprojectinSanbonkihara.
TheydugasixthousandmetertunnelthroughtheTengumoriandSakuramountainstotakewaterupfromtheOiraseRiverthroughawaterweir.
Thisnewlycreatedconduit,theInaoiRiver,reachedapproximately10.
3kminlength,boastingthreehundredhectaresofpaddyeldscultivatedinitsbasinin1859.
In1861,Tsuto'ssonJujirotookovertheworktoexpandtheclan'sterritory,havingstudiedvariousindustriesaroundJapanandproposedaplantoextendtheInaoiRivertoOgawaraLakeclosetothePacicOcean.
Followinghisson'stragicdeathin1867,Tsutopersistedinrealizingtheprojectandcompleted1.
1kmofthesecondconduit.
Unfortunately,followingtheMeijirestorationin1868,fundingfornewpaddyirrigation—providedbytheNanbuclan—ceasedandtheprojectwasshelved,relegatingSanbonkiharatoruin(AomoriKenshiHensanKingendaibukai,v62015).
Approximatelyfteenyearslater,intheMeijiperiod,theInaoiRiverirrigationprojectwasrevivedandreceivedrenewedsupportfromthestate.
WiththehelpoftheJapanesegovernmentin1884,ShigeakiFujitaestablishedtheKyoritsuRecla-mationCompany,restoredtheoldconduitsconstructedbytheNitobefamily,andresumedreclamationofSanbonkihara.
In1888,EiichiShibusawa,anindustrialistwhoiswidelyrecognizedasthefatherofJapanesecapitalismandfriendtoNitobe,boughtouttheKyoritsuReclamationCompany,openingtheseventeen-hundredandone-hectareShibusawafarminSanbonkihara(SanbonkiharaKaihatsuKenkyukai1967;Ogasawara1994;Mizuno1961).
TheInaoiRiverhadbeenlengthenedtremen-dously,to39km,reachingthePacicOceanby1897.
In1905,KyoritsuReclamationCompanybecameastock-issuingcompanynamedtheSanbonkiReclamationCor-poration,aneventwhichsignaledamarkedgrowthinthescaleoftheirrigationproject.
TheagriculturalbureaucratandscholarSaburoMizoguchi(1948),reect-ingontheseeventsfromhispost-WorldWarIIperspective,explainedtheselaterMeijiperiodprojectsasthesuccessorstoNitobe'sendeavors(Fig.
4).
In1920,NoriyoshiMizuno,bothanagriculturalengineerandapupilofShibu-sawa,tookofceasthemanageroftheShibusawafarmandworkedtotransferitswatermanagementtothegovernment(Ogasawara1996).
FollowingMizuno'spro-posalstothegovernment,in1937,theTohokuPromotionResearchCouncilselectedtheSanbonkiharadistrictasadevelopmentarea.
Itthensetintomotionalarge-scaleSanbonkiharanationalreclamationprojectthatlastedfrom1938to1944,withsev-eraladministrativebodiesregulatingthemovementofwaterfromLakeTowadato158I.
KuroishiFig.
2MapofSanbonkiharainthenorthernpartofJapanwithTsutoNitobe'sproposaldiagramforfuturedevelopment.
SourceAomoriKenshiHensanKingendaibukai2007,AomoriKenshiShiry-ohenKingendai(AomoriPrefectureHistory,AppendicesModern)1,Aomoriprefecture;releasedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.
0InternationalLicense8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…159Fig.
3OldweirutizingnaturalterrainconnectingOiraseRivertoFujisakavillage.
SourcePhototakenbytheauthor2010;releasedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.
0InternationalLicense160I.
KuroishiFig.
4ThepurpleareaindicatesShibusawafarmterritoriesshowinghowtheyextendedNitobe'sirrigationprojecttocoverthewholeareaofInaoiRiverinthe1930s.
SourceShibusawaBunkoarchiveinTowadaCity;releasedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.
0InternationalLicense8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…161theOiraseRiver.
Theprojectachievedadualgoal:itsecuredwaterfortheland-scapeofLakeTowadaandtheOiraseValleywhileprovidingwaterforcultivationandhydroelectricpowergenerationinSanbonkihara.
TheprojectconstructedanadditionalSanbonkinationaltrunkconduittouptakewaterfromtheOiraseRiver,allowingthecultivationoflarge-scalepaddyelds.
Theimpactoftheseworkswasdemonstrable:In1944,thewatersuppliedbytheOiraseRiverirrigatedarecord2500haandgeneratedarecord27,000kWofelectricity.
ThesecondperiodofintensegovernmentaldevelopmentinSanbonkiharafol-lowedWorldWarII;indeed,theentireTowadaareawaseventuallyslatedfornationaldevelopment(NortheastAgriculturalAdministrationBureau2016,2017)toaddressapostwarcrisisinhousingandfeedingwarrefugeesandveterans.
Inthiseffort,twothousandveteransandsoldiersweresettledonthe4445haformerSanbonkiharamilitarysiteandmadefarmingandstate-controlledcultivationtheirlivelihood.
In1948,thegovernmentbegantheOgawarapondirrigationnearthePacicOceanasanextensionoftheSanbonkiharaNationalReclamationProject.
Whenthisprojectwascompletedin1966,3376haofpaddyeldsand5947haofcropshadbeendevel-oped,andthewaterwaywasnallyextendedtoseventy-onekilometerstothePacicOcean.
Thismassiveinfrastructurebecamethefoundationoftheregionaleconomy.
Sincethen,themaintenanceandmanagementofrivers,watersupply,anddamshavebeenconductedunderprefecturaladministrationincollaborationwithLIDs(Fig.
5).
ChallengestotheHistoriographyoftheLegendasHeritageinSanbonkiharaWhenweconductedon-siteresearchonwaterheritageandcomparedlocallitera-turetolocalhistory,wediscoveredthatthishistoricalframeworkdidnottellthewholestory.
Itistruethatsomelocalandinstitutionalhistorytextbooks,suchasWatashitachinoFurusatoTowadashi(OurhomelandTowadaCity),publishedbytheeducationalcommitteeofTowadaCity,describedNitobe'sprojectasapioneeringdevelopment.
ButwediscoveredmanystructuresfromasearlyastheEdoperiod,suggestingthatSanbonkiharahadalreadybeendevelopedbeforeNitobestartedhiswork.
Wealsofoundhistoricalrecordsinprivatemuseumsandinthemuseumsofneighboringtownsthatshowedthatmanymigrantstotheareacontributedtolocalwaterreclamationonsmallerscalesovertheyears.
TheTomabechifamilyfromOsakadevelopedSanbonkihara'srstpaddyeldin1673inanearlyreclamationproject(AomoriKenritsuKyodokan1994;AomoriKenshiHensanKingendaibukai2007;InaoiGawaTochiKairyoku2003).
ImmigrantsfromtheUesugiclanintro-ducedfortressconstructiontechnologywhichwasthenusedinirrigationprojectsbymigrantsandlowclasssamurais.
In1845,MoritaKiuemonofShichinohedevelopedmorepaddyeldsinSanbonkihara.
TheFujitafamilyofGonohe,originallyfromShigaPrefecture,alsoplayedapartindevelopingSanbonkihara,aswellasothervillages(Gonohe,Asamizu,Ichikawa,andOsaka).
Emaboardsorwishplaqueswith162I.
KuroishiFig.
5DevelopmentofSanbonkiharareclamationreachingfromTowadaLaketothePacicOcean.
SourceHistoryofLandImprovementProjectofInaoiRiver,2003;releasedunderaCreativeCom-monsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.
0InternationalLicensepicturesinlocalshrines,tellthetragicandheroicstoriesofthosewhocommittedsui-cidetocalmtherivergod'sangerandtoprotecttheareafromoodsinEdoperiod(Towadashikyoikuiinkai1982;MinistryofLiterature1939;Towadashikyoikukenshusenta1988).
Theabsenceofthesepeoples'worksfromlocalandinstitutionalhistoricaltreat-mentsraisesquestions.
WhydidauthorskeepwritingthatNitobewasthepioneerandstressingthatalllaterdeveloperswerespiritualfollowersandwhywasSan-bonkiharaasymbolandapriorityofnationaldevelopmentuntilafterWorldWarII(KahokuShinpoNewspaper,October20th,2017).
Toanswerthesequestions,wedrawonEricHobsbawm'sideaofhistoriography,whichpositsthatsomehistoricalnarrativessignalthedominantvaluesofthoseinpower;hearguesthatsuchnarrativesshowtherangeofthosewhocanbelongtothenation(Hobsbawm1990).
WefoundthreedynamicsessentialtoourreframingofthelegendofNitobe:rstthatnotonlyNitobebutarangeofactorsdevelopedthereclamationproject;second,thatnationalpoliticalaffairsaffectedpoliciesonwatersupplyandconstructionsofnationalcom-munity;andthirdandlast,thatculturaleventsandurbanplanningbridgedtangibleandintangibleheritage.
8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…163BeyondNitobe:OtherActorsandtheCreationandMaintenanceofWaterResourcesAlthoughlegendattributestheSanbonikiharareclamationprojecttoNitobe,infact,arangeofindividualsandassociationsrealizedit.
Theseactorsharboredmultipleagendasthatevolvedovertime,heldsubstantiallydistincteconomicambitions,andworkedatdifferentterritorialscaleswhichvariedaccordingtotime.
Theirriga-tionprojectoftheEdoperiodcreatedpaddyeldsforricecultivation.
IntheMeijiperiod,theShibusawafarmandmilitarycampsintroducednewagriculturaltechnol-ogywhichledtoprotfromforestry,stockfarming,andranching.
Followingthissuccess,inthepre-warperiod,thegovernmentestablishedhydroelectricpowerplantstostabilizewaterintakewithstrongpumpsandtoacceleratetheindustrializationofSanbonkihara.
Finally,inthepostwarperiod,YukioSugimoto,apupilofShibusawa,madehisground-breakingeconomiccontributionsbyestablishingatourismindus-tryinSanbonkihara(Sugimoto1981;Inagaki1998;SasamotoandOgasawara1996;TowadaKankoNewspaper1957–1968).
Initsseveraldifferentincarnations,theSanbonkiharareclamationprojectrequiredarangeofnicheskillsandtechniquesaswellasaverylargeinvestmentofnewtechnology,capitalandlabor.
ManyskilledworkersandengineersfromoutsideTowadawereinvolved.
BeforetheNitobefamily,theUesugiclanandmigrantsfromShigahadbeguntodevelopSanbonkihara.
AfterNitobe,EiichiShibusawaandhisdisciplesMizunoandSugimotocontinuedthereclamationworkandregionalindustrialdevelopment.
Manyoutsiderscameduringpoliticalupheavals.
DuringtheMeijiRestoration,over17,000peopleintheTonamiclanedfromFukushimatoSanbonkiharaaspoliticalrefugees.
HistoricaltextbooksinSanbonkiharadescribehow,undertheordersoftheMeijiGovernment,TsutoNitobetookcareofsomeofthemathisfarmin1871,andhowtheyhaddifcultiesgettingalongwithotherlocalresidentsoftheNanbuclan.
ShigeakiFujitawasadescendantofthisTonamiclanwholaterresumedtheirrigationprojectaftersixteenyears'abandonment.
AfterWorldWarII,manyformermilitarypersonnelanddisplacedJapanesesettledinSanbonkiharatocompletethenationalirrigationproject.
Meanwhile,waterresourcemanagementfrequentlyswitchedhands.
Theirriga-tionprojecttransitionedfrombeingunderalocalclan,toaprivatecompanyandtoagovernmententity.
Initially,itwasundertheNanbuclan,thentheKyoritsuReclamationCompany,andtheSanbonkiharaReclamationCooperation.
AftertheSanbonkiharaReclamationCooperationdissolvedin1921,theInaoiRiverIrriga-tionAssociationtookoverwaterresourcemanagement,andafterthewar,theInaoiRiverLandImprovementOrganizationassumedleadership.
Overtime,localpeoplemanagedandsteeredthesecompanies,sometimesworkingintheirowninterests.
Thesehistoricalanalysesclarifythattheactualprocessofthedevelopingreclama-tion,thecoreofintangibleheritage,hasfrequentlychangeddirection,withmultipleagentsshapingandnegotiatingchangesinthemeaningofwater(Spirn1998).
164I.
KuroishiThePoliticsofNitobe'sLegendintheManagementofWaterandCommunityAnotherwayoftellingthisstoryistopointoutthatneitherthelocalcommunitynorthecommunityworkingonthereclamationprojectwashomogenous.
ButSan-bonkiharaneededasymbolicleaderinordertointegrateoutsidersintoSanbonkiharasociety,tocontroltensionsinsharingwaterandlanduse,andtomanagethedif-cultiesofpoliticalandindustrialmodernizationoverall.
Nitobestoodforasocialethossharedbyarangeofcommunitymembersthatcouldbridgethegovernment,capitalists,immigrants,andlocalindividuals.
ThesepoliticaldynamicsshapethestoryofNitobeasthelegendaryfounderofSanbonkiharainbooksbytheNitobeMemorialarchive,localchildren'stextbooks,ministryreports,andtheLIDs'books;thesenarrativesexcludeothercharactersforthesamepoliticalreasons.
TsutoandJujiroNitobecarriedouttheirprojectsinthetransitionfromtheEdototheMeijiperiods.
Althoughpoliticalredtapehinderedmanyprojects,theNitobeswerehighlyregardedinthenationalgovernment,andtheyplayedapivotalroleinguaranteeingthelegitimacyoftheMeijigovernmentinnorthernJapan.
Ontwooccasionsin1877and1881,EmperorMeijivisitedtheNitobefamily'shouseandhonoredTsutoforhisaccomplishmentsbutforhisowninterests:tosolidifyhisownhistoricalandethnicauthority,toassociatehimselfwithlivinggodsamongthepeople,andtoadvancehisstatusasademigod(Osaka1998).
Atthesametime,thisassociationstrengthenedtheauthorityoftheNitobesandthepowerofthelocaladministrativeagenciesintheregion.
In1884,EmperorMeijinationalizedalarge-scalebudgetfortheSanbonkiharaareatosupporttheKyoritsuReclamationCompanyinNitobe'sname.
WhentheEmperorascendedtothethronein1867,hisgovernmenthadformulatedpoliciestoresolveconictswiththeclanshedefeated,includingstate-supportedagriculturallanddevelopmentprojects(Osaka,Ibid.
)Sanbonkiharawasthecornerstoneofthisoverallprojectinthe1880stomakeindustrythenewfoundationofthenation:otherbigprojectsincludedTazawaLakeinAkitaandAsakaHydrophobicinFukushima(Miyamotoetal.
2002;NortheastAgriculturalAdministrationBureau2018).
Later,from1937,aswarbroughtaninuxofexternallaborersforstateagriculturalcultiva-tion,thelegendofNitobehelpedagaintoinculcatearegionalethicsandcultivateastatethatdiminisheddiscriminationtowardimmigrants.
Thus,asintangibleheritage,morethanjustalocalhistoricalstory,Nitobe'slegendhadalastingandfar-reachingimpactontheidentityofSanbonkihara.
CulturalEventsandUrbanPlanningBridgingTangibleandIntangibleHeritageFestivals,statues,andeducationalactivitiesalsoallcelebratedNitobe'sworksaslegendary.
Theseculturaleventsbridgedintangiblelegendandtangiblestructures.
8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…165InTowadacity,Taiso(Archaic)festivalisheldannually(from3rdto5thMay)inTaisoShrineduringtheseasonofcherryblossoms,commemoratingwhatisknownasWaterFlowingDay.
PeopleplacebronzestatuesandothermemorialstotheNitobefamilyinthegardenofNitobearchive,tangibleheritageforthearea.
ElementaryschoolsbringchildrentotheShrinetoteachthemthelegend.
TheauraoflegendofaroundtheaccomplishmentsofTsutoNitobeextendstotheurbanplanningofhisson,JujiroNitobe.
LocalhistoricaltextbookscelebrateJujiro'sapplicationofKyoto'surbanplanningmethodtoTowadain1860asuniqueatthetime,particularlyhisuseofthegridsystemofroadsdividingthetownintoblocksof1.
3*1.
3km;theyclaimitasthebeginningofmodernJapaneseurbanplanning(TaisoKenshokai1998).
TheynotethatJujiroestablishedtheInariShrine,ClearMoonTemple,andRinenTempleoutofconcernforthepeople'spsychologicalandspiritualwell-being.
HedesignedacanaltobringwaterfromtheInaoiRivernotonlyforagriculturalpurposesbutalsofordomesticuseandreprotectionintownanddesignedthecityaroundacanal.
HeplannedanewcommercialdistrictinthenewtownofInaoi-machialongtheOshuKaidoRoad,withtwo-storyshopslininganarcade,anddemarcatednewdistrictsfordifferentindustries(dishware,silk,leather)andevenahorsemarket.
Atseverallocations,forestsweretobeplantedtoshieldagainststrongseasonalwinds.
However,TowadaCityneveractuallybuiltthewatercanalfromInaoiRiverinitscenter,anditisunclearhowJujiro'sideascouldhavecontributedtothecity'slaterurbanplanning.
In1885,wellafterJujirohaddiedin1867,theArmyBattalionBureauopenedanewtrainingcenterandexpandedJujiro'soriginalgridsystemtoformthecurrentcityareaofabout4km2,sandwichedbyInaoiRiverandOiraseRiver.
Intheupdatedgrid,TaisoShrine(1965,muchlaterthantheplanningdescribedhere)isclearlyseparatedfromthesurroundingtownbyatoriigatewithadesignatedapproachonastrongspatialaxis,whichsuggestsitsintentionalalienationevenfromtheArmy'srevisionofJujiro'soriginalidea.
Despitethelegend,then,TowadaCitywasnotdevelopedaccordingtoJujiro'splanning.
ItwaslargelyinuencedbythepreandpostWWIIplanning,whichfollowedtheplanningofSapporocity(Towadashikyoikukenshusenta1981)(Fig.
6).
TransformationoftheTerritoryandValuesofHeritageThegapsbetweenlegendofJujiroNitobeandtheactuallandscapeofTowadacityalsoechotheshiftsinthehistoricalrelationshipbetweenthelegendoftheelderNitobeandthelandscape.
TheclearestevidenceofthisshiftisthattheareanamedSanbonkiharaitselfchangedthroughhistory.
AftertheformationofAomoriandIwateprefecturein1871,thecityterritorychangedfromSanbonki-chotoSanbonkicityandnallyTowadacity,withvariouscitymergersextendingNitobe'slegendarystatusgeographically.
What"Sanbonkihara"meansinthelegendhasalsoexpandedfromtheactualprojectsite:addingTonamiclan'snewsettlementafter1869inthenearbyNinoheandSannohearea,Shibusawafarm'swideranchareaalongInaoi166I.
KuroishiFig.
6WholeareamapofTowadacitydowntownareashowingpostWWIIgridroadsextentionsintheformerArmyBattalionarea.
SourceTowadashikyoikukenshusenta;releasedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.
0InternationalLicense8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…167River,thenationalirrigationprojectsconnectedtoTowadaandOgawaralakes,andSugimoto'stourismfromTowadatotheMisawaarea(AomoriKenshiHensanKin-gendaibukai2007).
Ineachstage,theimageofthelandscapeofSanbonkiharainNitobe'slegendissignicantlydifferent;paddyeld,rancheld,broaderfarminglandreachingtothePacicOcean,andnaturalvalleywithdeepwoodsandTowadalake(Fig.
7).
Anothersignicantshiftisapparentintheaestheticvalueofwaterineachstageofthestory.
TheearlytextsofthelegendofNitobedidnotmentionthebeautyofthelandscape.
Then,intheEdoperiod,JapancelebratedthebeautyofthewestsideofTowadaLake(inAkitaprefecture)asakindofheritage,and1930sstateprojectsand1950sworksbySugimotorecognizedthebeautyandculturalvaluesofthelengthandlandscapeoftheriversfromTowadaLaketoSanbonkihara(Okuboetal.
1993).
InbuildingtheTowadaScienceMuseumin1953,OgawaraLakeEthnicMuseumin1958,andSaigyodoparkin1980,Sugimotocombinedlocalfolklorewiththelandscape,bringingtogetherintangibleandtangibleheritage.
ClaimingNitobeandShibusawaashisspiritualpredecessors,SugimotorodethewavesofcapitalistsuccessandbegananationwidetourismprojectbetweentheOiraseRiverandTokyoin1967(Nakazono2012).
ConclusionThischapterreframestherelationshipbetweenwaterandpeopleintheSanbonkihararegionandthecontributionofNitobe'slegendtolocalsocietytoincludetheeffectsoftheever-evolvinginteractionsbetweenpeople,space,andsocietyinandafterNitobe'stime.
ThevalueofwaterandthelandscapewasnotasimpleoutcomeofNitobe'sprojectbutdevelopedinthehistoricalprocessofagriculturalexpansion,riverconservation,andredevelopment,andinthehistoricalprocessofspatializingandformalizingthelegend.
Political,economic,andsocialrestructuringkeptcreatinganewsenseofcommunityandnewinterrelationshipsbetweentangibleandintangibleheritage(Tuan1993).
ThoughthelegendofNitobefadedwithtime,itsspiritremainsinthenaturalandeverydayspacesofSanbonkihara,continuingtoevolvewiththepeoplewhovisitorlivethere(KahokuShinpoNewspaper2017).
InthisperiodofdecliningagricultureandtraditionalsocialethosinJapan,itisnecessarytore-establishwaternotmerelyasanaturalresourceorasanassetofagriculturallandownersbutasthewholecommunity'shistorical,culturalandsocialinheritance;heritage,withwhichdiversepeoplehavetoactivelyengageandcultivatefortheirandfuturegenerations'survival.
168I.
KuroishiFig.
7ExpansionsofSugimoto'stourismindustryfromSanbonkiharatoTokyo.
Sourcenews-paperTowadaKanko,publishedin1966;releasedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives4.
0InternationalLicense8ArchaicWater:TheRoleofaLegendinConstructingtheWater…169AcknowledgementsThisstudywasmadepossiblebythematerialandsupportofTowadacity,ShibusawaBunko,AomoriPrefectureofce,InaoiTochiKairyoku,TowadaKanko,andNitobeKinenkan.
TheoriginalresearchstartedwithfundingfromtheToyotaFoundationandlaterdevel-opedthroughsupportfromtheMinistryofLiterature.
TheprojectevolvedtoitscurrentthemethankstotheadvicesbyProfessorMasamitsuOgiwaraandMr.
MamoruOkubo,andtotheconferenceonWaterandHeritagefortheFutureorganizedbyICOMOS,theCenterforGlobalHeritageandDevelopment(CGHD),andDelftUniversityofTechnology.
IappreciatethesupportofProfessorCarolaHeinforinvitingmetotheconferenceandhelpingeditmytext.
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