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12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW.
UNITEDSTATESDISTRICTCOURTDISTRICTOFNEVADABLAKEA.
FIELD,Plaintiff,vs.
GOOGLEINC.
,Defendant.
)))))))))))))NO.
CV-S-04-0413-RCJ-LRLFINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW&ORDERANDRELATEDCOUNTERCLAIMS.
)))))))Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page1of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-1-FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAWThisisanactionforcopyrightinfringementbroughtbyplaintiffBlakeField("Field")againstGoogleInc.
("Google").
FieldcontendsthatbyallowingInternetuserstoaccesscopiesof51ofhiscopyrightedworksstoredbyGoogleinanonlinerepository,GoogleviolatedField'sexclusiverightstoreproducecopiesanddistributecopiesofthoseworks.
OnDecember19,2005,theCourtheardargumentontheparties'cross-motionsforsummaryjudgment.
Baseduponthepaperssubmittedbythepartiesandtheargumentsofcounsel,theCourtfindsthatGoogleisentitledtojudgmentasamatteroflawbasedontheundisputedfacts.
Forthereasonssetforthbelow,theCourtwillgrantGoogle'smotionforsummaryjudgment:(1)thatithasnotdirectlyinfringedthecopyrightedworksatissue;(2)thatGoogleheldanimpliedlicensetoreproduceanddistributecopiesofthecopyrightedworksatissue;(3)thatFieldisestoppedfromassertingacopyrightinfringementclaimagainstGooglewithrespecttotheworksatissueinthisaction;and(4)thatGoogle'suseoftheworksisafairuseunder17U.
S.
C.
§107.
TheCourtwillfurthergrantapartialsummaryjudgmentthatField'sclaimfordamagesisprecludedbyoperationofthe"systemcache"safeharborofSection512(b)oftheDigitalMillenniumCopyrightAct("DMCA").
Finally,theCourtwilldenyField'scross-motionforsummaryjudgmentseekingafindingofinfringementandseekingtodismisstheGoogledefensessetforthabove.
STATEMENTOFPROCEDURALHISTORY&UNDISPUTEDFACTSProceduralHistory1.
OnApril6,2004,PlaintiffField,anauthorandanattorneywhoisamemberoftheStateBarofNevada,filedacomplaintagainstGoogleassertingasingleclaimforcopyrightinfringementbasedonGoogle'sallegedcopyinganddistributionofhiscopyrightedworkentitledGoodTea.
FieldhimselfhadpreviouslypublishedthisworkonhispersonalWebsite,www.
blakeswritings.
com.
2.
OnMay25,2004,FieldfiledanAmendedComplaint,allegingthatGoogleinfringedthecopyrightstoanadditionalfiftyofField'sworks,whichlikewisehadbeenpublishedonhispersonalwebsite.
Fielddidnotseekactualdamages,butinsteadrequestedCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page2of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728TheLevineReportisattachedtotheLevineDeclarationasExhibit1.
1FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-2-$2,550,000instatutorydamages($50,000foreachoffifty-oneregisteredcopyrightedworks)alongwithinjunctiverelief.
3.
OnSeptember27,2005,FieldfiledamotionforsummaryjudgmentthatGoogleinfringedthecopyrightedworksatissueandthatGoogle'sdefensesbasedonfairuse,impliedlicense,estoppelandtheDigitalMillenniumCopyrightAct("DMCA")shouldbedismissedasamatteroflaw.
Googlefiledamotionforsummaryjudgmentbasedonnon-infringement,impliedlicense,estoppelandfairuse(DocketNo.
51).
4.
OnDecember19,2005,theCourtheldahearingontheparties'cross-motionsforsummaryjudgment.
Atthehearing,Googlemadeanoralcross-motionforpartialsummaryjudgmentinitsfavorbaseduponSection512(b)oftheDMCA.
5.
Afterconsideringtheargumentsofcounsel,theCourtgrantedGoogle'smotionforsummaryjudgmentoneachofthegroundsitsetforth,grantedGoogle'soralcross-motionbasedontheDMCAanddeniedField'smotionforsummaryjudgment.
UndisputedFactsGoogle,theGoogleCache,and"Cached"Links.
6.
Googlemaintainsoneoftheworld'slargestandmostpopularInternetsearchengines,accessible,amongotherplaces,ontheWorldWideWebatwww.
google.
com.
SeeBrougherDecl.
2.
InternetsearchengineslikeGoogle'sallowInternetuserstosiftthroughthemassiveamountofinformationavailableontheInternettofindspecificinformationthatisofparticularinteresttothem.
Seeid.
3;seealsoLevineReport13.
17.
TherearebillionsofWebpagesaccessibleontheInternet.
ItwouldbeimpossibleforGoogletolocateandindexorcatalogthemmanually.
SeeBrougherDecl.
3-4;seealsoLevineReport13-14.
Accordingly,Google,likeothersearchengines,usesanautomatedprogram(calledthe"Googlebot")tocontinuouslycrawlacrosstheInternet,tolocateandanalyzeavailableWebpages,andtocatalogthoseWebpagesintoGoogle'ssearchableWebindex.
SeeBrougherDecl.
4-5;seealsoLevineReport14.
Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page3of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728Thethreemostpopularsearchengines–Google,Yahoo!
,andMSN–alldisplay"Cached"2linkswiththeirsearchresults,andoperatethemidentically.
SeeBrougherDecl.
17;Google,Yahoo!
,andMSNcollectivelyaccountformorethan80%ofallWebsearches.
SeeBrougherDecl.
17.
FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-3-8.
Aspartofthisprocess,GooglemakesandanalyzesacopyofeachWebpagethatitfinds,andstorestheHTMLcodefromthosepagesinatemporaryrepositorycalledacache.
SeeLevineReport14;BrougherDecl.
5.
OnceGoogleindexesandstoresaWebpageinthecache,itcanincludethatpage,asappropriate,inthesearchresultsitdisplaystousersinresponsetotheirqueries.
SeeBrougherDecl.
5.
9.
WhenGoogledisplaysWebpagesinitssearchresults,thefirstitemappearingineachresultisthetitleofaWebpagewhich,ifclickedbytheuser,willtaketheusertotheonlinelocationofthatpage.
Thetitleisfollowedbyashort"snippet"fromtheWebpageinsmallerfont.
Followingthesnippet,GoogletypicallyprovidesthefullURLforthepage.
Then,inthesamesmallerfont,Googleoftendisplaysanotherlinklabeled"Cached.
"SeeBrougherDecl.
10.
210.
Whenclicked,the"Cached"linkdirectsanInternetusertothearchivalcopyofaWebpagestoredinGoogle'ssystemcache,ratherthantotheoriginalWebsiteforthatpage.
SeeBrougherDecl.
8.
Byclickingonthe"Cached"linkforapage,ausercanviewthe"snapshot"ofthatpage,asitappearedthelasttimethesitewasvisitedandanalyzedbytheGooglebot.
Seeid.
11.
ThepageauserretrievesfromGoogleafterclickingona"Cached"linkcontainsaconspicuousdisclaimeratthetopexplainingthatitisonlyasnapshotofthepagefromGoogle'scache,nottheoriginalpage,andthatthepagefromthecachemaynotbecurrent.
SeeBrougherDecl.
11-12&Ex.
2("Google'scacheisthesnapshotthatwetookofthepageaswecrawledtheWeb.
Thepagemayhavechangedsincethattime.
").
Thedisclaimeralsoincludestwoseparatehyperlinkstotheoriginal,currentpage.
Seeid.
12.
Googlehasprovided"Cached"linkswithitssearchresultssince1998.
SeeBrougherDecl.
7.
Untilthisaction,Googlehadneverbeforebeensuedforproviding"Cached"Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page4of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728Forexample,theStateofIndianainstructsitsjudgesaboutthiscapability.
SeeLevine3Decl.
,Ex.
5at2(articleentitled"MaximizingWebSearchesWithGoogle,"availableathttp://www.
in.
gov/judiciary/center/ed/library/judcon-03/google.
pdf,explainsthat"Clicking'Cached'willsimplygiveyouanolderversionoftheresultpage,whichrepresentswhatthepagelookedlikethelasttimetheGoogleengineindexedthepage.
Thisserviceexistsincaseawebsite'sserverbecomesunavailable.
").
FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-4-links.
SeeMacgillivrayDecl.
3.
The"Cached"link,andtheconsequencesthatflowwhenauserclicksonit,isthesubjectofField'slawsuit.
ThePurposesServedByGoogle's"Cached"Links13.
GoogleenablesuserstoaccessitscopyofWebpagesthrough"Cached"linksforseveralreasons.
14.
ArchivalCopies.
Google's"Cached"linksallowuserstoviewpagesthattheusercannot,forwhateverreason,accessdirectly.
AWebpagecanbecomeinaccessibletoInternetusersbecauseoftransmissionproblems,becausenationsorserviceprovidersseektocensorcertaininformation,becausetoomanyusersaretryingtoaccessthesamepageatthesametime,orbecausethepagehasbeenremovedfromitsoriginallocation.
SeeLevineReport17-19.
Ineachcase,userswhorequestaccesstothematerialfromtheinaccessiblesitearestillabletoaccessanarchivalcopyofthepageviathe"Cached"linkinGoogle'ssearchresults.
SeeLevineReport17-19;seealsoBrougherDecl.
14.
Google'susers,includingthoseinacademia,describethisfunctionalityashighlyvaluable.
SeeLevineDecl.
4&Exs.
2-5.
Thisfeature3alsobenefitsWebsitepublishersbecauseitallowsuserstoaccesstheirsiteswhenthesitesareotherwiseunavailableandhasallowedWebsiteownerstorecovercopiesoftheirownsitesthatmightotherwisehavebeenlostduetocomputerproblems.
SeeLevineReport16-19;seealsoLevineDecl.
,Ex.
7at2.
15.
WebPageComparisons.
Google'sarchivalfunctionalityisalsoofconsiderableimportancetothosewhowishtodeterminehowaparticularWebpagehasbeenalteredovertime.
ByexaminingGoogle'scopyofthepage,peoplecanidentifysubtlebutpotentiallysignificantdifferencesbetweenthecurrentversionofapage,andthepageasitexistedwhenlastvisitedbytheGooglebot.
SeeLevineReport20;seealsoBrougherDecl.
15;LevineDecl.
,Exs.
10,11.
Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page5of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-5-16.
IdentificationofSearchQueryTerms.
Google's"Cached"linksalsoallowuserstoimmediatelydeterminewhyaparticularpagewasdeemedresponsivetotheirsearchquery,byhighlightingthetermsfromtheuser'squeryastheyappearonthepage.
SeeLevineReport17;seealsoBrougherDecl.
16.
Insomecases,ifauserclicksonGoogle'slinktoanoriginalWebpage,hemaybeunabletodeterminehowthepagerelatestohisinquiry.
Thatisparticularlytruefortextintensivepageswheretheuser'ssearchtermmaybeverydifficulttofind.
SeeLevineReport17;seealsoLevineDecl.
,Ex.
13at1.
Insomecasesitmaybeimpossibleforausertofindtheinformationonapagethatisresponsivetoagivensearchwhereasiteownerhasalteredthetextontheoriginalpageandremovedtherelevantlanguage.
SeeLevineReport17;seealsoBrougherDecl.
16.
ByallowingaccesstocopiesofWebpagesthrough"Cached"links,Googleenablesuserstomorequicklydeterminewhetherandwhereauser'ssearchqueryappears,andthuswhetherthepageisgermanetotheirinquiry.
17.
GiventhebreadthoftheInternet,itisnotpossibleforGoogle(orothersearchengines)topersonallycontacteveryWebsiteownertodeterminewhethertheownerwantsthepagesinitssitelistedinsearchresultsoraccessiblethrough"Cached"links.
SeeBrougherDecl.
18;seealsoLevineReport25.
18.
TheInternetindustryhasdevelopedasetofwidelyrecognizedandwell-publicizedindustrystandardprotocolsbywhichWebsiteownerscanautomaticallycommunicatetheirpreferencestosearchenginessuchasGoogle.
SeeLevineReport25,29,35(listingsourcesthatdocumentthesestandards);BrougherDecl.
18-21.
GoogleprovidesinstructionsforWebsiteownerstocommunicatetheirpreferencestoGoogleathttp://www.
google.
com/remove.
html.
SeeLevineReport30,35;BrougherDecl.
18-21;O'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
5;seealsoid.
Exs.
4,6.
19.
AprincipalwayforWebsiteownerstocommunicatewithGoogle'srobotisbyplacingspecificinstructionsin"meta-tags"withinthecomputercode(calledHTML)thatcomprisesagivenpage.
WhentheGooglebotvisitsapage,itreadsthroughthiscode.
Ifitencountersmeta-tags,itfollowstheinstructionsprovided.
Thus,forexample,asiteownercanplacethefollowingmeta-tagwithinapagetotellGoogle'srobotnottoanalyzethepageorCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page6of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728AWebsiteownercanaddthe"no-archive"meta-tagtoaWebpageinamatterofseconds.
4SeeBrougherDecl.
21.
WebsiteownerscanalsouseaGoogle-specific"no-archive"meta-tagtotellGooglethatitcannotprovide"Cached"links,whileallowingothersearchengines(e.
g.
,Yahoo!
andMSN)todoso.
Seeid.
;seealsoLevineReport35.
AWebsiteownercanalsorequestthatGooglenotdisplay"Cached"linksforgivenpages5byusingGoogle'sautomaticURLremovalprocedure.
SeeBrougherDecl.
23.
Google'sWebsiteprovidesstep-by-stepinstructionsonusingthisprocedure.
Seeid.
;seealsoO'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
5(attachingaprintoutofhttp://www.
google.
com/remove.
html).
Further,WebsiteownerscancontactGoogledirectlytomakesucharequest.
Googlehonorssuchrequests.
SeeBrougherDecl.
24.
Bycontrast,aWebsiteownercaninviterobotstovisitasitewithoutrestrictionby6includingaRobots.
txtfilethatreads:"User-agent:*Disallow:"LevineReportat31-32.
FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-6-includeitinGoogle'sWebindexandsearchresults:""SeeBrougherDecl.
20;seealsoLevineReport33.
420.
Usingmeta-tags,aWebsiteownercanalsotellGoogle'srobotthatitcanincludeagivenpageinGoogle'sindex,butthatitshouldnotprovidea"Cached"linktothatpageinGoogle'ssearchresults.
Todoso,theWebsiteownerusesa"no-archive"meta-tag""SeeBrougherDecl.
21;seealsoLevineReport35.
The"no-archive"meta-taghasbeenawidelyrecognizedindustrystandardforyears.
SeeLevineReport35.
21.
IfaWebsiteownerincludesthe"no-archive"meta-tagonapage,thenGoogledoesnotprovidea"Cached"linkwhenitliststhatpageinitssearchresults.
SeeBrougherDecl.
21-22.
522.
Websiteownerscanalsocommunicatewithsearchengines'robotsbyplacinga"robots.
txt"fileontheirWebsite.
SeeBrougherDecl.
19;seealsoLevineReport29.
Forexample,iftheWebsiteownerdoesnotwantrobotstocrawltheowner'sWebsite,theownercancreatearobots.
txtfilewiththefollowingtext:"User-agent:*Disallow:/".
SeeBrougherDecl.
19;seealsoLevineReport29.
Theabovetexttellstherobotsthattheyshouldnotcrawltheowner'sWebsite.
SeeBrougherDecl.
19;seealsoLevineReport29.
IfGoogle's6robotencountersarobots.
txtfilewiththeabovetext,thenitwillnotcrawltheWebsite,andtherewillbenoentryforthatWebpageinGoogle'ssearchresultsandnocachedlink.
SeeCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page7of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728ExcerptsfromtheFieldDepositionareattachedtotheO'CallaghanDeclarationas7Exhibit1.
FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-7-BrougherDecl.
19.
TheInternetindustryhaswidelyrecognizedtherobots.
txtfileasastandardforcontrollingautomatedaccesstoWebpagessince1994.
SeeLevineReport29.
PlaintiffBlakeFieldandHisCopyrightClaim23.
PlaintiffBlakeFieldhasregularlyusedGoogle'ssearchengineoverthepastseveralyearsandwasfamiliarwiththemannerinwhichitoperates.
SeeFieldDep.
at103:15-20.
724.
FieldhaslongbeenawarethatGoogleautomaticallyprovides"Cached"linksforpagesthatareincludedinitsindexandsearchresultsunlessinstructedotherwise.
Seeid.
at74:8-22,109:22-110:6.
FielddecidedtomanufactureaclaimforcopyrightinfringementagainstGoogleinthehopesofmakingmoneyfromGoogle'sstandardpractice.
Seeid.
at79:8-15,141:15-24.
25.
FieldadmitsheknewthatanyWebsiteownercouldinstructGooglenottoprovidea"Cached"linktoagivenWebpagebyusingthe"no-archive"meta-tag(asdiscussedabove).
SeeFieldDep.
at74:8-22,81:13-17.
FieldalsoknewthatGoogleprovidedaprocesstoallowWebsiteownerstoremovepagesfromGoogle'ssystemcache.
Seeid.
at81:18-21,83:4-11,84:15-21;O'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
3at1-2(Pl.
'sResp.
toReq.
forAdmis.
Nos.
1,4).
Withthisknowledge,FieldsetouttogethiscopyrightedworksincludedinGoogle'sindex,andtohaveGoogleprovide"Cached"linkstoWebpagescontainingthoseworks.
26.
Overathree-dayperiodinJanuary2004,Fieldcreatedthe51worksatissueinthislawsuit.
SeeO'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
2(Pl.
'sResp.
toInterrog.
No.
5).
27.
FieldregisteredcopyrightsforeachoftheseworksseparatelyonJanuary16,2004.
SeeFirstAm.
Compl.
7.
FieldthencreatedaWebsiteatwww.
blakeswritings.
comandpublishedhisworksonpageswheretheywereaccessible,forfree,totheworldstartinginlateJanuary2004.
SeeFieldDep.
at45:2-4,94:10-19.
28.
Fieldcreatedarobots.
txtfileforhissiteandsetthepermissionswithinthisfiletoallowallrobotstovisitandindexallofthepagesonthesite.
SeeFieldDep.
at46:10-16;LevineCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page8of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-8-Report31.
Fieldcreatedtherobots.
txtfilebecausehewantedsearchenginestovisithissiteandincludethesitewithintheirsearchresults.
SeeFieldDep.
at46:2-4,17-23.
29.
Fieldknewthatifheusedthe"no-archive"meta-tagonthepagesofhissite,Googlewouldnotprovide"Cached"linksforthepagescontaininghisworks.
SeeFieldDep.
at81:13-17;O'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
3at2(Resp.
toReq.
forAdmis.
No.
4).
Fieldconsciouslychosenottousethe"no-archive"meta-tagonhisWebsite.
SeeFieldDep.
at83:25-84:3.
30.
AsFieldexpected,theGooglebotvisitedhissiteandindexeditspages,makingthepagesavailableinGooglesearchresults.
WhenthepagescontainingField'scopyrightedworksweredisplayedinGoogle'ssearchresults,theywereautomaticallydisplayedwith"Cached"links,asFieldintendedtheywouldbe.
31.
AccordingtoGoogle'srecords,anindividualorindividualsclickedonthe"Cached"linksforeachofthepagescontainingField'sworks,andretrievedcopiesofeachofthethosepagesfromGoogle'ssystemcache.
32.
WhenGooglelearnedthatFieldhadfiled(butnotserved)hiscomplaint,Googlepromptlyremovedthe"Cached"linkstoallofthepagesofhissite.
SeeMacGillivrayDecl.
2;seealsoCountercls.
22;Ans.
toCountercls.
22.
GooglealsowrotetoFieldexplainingthatGooglehadnodesiretoprovide"Cached"linkstoField'spagesifFielddidnotwantthemtoappear.
SeeO'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
7.
CONCLUSIONSOFLAWLegalStandardforSummaryJudgmentAcourtmustgrantsummaryjudgmentifthepleadingsandsupportingdocuments,whenviewedinthelightmostfavorabletothenon-movingparty,"showthatthereisnogenuineissueastoanymaterialfactandthatthemovingpartyisentitledtojudgmentasamatteroflaw.
"Fed.
R.
Civ.
P.
56(c).
Anissueastoamaterialfactisonly"genuine"iftheevidenceregardingthedisputedfactis"suchthatareasonablejurycouldreturnaverdictforthenonmovingparty,"andadisputeis"material"onlyifitcouldaffecttheoutcomeofthesuitundergoverninglaw.
Andersonv.
LibertyLobby,Inc.
,477U.
S.
242,248-49(1986).
Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page9of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FielddidnotcontendthatGooglewasliableforindirectinfringement(contributoryor8vicariousliability).
FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-9-DiscussionI.
DirectInfringementoftheCopyrightedWorksGooglehasfiledamotionforsummaryjudgmentthatbyoperatingitscacheandpresenting"Cached"linkstoworkswithinit,GoogledoesnotdirectlyinfringeField'scopyrightedworks.
Fieldhasfiledacross-motionforsummaryjudgmentforafindingofdirectinfringement.
TheCourtgrantsGoogle'smotionanddeniesField'smotion.
8Todemonstratecopyrightinfringement,"theplaintiffmustshowownershipofthecopyrightandcopyingbythedefendant.
"Kellyv.
ArribaSoftCorp.
,336F.
3d811,817(9thCir.
2003);seealso17U.
S.
C.
§501.
Aplaintiffmustalsoshowvolitionalconductonthepartofthedefendantinordertosupportafindingofdirectcopyrightinfringement.
SeeReligiousTech.
Ctrv.
NetcomOn-LineCommc'nServs.
,Inc.
,907F.
Supp.
1361,1369-70(N.
D.
Cal.
1995)(directinfringementrequiresavolitionalactbydefendant;automatedcopyingbymachinesoccasionedbyothersnotsufficient);CoStarGroup,Inc.
v.
LoopNet,Inc.
,373F.
3d544,555(4thCir.
2004)("AgreeingwiththeanalysisinNetcom,weholdthattheautomaticcopying,storage,andtransmissionofcopyrightedmaterials,wheninstigatedbyothers,doesnotrenderanISPstrictlyliableforcopyrightinfringementunder§§501and106oftheCopyrightAct.
").
ThepartiesdonotdisputethatFieldownsthecopyrightedworkssubjecttothisaction.
Thepartiesdodisputewhetherbyallowingaccesstocopyrightedworksthrough"Cached"linksGoogleengagesinvolitional"copying"or"distribution"undertheCopyrightActsufficienttoestablishaprimafaciecaseforcopyrightinfringement.
FielddoesnotallegethatGooglecommittedinfringementwhenits"Googlebot,"likeanordinaryInternetuser,madetheinitialcopiesoftheWebpagescontaininghiscopyrightedworksandstoresthosecopiesintheGooglecache.
SeeFieldDep.
at143:13-144-1;98:18-25.
Instead,FieldallegesthatGoogledirectlyinfringedhiscopyrightswhenaGoogleuserclickedona"Cached"linktotheWebpagescontainingField'scopyrightedworksanddownloadedacopyofthosepagesfromGoogle'scomputers.
Seeid.
;seealsoFirstAm.
Compl.
29-32.
Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page10of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-10-AccordingtoField,Googleitselfiscreatinganddistributingcopiesofhisworks.
ButwhenauserrequestsaWebpagecontainedintheGooglecachebyclickingona"Cached"link,itistheuser,notGoogle,whocreatesanddownloadsacopyofthecachedWebpage.
Googleispassiveinthisprocess.
Google'scomputersrespondautomaticallytotheuser'srequest.
Withouttheuser'srequest,thecopywouldnotbecreatedandsenttotheuser,andtheallegedinfringementatissueinthiscasewouldnotoccur.
Theautomated,non-volitionalconductbyGoogleinresponsetoauser'srequestdoesnotconstitutedirectinfringementundertheCopyrightAct.
See,e.
g.
,ReligiousTech.
Ctr.
,907F.
Supp.
at1369-70(directinfringementrequiresavolitionalactbydefendant;automatedcopyingbymachinesoccasionedbyothersnotsufficient);CoStarGroup,373F.
3dat555;SegaEnters.
Ltdv.
MAPHIA,948F.
Supp.
923,931-32(N.
D.
Cal.
1996).
Summaryjudgmentofnon-infringementinGoogle'sfavoristhusappropriate.
II.
Google'sDefensesGoogleandFieldhavefiledcross-motionsforsummaryjudgmentwithrespecttovariousdefensesGooglehasassertedtoField'schargeofdirectcopyrightinfringement.
AssumingthatbyallowinguserstoaccessField'scopyrightedworksthroughits"Cached"linksGoogleisengagedindirectcopyrightinfringement,theCourtfindsthatGooglehasestablishedfourdefensestoField'scopyrightinfringementclaim.
A.
ImpliedLicenseAlicenseisadefensetoaclaimofcopyrightinfringement.
SeeEffectsAssocs.
,Inc.
v.
Cohen,908F.
2d555,558-59(9thCir.
1990).
Acopyrightownermaygrantanonexclusivelicenseexpresslyorimpliedlythroughconduct.
Seeid.
(citing3MelvilleB.
Nimmer&DavidNimmer,NimmerOnCopyright§10.
03[A](1989)(hereinafter"Nimmer"));seealsoQuinnv.
CityofDetroit,23F.
Supp.
2d741,749(E.
D.
Mich.
1998).
Animpliedlicensecanbefoundwherethecopyrightholderengagesinconduct"fromwhich[the]other[party]mayproperlyinferthattheownerconsentstohisuse.
"See,e.
g.
,DeForestRadioTel.
&Tel.
Co.
v.
UnitedStates,273U.
S.
236,241(1927)(settingforthrequirementsforanimpliedlicensedefensetoachargeofpatentinfringement).
ConsenttousethecopyrightedworkneednotbemanifestedverballyandmaybeinferredbasedonsilencewherethecopyrightholderknowsoftheuseandCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page11of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-11-encouragesit.
SeeKeaneDealerServs.
,Inc.
v.
Harts,968F.
Supp.
944,947(S.
D.
N.
Y.
1997)("consentgivenintheformofmerepermissionorlackofobjectionisalsoequivalenttoanonexclusivelicense");Quinn,23F.
Supp.
at753.
AccordingtotheundisputedtestimonyofGoogle'sInternetexpert,Dr.
JohnLevine,WebsitepublisherstypicallycommunicatetheirpermissionstoInternetsearchengines(suchasGoogle)using"meta-tags.
"AWebsitepublishercaninstructasearchenginenottocachethepublisher'sWebsitebyusinga"no-archive"meta-tag.
AccordingtoDr.
Levine,the"no-archive"meta-tagisahighlypublicizedandwell-knownindustrystandard.
LevineReport33-37.
Fieldconcedeshewasawareoftheseindustrystandardmechanisms,andknewthatthepresenceofa"noarchive"meta-tagonthepagesofhisWebsitewouldhaveinformedGooglenottodisplay"Cached"linkstohispages.
Despitethisknowledge,Fieldchosenottoincludetheno-archivemeta-tagonthepagesofhissite.
Hedidso,knowingthatGooglewouldinterprettheabsenceofthemeta-tagaspermissiontoallowaccesstothepagesvia"Cached"links.
Thus,withknowledgeofhowGooglewouldusethecopyrightedworksheplacedonthosepages,andwithknowledgethathecouldpreventsuchuse,Fieldinsteadmadeaconsciousdecisiontopermitit.
HisconductisreasonablyinterpretedasthegrantofalicensetoGoogleforthatuse.
See,e.
g.
,Keane,968F.
Supp.
at947(copyrightowner'sknowledgeofdefendant'susecoupledwithowner'ssilenceconstitutedanimpliedlicense);SeealsoLevineReport37(providingtheundisputedexpertopinionthatGooglereasonablyinterpretedabsenceofmeta-tagsaspermissiontopresent"Cached'linkstothepagesofField'ssite).
Accordingly,theCourtgrantsGoogle'smotionthatitisentitledtothedefenseofimpliedlicense,anddeniesField'scross-motionthatthedefenseisinapplicable.
B.
EstoppelAplaintiffisestoppedfromassertingacopyrightclaim"ifhehasaidedthedefendantininfringingorotherwiseinducedittoinfringeorhascommittedcovertactssuchasholdingout.
.
.
bysilenceorinaction.
"SeeQuinn,23F.
Supp.
2dat753(internalquotationmarksomitted,citing4Nimmer§13.
07(1990)).
Toprevailonitsestoppeldefense,Googlemustprovethefollowingfourelements:Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page12of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-12-1.
FieldknewofGoogle'sallegedlyinfringingconduct;2.
FieldintendedthatGooglerelyuponhisconductoractedsothatGooglehadarighttobelieveitwassointended;3.
Googlewasignorantofthetruefacts;and4.
GoogledetrimentallyreliedonField'sconduct.
SeeCarsonv.
Dynegy,Inc.
,344F.
3d446,453(5thCir.
2003)(citing4Nimmer§13.
07(2002)).
Here,allfourelementshavebeenestablishedasamatteroflaw.
First,FieldknewofGoogle'sallegedlyinfringingconductwellbeforeanysupposedinfringementofhisworkstookplace.
FieldconcedesthatheknewthatGooglewouldautomaticallyallowaccesstohisworksthrough"Cached"linkswhenhepostedthemontheInternetunlessheinstructedotherwise.
FieldalsoknewthatifanInternetuserclickedonthe"Cached"linkstohiswebpages,theuserwouldimmediatelydownloadacopyofthosepagesfromGoogle'ssystemcache.
FieldwasawareofstepshecouldtaketoensurethathiswebsitewouldnotbearchivedandnotincludedinGoogle'scache.
ThereisnodisputethatFieldwasawareoftheconductthathechallengesinthislawsuit.
Second,Fieldremainedsilentregardinghisunstateddesirenottohave"Cached"linksprovidedtohisWebsite,andheintendedforGoogletorelyonthissilence.
FieldcouldhaveinformedGooglenottoprovide"Cached"linksbyusinga"noarchive"meta-tagorbyemployingcertaincommandsinrobots.
txtfile.
Instead,FieldchosetoremainsilentknowingthatGooglewouldautomaticallyinterpretthatsilenceaspermissiontodisplay"Cached"links.
Field'ssilence,particularlygivenhisknowledgeoftheconsequencesofthatsilence,satisfiesthesecondestoppelfactor.
Third,GooglewasnotawarethatFielddidnotwishtohaveGoogleprovide"Cached"linkstohisworks.
MacgillivrayDecl.
2.
Fourth,GoogledetrimentallyreliedonField'ssilence.
ItisundisputedthatifGooglehadknownofField'spreference,itwouldnothavepresented"Cached"linkstoField'spages.
SeeMacgillivrayDecl.
2;seealsoO'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
7.
Googlehonorscopyrightholder'srequeststhatitnotdisplay"Cached"linkstotheirpages.
BrougherDecl.
18.
Google'srelianceCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page13of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-13-onField'ssilencewastoitsdetriment.
HadFieldcommunicatedhispreferencestoGoogle,thepartieswouldhaveavoidedthepresentlawsuitentirely.
SeeHadadyCorp.
v.
DeanWitterReynolds,Inc.
,739F.
Supp.
1392,1400(C.
D.
Cal.
1990)(ensuinglitigationestablishesprejudicetodefendant).
BecausetheCourtfindsthatallfourestoppelfactorsarepresentbasedontheundisputedfacts,theCourtgrantsGoogle'smotionforsummaryjudgmentonthedefenseofestoppelanddeniesField'scross-motion.
C.
FairUse"Fairuse"ofacopyrightedwork"isnotaninfringementofcopyright"undertheCopyrightAct.
17U.
S.
C.
§107.
Thefairusedoctrine"createsalimitedprivilegeinthoseotherthantheownerofacopyrighttousethecopyrightedmaterialinareasonablemannerwithouttheowner'sconsent,"Fisherv.
Dees,794F.
2d432,435(9thCir.
1986),and"permitscourtstoavoidrigidapplicationofthecopyrightstatutewhen,onoccasion,itwouldstifletheverycreativitywhichthatlawisdesignedtofoster.
"Dr.
SeussEnters.
,L.
P.
v.
PenguinBooksUSA,Inc.
,109F.
3d1394,1399(9thCir.
1997)(internalquotationmarksomitted).
Inanalyzingwhetheraparticularusequalifiesasa"fairuse,"theCopyrightActdirectsaCourttoanalyzeatleastfourfactors:(1)thepurposeandcharacteroftheuse,includingwhethersuchuseisofacommercialnatureorisfornonprofiteducationalpurposes;(2)thenatureofthecopyrightedwork;(3)theamountandsubstantialityoftheportionusedinrelationtothecopyrightedworkasawhole;and(4)theeffectoftheuseuponthepotentialmarketfororvalueofthecopyrightedwork.
17U.
S.
C.
§107.
TheCourtmust"balancethesefactorsinlightoftheobjectivesofcopyrightlaw,ratherthanviewthemasdefinitiveordeterminativetests.
"SeeKelly,336F.
3dat818.
Whilenoonefactorisdispositive,courtstraditionallyhavegiventhemostweighttothefirstandfourthfactors.
CompareCampbellv.
Acuff-RoseMusic,Inc.
,510U.
S.
569,579(1994)Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page14of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-14-(focusingprimarilyonfirstfactorandwhetheruseistransformative)andLeibovitzv.
ParamountPicturesCorp.
,137F.
3d109,114-15(2dCir.
1998)(affirmingsummaryjudgmentoffairuseforparodybasedprimarilyonthefirstfairusefactor)withHarper&Row,Publishers,Inc.
v.
NationEnters.
,471U.
S.
539,566(1985)("[Thefourth]factorisundoubtedlythesinglemostimportantelementoffairuse.
").
Basedonabalancingoftherelevantfairusefactors,theCourtfindsthattotheextentthatGoogleitselfcopiedordistributedField'scopyrightedworksbyallowingaccesstothemthrough"Cached"links,Googleengagedina"fairuse"ofthosecopyrightedworks.
1.
FactorOne:PurposeandCharacteroftheUse.
a.
TheGoogleSystemCacheServesADifferentPurposeFromThatOfPlaintiff'sOriginalWorksAccordingtotheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt,thefairuseanalysislargelyturnsononequestion:whetherthenew[use]merely"supersedestheobjects"oftheoriginalcreation.
.
.
orinsteadaddssomethingnew,withafurtherpurposeordifferentcharacter,alteringthefirstwithnewexpression,meaning,ormessage;itasks,inotherwords,whetherandtowhatextentthenewworkis"transformative".
.
.
Althoughsuchtransformativeuseisnotabsolutelynecessaryforafindingoffairuse,.
.
.
thegoalofcopyright,topromotescienceandthearts,isgenerallyfurtheredbythecreationoftransformativeworks.
SeeCampbell,510U.
S.
at579(citationsomitted).
IntheseminalcaseofKellyv.
ArribaSoftCorp.
,theNinthCircuitdeterminedthatasearchengine'suseofcopyrightedphotographswasatransformativefairusebasedonthefactthatthesearchengineusedthephotographsinquestionto"improv[e]accesstoinformationontheinternet"whiletheoriginalfunctionoftheworkinquestionwasartistic.
Kelly,336F.
3dat819.
AssumingthatFieldintendedhiscopyrightedworkstoserveanartisticfunctiontoenrichandentertainothersasheclaims,Google'spresentationof"Cached"linkstothecopyrightedworksatissueheredoesnotservethesamefunctions.
Foravarietyofreasons,the"Cached"links"add[]somethingnew"anddonotmerelysupersedetheoriginalwork.
First,Google'scachefunctionalityenablesuserstoaccesscontentwhentheoriginalpageisinaccessible.
TheInternetisrepletewithreferencesfromacademics,researchers,journalists,Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page15of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-15-andsiteownerspraisingGoogle'scacheforthisreason.
Inthesecircumstances,Google'sarchivalcopyofaworkobviouslydoesnotsubstitutefortheoriginal.
Instead,Google's"Cached"linksallowuserstolocateandaccessinformationthatisotherwiseinaccessible.
SeeKelly,336F.
3dat820(findingsearchengine'suseofcopyrightedmaterialtransformativeinpartbecauseit"benefit[ted]thepublicbyenhancinginformation-gatheringtechniquesontheinternet").
Second,providing"Cached"linksallowsInternetuserstodetectchangesthathavebeenmadetoaparticularWebpageovertime.
See,e.
g.
,LevineReport20.
Suchcomparisonscanrevealsignificantdifferencesthathavepolitical,educational,legalorotherramifications.
Again,bydefinition,thisinformationlocationfunctioncannotbeservedbytheoriginalWebpagealone.
Toconductsuchacomparison,auserwouldneedtoaccessbothGoogle'sarchivalcopyofaWebpageandthecurrentformoftheWebpageontheInternet.
Seeid.
22.
Third,offering"Cached"linksallowsuserstounderstandwhyapagewasresponsivetotheiroriginalquery.
Itisoftendifficultforuserstolocatetheirquerytermswithinagivenpage,andmaybeimpossiblewherethelanguageofapagehasbeenmodified.
Becauseitcontrolsitsarchivalcopy,Googlecanautomaticallyhighlighttheuser'squeryinthecopythattheuserthenretrieves.
See,e.
g.
,LevineReport17;BrougherDecl.
12,16.
Byaffordingaccesstoapagewithinitscache,Googleenablesuserstodeterminewhetherandwheretherelevantlanguageappears,andthuswhetherthepageistrulygermanetotheirinquiry.
Theobjectiveofenablinguserstomorequicklyfindandaccesstheinformationtheyaresearchingforisnotservedbytheoriginalpage.
SeeKelly,336F.
3dat820.
Fourth,Googleutilizesseveraldesignfeaturestomakeclearthatitdoesnotintenda"Cached"linkofapagetosubstituteforavisittotheoriginalpage.
Initssearchresults,atthetopofeachlisting,GoogleprominentlyfeaturesalinktotheoriginalWebpage.
Bycontrast,when"Cached"linksaredisplayed,theyareinasmallerfont,andinalessconspicuouslocation.
Further,afterauserclicksona"Cached"link,heseesaprominentdisclaimeratthetopofthepageexplainingthatheisonlyviewingasnapshotofthepagefromGoogle'scache.
SeeBrougherDecl.
12("Google'scacheisthesnapshotthatwetookofthepageaswecrawledtheCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page16of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-16-web.
Thepagemayhavechangedsincethattime.
").
Thedisclaimeralsoincludestwoseparatelinksawayfromthearchivalcopyandtotheoriginal,currentpage.
Accordingly,anyuserseekingtoaccesstheoriginalpagehasmorethanampleopportunitytodoso.
ThereisnoevidenceintherecordthatInternetusersaccessedthepagescontainingField'sworksviaGoogle's"Cached"linksinlieuofvisitingthosepagesdirectly.
Cf.
LevineReport23("[P]eopleusetheGooglesystemcacheasacomplementtoandnotasubstitutefortheoriginal.
")Fifth,Googleensuresthatanysiteownercandisablethecachefunctionalityforanyofthepagesonitssiteinamatterofseconds.
See,e.
g.
,BrougherDecl.
21.
Thus,siteowners,andnotGoogle,controlwhether"Cached"linkswillappearfortheirpages.
ThefactthattheownersofbillionsofWebpageschoosetopermittheselinkstoremainisfurtherevidencethattheydonotviewGoogle'scacheasasubstitutefortheirownpages.
BecauseGoogleservesdifferentandsociallyimportantpurposesinofferingaccesstocopyrightedworksthrough"Cached"linksanddoesnotmerelysupersedetheobjectivesoftheoriginalcreations,theCourtconcludesthatGoogle'sallegedcopyinganddistributionofField'sWebpagescontainingcopyrightedworkswastransformative.
b.
Google'sStatusasaCommercialEnterpriseDoesNotNegateFairUseWhenauseisfoundtobetransformative,the"commercial"natureoftheuseisoflessimportanceinanalyzingthefirstfairusefactor.
SeeCampbell,510U.
S.
at579("[Transformative]worksthuslieattheheartofthefairusedoctrine'sguaranteeofbreathingspacewithintheconfinesofcopyright,.
.
.
andthemoretransformativethenewwork,thelesswillbethesignificanceofotherfactors,likecommercialism,thatmayweighagainstafindingoffairuse.
").
Kelly,336F.
3at818(citationomitted).
WhileGoogleisafor-profitcorporation,thereisnoevidenceGoogleprofitedinanywaybytheuseofanyofField'sworks.
Rather,Field'sworkswereamongbillionsofworksinGoogle'sdatabase.
See,e.
g.
,LevineReport13;BrougherDecl.
3(notingthattherearebillionsofWebpagesintheGoogleindex).
Moreover,whenauseraccessesapageviaGoogle's"Cached"links,GoogledisplaysnoadvertisingtotheCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page17of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-17-user,anddoesnototherwiseofferacommercialtransactiontotheuser.
SeeBrougherDecl.
13;seealsoO'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
8(screencaptureshowingthattherewasnoGoogleadvertisinginGoogle'scachecopyofField'sWebpages).
ThefactthatGoogleisacommercialoperationisofonlyminorrelevanceinthefairuseanalysis.
ThetransformativepurposeofGoogle'suseisconsiderablymoreimportant,and,asinKelly,meansthefirstfactoroftheanalysisweighsheavilyinfavorofafairusefinding.
2.
FactorTwo:TheNatureoftheCopyrightedWorksThesecondfairusefactorlookstothenatureoftheplaintiff'swork.
Whendealingwithtransformativeuses,thisfactorhasbeendescribedas"not.
.
.
terriblysignificantintheoverallfairusebalancing"(seeMattelInc.
v.
WalkingMountainsProds.
,353F.
3d792,803(9thCir.
2003))and"notmuchhelp"(seeCampbell,510U.
S.
at586).
TheNinthCircuitinKellyruledthatthisfactorweighedslightlyinfavoroftheplaintiffwherethecopyrightedphotographsatissuewere"creative.
"However,theCourtalsonotedthatthephotographshadbeenmadeavailabletotheworldforfreeontheplaintiff'sownWebsite.
SeeKelly,336F.
3dat820;seealsoDiamondv.
Am-LawPubl'gCorp.
,745F.
2d142(2dCir.
1984)(findingfairuseforalettertotheeditorthatwaspublishedinamodifiedform);Salingerv.
RandomHouse,Inc.
,811F.
2d90,95(2dCir.
1987)(describingDiamondas"applyingfairusetoalettertotheeditorofanewspaper,which,thoughnotpreviouslyprinted,wasobviouslyintendedfordissemination").
EvenassumingField'scopyrightedworksareascreativeastheworksatissueinKelly,likeKelly,FieldpublishedhisworksontheInternet,therebymakingthemavailabletotheworldforfreeathisWebsite.
SeeFirstAm.
Compl.
8,10;seealsoFieldDep.
at94:10-19.
Moreover,Fieldaddeda"robots.
txt"filetohissitetoensurethatallsearchengineswouldincludehisWebsiteintheirsearchlistings.
Fieldthussoughttomakehisworksavailabletothewidestpossibleaudienceforfree.
Accordingly,assumingtheworksatissuearecreative,asinKelly,the"nature"oftheworksweighsonlyslightlyinField'sfavor.
3.
FactorThree:TheAmountandSubstantialityoftheUseThethirdfairusefactorlooksattheamountoftheworkused.
TheSupremeCourthasmadeclearthatevencopyingofentireworksshouldnotweighagainstafairusefindingwhereCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page18of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-18-thenewuseservesadifferentfunctionfromtheoriginal,andtheoriginalworkcanbeviewedbyanyonefreeofcharge:[W]henoneconsidersthenatureofatelevisedcopyrightedaudiovisualwork.
.
.
andthattimeshiftingmerelyenablesaviewertoseesuchaworkwhichhehadbeeninvitedtowitnessinitsentiretyfreeofcharge,thefactthattheentireworkisreproduced.
.
.
doesnothaveitsordinaryeffectofmilitatingagainstafindingoffairuse.
SeeSonyCorp.
v.
UniversalCityStudios,Inc.
,464U.
S.
417,449-50(1984)(emphasisadded;citationsomitted)(affirmingasafairusethe"timeshifting"ofentiretelevisionshows).
Similarly,theNinthCircuithasheldthat"theextentofpermissiblecopyingvarieswiththepurposeandcharacteroftheuse"andthat"[i]fthesecondaryuseronlycopiesasmuchasisnecessaryforhisorherintendeduse,thenthisfactorwillnotweighagainsthimorher.
"SeeKelly,336F.
3dat820-21.
TheNinthCircuitinKellythusconcludedthatthesearchengine'suseofentirephotographswasofnosignificance:Thisfactorneitherweighsfornoragainsteitherpartybecause,althoughArribadidcopyeachofKelly'simagesasawhole,itwasreasonabletodosoinlightofArriba'suseoftheimages.
ItwasnecessaryforArribatocopytheentireimagetoallowuserstorecognizetheimageanddecidewhethertopursuemoreinformationabouttheimageortheoriginatingwebsite.
IfArribaonlycopiedpartoftheimage,itwouldbemoredifficulttoidentifyit,therebyreducingtheusefulnessofthevisualsearchengine.
See336F.
3dat821;seealsoMattel,353F.
3dat803n.
8(holdingthat"entireverbatimreproductionsarejustifiablewherethepurposeoftheworkdiffersfromtheoriginal").
JustlikethebroadcastersinSonyandthephotographerinKelly,Fieldmadehiscontentavailabletoanyone,freeofcharge.
AlsolikethefairusesinSonyandKelly,Google'suseofentireWebpagesinitsCachedlinksservesmultipletransformativeandsociallyvaluablepurposes.
ThesepurposescouldnotbeeffectivelyaccomplishedbyusingonlyportionsoftheWebpages.
WithoutallowingaccesstothewholeofaWebpage,theGoogleCachedlinkcannotassistWebusers(andcontentowners)byofferingaccesstopagesthatareotherwiseunavailable.
NorcoulduseoflessthanthewholepageassistinthearchivalorcomparativepurposesofGoogle's"Cached"links.
Finally,Google'sofferingofhighlightedsearchtermsincachedcopiesofWebpageswouldnotallowuserstounderstandwhyaWebpagewasdeemedgermaneiflessthanthewholeWebpagewereprovided.
SeeBrougherDecl.
14-16;seealsoLevineCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page19of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FieldcontendsthatGoogle'scachingfunctionalityharmedthemarketforhisworksby9deprivinghimofrevenuehecouldhaveobtainedbylicensingGoogletherighttopresent"Cached"linksforthepagescontaininghisworks.
Underthisview,themarketforacopyrightedworkisalwaysharmedbythefairuseoftheworkbecauseitdeprivesthecopyrightholderoftherevenueitcouldhaveobtainedbylicensingthatveryuse.
TheSupremeCourthasexplainedthatthefourthfairusefactorisnotconcernedwithsuchsyllogisms.
Instead,itonlyconsiderstheimpactonmarkets"thatcreatorsoforiginalworkswouldingeneraldeveloporlicenseotherstodevelop.
"SeeCampbell,510U.
S.
at592;cf.
ReligiousTech.
Ctr.
,907F.
Supp.
at1378n.
25(suggestingfairusewhereunlikelytobemarketforlicensingthetemporarycopyingofdigitalworks).
Wherethereisnolikelymarketforthechallengeduseoftheplaintiff'sworks,thefourthfairusefactorfavorsthedefendant.
SeeMattel,353F.
3dat806.
FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-19-Report15-20.
BecauseGoogleusesnomoreoftheworksthanisnecessaryinallowingaccesstothemthrough"Cached"links,thethirdfairusefactorisneutral,despitethefactthatGoogleallowedaccesstotheentiretyofField'sworks.
SeeSony,464U.
S.
at448;Kelly,336F.
2dat821.
4.
FactorFour:TheEffectoftheUseuponthePotentialMarketfororValueoftheCopyrightedWorkThefourthfairusefactorconsiderstheeffectofthedefendant'suseuponthepotentialmarketfortheplaintiff'swork.
"[A]usethathasnodemonstrableeffectuponthepotentialmarketfor,orthevalueof,thecopyrightedworkneednotbeprohibitedinordertoprotecttheauthor'sincentivetocreate.
"SeeSony,464U.
S.
at450.
HerethereisnoevidenceofanymarketforField'sworks.
Fieldmakestheworksavailabletothepublicforfreeintheirentirety,andadmitsthathehasneverreceivedanycompensationfromsellingorlicensingthem.
SeeFieldDep.
at132:10-17.
Thereislikewisenoevidencethatbydisplaying"Cached"linksforpagesfromField'ssite,Googlehadanyimpactonanypotentialmarketforthoseworks.
9Moregenerally,thereisnoevidencebeforetheCourtofanymarketforlicensingsearchenginestherighttoallowaccesstoWebpagesthrough"Cached"links,orevidencethatoneislikelytodevelop.
"Cached"linksaresimplyonewaythatsearchenginesenableend-userstoobtaininformationthatsiteownersmakefreelyavailabletotheworld.
Thereiscompellingevidencethatsiteownerswouldnotdemandpaymentforthisuseoftheirworks.
NotwithstandingGoogle'slong-standingdisplayof"Cached"linksandthewell-knownindustryCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page20of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-20-standardprotocolsforinstructingsearchenginesnottodisplaythem,theownersofliterallybillionsofWebpageschoosetopermitsuchlinkstobedisplayed.
See,e.
g.
,BrougherDecl.
18-22.
SophisticatedInternetpublisherssuchasthoseoperatingWebsitesforDisney,SportsIllustrated,AmericaOnline,ESPNandReaders'Digestallpermitthedisplayof"Cached"linkstothepagesoftheirsitesthoughtheycouldeasilypreventit.
Seeid.
26.
BecausethereisnoevidencethatGoogle's"Cached"linkshadanyimpactonthepotentialmarketforField'scopyrightedworks,thefourthfairusefactorweighsstronglyinfavorofafairusedetermination.
SeeKelly,336F.
3dat821-22.
5.
AdditionalFactor:Google'sGoodFaithinOperatingItsSystemCacheWeighsInFavorOfFairUseTheCopyrightActauthorizescourtstoconsiderotherfactorsthanthefournon-exclusivefactorsdiscussedabove.
See17U.
S.
C.
§107(notingcourtistoconsiderfactorsincludingfourspecificallylisted).
Inparticular,theNinthCircuithasstatedthatcourtsmayevaluatewhetheranallegedcopyrightinfringerhasactedingoodfaithaspartofafairuseinquiry.
SeeFisher,794F.
2dat436-37("Because'fairusepresupposes"goodfaith"and"fairdealing,"'courtsmayweighthe'proprietyofthedefendant'sconduct'intheequitablebalanceofafairusedetermination.
")(citationomitted).
ThefactthatGooglehasactedingoodfaithinproviding"Cached"linkstoWebpageslendsadditionalsupportfortheCourt'sfairusefinding.
Googledoesnotprovide"Cached"linkstoanypageiftheownerofthatpagedoesnotwantthemtoappear.
Googlehonorsindustry-standardprotocolsthatsiteownersusetoinstructsearchenginesnottoprovide"Cached"linksforthepagesoftheirsites.
See,e.
g.
,BrougherDecl.
18-22.
GooglealsoprovidesanexplanationonitsWebsiteofhowtodeploytheseindustry-standardinstructions,andprovidesanautomatedmechanismforpromptlyremoving"Cached"linksfromGoogle'ssearchresultsifthelinkseverappear.
Seeid.
;seealsoO'CallaghanDecl.
Ex.
5.
Moreover,GoogletakesstepstoensurethatusersseekinganoriginalWebpagethroughGoogle'ssearchenginecaneasilyaccessit,andthatanyuserviewingapagefromGoogle'scacheknowsthatitisnottheoriginal.
Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page21of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-21-Google'sgoodfaithismanifestwithrespecttoField'sworksinparticular.
FielddidnotincludeanyinformationonthepagesofhissitetoinstructGooglenottoprovide"Cached"linkstothosepages.
GoogleonlylearnedthatFieldobjectedtothe"Cached"linksbyvirtueofdiscoveringField'sComplaintinthislitigation.
Atthetime,FieldhadnotevenservedtheComplaint.
Nevertheless,withoutbeingasked,Googlepromptlyremovedthe"Cached"linkstothepagesofField'ssite.
SeeMacgillivrayDecl.
2.
Field'sownconductstandsinmarkedcontrasttoGoogle'sgoodfaith.
FieldtookavarietyofaffirmativestepstogethisworksincludedinGoogle'ssearchresults,whereheknewtheywouldbedisplayedwith"Cached"linkstoGoogle'sarchivalcopyandhedeliberatelyignoredtheprotocolsthatwouldhaveinstructedGooglenottopresent"Cached"links.
ComparingField'sconductwithGoogle'sprovidesfurtherweighttothescalesinfavorofafindingoffairuse.
SeeCampbell,510U.
S.
at585n.
18;BillGrahamArchivesLLCv.
DorlingKindersleyLtd.
,75U.
S.
P.
Q.
2d1192,1199-1200(S.
D.
N.
Y.
May11,2005)(grantingsummaryjudgmentoffairusebasedinpartondefendant'sgoodfaith).
Insummary,thefirstfairusefactorweighsheavilyinGoogle'sfavorbecauseits"Cached"linksarehighlytransformative.
ThesecondfairusefactorweighsonlyslightlyagainstfairusebecauseFieldmadehisworksavailableintheirentiretyforfreetothewidestpossibleaudience.
Thethirdfairusefactorisneutral,asGoogleusednomoreofthecopyrightedworksthanwasnecessarytoserveitstransformativepurposes.
ThefourthfairusefactorcutsstronglyinfavoroffairuseintheabsenceofanyevidenceofanimpactonapotentialmarketforField'scopyrightedworks.
Afifthfactor,acomparisonoftheequities,likewisefavorsfairuse.
AbalanceofallofthesefactorsdemonstratesthatifGooglecopiesordistributesField'scopyrightedworksbyallowingaccesstothemthrough"Cached"links,Google'sconductisfairuseofthoseworksasamatteroflaw.
III.
DigitalMillenniumCopyrightActInhismotionforsummaryjudgment,FieldaskedtheCourttoholdthatGoogleisnotentitledtotheprotectionsoftheDMCA,17U.
S.
C.
Sections512(a)-(d),aseriesofcopyrightsafeharborsforonlineserviceproviders.
GoogleopposedthemotionandatthehearingontheCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page22of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-22-parties'cross-motionsforsummaryjudgment,madeanoralcross-motionforpartialsummaryjudgmentinitsfavorbaseduponSection512(b)oftheDMCA.
Field'smotionforsummaryjudgmentwithrespecttoSections512(a),(c)and(d)isnotproperlypresented.
FielddoesnotdiscussthesesafeharborsorexplainwhyhebelievesthatGooglecannotrelyuponthem.
Field'smotionthusdoesnotsatisfythebasicrequirementofRule56,thatheshowthatthereis"nogenuineissue[of]materialfactandthat[Field]isentitledtojudgmentasamatteroflaw.
"SeeFed.
R.
Civ.
P.
56(c);NissanFire&MarineIns.
Co.
v.
FritzCos.
,210F.
3d1099,1102(9thCir.
2000)("Inordertocarryitsburdenofproduction,themovingpartymusteitherproduceevidencenegatinganessentialelementofthenonmovingparty'sclaimordefenseorshowthatthenonmovingpartydoesnothaveenoughevidenceofanessentialelementtocarryitsultimateburdenofpersuasionattrial.
").
Accordingly,Field'smotionwithrespecttothesesafeharborsisdenied.
ThesafeharborofSection512(b)isdirectedtosystemcachesandstatesthat"[a]serviceprovidershallnotbeliableformonetaryrelief.
.
.
forinfringementofcopyrightbyreasonoftheintermediateandtemporarystorageofmaterialonasystemornetworkcontrolledoroperatedbyorfortheserviceprovider"providedcertainrequirementsaremet.
See17U.
S.
C.
§512(b)(1).
Fieldcontendsthatthreeelementsofthesafeharboraremissing.
First,Fieldcontendsthatinoperatingitscache,Googledoesnotmake"intermediateandtemporarystorageofthatmaterial"asrequiredbySection512(b)(1).
Fieldisincorrect.
SeeEllisonv.
Robertson,357F.
3d1072,1081(9thCir.
2004)(AOL'sstorageofonlinepostingsfor14dayswas"intermediate"and"transient"forpurposesofSection512(a)).
InEllison,acaseinvolvingtheSection512(a)safeharbor,plaintiffsoughttoholdAmericaOnline("AOL")liableforcopyrightinfringementforhostingandallowingenduserstoaccesscopyrightedmaterialsthathadbeenpostedbythirdpartiestoasystemofonlinebulletinboardsknownastheUsenet.
Id.
at1075-76.
AOLstoredandalloweduserstoaccesstheseUsenetpostingsforapproximately14days.
Id.
CitingtheDMCA'slegislativehistory,theNinthCircuitfoundthatAOL'sstorageofthematerialswasboth"intermediate"and"transient"asrequiredbySection512(a).
Id.
at1081.
LikeAOL'srepositoryofUsenetpostingsinEllisonwhichoperatedbetweentheCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page23of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-23-individualspostinginformationandtheusersrequestingit,Google'scacheisarepositoryofmaterialthatoperatesbetweentheindividualpostingtheinformation,andtheend-userrequestingit.
Further,thecopyofWebpagesthatGooglestoresinitscacheispresentforapproximately14to20days.
SeeBrougherDep.
at68:19-69:2(Googlecachesinformationforapproximately14to20days).
TheCourtfindsthatGoogle'scacheforapproximately14to20days–likethe14daysdeemed"transientstorage"inEllison–is"temporary"underSection512(b)oftheDMCA.
TheCourtthusconcludesthatGooglemakes"intermediateandtemporarystorage"ofthematerialstoredinitscache,withinthemeaningoftheDMCA.
See,e.
g.
,Gustafsov.
AlloydCo.
,513U.
S.
561,570(1995)("identicalwordsusedindifferentpartsofthesameactareintendedtohavethesamemeaning").
FieldnextclaimsthatGoogle'scachedoesnotsatisfytherequirementsofSection512(b)(1)(B).
Section512(b)(1)(B)requiresthatthematerialinquestionbetransmittedfromthepersonwhomakesitavailableonline,hereField,toapersonotherthanhimself,atthedirectionoftheotherperson.
Fieldtransmittedthematerialinquestion,thepagesofhisWebsite,toGoogle'sGooglebotatGoogle'srequest.
GoogleisapersonotherthanField.
Thus,Google'scachemeetstherequirementofSection512(b)(1)(B).
Finally,FieldcontendsthatGoogle'scachedoesnotfullysatisfytherequirementsofSection512(b)(1)(C).
Section512(b)(1)(C)requiresthatGoogle'sstorageofWebpagesbecarriedoutthrough"anautomat[ed]technicalprocess"andbe"forthepurposeofmakingthematerialavailabletousers.
.
.
who.
.
.
requestaccesstothematerialfrom[theoriginatingsite].
"ThereisnodisputethatGoogle'sstorageiscarriedoutthroughanautomatedtechnicalprocess.
SeeFirstAm.
Compl.
19(Fieldstatingthat"[t]hird-partywebpagecontentisaddedtotheGooglecachebyanautomatedsoftwareprocess.
");seealsoBrougherDecl.
4-5(discussingautomatedtechnicalprocess).
ThereislikewisenodisputethatoneofGoogle'sprincipalpurposesinincludingWebpagesinitscacheistoenablesubsequentuserstoaccessthosepagesiftheyareunsuccessfulinrequestingthematerialsfromtheoriginatingsiteforwhateverreason.
SeeBrougherDecl.
14;LevineReport18-19.
Google'scachethusmeetstherequirementsofSection512(b)(1)(C).
Case2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page24of2512345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728FINDINGSOFFACTANDCONCLUSIONSOFLAW-24-BecauseGooglehasestablishedthepresenceofthedisputedelementsofSection512(b)asamatteroflaw,Field'smotionforsummaryjudgmentthatGoogleisineligiblefortheSection512(b)safeharborisdenied.
ThereisnodisputebetweenthepartieswithrespecttoanyoftheotherrequirementsofSection512(b).
Accordingly,Google'smotionforpartialsummaryjudgmentthatitqualifiesfortheSection512(b)safeharborisgranted.
ORDERForalltheforegoingreasons,theCourthereby:(1)GRANTSGoogle'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentofnon-infringementandDENIESField'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentofInfringement;(2)GRANTSGoogle'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentbasedonanimpliedlicenseandDENIESField'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentthatthelicensedefensedoesnotapply;(3)GRANTSGoogle'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentbasedonestoppelandDENIESField'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentthattheestoppeldefensedoesnotapply;(4)GRANTSGoogle'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentbasedonfairuseandDENIESField'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentthatthefairusedoctrinedoesnotapply;(5)GRANTSGoogle'sMotionforPartialSummaryJudgmentbasedonSection512(b)oftheDMCAandDENIESField'sMotionforSummaryJudgmentthattheDMCAsafeharborsdonotapply.
SOORDERED.
Dated:January12,2006TheHonorableRobertC.
JonesUnitedStatesDistrictCourtJudgeCase2:04-cv-00413-RCJ-GWFDocument64Filed01/19/2006Page25of25