subjectinglick

InternationalJournalofResearchonService-LearningandCommunityEngagementVolume4Issue1|2016|ISSN:2374-9466|http://journals.
sfu.
ca/iarslceService-LearningandUndergraduates:ExploringConnectionsBetweenAmbiguityTolerance,Empathy,andMotivationinanOverseasServiceTripSarahE.
StanlickThomasC.
HammondLehighUniversityAsservice-learningbecomesmorecommoninundergraduateeducation,furtherresearchisneededaroundassessingstudentlearningoutcomesandcharacterdevelopment.
Onecomponentofhigh-qualityservice-learningiswrittenreflection,whichhasthepotentialtocaptureawealthofdataonlearnercharacteristics.
Thisstudyevaluatedlearners'behaviorandmotivationtoparticipateinservicetrips,thedevelopmentofpersonalitycharacteristics,andtherevelationofthosecharacteristicsinreflectionusingWinneandHadwin's1998modeloftheself-regulatedlearnerasitrelatestotheservice-learningcontext.
Researchersanalyzedconnectionsbetweenlearnerexperiencesandchangesintheirambiguitytolerance,empathy,andmotivationviapre-andposttestsurveysandreflectiondata.
Relationshipswereidentifiedbetweenmotivationandsatisfaction,aswellasfrequencyofreflectionandpersonalchange.
Theauthoroffersaprofileofan"optimal"overseasservice-learnerforconsideration.
Keywords:service-learning,globalcitizenship,ambiguity,studentoutcomes,empathyService-learningisawidespreadcurriculartoolusedinsecondaryandpostsecondaryeducationalsettingsthroughouttheUnitedStates(Bringle,Clayton,&Hatcher,2013;Jagla,2008;Wade,2008).
Indeed,service-learningprogramminginpublichighschoolsincreasedfrom27%in1984toover80%by1999(Kleiner&Chapman,1999).
Similarly,CampusCompact(2016)listsitsmembershipatnearly1,100collegesanduniversitiesthatascribetothemissionandvisionofdevelopingcommunityandstudentcapacityforcivicandsocialresponsibility—centraltenetsofservice-learningpedagogy.
Service-learningcanservemultiple,diversefunctions.
Itcanbeanexerciseindemocraticparticipation(Battistoni,2000),acultivatorofglobalcitizenshipperspectives(Perry,Stoner,&Tarrant,2012),oranapplicationofcontentknowledgein,forinstance,anengineeringcapstonecoursethatservesacommunitypartner(Bielefeldtetal.
,2011).
Service-learningcanhelptodevelopskills,transformperspectives,andcreatecriticalself-awareness.
Developmentalcommonalities,however,areconsistentsinceservice-learningcanfosterpositiveemotionalandcognitivegrowthinstudentsacrosscontexts,inavarietyofsettingsandatmultiplelevels(Eyler,2000;Steinke&Fitch,2014).
Learnersencounterquestionsofsocialjustice,undergocharacterdevelopment,buildagency,experienceempowerment,andengageinlearninginawaythatrelatestotheirownexperienceandunderstandings(Einfeld&Collins,2008;Wade&Saxe,1996).
Forcommunitymembers,service-learningprojectscanformorstrengthenpartnershipsforimprovingprogramming,structures,andqualityoflife(Reeb&Folger,2013).
Service-learningisdistinctfrompurecommunityservice,whichtypicallycomprisesanextracurricularendeavorthatlacksthereflectivecomponentnecessarytodeepenlearningexperiences(Vogelgesang&Astin,2000).
TheNationalandCommunityServiceActof1990gaveanopen-ended,experiential,butalsomoreexplicitlyconnecteddefinitiontolearninganddevelopment.
Theystatethatitisamethod"underwhichstudentsorparticipantslearnanddevelopthroughactiveparticipationinthoughtfullyorganizedservice(p.
5)"thathasacademicintegrationandtimeforreflection.
ThemostrecentandarguablymostaccepteddefinitionwasofferedbyBringle,Clayton,andHatcher(2013),whodescribedservice-learningas:Stanlick,etal.
/Ambiguity,Empathy,MotivationOverseas|274acomponentofcivicengagement[that]canbedefinedasacourseorcompetency-based,credit-bearingeducationalexperienceinwhichstudents:(a)participateinmutuallyidentifiedserviceactivitiesthatbenefitthecommunity,and(b)reflectontheserviceactivityinsuchawayastogainfurtherunderstandingofcoursecontent,abroaderappreciationofthediscipline,andanenhancedsenseofpersonalvaluesandcivicresponsibility.
(p.
338)Thecommonthreadconnectingthesedefinitionsisthatservice-learningisanexercisethatisintentionalandsystematic,withlearnersgainingnewknowledgeaboutthemselvesandtheirworldthroughaserviceexperience(orexperiences)infield-basedsettings.
Service-learningcantakemanyforms,buthigh-qualityservice-learningexperiencesaremarkedbyacombinationofintegratedlearning,communityservice,collaborativedevelopmentandmanagement,civicengagement,contemplation,andevaluationanddisclosure(Smithetal.
,2011).
Throughservice-learning,studentsapplycurricularknowledgeinreal-worldsettingstoopenupaworldofknowledgeandinsightbeyondtheskillsofthecareer(Smithatal.
,2011).
Inadditiontomeetingacademicobjectives,service-learningcanalsoaddresscharactereducationaroundmulticulturalismandcross-culturalcommunicationcompetency(O'Grady,2014).
Thecontemplation,evaluation,anddisclosureaspectsofservice-learningallrepresentreflectiveprocesseswiththeintentofdevelopingboththeidentityandself-efficacyoflearners.
Service-learningpromotesindividuallearnerdevelopmentthroughreflectionandself-awareness,includingbuildingcapacityforself-authorshipandagency(Jones&Abes,2004).
Forundergraduatestudentsinapost-adolescentstage,establishingidentity,purpose,andindependenceareallkeymotivatorsforlearningandcharacterdevelopment(Chickering,1964;Chickering&Reisser,1993;Torres,Jones,&Renn,2009).
Thus,service-learningmeetstheneedsofadiversesetoflearners,andeachdevelopmentalexperienceisuniquelycapturedthroughreflection(Hatcher,Bringle,&Muthiah,2004).
StatementoftheProblemManyservice-learningstudiesframetheiranalyseswithcognitiveoutcomessuchascontentknowledgeandintellectualdevelopment—forexample,students'understandingofmathematics,publicpolicy,orsocialjustice(Bradford,2005;Mitchell,2014,2012;Simonsetal.
,2010).
Thisfocusonservice-learning'scognitiveoutcomesmustbepairedwithanexaminationofitsimpactonstudentdevelopment(Reeb&Folger,2013).
Thisstudywasrootedintheoriesofself-directedlearning(Winne,2001;Winne&Hadwin,1998)andpost-adolescentidentitydevelopment(Chickering,1964;Chickering&Reisser,1993).
Byapplyingthesetwoframeworkstoindividuallearnerexperiences,thestudysoughttodescribeservicelearners'behaviorsinanefforttobetterunderstandtheirmotivation,attitudes,andpersonaldevelopment.
Thereisalsosignificanceinunderstandingstudentexperiencesinthecontextofshort-termservice-learningabroad.
Specifically,Perry,Stoner,andTarrant(2012)calledforfurtherstudyintoshort-termstudyabroadtounderstandlearneroutcomesinrelationtoperspectivedevelopmentandglobalcitizenship.
Inaddition,theusefulnessandlearneroutcomesofshort-termstudyabroadhavebeenquestionedinservice-learningliteratureinfieldssuchasenvironmentalstudies(Tarrant&Lyons,2012).
ATheoreticalFrameworkforService-LearnersForthisstudy,weusedacombinationofframeworkstooperationalizetheactionsofinstitutionalstakeholdersandindividualservice-learnersataprivateuniversityinthenortheasternUnitedStatesduringaservice-learningexperienceinadevelopingnation.
Todescribetheuniversity'sintendedcurriculumforservice-learners,weappliedChickering's(1964)theoryofidentitydevelopmenttoanexperientialeducationprocess(i.
e.
,theservice-learningexperience).
Todescribethestudents'activitiesduringandaftertheservice-learningexperience,weappliedWinneandHadwin's(1998)modeloftheself-regulatinglearner.
|InternationalJournalofResearchonService-LearningandCommunityEngagement275Post-SecondaryStudentDevelopmentChickering(1964,1993)outlinedsevenvectorsforpostsecondary,late-adolescentlearnerdevelopment:developingautonomyandindependence,managingemotions,developingcompetence,developinginterpersonalrelationships,establishingidentity,developingpurpose,anddevelopingintegrity.
Aftera10-yearstudyofcollegeundergraduates'identitydevelopmentfromtheirsophomoretosenioryears,Chickeringcreatedacomprehensivemodelofsevenvectorsforstudentdevelopmentforotherinstitutionstouseinenhancingtheirunderstandingofdevelopmentbeyondtheclassroominhighereducation.
Institutionsofhighereducationhaveembracedthismodelofthepostsecondarylearner,applyingitinavarietyofcontextsfromfirst-yearleadershipprogrammingtointerpersonalskillstrainingforundergraduatenursingstudents(Ross,2010;Salisbury,Pascarella,Padgett,&Blaich,2012).
Chickering'sworkhasinformedmyriadstudiesoverthelast30years,includingattritionincommunitycollegeonlinecourses,adevelopmentprocessrelatedtotransgenderundergraduates,andcivicengagementaroundreligionandidentitydevelopment(Droege&Ferrari,2012;Dugan,Kusel,&Simounet,2012;Tirrell&Quick,2012).
ExperientiallearningisaparticularlypowerfulvehiclefordevelopingthesevenvectorsidentifiedbyChickering(1964,1993).
Indeed,experientiallearning,longbeenahallmarkincertainfieldsofhighereducation(e.
g.
,engineeringco-ops,nursingclinicalrotations,teachingplacements,etc.
),andChickering'smodelhasspreadtootherfields,fromlibrarystudiestocomputerscience(Matusiak&Hu,2012;Walton,2012).
EvolvingfromtheworkofDewey(1916)andKolb(1984),experientiallearningtheorystatesthatknowledgeemergesfromamulti-stepprocess:First,alearnerhasanexperience(e.
g.
,aserviceepisode)orisexposedtoinformationoracontextthatisdisorientinginpreparationforsaidexperience;second,thelearnerreflectsuponit;finally,thelearnermakesconnectionsand/orappliestheknowledgethroughassignments,writing,orotherformsofexpression.
Thetransformationofexperienceintolearningtakesplacethroughreflectiveobservationandactiveexperimentation(Kolb,1984;Kolb,Boyatzis&Mainemelis,2000).
Accountingfortheimportanceoflearner-centeredassessment,reflectiveassignmentsareusedtounderstandthelearner'sprocessingoftheexperienceandgrowth(Webber,2012).
Reflectionisthemostcommon—andperhapsmosteffective—assessmentforservice-learning,asitcapturestheuniqueprocessingofeachindividualexperienceinadeep,qualitativemanner(Bringle,Clayton,&Bringle,2015;Eyler,2002;Hatcher,Bringle,&Muthiah,2004).
Further,criticalreflection—anintentionalprocessofelaboratingmeaningperspectivesandactively,persistentlyreviewingpastbeliefsandknowledge—canbeusedinformativeandsummativewaystoassesslearnerdevelopment(Dewey,1933;Jameson,Clayton,&Ash,2012;Mezirow,1990).
EylerandGiles(1999)likenedthistypeofdeeptransformativelearningtomakingtheleapfromcoloringwithinthelinestoexhibitingunderstandingtocreatinganewpictureentirelyinordertoshownewperspective.
Service-LearningandtheSevenVectorsofStudentDevelopmentBasedonthewidelyacceptedunderstandingofservice-learningasadeveloperofstudentemotional,behavioral,andcognitivecharacteristics,anassumptioncanbemadethatservice-learningquaexperientiallearningcanassiststudents'progressalongthesevenvectorsidentifiedbyChickering(1964,1993),particularlyinrelationtocompetencydevelopmentandpurposeasitpertainstopostsecondarylearners.
Forservice-learners,corecompetenciesincludeambiguitytoleranceandempathy,andpurposeisdevelopedthroughtheirmotivationforservice(Kiely,2005;Lundy,2007).
Ambiguitytolerancereferstothelearner'sabilitytoviewcomplexorincongruoussituationsas"desirable,challenging,andinteresting"(Furnham&Ribchester,1995,p.
179),andtoengagethemwithoutdenyingordistortinginformation.
Perry,Stoner,andTarrant(2012)pointedtothetransformationofstudentsinshort-termstudy-abroadexperiencesintermsofmeaning-perspectiveshiftandflexibilitytheydeveloptoprepareforandflourishinanuncertainfuture.
Huber(2003)foundthatexperientiallearningdevelopsambiguitytoleranceandpreparesstudentsforreal-worldsituationsinwhichrulesandexpectationsarenotalwaysclearlydefined.
Empathyisdefinedas"feelinginoneselfthefeelingsofothers"(Eisenberg&Strayer,1987,p.
391).
Jones,Rowan-Kenyon,Ireland,Niehaus,andSkendall(2012)foundthatstudentswhoStanlick,etal.
/Ambiguity,Empathy,MotivationOverseas|276participatedinshort-term,experiential-immersionprogramsdevelopedempathythoughboundarycrossing,personalizing,andinterculturalexchanges.
Theoristshaveconceptualizedempathyinfourforms:basic,historical,sociocultural(orethnocultural),andsocioeconomic.
Allformshavebeenstudiedthroughservice-learningprojectsinvariousfieldsandsettings(Fox,2010;Nickols&Nielsen,2011;Terry&Panter,2010).
Studiesinlifespanpsychologyhaveshownthatservice-learninghasapositive,significantincreaseinpost-projectempathy,aswellaspositivecognitiveandpersonaldevelopment(Lundy,2007).
AccordingtoChick,Karis,andKernahan(2009),service-learnerscanbuildethnoculturalempathybysubjectingtheirexperiencestotheprocessofreflectionandmetacognition.
1Inonestudy,service-learningstudentspresentedmoresignsofempathyinreflectivewritingthannon-service-learningstudentsintheclassroom(Wilson,2011).
Motivationcanbeextrinsicorintrinsic;intrinsicmotivationcansupportlearners'creativityandenablehigh-qualitylearning(Ryan&Deci,2000).
Researchhassuggestedthatmotivationisnurturedmorebyintrinsicratherthanextrinsicrewards,withconstructssuchaspeerpressure,teamwork,agency,self-determination,andbeingastakeholderallservingasmotivatingfactorsforstudentbehaviors(Brecke&Jensen,2007).
Multiplestudieshavealsofoundthatservice-learners'levelofmotivation,includingintrinsicmotivationtodoservice-learning,increasedduringtheirservice-learningexperience(Levesque-Bristol&Stanek,2009;McLaughlin,2010).
Tocharacterizeindividualservice-learners'behaviorinthecontextofChickering's(1964,1993)developmentmodel,weemployedWinneandHadwin's(1998)modeloftheself-regulatinglearner.
ThismodelbuildsuponBandura's(1986)workonself-efficacy.
Banduradescribedtheinterconnectednessofindividuals'biological,affective,andcognitiveeventswiththeenvironmentsurroundingthemtoshapetheirbehaviorandlearning.
WinneandHadwin(1998)organizedtheseinteractionsintofourphasesbywhichthelearnerprocessesinformation:definingatask,settinggoalsandplans,choosingtacticstolearn,andmetacognition.
Eachofthephasesemergesfromthelearner'sinteractionwithhisorherenvironment(Winne,2001).
ParisandParis(2001)assertedthatself-regulatedlearning"emphasizesautonomyandcontrolbytheindividualwhomonitors,directs,andregulatesactionstowardgoalsofinformationacquisition,expandingexpertise,andself-improvement"(p.
89).
Forself-regulatedindividuals,learningisaprocesssustainedthroughtheeffectiveself-managementofbehaviorsandprocessesonthepartoftheindividuallearner,andalsorepresentsanendeavorinself-actualization(Maslow,1943).
Themodel'sattentiontocognitive,motivational,andcontextualfactorsdistincttoeachlearner(Greene&Azevedo,2007)providesausefulframeworkforacarefulexaminationofservice-learners'individuallearningprocesses.
Tooperationalizethiscombinationofframeworks,wediagrammedtheprocessoflearningthroughserviceasaself-regulatedlearnercombinedwiththeselecteddevelopmentaloutcomesforidentitycreation(seeFigure1).
Ourmodelconnectstheservice-learningexperiencewiththeinputsandoutputsthatdefineitasaself-regulatedlearningexperience.
Theprocessbeginswithstudentself-selectiontoparticipateinservice-learningandthensetsabouttheprocessofdefiningtasks,settinggoals,learningtactics,andreflecting.
Reflectionservesasthetoolbywhichlearnersprocesstheirexperienceandrevealshiftsinperceptions(Clayton&Ash,2009;Mezirow,1990).
Accordingtothismodel,empathyandambiguitytolerancearethefactorswhichshouldbeaffectedbytheirexperienceandthenrevealedfurtherintheirreflections.
1Thetermsreflectionandmetacognitionaredistinctandnotedassuch.
Forthepurposesofthisresearch,reflectionisaprocessbywhichmetacognitiontakesplace.
Metacognitionisalargeroverarchingconceptdefinedas"knowledgeconcerningone'sowncognitiveprocessesoranythingrelatedtothem"(Flavell,1976,p.
232).
|InternationalJournalofResearchonService-LearningandCommunityEngagement277Figure1.
Modelillustratingself-regulatedlearninganditsoperationalizationinservice-learningexperiences.
Self-selectionisavariablethataffectsmotivationandmustbeconsideredwhenaddressingservice-learning(Levesque-Bristol&Stanek,2009).
Self-selectedstudentswillhavedifferentattributes,performdifferently,andreachdifferentoutcomesthannon-self-selectedstudents.
Weber,Schneider,andWeber(2008)foundthatstudentswhoself-selectedservice-learningprojectsovertraditionalinstructionalformatsexhibitedahighertoleranceforambiguity.
Self-selectedstudentsalsotypicallyhavehigherlevelsofintrinsicmotivationandwillthereforeentermoredeeplyintoservice-learningexperiences.
Forexample,Levesque-Bristol,Knapp,andFisher(2010)arguedthatthereisacorrelationbetweenlearners'intrinsicmotivationandtheperceptionthatservice-learningisenhancingtheirlearning.
LearningOutcomes,Reflection,andStudentDevelopmentExpectationsforlearningoutcomesandsatisfactioncompriseanotherfactorintegraltothesuccessofaservice-learningexperience(Holtzman,2011).
AccordingtoLearandAbbott(2009),positiveservice-learningexperiencesdemandthatlearners'expectationsbealignedwiththoseoftheotherstakeholdersintheprocess.
Thisalignmentrequirescontinualmonitoring,mostcommonlythroughreflectivewriting.
Guidedreflectionprompts,forexample,allowlearnerstoairnegativeimpressionsandsimplemisunderstandings,inturnallowinginstructorstothenmakeimprovementsinprogrammingandadjustcurricularobjectives.
McClam,Diambra,Burton,Fuss,andFudge(2008)assessedexpectationsofservice-learningthroughstudents'on-goingreflections,whichrevealedparticipants'expectationsandsatisfactionwiththeexperience.
Reflectionisanessentialcomponentofallexperientiallearningandisparticularlypowerfulinthecontextofservice-learning.
Throughouttheliterature,reflectionistheassessmentofchoiceformeasuringindividualgrowthandlearningoreventhesuccessofanexperientiallearningprogram(Blumenfield,2010;Cord&Clements,2010;Novak,Markey,&Allen,2007).
Fromthelearner'sperspective,reflectionprovidesanopportunityforbothmetacognitionandemotionalexploration.
Fromaresearcher'sperspective,learners'reflectivewritingandstatementscanrevealthemotivationsunderlyingtheirStanlick,etal.
/Ambiguity,Empathy,MotivationOverseas|278behaviorsandprovidecontextforacademicsuccessorstruggles(Blumenfeld,2010;King&Kitchener,2004).
Reflectionneednotbecomplicatedorelaborate,butitmustbegiveninawaythatencouragesconnectionmakingtowork,allowingtheindividualtounderstandalternativeexplanations,explorecognitivedisequilibrium,andconsiderchallenges(Knight-McKenna,Darby,Spingler,&Shafer,2011).
Inexaminingstudents'reflectiononservice-learning,SheckleyandKeeton(1997)observedthreepatterns,or"effects,"withinstudents'thinking:theconduiteffect,theaccordioneffect,andtheculturaleffect.
Theseeffectsdescribethewaysservice-learningexperiencesinteractwithstudents'preexistingschemaduringreflection.
Intheconduiteffect,theservice-learningexperiencefitsintothestudent'sprioracceptedknowledge,andthereflectiveprocessreinforcesthisschema.
Intheaccordioneffect,theoppositeinteractionoccurs:Thereflectionallowsthestudenttoseehowtheexperienceconflictswithhisorherpriorschema,creatingcognitivedissonance.
Theculturaleffectdescribeslearningthatinteractswiththestudent'ssocioculturallandscapeastheindividualreflectsuponhisorherpriorexperienceofculturalnorms.
SheckleyandKeeton'sworkhasbeenappliedtoservice-learningwithlibrarysciencesgraduatestudents(Becker,2000)andwithinundergraduatecommunicationscourses(Oster-Aaland,Sellnow,Nelson&Pearson,2004).
StudyPurposeThepurposeofthisstudywastoexploreconnectionsbetweenstudents'empathy,ambiguitytolerance,andmotivation,andtheirexperienceofaservice-learningtriptoadevelopingnation,asrevealedthroughreflectionandotherdisclosures.
Reflectionservesnotonlyasaprocessingtoolforlearnerexperiences,butalsoasavaluablequalitativeindicatorofstudentdevelopmentandchange(Altheide,1987;Creswell,2013).
Thestudyexploredthreeresearchquestions:1.
Whatmotivatesstudentstoparticipateinservice-learningexperiences2.
Howdostudentsaddressambiguity,showempathy,andrevealmotivatorsthroughreflection3.
Whatconnectionsexistbetweenservice-learningparticipants'characteristics(i.
e.
,empathy,motivation,ambiguitytolerance)andtheirreflectionMethodologyParticipantsThestudyparticipantsincluded10students(sixmale,fourfemale)fromaprivate,mid-Atlanticuniversitywithanactivecommunityserviceprogramthatoffersseveralservicetripsthroughouttheacademicyearandduringbreaks.
(Acompleteoverviewoftheparticipants'individualdemographicdataisincludedinTable1.
)Thisstudyfocusedonasummerservice-learningtrip(SLT)toadevelopingCaribbeannation,theuniversity'sfirstinternationalservicetrip.
TheSLTdidnotconferacademiccredit,therewasnocompensationforstudents,andtherewerenoinstitutionalrewardsthatmotivatedthestudentstotakepart.
Twouniversitystaffmembersaccompaniedthestudentsandfacilitatedthetrip:thedirectorofthecommunityserviceofficeandthedirectorofaglobalstudiesprogram.
All10studentswhowentontheservicetripconsentedtoparticipateinthestudy.
Table1.
SummaryofParticipantAttributesPseudonymGenderMajorCollegeofStudyYearCitizenshipSTEMFieldBrianMEnvironmentalEngineeringJuniorAmericanY|InternationalJournalofResearchonService-LearningandCommunityEngagement279EngineeringFernandoMBioengineeringEngineeringJuniorAmericanYSteven*MInternationalAffairs/HistoryArtsandSciencesJuniorAmericanNNormanMArchitectureArtsandSciencesSeniorAmericanYWillowFChemistryArtsandSciencesJuniorEthiopianYSashaFMathArtsandSciencesSeniorAmericanYLauraFArchitecture/EngineeringArtsandSciences/EngineeringSeniorAmericanYSorayaFInternationalRelationsArtsandSciencesSophomoreAmericanNEmmittMEconomicsBusinessandEconomicsSophomoreAmericanYKirby*MMaterialsScience&Engineering/IntegratedBusiness&Engineering(IBE)ArtsandSciences/EngineeringSeniorAmericanYNote.
Asterisks(*)denotethestudentswhoreflectedthemostdeeplyandcompletelyintheirjournals.
Noneofthechangesinempathyorambiguityweresignificant.
Duringtheir10daysabroad,thestudentsvisiteddifferentlocationswithinthecountry,usuallyaccompaniedbyaguidefromthelocalembassy.
Someactivitieswereservice-oriented,suchasworkingwithboysatajuveniledetentioncenterorrepaintingaschool.
Otheractivitieswereculturallyoriented,suchasattendingasteeldrumlessonorlisteningtoahistorylecture.
Thestudentsandfacilitatorsdocumentedallactivitiesusinguniversity-providedvideocameras.
Thevideosmainlycapturedon-the-spotreactionsofstudentsaswellasend-of-dayreflectivediscussions.
Oneparticipantalsokeptanextensiveprivatejournalduringthetrip,chroniclingeventsandrecordinghisreflections.
FollowingtheSLT,twoparticipantsextendedtheirreflectionintoadditionalprojects.
Onestudententeredherphotographyinanon-campuscompetition,explainingthesignificanceofthephotosthroughheraccompanyingcaptions.
Anotherstudentcreatedatraveloguefortheuniversity,choosingvideoclipsthatcapturedtriphighlightsandconnectingtheclipstolocationsonaninteractivemapoftheisland.
DataCollectionThestudyfollowedamixed-methodsdesigntocollectquantitativedataonparticipants'empathyandambiguitytolerance,andthenanalyzethemwithinthecontextofthequalitativedataproviding"thickdescription"(Geertz,1973)ofstudents'experiences,reflections,andmotivation.
ParticipantsfirstcompletedasurveybeforeleavingthecountryfortheSLT.
Thesurveycollectedparticipantdemographicinformation,askedabouttheirmotivationsforgoingonthetrip,andincorporatedelementsofboththeAT-20ambiguitytolerancetestandtheScaleofEthnoculturalEmpathy(SEE).
TheAT-20(MacDonald,1970)exploreswhetherparticipantsviewuncertaintyasanopportunityorachallenge;questionsposedinthesurveysolicityes/noanswerstostatementsthatrevealhowcomfortabletheparticipantiswhenfacedwithuncertainsituations.
Thescaledemonstratesstrongreliability(r=.
86,plick,etal.
/Ambiguity,Empathy,MotivationOverseas|280of.
63forasix-monthinterval.
Tomeasurechangesinempathy,participantsansweredquestionsontheSEE,whichaimstounderstandindividuals'comfortlevelwheninteractingacrossculturalboundaries(Wangetal.
,2003).
ThereliabilityoftheSEEhasbeentestedatrangesbetweenr=.
73tor=.
91,plick,etal.
/Ambiguity,Empathy,MotivationOverseas|282InverseRelationshipBetweenPriorExperienceandChangesinEmpathyWhensortingthedataforthemeidentification,apatterninexperienceandsurveyscoresemergedinrelationtothenoveltyofthetripforparticipantsandapositivechangeinempathy.
Participantswhohadnotpreviouslytakenpartinaservicetriphadpositiveshiftsinempathy(n=6,m=.
28ona6-pointscale),whilethosewhowereontheirthirdorfourthservicetripsawadecreaseinempathy(n=4,m=-.
10).
Thispatternofpositiveshiftsinempathyforfirst-timetripparticipantswasalsoevidentinthequalitativedatagatheredfrominterviewsandthereflectionssharedbyKirby,thestudentwhokeptaprivatereflectivejournal.
Whilethelearningprocesswashighlyindividualizedandthoughscoresmayhavedecreasedfortheseasonedveterans,theystillrevealedlearningandempathicconnectionmaking.
Asoneparticipant,forwhomtheSLTwashisthirdserviceexperience,shared,"It'sgettingadifferentperspectiveonyourselfbecausewhenyouareintheUnitedStatesyoudon'tgetthatperspectivebecausetherearesomethingswhereweareallkindofthesameincertainways.
"AnotherexamplewasNorman,whowasparticipatinginaserviceexperienceforthefourthtimeandwhohadanalmostnegligibleuptickinempathyasmeasuredbytheSEE.
Inhisinterview,however,heexhibitedconnectionmakingthatindicatedlearningandempathygains.
Normanconnectedtheexperienceofaninternationalstudentcolleaguewiththeexperienceofbeing"different"inanotherplace.
Uponventuringoutwithanotherstudent,whowasanEastAfricannationalandself-identifiedas"lookinglikethelocals,"theCaucasianstudentrealizedhefeltveryoutofplaceintheCaribbeansurroundingbecausehelookedsodifferent.
Hethenturnedtohisfellowstudentandproclaimed,"Thismustbehowyoufeelallthetime!
"Whilethesensitivityoftheconnectioncouldbedebated,theparticipantexhibitedempatheticperspectivetaking,anobservationthatcoincideswiththelargestgaininhissubscaleSEEsurveyscoresintheareaofempathicperspectivetaking(+.
57).
Table3showsacompletereportingofthesubscalesfromtheSEE.
Table3.
SummaryofParticipantOutcomes:ScaleofEthnoculturalEmpathySubscalesPseudonymΔFeeling&ExpressionΔPerspectiveΔAcceptanceΔEmp.
AwarenessΔEmpathy(Overall)Brian-0.
40.
857143-10.
25-0.
139Fernando00.
1428570.
2-1-0.
06Steven*-0.
66667-0.
28571-0.
4-1.
25-0.
61Norman-0.
066670.
571429-0.
60.
250.
03Willow0.
3333330.
428571-10.
250.
13Sasha00.
285714000.
06Laura-0.
066670.
7142860.
4-0.
50.
13Soraya0.
0666670.
28571400.
250.
13Emmitt0.
7333330.
5714290-0.
50.
42Kirby*0.
4666670.
8571430.
200.
45Note.
Theasterisks(*)denotethestudentswhoreflectedthemostdeeplyandcompletelyintheirjournals.
Therewasasignificantdifferenceinthescoresforempathicperspective-taking(M=4.
24,SD=.
80,t=.
003).
|InternationalJournalofResearchonService-LearningandCommunityEngagement283PositiveRelationshipBetweenDepthofReflectionandMagnitudeofChangesinEmpathyandAmbiguityToleranceForthetwotripparticipantswhoreflectedthemostdeeply(i.
e.
,injournals,writing,andonvideo),theirempathyshowedthelargestdropsandgains,respectively.
Kirby,afirst-timeparticipant,spokeatgreatlengthduringtheonsitevideoreflections,hadthelongestpost-tripinterviewtimeoftheparticipants,andkeptanindependentstructuredjournalthatwasupdateddailythroughoutthetrip.
Asaresultofthisreflection,hisinterviewanswersweremoredetailedandtheinterviewlength,withthesamequestionset,rantwiceaslongasthenextlongestinterview.
ThenextdeepestreflectorwasSteven,aseniorandfourth-timeservice-learner.
Stevenwasbothastudentparticipantandanassistantintheuniversity'scommunityserviceoffice;hehadhelpedplanthetripandhealsopreparedsummarymaterialsforthecommunityserviceoffice.
Theseprocessesnecessarilyinvolvedsignificantpost-tripreflection.
Ifreflectionisthoroughanddeep,thechangesinempathyarelarger.
Whiletheaveragechangeforthefiverepeat-experienceparticipantsrepresentedadecreaseof.
10,Stevenexhibiteda.
61decreaseinhisempathyscore.
Forthefivefirst-timeparticipants,theaveragechangeinempathyrepresentedanincreaseof.
28.
Kirby,themostactivereflector,exhibiteda.
45gaininempathy.
Ambiguitytolerancewaslessconclusiveintermsofconnectionsbetweenfirst-timeparticipantsandtriprepeaters.
However,whileambiguitytolerancedidnotchangeinapatternthatallowedforclearpathstobestudied,ourfirst-timestudentscametotheexperiencewithhigherambiguitytolerance(m=11.
5)thanthenormingsample(m=10.
45)presentedbyMacDonald(1970).
Further,AT-20scoresforthosewhowerefourth-timersdroppedbyoveronefullpoint.
TheRoleofIndividualWrittenReflectionThequalityofreflectionsvariedthroughoutthetrip.
Thevideoreflectionscapturedtheopinionsandreflectionsoftheservice-tripparticipantsfromareportinglevel(i.
e.
,describingcurrentlocation,mechanicsofday-to-dayactivities,etc.
).
However,forthosestudentswhodisclosedthattheyreflectedoutsideofthevideocameras,thegainscanbeseeninthequalityoftheirreflection,recallininterviews,andsurveyscores.
Kirbykepthisownjournalusingaword-processingprogram.
Theintentwastousethisjournalasan"offlineblogsubstitute"forthebloggingtheywantedtorelaytheirexperiencetotheirfriendsandfamily.
Thisjournalingwasdetailedandincludedinformationthatexhibitedconnectionstocurricularlessons,empathy,andchangesinperspective.
Kirbyhadthemostmarkeddifferenceinhisambiguitytoleranceandethnoculturalempathyasperthepre-andposttestsurvey;yet,thatrepresentedadropinAT-20scoreoftwopoints.
Incontrasttothevideoreflections,thewrittenreflectionsprovidedmoredataforanalysis.
Thesewrittenreflectionsalsoprovidedtheresearcherwithfarmoreextensivedatathanthevideo-recordeddiscussions.
BydrawinguponKirby'sandSteven'sdocuments(theonlystudentswhodisclosedsignificantreflectionsbeyondthevideosandinterviews),theresearcherwasabletotracktheirinternalprocessesmoreclosely.
Forexample,thedetailprovidedinKirby'sjournalallowedtheresearchertoobservethelearningprocessestheorizedbySheckleyandKeeton(1997).
Observationsfromthejournalincludedinformationthatcouldbecategorizedintotheconduit,accordion,andculturaleffects.
Theexamplesarestriking,asthestudentworkedthroughexperiencesinthejournal.
Intheconduiteffect,thestudents'learningreinforcesandelaboratespreviouslydevelopedconcept.
Inhisjournal,Kirbytalkedabouttheaffirmationofhisbeliefthatservice-learningtripsareworthwhile:"It'sveryrewardingtogivebacktothecommunity.
Youalwaysendupaccomplishingothergoalswhiledoingso(learningaboutthelocalcommunity,experiencinglocalculture),whileaccomplishingyourmaingoalofprovidingserviceandgivingback.
"Asfortheaccordioneffect,Kirbywrestledwithfeelingsofdiscomfortduetooutsiderstatus,eventuallymakingaconnectiontolifebackattheuniversity.
Hewrote,"I—we—aredefinitelyalloutsidershere.
Ithinkwecanallfinallyunderstandwhatit'sliketobeinaminorityat[ourinstitution].
"ThismaypointtoanexplanationforKirby'sdropinambiguitytolerance,astheoutsiderstatusdisruptedthenormforthestudentinawayheclearlyaddressedinhisreflection.
Finally,theculturaleffectwasStanlick,etal.
/Ambiguity,Empathy,MotivationOverseas|284clearinKirby'sdiscussionofhisunderstandingofserviceindifferentsocietalcontexts.
Thesewereobservationsthatneitheragreednordisagreedwithheldbeliefs,butrepresentedlearningasaresultofbeingplacedinadifferentculture.
Kirbymused:"Wediscussedonthebustodaythatmany[localcitizens]don'tunderstandthisconceptofservicethatwehave;manyconsidereditoddandsomewhatheroicthatwechosetoperformserviceovergoingtothebeach.
"Thisobservationshowsthestudentabsorbingdifferentculturalcontextsfortheverypurposeofhistripandunderstandinghowthepopulationheisworkingwithviewshisservice.
DiscussionandImplicationsOnepurposeofthisstudywastotesttheapplicabilityofWinneandHadwin's(2008)self-regulatedlearnerframeworktoaservice-learningcontext.
Wefoundthatthisframeworkwaseffectiveinguidingourappropriatechoiceofinstrumentationanditrevealedthecriticalroleofreflectioninprocessingtheexperience.
Theoffline,privatereflectionsaffordedaspaceforparticipantstoengageindeepthinkingandgrowth,andfutureeducationandresearchdesignwouldbenefitfromtheincorporationofdeeper,privatereflections.
Thequality,depth,anddevelopmentofreflectionleadsonetoMezirow's(1990)andClaytonandAsh's(2009)affirmationofcriticalreflectionasanecessarycomponentoftransformativedevelopmentReflectionisnotonlyaresearchconstruct,butalsoalong-standingtoolforgrowthandstudentdevelopmentwithregardtoservice-learning.
Finally,themethodologychosen—thatis,mixedmethodologyblendingpsychometricscoresandqualitativereflectiondata—wasabeneficialsetupforcapturingamoreholisticpictureofstudentexperienceanddevelopment.
Aswetriangulatedwithinourcases—workingamongtheinterviews,surveyresponses,anddocuments/videotranscripts—wefoundthatthestudentshadastrongsenseofindividualidentityinrelationtothepersonalitytraitstested.
Thosewhowereclearlyfrustratedbyalackofplanningortheirabilityto"gowiththeflow"matchedwellwiththeirAT-20andSEEmeasurements.
Thesequencingofthedataanalysis—firstcodingtheinterviewsanddocumentsandthenturningtothesurveydata—strengthenedourimpressionofalignmentbetweenthequalitativeandquantitativedatasourcesandourconfidenceinourfindings.
OnecuriousoutlierworthconsideringinfutureresearcherwastheexperienceofKirby,wholostpointsbetweenthepre-andposttestforhisAT-20despitehisactingasasuper-reflectorontheSLTexperience.
Itwouldbeworthconsidering,infutureresearch,ifanadditionalordifferentmeasuremightbeusedtobetterunderstandtheAT-20,orifotherqualitativedatacollectionmechanismsmightbeusedtogainafullerpictureofthatdevelopment.
Lookingacrossourcasesintheirdifferingcharacteristicsandoutcomes,wewereabletoidentifyaprofileofparticipantswithmaximumgrowthpotential.
Theseparticipantsweregoingonthistripforthefirsttime,self-identifyingascasualcommunityserviceparticipantsduringtheschoolyear,andmotivatedbyaninterestinculture.
Asdiscussedearlier,first-timeparticipantsallincreasedtheirempathyscores(m=.
28).
Participantswiththecontrastingprofile—thatis,arepeatservicetripparticipant(thirdtimeormore)withahighexpectationofservice—weredisappointedwithlevelofservicebutstillappreciatedtheculturalcomponentofthetrip.
Whencomparingthisinterviewdatatotheempathyscores,itcouldbespeculatedthatexpectationshinderedgrowthandlefttheparticipantsdissatisfied.
Thus,moreresearchisneededtoestablishthisasaphenomenonandunderstanditswidermeaning.
Indeed,thishasbeenidentifiedbyscholarslikeMcKeown(2006)asapriorityforfutureresearchonshort-termstudyabroad—andinourcaseservice-learningtrips.
Thepost-tripinterviewscomprisedvaluableresearchtoolsthatprovidedadeeperandmorecompleteunderstandingoftheparticipantsandtheirintentionsandmotivations.
Theseinterviewsprovidedgreaterstructurethanthein-processvideoreflectionsrecordedduringthetrip.
Asanexampleofthesignificanceofstructuredreflection,Kirbykepthisownstructuredblog.
Hisempathychangedmuchmoredramaticallyandpositivelythananyothertripparticipant.
Thus,werecommendthatfutureservice-learningprojectsand/orresearcheffortsstructurestudents'reflections(whetherwrittenorspoken,publicorprivate)toensurequalityofreflectionandguidethestudentsmorespecificallytowardlearning|InternationalJournalofResearchonService-LearningandCommunityEngagement285objectives.
Infutureexperimentation,reflectiontoolssuchasstructuredbloggingorcreationofreflectivenarrativesandsocial-mediacurationthroughtoolssuchasStorify(www.
storify.
com)shouldbeexplored.
Collegesanduniversitiesareimplementingservice-learningtovarieddegreesandaudiencesthroughoutthenationandabroad.
Coupledwiththeincreasingpopularityofservice-learningisthechangingfaceofstudyabroadtoencompassmoreexperientiallearningandserviceabroad(Kutner,2010).
Highereducationisinternationalizing,andtheabilitytounderstandtheexperientiallearningaspectsthatcomewithstudyabroadandservice-learningwillbenecessarytomeetthatmission.
Atthesametime,studentidentitydevelopmentandindividuallearningmarkersmustbeunderstoodtogivethemostrounded,deep-learningexperiencetoundergraduatestudents.
Ourstudyintentionallyselectedasmallsetofparticipantsandvariablestoobserveandresearch.
Awiderstudycouldyielddifferentresultsandtrendsthatarelesslikelytoemergeinasamplesizeof10.
ConclusionWhilethissamplepopulationrepresentedasmallfractionofundergraduateswhoparticipateinservicetrips,theconnectionsandtransformationsthathappenedasaresultoftheirexperiencesistelling.
Thefindingsofthisstudypointtotheimportanceofreflectionintheservice-learningprocess;however,moreresearchmustbedonetounderstandwhattypesofreflectionaremostusefulinaidingtheidentitydevelopmentandlearningprocess.
Theuseofreflectiontoworkthroughlessonslearned—bothintentionalandexperiential—isnecessarytoallowforthedeepeningofanexperiencesuchasinternationalservice-learning.
Reflectionallowsforlearnerstomakemoreconnectionswiththeexperienceanditsrelationtotheirlife.
Technologyhasgreatpotentialtotransformthereflectivepracticeandtoelicitdeeperinsightsfromstudents.
Iftheexperienceofthesuper-reflectingfirst-timeparticipantinthisstudyisanyindication,thestructuringofregularreflectionwritingcanyieldchangesinempathyandambiguitytolerance,andallowforamoremeaningfulserviceexperience.
Whetherthegoalistocreatenewknowledge,developonce-latentcharactertraits,orcreatecognitivedissonancethatradicallyshiftsalearner'sperspective,educationisaboutchange.
Thatchangecannothappenwithoutgivinglearnersthespacetostepbackandreflectonlessonsandexperienceslearned.
Reflectionisessentialtochange,anditisthroughsuchchangethatlearninganddevelopmentoccurs.
Thisstudyhighlightedboththeimportanceofindividualreflectionforpositivechangesinempathy,aswellastheefficacyofreflectionasanassessmentforservice-learning.
Futureresearchshouldexaminethedifferenttypesofreflectionanditseffectonthedepthandmeaningofexperientiallearningandnewknowledgecreation.
AuthorNoteSarahE.
Stanlick,DepartmentofSociologyandAnthropology,CenterforCommunityEngagement,LehighUniversity;ThomasC.
Hammond,DepartmentofEducationandHumanServices,LehighUniversity.
CorrespondenceCorrespondenceregardingthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoSarahE.
Stanlick,ProfessorofPractice,DirectoroftheCenterforCommunityEngagement,LehighUniversity,WilliamsHall020,31WilliamsDrive,Bethlehem,PA18015.
Phone:(610)758-1081.
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