presidentculture

NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity43NarrativeandExperienceofCommunityasPhilosophyofCulture(CommunityasMethodandPrincipleofThought)1D.
A.
MasoloDepartmentofPhilosophyUniversityofLouisvilleLouisville,Kentucky,U.
S.
A.
damaso01@louisville.
eduORda.
masolo@louisville.
eduThoughtandPractice:AJournalofthePhilosophicalAssociationofKenya(PAK)PremierIssue,NewSeries,Vol.
1No.
1,June2009,pp.
43-68thoughtandpractice@uonbi.
ac.
keORthoughtandpractice@gmail.
comAbstractThispaperarguesthatthedistinctivefeatureofAfricanphilosophisingisacommunitarianoutlookexpressedthroughvariousformsofnarrative.
ThepaperfirstillustratesthecloserelationshipbetweennarrativeandcommunityintheAfricanculturalmilieu.
ItthengoesontoexaminethewayinwhichAfricanacademicsinvariousfieldshaveemployedthenarrativetechniqueintheirworks.
Next,thepaperurgesthatthroughmigrationtoEuropeanandAmericaninstitutionsofhigherlearning,AfricanphilosophershavehadasignificantimpactonWesternphilosophy.
Thereafter,thepaperarguesthatwhileacommunalisticoutlookispartandparcelofAfricanphilosophising,itdoesnotimplyaninsularapproachtoidentity,butratheraccommodatesthefactofthedynamismofthesourcesofidentity.
Finally,thepaperpointsoutthatoneimplicationofthecommunalisticandnarrativisticapproachofAfricanphilosophyisthatthedichotomybetween"analytic"and"continental"philosophy,socommonintheWest,isnotapplicabletoit.
1PartofthispaperwasoriginallygivenataFacultyResearchForum,UniversityofLouisville,onNovember9,2007underthetitleof"FromLocalIdiomstoGlobalIssues".
44D.
A.
MasoloTheCommunitarianandNarrativisticOrientationofAfricanPhilosophisingManyofuswouldhitablankifaskedtoidentifyonethingthattheybelievedwassuchacrucialandcentralvaluetohowweappraiseourpracticesthatitculturallydistinguishesusfrommostotherpeopleintheworld.
Itwasnotsohalf-a-centuryago.
Atthattime,manyleadersthoughtitwasanobviousprincipleofpracticalreasonthatseveraltypesofvaluerevolvedaroundtheideaofcommunity.
Andseveralotherimportantpeople,inthepoliticalandacademicarenasalike,deniedit,andevenvilifiedthosewhomadetheclaim.
Today,however,thingshavecomefullcircle,andastrongscepticismnowhangsovertheonce-thought-to-be-self-evidentKantianassumptionofthesubjectas(an)autonomouscognitiveandmoralagent.
ThewaningofKant'sautonomoussubjectspreadtoothertheoriesthatgrewoutofhim,notleastJohnRawls'influentialtheoryofjustice.
Althoughnotsurprising,theabovedevelopmentsprobablystillirkthosewhodespitenothavinganyconvincingstandpointsotherthanthattheyfeltathreatfromtheoverhaulofthedominantstrandofEuropeanmodernthought,consideredthemovetowardcommunitarianthinkingtobeseriouslyatoddswiththelong-standingreputationoftheautonomyofreason.
Whiletheviewthatreason,andindeedthoughtingeneral,involvesanessentialresponsivenesstootherreasonsmaybeanewexpression,andevenanewdirectionaltogetherelsewhere,ithasbeenheldandexpressedexplicitlyfordecadesbythetheoreticiansof"Africansocialism",amongthemLeopoldS.
Senghor,JuliusK.
Nyerere,andKennethKaunda,totheextentthatwecangivecredittotheirpoliticalovertures-thatthepivotalstatusoftheindividualthatdrovepeople'spsychologyandinstitutionalgoalsinEurope'spushtomodernizationwasneitheruniversalnorpermanent.
Thecropofphilosopherswhosepracticeemergedinthewakeofthesepoliticalleadshandledtheideafarworsethanthepoliticianshaddone:thecentralroleoftherelationalviewofpersonhoodwasnolessembodiedintheirwork.
IhavesuggestedNarrativeandExperienceofCommunity45elsewhere,somehownaughtily,thateventhenotoriouscritiqueofethnophilosophybyPaulinJ.
Hountondjiwasafunctionoftheoppositionbetweentwoviewsoftheindividual,namelythatbetween,ontheonehand,theindividualasatranscendentSubjectwhosecognitiveactivitycouldbeexplainedsolelybyunderstandingthephenomenologicalstructureofhis/herconsciousness,and,ontheother,theindividualasasubject,yes,butratheronewhosedistinguishingcharacteristics,includingdevelopingandusingreason,arealwaysbindingfromwithout,notonlyinmoralmatters,butineverydomain.
HereisatypicallyspontaneoustestimonytowhatNyerereoncereferredtoastheattitudinalbasisofsocialism.
Inapersonalcommunicationbye-mailabouthisexperiencewithvillagegrandmothersonavisittoabed-riddenrelativeinahospital,anAmericanfriend-cum-relativewrotethefollowing:Todayhasbeenquietforvisitorssofar.
MyfavoritesaretheDanas[grandmothers].
TheylaughatmyLuo,andstandoverthesickpersonandrepeat,"Iwinja(indholuo:Doyouhearme)"Iwillsay,'owinji,dana(Indholuo:hecanhearyou,grandma)',[butthen]theywillnodandthenturnto[thesickperson]andsay,"Iwinja(Indholuo:Doyouhearme)"Whatisclearisthatevenconversationsneedaproperstart.
Withoutthem,thereissimplynowaytobegin.
For[thesefolks],thereisnosuchthingasamonologue.
TheDanasmindsaredeeplystuckinlocalmodes.
Attitudesofmindarelearned,bothinformallyinthecourseofgrowing,whenpeopleareraisedtolearn,master,andbeabletoapplytotheirlivestheprinciplesofpracticalreason,andformallywhentheyaretaughttoreflectonwhatitisaboutthoseprinciplesthatwarrantthemtoberegardedthewaytheyare.
Forexample,somepeoplegrowupknowingthatitmaynotberegardedpolitetogovisitanyone,notevenaparentorbrotherinanothervillageorpartofthecitywithoutcheckingwiththemifitisacceptabletothem.
Inanotherpartoftheworld,failuretoconnectwith,andespeciallytovisitrelativesandfriendsfromtimetotimemayberegardedaslackofsocialvirtuessuchastakingseriouslyandmanifestingthroughvisitsorothersymbolicforms,thatonecaresdeeplyaboutfriendsandkin.
Askedwhytheylivebythoseprinciples,thosewhoinhabiteitherframeworkmaysaysimplythat"itistherightthingtodo",andsoarightthinkingpersonsimplydoesitbecauseitisexpected.
ButyouandImaydebateforeveraboutwhatitisexactlythatmakessuchexpectedbehaviorright,thusseekingnotonlytojustify,butalsotoseewaysinwhichpracticalreasoncanbecontrolledandreproducedunderdifferentcircumstances.
Fortheruralwomenfolkinthecorrespondence,theirconnectionswithothersinthesocialworld46D.
A.
Masolojumptolifeincommunicationwiththosetheycareabout.
Notevendeathcanberegardedasanoccurrencethattakesplacetopersonsinthedepthandprivacyoftheirbodies.
Itwouldbeunimaginableforthemthattherestillisarelationshipbetweenthemandthesickpersonifitcannotbedefinedbyadirectcommunicativeengagementwithhim,for,intheirview,personhoodabidesinthecapacitytocommunicate.
Despitethecontroversies,theideaandroleofcommunityastheaxiomaticprinciplearoundwhichexperienceisorganizedandevaluatedwashardlyeverinquestion-whichiswhyithasre-emergedinmajortextsofcontemporaryAfricanphilosophy,namelyinthemetaphysical,epistemological,andmoralanalyses,inautobiographies,inthevillagepalavers,andinotherformsofnarrativewhich,insomeinstances,nowpresentthecontemporaryAfricanphilosopherasinpartthepresent-daygriot,narratinghis/herphilosophiestotherestoftheworldinoneormoreofthosepoeticgenreswithrootsdeeplyplantedintheindigenousmethods.
Thepracticeawakensseveralfiliationswiththoseindigenouspresentationstyles,evenasitalsoconnectswiththemorerecentliteraryconceptofnarratologyasaninterpretiveformforanalyzingandunderstandingliteraryproductions.
First,plottingtheoreticalpresentationsthroughnarrativesisawell-knownmediumoforalcultures,andliesattheheartofAfricantraditions.
Present-dayAfricanphilosophersappropriateanduseitinverynewglobalcontexts.
Second,becausethenarrativetechniqueinthehistoryofWesternthoughtcanbetracedbacktoAristotle'sPoetics.
There,theGreekphilosophertellsusthatasanart,differenttypesofpoetryaredistinguishedbyhowtheyvariouslymixandcombinerhythm,language,andharmonytoattaintheirspecificends.
NarrativeinAfricanAcademicDiscourseAfricannovelistswerethefirsttomakethenarrativisticconnectionwiththetraditionofstory-telling,widelyusingtheshortstorygenretomakeavarietyofrepresentationaltransitionintocontemporaryliterature,andwithit,transitingfromtheoraltothewrittenword.
Theplotisfarmorecomplexthistimethanitwasforthevillagestory-teller.
First,whilerevealingtheheartsandmindsoftheoriginalNarrativeandExperienceofCommunity47narratorsandlisteners,thestoriesalsoaimedatavailingtheirobjectivestobroaderaudiences,makingconnectionswithworldsfarbeyond.
Indeed,accordingtoRicoeur(1984),narratives(récits)bothshapeourexperienceofrealityasmuchastheybringustotermswithtemporality.
Butonemightask,"Whatreality,andinwhatwaysdoAfricannarratorsIhaveinmindthinkweshouldthinkoftherealitytheytellusaboutintemporalterms"Inotherwords,howdothenarrativesremedythecommunity-individualcontroversyAristotlesaysinthePoeticstothosewhoreadhimthatweexecutetheplotsinthestorieswetelleitherbymeansofourownanecdotalautobiographies,orbyuseofotheragentsorcharacters.
Wecanalsoreciteourstoriesbyusingacombinationofbothstrategies.
Aristotlesays:Theobjectstheimitatorrepresentsareactions,withagentswhoarenecessarilyeithergoodmenorbad-thediversitiesofhumancharacterbeingnearlyalwaysderivativefromthisprimarydistinction,sinceitisbybadnessandexcellence[that]mendifferincharacter.
Itfollows,therefore,thattheagentsrepresentedmustbeeitheraboveourownlevelofgoodness,orbeneathit,orjustsuchasweare.
.
.
(Aristotle1984,2317).
AndinChapter3hecontinues:Givenboththesamemeansandthesamekindofobjectforimitation,onemayeitherspeakatonemomentinnarrativeandatanotherinanassumedcharacter.
.
.
oronemayremainthesamethroughout,withoutanychange;ortheimitatorsmayrepresentthewholestorydramatically,asthoughtheywereactuallydoingthethingsdescribed.
.
.
thedifferencesintheimitationoftheseartscomeunderthreeheads,theirmeans,theirobjects,andtheirmanner(Aristotle1984,2317).
Storylinesinnarrativestaketheformofeitherconversationalanecdotes,ornarrativesofpersonalexperiences,orsomeothertypeoftales.
Withvariation,Africanphilosophers,likethegriotsofhistory,havebeendeliveringtheirsubjectmatterinthiscustomarystyle,makingphilosophicaldeliberationbothinteractivelyengagingasitischallenginginitsnuances.
Inadditiontostyle,andmorespecifictoAfricans'practiceofthesubject,thisdeliveryalsointroducesanotherdimensiontothe"poetics",namelytheviewthatthinkingisarelationalprocessthattakesplacemeaningfullyonlyinacommunalcontext.
AsInotedatthebeginning,notonlyisreasoningaresponseto(other)reasons,itisalsotheactbywhichwecommitourselvestonorms,or,morepreciselytospecificnormsamongothers.
WithoutdelvingintowhatIhavesaidmoresubstantivelyelsewhere,Iwanttoarguethatalthoughmoreevidentlyinsomecasesthaninothers,communitarianismisalloverAfricantexts,eitherasanaxiomthatinformsanddirectsAfricans'theoretical48D.
A.
Masolopracticeinthehumanandsocialsciences,orasatopicofdiscourseandanalysis,andthatthisspecificcommunitarianframeworkhasopeneddoorstoalternativewaysoflookingatphilosophicalissues,bothnewandold.
TheImpactofAfricanIntellectualMigrationsAsaresultofrecentglobalrelocations,AfricanphilosophershavebroughttheircommunitarianapproachtoknowledgeproductiontoWesternacademiesandtotheirorgansofdissemination.
Indoingso,Africanphilosophershavedemonstratedthehuman"imitation"ofthenaturalforceofOmbasa2,thetravelingplant.
TheysayinmyLuolanguagethat"Dhanochalombasa:k'ochiekbuotwotoomuochbukothekir-rebutwikanmoronono(humansareliketheOmbasa,thetravelingplant(Kokwaro1972,71),whichspreadswhenitsmature,anditsdrypodburstsopen,thusfreeingandhurlingitsripenseedacrossterritorytonewgroundswhereitsinksandspreadsitsroot)".
Knownbytheirlegendaryhistoricalmigrations,theLuoknowthedynamismandcomplexitythathumanmobilitybringstoknowledge,belief,andcustomarypractice.
3IntellectualmigrationandtransplantationofthoughtisnotuniquetoeitherAfricansnortotherecentepisodesofpoliticalunrestandconflictelsewhere.
Fromantiquity,variouslocaltraditionsofthoughthavebeentransformedeitherbytheinfluxofthinkersfromabroad,orbylocalsreturninghomefromforeignexcursions.
AncientAthens,theUpanisadsinclassicalHinduism,middle-agesthoughtinWestAfrica,earlymodern-timesschoolinEthiopia,andtheGhanaianWilhelmAntonAmo'sreturnfromGermany,areallexamplesthatspreadacrosstheages.
Andmorerecently,forinstance,thecurrentandpredominantAmericanphilosophicallandscapeisitselfafruitoftransformationsoccasionedbytravelsandmigrationssuchasthosewhichnowhavebroughtthevarietyandinfluenceofAfricanphilosophytothe2Knownintechnicalbotanicaltermsas"Tylosemafassoglensis(Caesalpiniaceae)"-seeentryinKokwaro,JohnO.
1972.
Luo-EnglishBotanicalDictionary.
Nairobi:EastAfricanPublishingHouse,p.
71.
3LuomigrationandtheencounteritboreonthemwithotherculturesisvividlycapturedbyGraceOgotinhernovel,ThePromisedLand,Nairobi:HeinemannEducationalPublishers,1966,andisalsothethemeofBethwellA.
Ogot'sHistoryoftheSouthernLuo,Vol.
1:MigrationandSettlement1500-1900,Nairobi:EastAfricanPublishingHouse,1967.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity49Americanacademicscene.
ThetravelsofW.
E.
B.
DuboisinEuropebroughttheinfluenceofHerder'sromanticismtobearuponhowhesubsequentlyviewedtheideaandpossibilityofculturalautonomyforAfricanAmericans.
W.
V.
O.
Quine'stravelstothepre-WWIIEurope,especiallytoEngland,Germany,andAustria,putanindeliblemarkonAmericanphilosophy,onewhich,sincearound1932,madeanalyticphilosophythemaincurrentofthought.
Also,themigrationsofmanyeuro-continentalphilosophers,especiallythosefromGermanyintheperiodimmediatelyprecedingandlastinglongafterWWII,broughttotheAmericastheneo-MarxistdimensionoftheFrankfurtSchooloutofwhichgrewandspreadthesocial-criticaldimensionofdoingphilosophythathassinceextendeditsinfluencefarbeyondtheconventionalconfinesofphilosophy.
Humanmobility,liketheonewitnessedrecently,andevencurrentlyasaresultofthenewinternationalassertionsoffreedom,representsanimportantdimensionofhowknowledgemigrates,intheprocesstransformingandgettingtransformedbythelocalknowledgeandotherculturalforcesinthenewsettlements.
Indeed,wehumansareliketheOmbasaplant.
Itis,therefore,amatterofironythatwhileacknowledgingandspeakingfromamigratorystandpoint,defendersofa"pure"Afrocentriccivilizationwhich,intheirview,waslocatedinancientEgypt,claimonlyaone-wayflowofknowledge-otherMediterraneanpeopletakingfromEgyptevenasEgyptiansmingledwiththeirregionalneighbors.
ThemigrationofAfricanintellectualstobothEuropeandNorthAmericaisthemostrecentwave,andcontinuestooccuralongsideothermigrations,especiallyfromcountriesandnationsintheformerEasternEuropeanbloc.
ItisarguablysafetoclaimwithsomedegreeofprobabilitythattheentryofAfricanphilosophersintoWesternacademicinstitutionsgenerally,andthoseintheUnitedStatesparticularly,hasstartedtochangethepresentationofissuesinthedisciplineinwaysthataremoresignificantthanjustthemigrants'ownphysicalandsocialpresenceandappearance.
ThefactthatanAfrican-descendedphilosopherispresidentoftheEasterndivisionoftheAmericanPhilosophicalAssociationisamarkofthisgrowingvisibilityofAfricansinthefield.
Otherforeign-bornphilosophershaveprecededhiminthisposition.
Abouttwenty-fiveyearsago,theEnglishtranslationofPaulinHountondji'sbook,AfricanPhilosophy:MythandReality(1983)waspublishedinLondon,andbecameahuge50D.
A.
Masolosuccess,notintheUnitedKingdom,butintheUnitedStateswherethefieldofAfricanstudieswastakinganewturninthehandsofAfricanscholarsthemselves,inbringingtherethethenhardly-recognizedideaofAfricanphilosophytotheWesternacademy,thankstopublishersalreadywellestablishedintheareaofAfricanStudiesandwillingtoaddthisnewdimensionofAfricansystemsofthoughttotheirexistingseries.
ConceptualisingCommunityWithinthefieldofAfricanstudiesitself,andmorespecificallyamongsomeAfricanscholars,PaulinHountondji'swork,beginningwithhisfirstwidely-knownessayof1977,triggeredakindofdebatewhosegisthastendedtofade,ornotshowupatall,outsidethecircleofAfricanscholarsthemselves.
4Hountondji(1983&1992)offeredafiercecritiqueoftheideaofethnophilosophy,whichhadfirstbeenbroachedontheoccasionofthepublicationofPlacidTempels'Laphilosophiebantoue(1945).
Hountondjiframeshisobjectiontotheideaofanethnophilosophyintermsofhisviewofthelocationoftheorywithinthestructureofconsciousness,thuscamouflagingtherealissueattheheartofthedebate,anddistortingthenatureoftheobjectofthedebatebetweenhimandhiscritics.
Myclaimhereisthattherealissue,namelytheideaofcommunity,consideredtobecentraltoAfricanthinking,andwhich,intheeyesofhiscritics,Hountondjiwasopposing,hasonlyrecentlyprogressivelybecomeclearer.
Inretrospect,thecontroversywasprobablyunnecessary,becauseeachsideaddressedadifferentaspectofthematter.
Morespecifically,Hountondjiwasastonishedbytheembrace,onthepartofotherwisewellinformedAfricanscholarsandphilosophersinparticular,ofthethencommondescriptivephraseslike"thephilosophyoftheBantu",orofwhicheverothercommunitytowhichwholethoughtsystems,andsometimeseventheoretical4Hountondji'scritiqueoftheproposalofa"passivethought",whichhethoughttobeembeddedintheideaofethnophilosophy,probablygoesasfarbackashisencounterwiththetextsinthatschoolofthoughtincontemporaryAfricanphilosophy,but,inhiswritings,isprobablytraceabletotheessay,"Sagesseafricaineetphilosophiemoderne.
"InAfricanHumanism-ScandinavianCulture:ADialogue.
EditedbyTorbenLundbaek,pp.
187-97.
Copenhagen,DANIDA.
Amorewidely-circulatedversionwaspublishedas"Remarquessurlaphilosophieafricainecontemporaine.
"InDiogΠne,No.
71,1970,pp.
120-40.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity51positions,werebeinghabituallyattributed.
Thisattributionwas,inhisview,wrongonaccountofthelocationoftheorywithinthestructureofconsciousness,somethinghebelievedtohavebeencompellinglyexplainedbytheGermanphilosopherHusserl,andwhichidentifiedtheorygenerally,andphilosophyinparticular,withascientificendeavor,partofreflectiveconsciousness.
HountondjihadreadHusserlratherwellundertheguidanceofPaulRicoeur.
Hence,forhim,theclaimthatphilosophycouldbepassiveandanonymous,assuggestedbytheideaof"ethnophilosophy",wassimplyamisnomer.
Atthatpoint,themattershouldhavebeenclosed,becausehewasright.
Andmoreimportantly,thatposition,statedasIhavejustdone,saidnothingabout,norwasitincompatiblewith,theideaofcommunityasanoxiomaticlensthroughwhichtolookattheworldinsearchofviablegroundsforidentifyinganddefendinganytypeoftheorysuchasthenaturetruth,oranaestheticnorm,oratheoryofhowpeopleoughttobehave.
Hountondji'scriticsseeinhisinsistenceontheideaofphilosophyasasciencearejectionofthecommunitarianideainfavorofindividualism,elitism,amongothercharacteristicsalwaysandmistakenlyassociatedwiththeEuropeanthoughtsystem.
Bethatasitmay,theideaofcommunitypervadesAfricanphilosophicaltexts,thoseofHountondjiincluded,atleastinhismorerecentandrelativelysoftenedstance.
ToseetheassumptionofcommunityatthebaseofAfricanphilosophyasitstrulydistinguishingmark,onehastostartwithitsnarrativisticstylewhichhasemergedasasharpcontrasttotheformalisticstyleofasignificantsettingofWesternphilosophy,namelyitsAmericanbrandwithwhichsomeofushavebecomefamiliar.
Ifnarrativeisarelationalact,orevokesitasacondition,thenitmaynowemergeatleastforareaderwhoseekstomakesenseofHountondji'scritics'attentionontheissueofthenon-relationalsubjectratherthanonhisnotionoftheorythatwassopertinenttohiscritiqueofethnophilosophy.
FinallyHountondjisawthepointand,asiftorespondbysituatingthesubjectbackinthemiddleofaconversation,explainsinhisrecentautobiographycontra-ethnophilosophiae,TheStruggleforMeaning(Hountondji2002)inamannerthathopefullyplacateshiscritics.
IfTheStruggleforMeaningre-positionstheSubjectwithinacommunityofdialoguers,italsoquestionshowcommunityistobedefined,andwhatSubjectsare52D.
A.
MasolosupposedtoregardastheircommunityinthecontemporarycontextsoftravelsandmigrationsinwhichSubjects,liketheOmbasaseeddescribedabove,arecatapultedacrossmanyculturalboundariesintoterritoriesfarawayfromthatoftheiroriginalroots,thusenablingthemindwithstimulationsdifferentintheirspecificities.
5Thequestion,whichcanbeaskedabouttheliteralOmbasabutalsoaboutitsmetaphoricalhumananalogue,is,then,isamigratedOmbasaplantanylessofitskindsimplybyvirtueofitsmigrationHountondjisharesthisinterrogationofcommunityviewedasafixedandunchangingentitywithKwameAnthonyAppiahascanberememberedfromhisInMyFather'sHouse(1992),whichissometimesbilledasthetriumphofliberalismincontemporaryAfricanthought.
HisideasofcommunityhavebeenaddressedmoredirectlyinCosmopolitanism:EthicsinaWorldofStrangers(2006).
CommontobothHountondjiandAppiahistheproblemofhowtoconceptualizecommunityinbothitsstructural,historicalperspectivesandcontexts.
Historically,theideastartsrightwiththe"Préface"ofInMyFather'sHouse,evenifthefullaccountofthematterisgivenonlyinthe"Epilogue".
Thenarrativescanbeputinquestionformsasfollows:whatshouldtheworldlooklikeforthecontemporaryAfricanwhoiscosmopolitanbyvirtueofhis/herglobe-trottingandinternationalconnections,mostlikelycollege-educated,perhapsalsoconverted-probablytoChristianity-andwhosenewsocialworld,bythestrengthoftheabove,hasnowextendedfarbeyondtheboundariesoftheoriginallocativerootsoftheclansystemAndwhatif,againbythestrengthofthegeo-socialandculturalexpansivenesscausedbybothtravelandchoicesofaffiliation,thegenealogyofthiscontemporaryAfricaninfactnowderivesfrom,justasmuchasitpointsto,similarworldwanderingsfromwhichhavecomeacomplicatedsocialworldthatnolongertracesitselfbyonlyasinglelineagesystem,butratherbyminglingdifferentlineagetypessuchasmatriarchywithpatriarchy,whichwewereoncetoldtobemutuallyexclusive5Arguingfortheuniversalityofculturesonaccountofthistransferabilityormigratorycharacteristicofmind,Wireduargues—inCulturalUniversalsandParticulars—thatitisform,andnotthespecificsofculturalcontents,thatdefineourhumanity.
However,realhumanlifeislivedintherealmofspecifics,albeitwithouttransformingsuchspecificcontentsofcultureintotrapsofrelativism.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity53ChangingPerspectivesofIdentityThequestionabovecamouflagesmyintentionhere,namely,tocallforareflectiononidentitiesatmultiplelevels,local,regional,andglobal,becauseitevokesareconsiderationofthefactorswhichnotonlyinformhowwethinkofouridentitiesacrossdifferentboundarieswhichwearelikelytocrossinthecourseofourcosmopolitanmigrations,butalsotoenableustoreflectmorecarefullyonhowwecangosoterriblywrongwhenwethinkofthesocialworldintermsofessentializingdifferencesbetweenthegroupsthatpopulateit,notonlyintheirsupposedlyfixedmetaphysicalconstitutions,suchasraceorethnicity,butalsothattheseassumedfoundationaldifferencesleadtootherdifferences,especiallyinculturalbeliefsandpracticeswhichweproceedtoargue,howeverwrongly,tobewarrantingofdifferentialtreatmentofpeoplewhoaredissimilarinthoseterms.
Wehavepainfullylearnedfromrecenthistorythatinsituationswheremembersofonegroupthinkofthoseinothergroupstobeessentiallydistinctfromthem,itcanbecomeeasytoconsiderthemasdispensable.
Storiesofidentity-basedconflictssuggestthattheybeginwhenthoseinonegroupregardothersasunjustifiedobstaclestotheattainmentofwhatistheirnaturalright,andsotheycangoaheadandeliminatethem.
Basedonperceptionsofpowerandadvantage,collectiveconflictsoccurwhenonegroupperceivesanotherasanobstacletotherealizationoftheendsthatitbelievestobelongtoitsownexclusiverightstoaspecifictypeorsetofclaims.
Thereasoningproceedsasfollows:Fairnessappliesonlytothetreatmentinrelevantcasesofthosewhoaresimilar.
Sowhoeverisnotsimilartomeinthebasicoressentialcharacteristicsofidentitydoesnotdeservemyfairconsideration.
Iftheyarenotlikeus,thentheymostlikelydonotmatterwhereourinterestsareconcerned.
Rather,theymustbeaproblemtobesolved.
Inotherwords,thefatalityoftheOtherasapathoropeningtoadesiredendforoneselfbecomesaneasyideology.
Itisnowonder,then,forexample,thatinthe1994Rwandaisegenocide,orinthoseothereruptionsofethniccleansinginEasternEurope,thoseintheattackoftenreferredtotheirvictimsassomethingfarlessthanthemselves,andtheytooktheir54D.
A.
Masoloownidentitytobethemeasureofhumanity.
IntheRwandaepisode,theattackerswerereportedtorefertotheirvictimsas"cockroaches"ratherthanasotherpeoplewithrightsthataresimilartothoseofeveryoneelse,includingtheirattackers.
Butthetrainofthoughtthatisolatespeopleinto"essentiallydifferentgroups"iswrongononemajoraccount:humanidentitiesarenotmetaphysicallyfixed,andhencedonotbareanydifferencesuponwhichonecanvalidlyjustifyamoralscheme,especiallysuchaseriousoneasdecidingwhodoesandwhodoesnotdeservetolive.
ContrarytothefalseideaacquiredfromtheremnantsofmodernEuropeanthoughttransportedacrosstheglobebycolonialforcesof"nationalgroups"ashomogeneouslyconstitutedandhencecruciallydifferentfromeachother,communitiesinAfricanknowledgeandpracticewereunderstoodtobehistoricallyblendedeitherasaresultoftravelsandtheensuingdeliberatestrategicchoicesinresponsetodifferenthumancircumstances,orbyreasonofcustomarydistributionofpowerandcontrolwithinspecificsocialsystems.
6Infact,manyAfricanpeopleshaveneverbeen"modern"inthesenseofthehomogeneityimposeduponthembyVictoriananthropologyandotherformsofcolonialknowledge.
Mypointagainstthebackgroundofgenocideswhichresultfromthepoliticalcockroachizationorotherformsofreducingothersto"beings-less-than-human"isthatifthefluidityofcommunitywasneverclearenoughbefore,becausethosewhopreachedmodernitytotheirAfricansubjectsledthemintothinkingofcommunityasfixed,thencontemporarymobilityshoulddisprovetheunderlyingfalsemetaphysicsbyunveilingthebasicmigratorycharacteristicofthehumancondition.
Inmyownlineageofbirth,forexample,Icancountseverallinesofdescentthatpointtoatleastthreedifferentethnicorigins.
Inmyownfamilytoday,thereareatleasttwomore,allscatteredoverthewideEasternAfricanregion.
Inhistoricalfact,thetrekbrought6ThedebateamongtheBasongapeopleovermymaternalgrandfatherOlooWanyande'slineage,andthereforeoverthelegitimacyofthejurisdictionofhischieftainshipovertheself-declaredBantuclansofBunyalaisagoodexampleofhowclaimsofsocialidentityareoftenthefunctionoforoverlapwithpoliticalandterritorialclaims.
Inthisexample,thedebatewaseitherdrivenby,orwasextendedintodebatingtheethnicboundarybetweentheBantuLuhyaofwhichtheBunyalaclansinquestionwerepart,andthedominantNiloticLuo,thelatestmigrantsintoWesternKenyashoresofLakeLolwe(laternamedLakeVictoriabytheBritish).
Ontheotherhand,agoodexampleofdeliberateengineeringoffamilyidentityisgivenbyNkiruNzegwuinhercritiqueofpatriarchyagainstwhatshetermsIgbowomen'scontroloftheirsexualityand,consequently,theirownandIgbosociety'sideaoflineageasbiologicallyandsociallyheterogeneousevenwithinsamehouseholds.
SeeherFamilyMatters:FeministConceptsinAfricanPhilosophyofCulture,Albany,NY,StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,2006.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity55themtotheirpresentsettlementsthroughseveralcenturiesduringwhichtheymostprobablyenduredinternalandexternalconflicts,break-ups,andthereforeconstantlossesandgainsinpopulationandsocialmake-up.
Legendtellsusofnumeroussuchincidents.
Justlookatthevariationsinapeople'slanguage!
IlearnedfromPhilipOchieng',therenownedKenyanjournalist,fromDuncanOkoth-Okombo,thepolishedlinguist,andfromElishaStevenAtieno-Odhiambo,theerstwhile,nowsadlyonlylateKenyanhistorian,thatidentityclaimsarenotbasedonbloodbutongraduallycontemplatedchoicesofwhatisregardedtobepoliticallyandsocio-culturallyprudent,viableandbeneficial.
Identityclaimsarestrategiesforadaptationtosocial,cultural,economic,andpoliticalconditions.
Theyhangonhistoricallyencounteredrealities.
Hence,whoknows,andwhatdoesitmatter,thatmyclanisboth"Kaugagi"and"Abukaki"and,onthatstrength,bothNiloticandBantuatthesametimeOr,tociteothersimilarlymixedorcrossed-overclans,thatAsemboispartlyTeso,andSakwapartlyMaragoli,orthatSubaispartlyGandaBroadeningthenarrativeTheproductionofknowledgeisnot,andshouldnotbe,limitedtothediscernmentofourcollectiveidentities.
ItoughttoexpendthehorizonsofAfricans'ownpoetics.
Jean-GodefroyBidima,theyoungCameroonianphilosopher,putsitwell:Nousavonsdoncbesoin,entantqu'treshistoriques,denousraconterdeshistoiressurlevrai,lebeau,lebien,l'identité,l'alterité,l'absolu,lavaleur,etlafinalité.
Nousavonsaussibesoin,entantquephilosophes,d'afficherlagravitédenotrefonctionetdenotreinterrogationenfaisantcommesinosrécitssurlebeau,levrai,lebienn'étaientpaslesmmeshistoiresqueleshumainesseracontentpartoutpourapaiserd'unepartl'inconsistanceetl'incompréhensionqueproduitleurutilisationdelangage,etd'autrepartpourressouderleurtissusymbolique!
(Bidima2007).
(Weneed,ashistoricalbeings,tonarratetoourselvesourownaccountsofthetruth,aestheticform,thegood,andofidentity,otherness,theabsolute,anddestiny.
Butwealsoneed,asphilosophers,tomakeknownhowcrucialourroleandourinterrogationsofrealityare,justlikepeopleeverywhereelsedo,byexplainingandmakingsenseofourlanguagesregardingthelistedissues,andbydemonstratingthesymbolicramificationsandinterconnectionstheconceptshaveforourexperiences.
)InBidima'sview,theresponsibilityofunveilingAfricanknowledge,suchasaccountsoftheprinciplesoftruth,ofmoralgood,andoftheiraesthetictheories,namelytheirexperientialinscriptionsontheworld,lieswithAfricanphilosophers.
But,aboveall,56D.
A.
Masolotheseaccountsmatteronlywhentheyareendogenous,or,whenacquiredbyvirtueoftravels,thattheyareindigenizedandtransformedintoidiomsoflocaldiscourse.
SowhenAppiahwritesinthe"Preface"toInMyFather'sHousethat"Thisbookisdedicatedtoninechildren-aboyborninBotswana,ofAnglo-Ghanaianparents;hisbrothers,borninNorwayandinGhana.
.
.
.
"(Appiah:1996,viii)andgoesontosketchasocialmapthatextendsfromthesouthern-mosttothenorthern-mostpointsoftheglobe,andfromthedepthsofsocontrastingreligiousbeliefsystems,Icanrelatetothesemultipleoriginsofidentity.
Hisaimisnotmerelytorepeatwhatmaybesofamiliartomostcommunities.
Afterall,exceptforanoccasionalandromanticreminderofone'sdistanthistory,thestorieswouldbeoflittleworthasthreadsfortheconstructionandnarrationofselfhood.
ForAppiah,ontheotherhand,asformostofusforwhomone'ssocialmapinformsmanychoicesforanygivenperson'sreverencetoothersdependingonwhetherhe/sheisverticallyorhorizontallyrelatedtothem,thesethingsmatter.
Whatdoesnotmatter,becausetheideaandhistoricityofthiskindofselfhoodandcommunity-buildingprecludesit,istheviewthatcommunitiesarehomogeneousinanyformorshape.
ItisthereforesufficienttosaythatAppiah's(1996,22)pointisthatthesecomplexbuildingblocksofgenealogyshouldnotbelosttous.
Ashesayselsewhereinaremarkheattributestohislatefather,thereisnousehavingrootsifonecannottakethemwithhim/herinthesewanderings(Appiah1996,22).
Evenmoresignificant,Ibelieve,istheunspokencalltherethatoneshouldnotforget,norshouldhe/sherememberonlywhenconvenient,thatweallhavethesecomplexoriginsthatre-directourgazetodifferentpointsoftheglobalcompass.
Whenwedo,andrathermistakenlyso,thelikelihoodofviewingothers,dependingonhowwechoosetodefineourselves,asthosetowardwhomwearereadytodisregardanyobligationtofairnessonnogroundsotherthanthattheyarenotourkin,becomesgreater,andhencethelikelihoodofanyformofdiscriminationwhichmayincludeviolentattacksandgenocide,isequallygreatlyheightened.
Onthecontrary,whenwethinkofourselves,andofcommunityandculture,alongthelinesofbeingconnectedtoothersfarbeyondthelocationofanyoneofourmultiplegenealogies,Appiahsays,"oneisboundtobeformedmorally,aesthetically,politicallyaswellasreligiouslybytherangeoflivesonehasknown"(Appiah1992,NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity57p.
ix).
Thepointisnottoforgetanyofthem,becausetheyallhavevalidlycontributedtomakinguswhoweclaimtobe.
HumansareliketheproverbialOmbasaplant.
7TheideathatweareabsorbedbyandparticipateinmultiplecommunitieswhoseevolutionandfunctionalrealitiesareshapedbythestrengthofourtravelsisprobablywhathasrecentlybeenexpoundedbyHountondjiaswellinCambatspourlesens(StruggleforMeaning)(1997)asaresponsetoearlieraccusationsofespousingsubjectiveatomismasthevalidbasisforgroundingcognitiveandmoralexperience,judgmentandresponsibilitywhich,intheeyesofhiscritics,comewithframingallknowledge,includingphilosophy,asscience.
Itismyconsideredview,whichIcannotbesureHountondjihimselfwouldrecognizeoragreewithaspartofhisthinking,thattheunfairnessofsuchaccusationemanatedfromarestrictedviewofcommunity.
InStruggleforMeaning,HountondjidefensivelynarrateshowtheseedsofhisintellectuallifebeganwithandincludedaseminalandstrongBeninoisformationbeforeextending,byvirtueoftravel,tothecorridorsoftheLycéeHenriIVandtotheSorbonnewhere,throughthemediationofhiseminentteacherssuchasPaulRicoeurandJacquesDerrida,heencounteredHusserlandhisideaofphilosophyconceivedasastrictscience,andhowthisbecameinstrumentaltoscramblingandreconstructingtheAfricanknowledge-baseinitshistoricalcontext.
ThisdiscoveryledHountondji,inhisownwords,"toacritiqueofethnoscienceingeneral,understoodasacleverwayoffreezingtraditionalsystemsofknowledgebyemptyingthemoftheirdynamism,oftheirpowertotranscendtheirlimitations,theirautonomouscapacityforenrichmentandimprovement"(Conteh-Morgan2002,p.
xix).
Asexplainedearlier,thegistofAppiah'sdiscussionofthepossibleeffectsofculturalexclusivityfindsfulltreatmentonlyinthe"Epilogue"tothebook.
There,inawell-7Becauseofthis,ourvaluejudgementscanremainstronglycommunity-drivenwhilesuggestingtwoidentifiableapproachesasfollows:one,thattheliberalgoldenruleofmoralityiseitheruniversalbyvirtueofthisglobalideaofcommunity,whichisAppiah'sargument,or,two,thatabettermoraltheoryshouldbeonethatviewstheneedformoralityandthebasisofmoraljudgementasconsequencesoftherelational(communalistic)natureofhumanlifeandexperience,andthereforeasemanatingfromanunboundedsenseofrespectforothersonthestrengthoftheprincipleofmutualitybecauseweidentifywiththeminbothrealandimaginedwaysthroughtheexpansionofoursocialworld.
Thelatter,Ibelieve,ishowWireduapproachesthematter.
SeeCulturalUniversalsandParticulars,Bloomington,IndianaUniversityPress,1996,p.
29.
Communityisthebasisoftheprincipleofsympatheticimpartialitywhich,inWiredu'sview,pullsKant'sprinciple,thecategoricalimperative,backfromthemechanisticallyatomic(metaphysical)apparatusoftheSubjecttothecommunalorrelationalhumanconditionwheremoralitybelongs.
58D.
A.
Masoloexecutednarrative,hetellsoftheconflictthatinevitablyeruptsasaresultoftwoepistemicstances,onethatassumesanunchangingcoreoftheitineraryoftraditionontheonehand,andtheotherthatdrawsfromperspectivesofaworldwhoseexigencieshaveshiftedandwichregardstraditionalreasonanditspremisesasneedingtobefreedfromthefreezeoffixedcustombybothrestructuringandreformulation.
ItisAiméCésaire(1953,31)whoopenshisDiscourseonColonialismwiththestatementsthat"Acivilizationthatprovesincapableofsolvingtheproblemsitcreatesisadecadentcivilization.
Acivilizationthatchoosestocloseitseyestoitsmostcrucialproblemsisastrickencivilization.
Butmoresignificant,acivilizationthatusesitsprinciplesfortrickeryanddeceitisadyingcivilization.
"Césairewaslashingoutattheideaofwhathecontemptuouslyreferstoas"theso-calledEuropeancivilization".
Butsuchfailurescouldoccuranywhereandtoanysystemofculture,Africanonesincluded,thatprovidesnormsonthebasisofwhichthosewholiveunderorwithinitconducttheirlives.
Inthis(Césairean)sense,theproblemthatbothHountondjiandAppiahpointatintheirrespectiveandverydifferentstylesisoneofhistory:thefailureofmanyAfricanintellectualsandleadersofdifferentrankstosufficientlytransformtheirperceptionsandconceptionsoftheworldtoadjusttochangedtimes.
Ontheonehand,Hountondji,informedalsobyGastonBachelard'sideaof"epistemologicalbreak"orrupture,endeavorstopointoutthatcontemporaryAfricanscannotignoretheachievementsofcontemporaryscientificfindingsortechnologicalsolutionstoproblemsbyinsisting,asethnophilosophersweretryingtodo,onrelyingontheclaimsofafoundationalandunchangingviewofmind,oronaworldviewdrivenbyanessentialistandfixedframework.
Thisview,whichunderscorestheideathattheobjectsofknowledge,whethertheyareofscientificinvestigationorofthepracticalprinciplesforguidingdailylives,arenotfoundbutinsteadaremade8bymeansofcarefuldeliberation,nowseemedtoexposeacontradictionwithintheethnophilosophicaldiscourseitself-onethataimsatassertingthesocialityofknowledgeproduction,yet,becauseitwaspressuredbyacolonialinterventionfrom8ThereisadebtheretoBachelard.
See,forexample,Bachelard'sLaphilosophiedunon:essaid'unephilosophiedunouvelespritscientifique,PressesUniversitairesduFrance,1940(Eng.
trans.
G.
C.
Waterston,ThePhilosophyofNo:APhilosophyoftheNewScientificMind,NewYork,OrionPress,1968).
ByinterpretingmodernscienceasakindofreformulationofKant'skeyconceptskeyconceptsofthecategoriesoftheempiricalworldandofhumanreason,Bachelardinsistedthatscienceoccurredinhistorynotinalinearanduninterruptedmanner,butratherinbreaksorruptures.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity59whichitsoughttoextricateitself,slippedbackintoanideologicallystagnantstancebecauseitplacedapremiumonre-assertingthefoundationsofitsautonomy.
Inotherwords,HountondjinowappearstobesayingthatallalongitwashewhowasadheringtotheideaofacommunalproductionofknowledgebyseekingtoengageothersinconstructivedialogueforthebenefitofAfricansocieties.
Byrejectingthepassivityoftheethnophilosophers,hewascallingforthere-organizationofknowledgebyappealingtotherecognitionofthechangedhistoricalcircumstanceofAfricansocieties,acallhesawtobecriticaltotheendogenousproductionofknowledge.
Knowledge,inhisview,isconstitutedthroughdialogueincommunalcontexts,whetheritisthroughtheinformalnarrativesandcontestationsofcultureasweobservetotakeplaceinsearchofthoseprinciplesofpracticalreason;thosethataddresseitherquestionsabouthowwedecidewhattodoinspecificcircumstancesoflife,orquestionsaboutwhatstatesofaffairsareworthrealizing,andwhatobjectivesareworthachieving;orintheformalortheoreticalanalysesofwhatitisthatmakesaparticulardecisionthebest,oraspecificobjectivethebesttoachieve.
Also,foranygivenhistoricalandsocialcondition,thegrowthofknowledgedoesnothavetowaitforsparksorleapstooccurwithintobemeaningfullyindigenous;rather,itcan,andshould,judiciouslyincorporateandindigenizeinawaythatmodifiesforlocalapplicabilitytherelevantcomponentsconsideredeithertobereasonableortohaveworkedelsewhere.
Themethods:mixingnarrativeswithanalysisWeareusedtoviewingandexplainingthepracticeofAfricanphilosophybyfittingitintotheintellectualstampcutoutoftheEuro-Americanconfigurationthatgaveitspost-colonialshape,suchthatAfricanphilosophy,likeitsEuro-Americanancestor,isalsoonlyeither"analytic"or"continental"9,asislargelyalsoindicatedbytheboundariesandbarriersofEuropeanlanguageuse.
However,bythepracticeoffusion,theuseofnarrative,asthecommunalisticmethod,defiesandtranscendsthe9See,forexample,BarryHallen'selaborateanalysisanddiscussionoftheanalyticapproachinAfricanphilosophy-AfricanPhilosophy:TheAnalyticApproach,Trenton,NJ,andAsmara,Eritrea,AfricanWorldPress,2006.
60D.
A.
Masoloanalytic-continentaldemarcation,thusindicating,eventotheEuro-Americanfielditself,thatthesetwointellectualheritagesdonothavetoberegardedbytheirheirsasinimicallyunbridgeable.
10Thequestion,then,is:howareAfricanphilosophersapplyingthis"communalproductionofknowledge"totheirpracticeofphilosophyOr,putdifferently,howaretheyusingthemodelofnarrativisticcommunalengagementandexperiencetoarticulateordiscussspecificphilosophicalissuesThedominantmethodsofexposingphilosophicalexplanationsintheAnglo-AmericanandEuropeanworldtendtobetwo:eitherthegrandinterpretivedescriptionsoftheworld,orthemicroclarificationsoftheintentionsorcontentsofthemindwhichtheexposerswanttoexactlydeterminebycomparingandcontrastingexamplesinbothlanguageandpracticewheresuchintentions,ormeaningsastheyareoftencalled,seemtobetheobjectorpartofaseriesofobjects(ofthought).
Letusconsideranexampleofthefirststyle,ratherrandomly,fromanyexemplifyingtext.
Hereisone:Enfeeblementofthenervesexpressesitselfinthefactthatimpressionsthatshouldmerelyhavethedegreeofstrengthsufficienttomakethemdatafortheunderstandingreachthathigherdegreeatwhichtheymovethewill.
.
.
.
Finally,thecognizancethatIhaveofmywill,althoughitisimmediate,isstillinseparablefromthatofmybody.
.
.
.
(Schopenhauer,2008,138-139).
Theanalyticbrand,ontheotherhand,canbeexemplifiedasfollows,again,justrandomlyselected:Idescribedutilitarianismasasayingthatanactionshouldbeperformedonlyifitpromotesthegreatesthappinessorthegreatestpreferencesatisfaction.
However,thereisanambiguityhere.
Areweevaluatingkindsofactions,orindividualactions,onebyoneThatis,arewetouseutilitarianconsiderationstodecidewhatgeneralrulestofollow,orarewetoapplytheseconsiderationseachtimeaspecificactisatissue.
.
.
.
.
(SeeSober,1995,452)AlthoughthesetwoexamplesdonotstandforallthecommonfeatureswhichcharacterizethetworespectivephilosophicalstylesinEuro-Americanpracticethereof,theyindicatethemonologicalstyleofthethinker-asapersonwhostandsalonewithonlyhis/hermentalrepresentationofrealitytodescribeingeneralinterpretiveterms,asinthefirstexample,orbytryingtodetermineitsmental10Intheirjointessay,"TheImpactofAfricanStudiesonPhilosophy".
Bates,Robert,V.
Y.
Mudimbe,andJeanO'Barreds.
AfricaandtheDisciplines:TheContributionsofResearchinAfricatotheSocialSciencesandHumanities.
Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1993,pp.
113-138,V.
Y.
MudimbeandKwameAnthonyAppiahhavesummeduptheAfricanpathtotheresolutionofsuchantinomyinEuro-AmericanphilosophicaltraditionsinceFrege'sinfluencepositioneditselfmethodicallyagainstthatofHusserl,orHegelbeforehim.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity61intentionsasconveyedbylanguage,asinthesecond.
NowletmegiveanotherexamplewhichIthinkdeviatesfromsuchamonologicalstand.
Thistooisarandomlychosenexample.
Itgoeslikethis:Gracingawallofmyfather'sliving-roomwasavibrant,evocative,andprepossessingworkofartdepictingaforestinhabitedbyelephantsandmen.
Earlychildhoodlessonsonsavoir-faire,tolerance,andmutualrespectweretaughtthroughthisdrawing.
.
.
.
Thisvividimagerycapturedtheattentionofvisitorstoourcompound.
Andthereweremanyvisitors.
Myfatherwasapopularfigure.
.
.
.
(SeeWingo2004,425)Andhereisanotherone:.
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.
.
Dressedinwhitecottontoreflectthesanctityandspiritualstateofherperson,OmuNwagbokasitsonthedaisinherpalace,surroundedbywomencouncilors.
.
.
AsOmu,sheisthewatchdogforthecommunityandIkporoOnitsha.
.
.
.
AnOmuisnotrelatedto,oraccountableto,theObi,themalemonarch.
.
.
[Thiswomanauthorityisabouttooverseeormediateaninterculturaldebateontheissueofwomen'sequalitywithmenfolk.
](SeeNzegwu2006,161)Incontrasttoourfirsttwoexamples,thelattertwohavethefollowingrelationalfeatures:Theyarebothsetincommunalcontextsbywayofbeingcastineithernarrativisticordialogicalformatsorboth.
Theyhavecharacterswhoaredescribedasdrawntogetheraroundasymbolofcommunalsignificanceorauthority.
Theyaresetaroundanddiscusssuccincttheoreticalissueswhichtheyintroduceandexplicatebytheuseofstoriesandtales.
Whilethedialoguesthemselvesinvariablyincorporateeitheranalyticschemesorsometimeslengthyaccounts,thenarrativeshelptounderscoretheideaoftheinter-subjectiveorcommunalproductionofknowledge.
Sometimes,likeonereadsintheDogonandBamanatexts,complexfigurativeorsymbolicformsareusedasstand-insforconceptsinuseintheexposé.
Thethinkerbecomesanarrator,orviceversa.
11Thus,whethertheyareaboutproceduralproprietyand(aliberal)recognitionofthevoicesofallthoseinvolvedinandtouchedbyfamilyevents,ortheimpromptudialoguebetweenOgwang'andagroupofthose11Iamremindedhereoftheepicstory,whichisafilm,TaafeFanga(translatedas'SkirtPower'),inwhichaBamanagriottellsofcommonmisconceptionsofgenderequality,andtheresistancebyaonce-dominantandsecrecypronepatriarchalsystemofthegroupinthehistoricalanddifficultpathtowardasystemofmutualgenderrecognitionandrespectonthebasisof'equalityindifference'.
62D.
A.
Masolohecallsmoralhypocrites12,narrativesareusedtoframeissuesofinterestingphilosophicalinquiry(orargument)suchasthedefenseoftheimportanceandrelevanceofliberalismasapublicethic,theconceptofart,orthedefinitionofamorallygoodlife.
Again,whetherOgwang'soranotherperson's,thenarrativesoftentakeeitherthebiographicalorautobiographicalform,inwhichthenarratortakesthewitnessstandtorepresentmattersasaparticipantinadiscoursewhosesignificancesupersedesamonologue.
Forknowledgeisnotamonologueofsingleactoracts.
This,Icontend,isnewtotheWesternacademicdiscourse,andmakesphilosophicaldiscussionsinterestingonatleasttwolevels-ofthetheoriestheyarticulate,andoftheculturallyrichandinformativestoriestheytell.
Africanphilosophershavecarriedandbroughttheirstylisticroots,thenarrativisticform,withthemintotheWesterndiscoursegenerally,andparticularlyintoitsacademicdiscoursewheretheideaofcommunityhasspread.
Twothingscanberelatedtothisphenomenon.
First,itre-insertstheinvolvementofpersonsandhumaninterestsintothedynamicsofknowledgeproductioninanovelmannerbyunderscoringitsinter-subjectivecharacter.
Itwouldthenfollowthatthestandardsofjudgmentofwhatisaestheticallypleasing,whatismorallygood,whatissociallyattainableoracceptable,orwhatisepistemologicallytrueare,orcanonlybethefunctionofthediscursiveandinter-subjectiveenterprisethatalonedefineswhatitmeanstobehuman.
Ifwegrant,then,thatthesocialworldisalwaysfluidandunfixed,andgivenstabilityonlybyculturalactsofhumanchoiceasthecomplexDogonliteraturetells,thenwho,12Ogwang'isafigurethatsometimesisreal,andquitefictitiousatotherswhenhisimageisevokedtorepresentalocalvoice.
Butinthisinstanceheisreal—henarrateshisconfrontationwithagroupofChristiansreturningfromChurchwhileheisonhiswayhomefromanovernightculturalmusicalperformance.
Thoseinthegrouptellhimthatheiscondemnedtohellupondeathbecause,accordingtotheirnewChristianteachings,hisperformancesareassociatedwith"evil"becausetheymorallycorruptsociety.
Peoplewhocommitevilactsgotohell.
Inhislyricalresponse,Ogwang'seekstoknowwhatitisaboutthisnewmoralframeworkthatmakesitsuperiortothemoralorderofhisownpeoplewhosemaximshehasfollowedtohisbestability.
Onthesematters,heobserves,neithertheso-calledgods,northeso-calledsatansgivehimsatisfactoryexplanations,andconcludesthatifbyheavenismeantmoralapproval,thenheseekstoknowwhysuddenly(whichishisideaoftheabruptappearanceofChristianity)aperformancethatonlymakespeoplehappyandcelebratestheirgooddeedsnowbecomesagroundforcondemnation.
Heconcludesthatwhenjudgedbyhisownpeople'smaximsamorallygoodlife,eventheChristianSatanwouldbebewilderedbywhataninsurpassableperformerheisthatmakeseveryonehappy,includingSatanhimselfwhowouldbeknockedoffbyhisskills.
Inconclusion,Ogwang'saysthatheknowsofnomoralorderthatdoesnotreflectanactor'sawarenessofthosesocial-moralstandardsthatmakelifegoodforpersonsintheirsocieties.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity63orwhat,doIconsidermyselftobeAndhowdoIfunctionasanagentofepistemological,moral,oraestheticjudgmentsinsucharelationallyconstruedworldAsareaderofthispiecethisfar,youprobablysuspectalreadythereferencesthatIwouldwanttomakehere13toillustratehowsomeAfricanphilosophershaveappliedtheseanswerstosomemetaphysical,epistemological,ethical,political,andaestheticpositionswithinthecorpusofAfricanphilosophicaltext.
Whetheritisaboutthescientificstories,orthoseintenselycontentiousmoralones,thoseaboutaestheticforms,orabouthowweinfluencepublicpolicybypracticingourcivilrights,thelanguageandpracticesofinquiryareonlyguidestoasharedapproachtothosedeliberationsanddecisionsonmatterswhichaffecteveryone.
Theideaofasharedapproachtoknowledgeisonethataddresseseveryone.
Forinstance,theideaofjuokasamoraldispositionthatcallsforresponsibleconductmightbeanidiomlocaltospeakersoftheLuolanguageinEasternAfrica;butitsobjectisbynomeansrestricted,orrestrictable,tothespecificsofthespecificconductofpersonswithinthesocialandgeographicalenvironmentoftheLuoasacommunity.
Indeed,inaworldthattodayisnolongerexactlyasitwasforapersoninsuchlimitedcircumstances,theplayingfieldfromwhichapersonbecameasubjectofmoralcharacterizationhasalsochanged,expandingcorrespondinglywithhis/herworldofsojourn.
InthelocalLuoenvirons,ajajuokwasanagentwhosesocialmischiefwaslimitedtoroamingandfrighteningpeopleintheobscurityofnight,usuallyhis/herownrelativesandneighborsinadjoininghomesteadstohis/herown.
Undernewcircumstanceswheretheformerlylocaljajuokhasbeenabletotravelawayfromhome,andwherehe/shesuddenlyrealizesthattheconceptualextensionof13Amongthesomanytextsoutthereondiversecommunitarianissues,thefollowingserveonlyasindicative.
Formetaphysical,epistemological,andethicalimplications,seeWiredu,Kwasi,PhilosophyandanAfricanCulture,London,CambridgeUniversityPress,1980,andCulturalUniversalsandParticulars,Bloomington,IndianaUniversityPress,1996;onagooddiscussionofAfricancommunitarianism,see,forexample,Gyekye,Kwame,TraditionandModernity,PhilosophicalReflectionontheAfricanExperience,Philadelphia,TempleUniversityPress,1997;forsocialidentitiesofpersonsandheirimplicationonethics,see,forexample,Appiah,KwameA.
,TheEthicsofIdentity,Princeton,NJ,PrincetonUniversityPress,2005,andCosmopolitanism:EthicsinaWorldofStrangers,NewYork,W.
W.
NortonandCo.
Publishers,2006;inaesthetics,seeWingo,Ajume,"AfricanArtandtheAestheticsofHidingandRevealing".
InBritishJournalofAesthetics,Vol.
38,No.
1,July1998,pp.
277-291,"TheJoyofLivingTogether:TowardsanAppreciationofLaughter".
InJournalofPoliticalPhilosophy,Vol.
18,No.
2,2005,etc.
;Wiredu,Kwasi1980;1996;2004,andseveralothers;andinfeminism,seeNzegwu,NkiruU.
,FamilyMatters,FeministConceptsinAfricanPhilosophyofCulture,Albany,NY,StateUniversityofNewYork(SUNY)Press,2006.
64D.
A.
Masolo"amischievousact"coversagloballyextendablefieldofsimilaracts,thecharacterizationcallsforanexpandingrevision.
So,whoisajajuokAsIhavesaidelsewhere14,contrarytotheonce-populartendencytoexplaintheterminmetaphysicalterms,amorecompleteconsiderationoftheusesofitsuggestsunmistakablythatitdescribesthemoralcontentofactions.
Becauseamoralactionisonethatisevaluatedinrespecttowhetherornotitisintendedtocauseharmtoothers,thetermisoverwhelminglyusedtorefertothoseactionswhich,subjecttoasociety'smaximsandlistingofharms,arejudgedtobeill-intentionedinthoseregards.
First,then,accordingtothatpracticalwisdom,ajajuokisafearmonger-he/shepeddlesfearunwarrantedlyamongmembersofthecommunitybydeliberatelycreatinganatmosphereofgeneraluncertaintyandapprehension,inwhichpeoplefeelthatsometimestheirliveswouldbethreatenedincertainspecificplaces.
Tosuccessfullycreatesuchangst,apersonwithsuchintentioneitherwaylaysandfrightenspassers-byatsuchaplaceafewtimes,ormerelystartsafalsestoryclaimingtheoccurrenceofsuchincidences.
Eitherway,wordwillspreadwithinthecommunityandevenbeyondthatsomeunspecifieddangerlurksaroundsuchselectedlocations.
Becauseajajuokactsundertheconvenienceofsomekindofconcealmentsuchasdarkness,thenetresultofhis/heractionsistheimpositionofamentalcurfewonacommunitywhosememberslearntorestricttheirmovementbytimeorlocationforfearofanindeterminatesourceofdanger.
Incontemporaryglobalterms,concernsforsecurityasexemplifiedinimposedchecksatbordercrossingpoints,orotherformsoftravelrelatedrestrictions,speaktotheeffectsofmoralcallousnessinhumanintentionsasiscontainedintheideaofjuok,completewiththebehavioralresponsesitprovokes.
Stillinlocalidioms,apersonwasalsocharacterizedasajajuokifhe/shedeliberatelydidthingsthatposedoutrightdangertoacommunity,suchas,forinstance,pollutingcommonresourceslikewaterorforests,eitherdirectly,orbycompromisingtheconditionsoftheirgeneration.
Apersonwhodiscardshis/hertrashorothertypesof14See,forexample,"TheConceptofthePersoninLuoModesofThought",inBrown,LeeM.
,ed.
,AfricanPhilosophy:NewandTraditionalPerspectives,NewYork,OxfordUniversityPress,pp.
84-106,andThemesinAfricanPhilosophy:SelfandCommunityinaChangingWorld(forthcoming,IndianaUniversityPress).
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity65pollutantsintopublicwaterways,orinwatercatchmentareas,orwhobyanypremeditatedactinhibitspublicaccesstheretoortoanyotherpublicresource,isconsideredajajuokbecausebyhis/herdeliberateactions,he/shecausesfearandanxietyinpeoplebyexposingthemtoharm,whetheractualoronlypotential.
Ajajuokactsinsuchmischievouswaysastointerruptthenormalcourseofdailylifeofthegeneralpublic.
Itdoesnotmattertoajajuokthateitherbyignoranceorbymiscalculation,he/shetoomaybecomeavictimofhis/herownacts.
Usually,however,he/shetakesprecautiontoprotecthimself/herselfandselectedothersfromtheintendedeffectsofhis/heractionswhich,inhis/herestimation,aredirectedatotherpeople.
Ajajuokisnotapersonatwar,becausehis/hervictim(s)isnotdefined,henceitishis/hermoralmotivationthatbecomesanissue.
Toshieldhimself/herselffromaccusationsofresponsibilityinspecificcases,ajajuokwillgivetheimpressionthathe/shetoois,likeeveryoneaffected,justasmuchavictimofthedeedsofwhichhe/sheisaccused,sothattherealculprits,themoralagents,mustbeothers.
Translatedintothelanguageofglobalconcern,theexamplesabovepointtodifficultethicalproblemsatbothpersonalandinstitutionallevels.
Atapersonallevel,dangersposedbyajajuoktosocietycanbecomparedto,say,theactionsofserialstalkersandkillers,orsexualoffenderssuchaschildmolesters,rapists,andotherpredatorycharacterswhoseactionsareunpredictableintermsoftheirtiming,location,orvictim,butwhononethelessmanifestsomeundesirablepatternintheirbehaviour.
Attheinstitutionallevel,worriesaboutajajuok'sbreachoftheavailabilityorsafetyofpublicresourcesresonatewithcontemporaryconcernsaboutissuesofenvironmentalethics,suchasconcernsaboutdifferentactsthatdirectlyorindirectlyleadtoenvironmentaldegradationatalllevelsofthesocio-politicalspectrum,thatis,local,national,regional,andglobal.
Ihaveinmindthedominantmoralfiguresinthevillage,andtheirconstantreprimandofthosewhotransgressthesocialspaceincludingtheenvironment.
Thattheseindividualsplayanimportantroleinshapingthecommunity'smoralcharacterisnotindispute.
Theiractionsbecomeparametersalongwhichwemodelourpublicinstitutionssuchasnationalenvironmentalwatchdogswhichsetstandardsforindustrialactivities.
Theexampleoftheidiomofjuokabovemayfirsthavearisentoaddressvillagemorality,butitnowaddresses,byexpandedapplication,newformsofpersonaland66D.
A.
Masolosocialresponsibilityanywhereandeverywhere.
TheexpansionofthefieldsofapplicationallowsforevocationandrelationofprinciplesofmoralconducttonewmatterssuchastheHIV/AIDSpandemic.
Thequestion,pertinenttoallethicalconcerns,canbeframedthus:howamItobehavetoensurethatIdothemorallyrightthinginsituationsofHIV/AIDSThesearchforananswertothisquestioncanstartwiththeinstructivelyricsofOgwang'k'OkothLelo.
Althoughheframestheselyricsindeeplylocalizedmodesofdelivery,Ogwang'knowsquitewell,likemanyothersaroundhim,thatthecircumstancesandcontextsofmoralresponsibilityandconductdochangeandexpandwithone'ssojournintothewiderworld,andsothefactorsthatinformourevaluationofsuchconductshouldcommensuratelychangetofitwiththeexpandedscopeofourmoralawareness.
15ConclusionThecommunalorrelationalcharacterofAfricanthoughtisnotlimitedtothenarrative,althoughtheuseofthismodegoesalongwaytodemonstrateitsubiquityinAfricanphilosophicaltexts.
Rather,asisevidentinsuchexpositionsasKwasiWiredu'sdefinitionofthenatureoftruth,partofhisbroaderphilosophico-anthropologicalanalysisoftheideaofpersonhood,itisanaxiomaticassumptiononwhichsignificantdifferencesbetweenAfricanandothermodesofthoughtcanandalreadydoemerge.
Whatisimportanttokeepinmindisthattheviewthatcommunityisnotan"entity"withfixedandreproduciblecharacteristicsdoesnotcompromise15Ogwang''slyrics,sanginhisethnicLuopoetryandaccompaniedbytheNyatitiharp,hisspecialty,gosomehowlikethis:"Ah!
YoumakesomuchnoisejusttotellmethatIwillgotohell!
Andthereason,youtellme,isthatIsingthepraisesofmypeopleandmakethemhappyYourmoralordersoundscrookedindeed-thatsomeonemustbepunishedforcelebratingwithhispeopleandformakingthemhappy!
SoIknockedatthegatesoftheirheavenandsangfortheirgod,andhesaidhehadnoproblemswithsonofOkoth.
ThenIproceededtosingfortheirSatanwho,inbewildermentaboutmyskillsinpraisinghim,fellintoatrancewhileIwentintoheaven.
For,Ifornicatenot,stealnot,andIaminmostotherwayssociallyandmorallyupright;inmypeople'seyes,Iamagoodman,andthatiswhatmatters.
Butyou[addressingthegroupofChristians]mustbehypocriteswholivebythestandardsofforeignlandswhichyoufathomnot,butmakenoisetosubvertwhatgovernsagoodmoralorderandsocialsystem".
Althoughheinsistsonbeingjudgedbythenormsofhislocalmoralcode,Ogwang'appearsinhislyricstohavebeenacutelyawareoftheuniversalityofmorallawandofthedemandsofmoralresponsibility.
NarrativeandExperienceofCommunity67communitarianismasaprincipleofthought.
Finally,astheinclusionofconceptsfromAfricanculturalbeliefsandknowledgesystemsinnewpublicationsofreferencetextsdobearwitness,formerlyrestrictedusesoflocalidiomsarefinallyfindingtheirwayintothegloballexicon,therebyenablingcomparativeanalysesofideasinwaysthatuntilnowremainedoutsidethecirclesofpossibility.
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