presentationsscaleup

RESEARCHOpenAccessDiffusionofresearch-basedinstructionalstrategies:thecaseofSCALE-UPKathleenTFoote1*,XaverNeumeyer2,CharlesHenderson2,MelissaHDancy3andRobertJBeichner1AbstractBackground:Manyinnovativeteachingstrategieshavebeendevelopedundertheassumptionthatdocumentingsuccessfulstudentlearningoutcomesatthedevelopmentsiteisenoughtospreadtheinnovationsuccessfullytosecondarysites.
Sincethis'showthemandtheywilladopt'modelhasyettoproducethedesiredlarge-scaletransformation,thisstudyexaminesoneinnovativeteachingstrategythathasdemonstratedsuccessinspreading.
Thisinstructionalstrategy,Student-CenteredActiveLearningEnvironmentwithUpside-downPedagogies(SCALE-UP),modifiesboththepedagogyandclassroomdesigntomaximizeinteractionandactivity-basedlearning.
AwebsurveywasusedtodevelopacensusofinstructorswhohavebeeninfluencedbySCALE-UP.
Results:SCALE-UP,whichstartedinlargeenrollmentuniversityphysics,hasspreadwidelyacrossdisciplinesandinstitutions.
ThesurveyidentifiedthatSCALE-UPstyleinstructioniscurrentlyusedinoveradozendisciplinesataminimumof314departmentsinatleast189highereducationinstitutionsin21countries.
ManymorerespondentsindicatedlearningaboutSCALE-UPviainterpersonalchannels,suchastalks/workshopsandcolleagues,thanviamassmediachannels,suchastheInternetandpublications.
WeestimatethedisseminationofSCALE-UPinphysicsmaybeatthetippingpointbetweenadoptionbyadventurousearlyusersandthemoremainstreammajority.
ImplementersdemonstratepedagogicalandstructuralvariationintheiruseofSCALE-UP.
Conclusions:Leveraginginterpersonalnetworkscanhelpacceleratedisseminationofeducationalinnovationsandshouldbeusedmoreprominentlyinchangestrategies.
SinceSCALE-UPmaybenearingatippingpointwithinthedisciplineofphysics,nowmaybethetimetomodifychangestrategiestoappealtomoretypicalfacultyratherthantheearlyadopters.
Thismayincludeusingsuccessfulsecondaryimplementersaslike-mindedintermediariestoreachouttopeopleconsideringtheuseoftheinnovationindifferentinstitutionalsettingsformorepracticalandrelatableadvice.
ForSCALE-UP,havingaspecializedclassroommayimprovethelikelihoodofcontinueduseataninstitution.
Wealsohypothesizethathavingaspecialclassroommaystartdepartmentalconversationsaboutinnovativeteachingandmaymakeinstructorslesslikelytorevertbacktotraditionalmethods.
BackgroundMuchtime,money,andefforthasbeenspentindeve-lopinginnovativeteachingpedagogies,documentingtheireffectiveness,anddisseminatingtheresults.
Althoughtheseeffortshavehadsomeimpactonteachingpractices,therehasbeennosystematicmovementofcollegeinstruc-tionatlargeresearchinstitutionstowardconsistencywithresearch-basedbestpractices(e.
g.
,Wiemanetal.
2010,DancyandHenderson2010,Handelsmanetal.
2004,HendersonandDancy2009a,NationalResearchCouncil2003,Redish2003).
Reformerstypicallydevelopanewpedagogyattheirinstitutionandthendisseminatethenewinstructionalmodelthroughtalks,workshops,andpapers.
Thisdevelopmentanddisseminationmodelofre-formassumesthattellingfacultyaboutgoodteachingideaswillleadfacultytointegratetheseideasintotheirteachingpractices.
However,thisintuitive'showthemandtheywilladopt'modelhasyettoproducedesiredlarge-scaletransformations,indicatingthatamorerobustresearch-basedmodelofchangeisneeded(Fairweather2008;Seymour2001;Hendersonetal.
2011).
Inadditiontolackinganoverallmodelofhownewteachingideasspread,veryfewstudiesdocumentwhathappenswhensecondarysitesattemptimplementations.
*Correspondence:ktfoote@ncsu.
edu1PhysicsDepartment,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,StinsonDrive,Raleigh,NC27606,USAFulllistofauthorinformationisavailableattheendofthearticle2014Footeetal.
;licenseeSpringer.
ThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicense(http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.
0),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycredited.
Footeetal.
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stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10Usually,anindividualorsmallgroupdevelopareformedpedagogyanddisseminatesitforuseinmanydifferenteducationalsettings.
However,theuniquecombinationofstudents,instructors,andstructuresateachlocationcom-plicatetransitionstoothersites(FinkelsteinandPollock2005;PollockandFinkelstein2007;SabellaandBowen2003;SaulandRedish1997;Sharmaetal.
2010).
Further-more,secondaryimplementersoftenlackthegrantfund-ing,aprojectteam,facultyreleasetime,andeducationexpertsthatcontributedtosuccessatthedevelopmentsite.
Asthemostcommontypeofsite,secondaryimple-mentationsdeservecloseattentionespeciallyfromreformdeveloperswhowanttheirinnovativeteachingstrategiestospreadsuccessfully.
Thesesitesalsodeservemoreattentionbecausesecond-aryimplementerscanmakesignificantmodificationsthatcancomprisetheintendedresultsofthereform.
Instruc-torsoftenadaptreform,andoften,thesechangesareinthedirectionoftraditionalinstruction(DancyandHenderson2010;Henderson2005,2008;HendersonandDancy2009a;HendersonandDancy2009b).
Withoutinvestigat-inghowtheimplementationhasbeenadapted,'itmaybedifficulttointerpretlearningoutcomesandtorelatethesetopossibledeterminants'(FullanandPomfret1977,p.
338).
Thisisespeciallyimportantforlesssuccessfulsites,sincelower-than-expectedgainscandisappointandfrus-trateadopters.
Forexample,researchersstudyinglearninggainsatasecondarysitefoundthatimprovementsinstu-dentlearningafterusinginteractivelecturedemonstrationswere'nowherenear'thoseclaimedbydevelopers(Sharmaetal.
2010).
Theresearcherswereunabletoidentifythereasonsforthesedisappointingresults.
Tounderstandwhysomesitesaremoresuccessfulthanothers,itisimportanttomonitorthedetailsofimplementation,notjustthere-formtheyclaimtobeusing.
ThisprojectexamineshowtheStudent-CenteredActiveLearningEnvironmentwithUpside-downPedagogies(SCALE-UP)(Beichneretal.
2007;Beichner2008)reformspreadandhowsecondarysitesimplementthereform.
Ourintentisthatthisstudywill(1)contributetoaresearch-basedunderstandingabouthowreformsspread,(2)identifytypicalmodificationsmadeinsecondaryimplementations,and(3)developrecommendationstoguidecurriculumde-veloperstowardmoresuccessfuldissemination.
AlthoughthisstudyisfocusedontheSCALE-UPinstructionalstrat-egy,webelievethattheresultsarerelevantmorewidelytoinstructionalchangeinhighereducation.
WhatisSCALE-UPandwhyexamineitforthisstudyDr.
RobertBeichnerdevelopedSCALE-UPforlargeen-rollmentuniversityphysicscoursesatNorthCarolinaStateUniversityin1997.
Aswehavefoundinthisstudy,thisreformedpedagogyandclassroomenvironmenthassuccessfullycrosseddisciplinesandcontinentsandiscurrentlyusedinatleast314departmentsat189highereducationinstitutionsworldwide.
Thisstudycloselyex-aminesthedisseminationandimplementationofthisspecificinstructionalstrategyinordertodevelopgeneraltrendsthatmayhelpothereducationalinnovationsbe-comesuccessful,likeSCALE-UP.
SCALE-UPisaradicalreform.
InSCALE-UP,instruc-torsmodifytheirpedagogytominimizelectureandmakemajorphysicalchangestotheclassroomarrangement.
Whenimplementedwell,radicalreformslikeSCALE-UPhavebeenshowntoleadtohigherlearningoutcomesthanmoremodestreforms(Redish2003).
SCALE-UPchangestheinstructionalmethodologyandcoursestructurebyin-tegratinglab-lecturerecitationandredesigningtheclass-roomtoastudioenvironment.
RoundorD-shapedtables,whiteboardsonwalls,andtechnologywithprojectioncap-abilitiesfacilitatecollaborationandsharingofstudentwork.
Noobvious'front'oftheroomencouragesinstruc-torstominimizelecture,circulateandengageteamsofstudentsinSocraticdialogs,real-worldproblemsolving,andtechnology-richactivities.
Reformsthatinvolvestruc-turalchanges,likeSCALE-UP,requiredepartmentalbuy-inandthusmaybehardertoadopt.
Wehypothesizethatthisinvestmentinstructuralchangesmayalsodecreasethechanceofdiscontinuationoncethereformisineffect.
SCALE-UPpresentsaninterestingcasestudyformul-tiplereasons.
First,SCALE-UPisnotdisciplineorcur-riculumspecific.
Thelargenumberofsecondarysitesallowsustoidentifydiscipline-baseddifferencesandin-vestigatethewayspeopleusethereforminanassort-mentofinstitutionalsettings.
Additionally,informationaboutSCALE-UPhasbeensuccessfullydisseminatedthroughavarietyofformalandinformalmeans,bothbythedeveloperandbyothersites.
Finally,sincesomanysiteshaveadoptedSCALE-UPatdifferenttimesoverthepasttwodecades,wecanexaminesitesatdifferentim-plementationstagesandonesthathaveachieveddiffer-entdegreesofspreadwithintheuniversities.
SCALE-UPhasbeenshowntoimprovestudentproblem-solvingabilities,conceptualunderstanding,atti-tudestowardscience,retentioninintroductorycourses(Beichneretal.
2007;Beichneretal.
2000),andperform-anceinlatercourses(Dorietal.
2003).
Tospreadthesebenefitssuccessfully,itisextremelyimportanttounder-standhowsecondaryimplementationsofhighlyinnova-tivecurricula,likeSCALE-UP,work.
Byexaminingwhytheyareadopted,if/howmodificationsadjustthereformtotheiruniquecontext,andtheimpactthesemodifica-tionshaveonstudentlearning,wecanpromotethedif-fusionofeffectiveandsustainedreforms.
LiteraturereviewThissectionbrieflysummarizesseveralclaimsfromthedif-fusionofimplementations(DOI)literatureandinnovativeFooteetal.
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stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10teachingresearchthatarerelevanttothisstudy.
AccordingtoRogers(2003),diffusionistheprocessinwhichaninnovationiscommunicatedthroughcertainchannelsovertimeamongthemembersofasocialsystem.
DOItheorydescribesthisprocess,wheresociallyconstructedinforma-tionaboutanewideaiscommunicatedfrompersontoper-son.
Rogers(2003)developedtheseideasafteranalyzingawidevarietyofinnovations-fromfarmersusinganewhy-bridseedtophysiciansutilizinganewdrugtocorporationsincorporatinganewtechnology-andthetheoryalsoap-pliestoeducationalinnovations(Nutleyetal.
2002;BermanandMcLaughlin1978;GreenandJohnson1996).
Wechosethisframeworksinceitexploresthedynamicprocessbe-tweencommunicationandinnovationimplementationinasocialcontext.
Wehopeitwillhelpusunderstandhowin-formationaboutSCALE-UPiscommunicatedandhowthisreformisadoptedandutilizedandchangesbehavioratsec-ondarysites.
Thisframeworkdoesnotassumeasimple,lin-earprogressionfromproductdevelopmenttoadoptionandthusallowsustoexplorethestagesofspreadindetail.
Ac-cordingtotheDOItheory,thespreadofinformationaboutaninnovationandtheimplementationprocessisinfluencedbyfourfactors:innovationattributes,communicationchan-nels,adoptercharacteristics,andadaptation.
Theliteratureclaimsthatthefollowingfactorsinflu-encethespreadofinformationaboutaninnovationanditsimplementationatasecondarysite.
InnovationattributesRogers(2003)identifiedseveralinnovationattributesthataidrapiddiffusion.
Weconsiderthesehere,inrelationtoSCALE-UP.
First,successfulinnovationsareperceivedtohaveasignificantrelativeadvantageovercurrentalterna-tives.
Aspreviouslymentioned,asaradicalreform,SCALE-UPhasbeendemonstratedtodramaticallyim-provestudentlearning(Beichneretal.
2007;Beichneretal.
2000;Beichner2008).
Thus,webelievethatdepart-mentsseekingtosubstantiallychangetheireducationaltechniqueswillperceiveSCALE-UPasawaytosignifi-cantlychangeeducationaloutcomes.
Secondly,usersaremorelikelytoadoptinnovationswithhigh-perceivedcom-patibilitywithpastpractices,currentvalues,andexistingneeds.
SCALE-UPisunlikelytobecompatiblewithpastpracticesinmosttraditionaldepartments.
Thus,itseemslikethatmoreinnovativedepartments,whohavebeentrialingmoreinteractiveeducationalpedagogies,maybeamongthefirsttoadopt.
Next,usersaremorelikelytoadoptlowcomplexityinnovationsthatcanbereadilyunderstoodandeasilyimplemented.
AlthoughSCALE-UPrequiresmanystructuralchangestoimplement,theunderlyingprinciplesarerelativelystraightforwardandin-tuitivetounderstand.
Adoptingapedagogyandclassroomspacetosupportactiveandcollaborativelearning(Beichner2008)seemssensibletomostusers,whichcanaidthespreadofSCALE-UP.
Fourth,usersaremorelikelytoadoptinnovationswithhightrialability,wherenewideascanbetriedoutatalowcostbeforeitiscompletelyadopted.
SinceSCALE-UPrequiresmodifyingtheclass-roomspaceandoftentheschedule(tocombinethelecture,lab,andrecitationsectionsofacourse),ahigh-fidelitySCALE-UPimplementationisnotcheaporeasytotrialonatemporarybasis.
However,webelievethatoncedepart-mentsmaketheinvestment,observability,thefifthcharac-teristicofsuccessfulreforms,significantlyfacilitatesthesuccessofSCALE-UP.
Observabilitymeasuresthedegreewithwhichotherscanviewtheuseandbenefitsoftheinnovation,thusstimulatingfurtheruptakebyothers.
SinceaSCALE-UPclassroomlookssodifferentfromatraditionallecturehall,webelievethatobservabilitywillbeakeyfactorthatpromotesthespreadofSCALE-UPwithinandbetweeninstitutions.
InadditiontotheseclassicinnovationcharacteristicsidentifiedbyRogers,otherresearchershaveidentifiedpotentiallyimportantcharacteristics,suchasadaptabil-ity,centralitytotheday-to-dayworkoftheorganization,andtheminimalrequirementforadditionalvisiblere-sources(Wolfe1994).
Forourstudy,anotheraspectofSCALE-UPisthatadepartment,notanindividual,isoftentheadoptingunit.
SinceSCALE-UPrequiressuchadramaticrestructuringandoftenafinancialinvest-ment,thedecisiontoadoptisoftenmadeatthedepart-mentlevel.
Thus,insteadofanalyzingthediffusionofideasamongindividuals,wechosetolookatthespreadofideasamongdepartmentsandelecttousethatgrainsizeforthemajorityourstudy.
Thischoiceissupportedbyotherresearchoninnovationsinorganizations(Katz1962;Nutleyetal.
2002;Lewin1947;Wildemuth1992;Zaltmanetal.
1973)butcanintroducecomplicatingfac-torssincethestrengthofevidenceonwhetheradoptionwillleadtoimprovedeffectivenessdoesnotseemtobethemainfactorinfluencingadoptiondecisions(Stocking1985;Westphaletal.
1997)butinsteaddependmoreoncurrentfadsandfashions,especiallyduringtimesofhighuncertainty(DiMaggioandPowell1983).
CommunicationchannelsAccordingtoDOI,thecommunicationchannelsthroughwhichthemessagespreadsalsoinfluencetherateofadoption.
Adistinctionisgenerallymadebetweeninter-personal,wheremessagesoriginatefromlocalsources,andmassmediachannels,wheremessagescomesfromdistantsources(Rogers2003).
Disseminatingeducationalinnovationsvia'massmar-ketchannels'(Rogers2003)suchaswebsites,conferencepresentations,andjournalpublicationscanraiseaware-nessofaninnovation.
However,tomovepotentialusersfromlearningsomethingnewtochangingtheirprac-tices,interpersonalchannelsareoftenmoreinfluentialFooteetal.
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stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10whenitcomestobehavior(Borregoetal.
2010;Rogers2003).
Furthermore,intermediariesbetweentheinnovators(curriculumdevelopersinourcase)andthebroadmassofpotentialadoptersareoftenanimportantcommunicationchannelbetweenthesedissimilargroups.
Theseincludeopinionleaderswhoadopttheinnovationthemselvesearlyonandtendtobemoreinnovativeandofahigherstatusthantheirnearpeers.
Thishelpsmoreconservativemiddleandlateadoptersovercomecautionabouttherisksin-volvedwithadopter.
Secondly,intermediarychangeagentscanworkproactivelytoexpediteandwideninnovationusagebyreducingbarriers,persuadingadopters,andsup-portingadoptiondecisions.
Theseleadersbridgethedividebetweentechnicalexpertsandclientssotheycanmediateinteractionsandworkeffectivelywithbothgroups.
Thecredibilityofthechangeagentandlevelofcontactwiththechangeagentarebothpositivelyrelatedtothedecisiontoadopt(Rogers2003;Colemenetal.
1966).
Inthisproject,weinvestigatehowpeoplelearnedaboutSCALE-UP.
Inadditiontomassmarketchannels,weprobesocialconnections-whichtheoryindicatesareessentialtothereformprocess-throughaSCALE-UPcensus.
Oursurveyidentifiesusers,askshowtheylearnedaboutthereform,andexamineswhetherthecommunicationmethodimpactstheiruseofthereform.
Wehypothesizethatmass-marketchannelsmaybeim-portantearlyonbutthatinterpersonalchannelsacceler-atethespreadofSCALE-UP.
AdoptercharacteristicsTypically,aninnovationneedsacriticalmassofadoptersbeforeitcanachieveaself-sustainingspread.
Forsuccess-fuldissemination,therateofadoptiontypicallyfollowsanS-shapedcurvelikethatshowninFigure1,wheretherateofadoption'takesoff'onceinterpersonalnetworksbe-comeactivatedinspreadingtheideafrompeertopeerwithinasystem.
Theadoptionratebeginstoleveloffafterhalfofthesocialsystemusesit,sincenon-knowersbe-comescarce.
Diffusionofinnovationtheoryallowsustocategorizeadopters'characteristicsbasedontheirtendenciestoadopt(Rogers2003;Moore2002).
Althoughthecharacter-isticsandS-curvepercentagesaregeneralizations,devel-opersshouldpayattentiontothiscurveandideallytargeteachgroupwithadifferentdiffusionstrategy(GreenandJohnson1996).
AsshowninFigure1,Rogersdescribesthefirst2.
5%ofadoptersasinnovators.
Innovatorstendtobesocial,willingtotakerisks,andcloselyconnectedtoscien-tificsources.
Earlyadopters,thenextgroup,arealsoedu-cated,haveahighsocialstatus,andtypicallyhavethehighestopinionleadershipoftheadoptergroups.
Accord-ingtoRogers,innovatorsandearlyadoptersbothrespondtothenewnessofanideaandarenotdeterredbythingsthatmaynotworkperfectly.
However,theearlymajorityaremuchmoreconservativeandcautious,whichiswhenchangeagentsandopinionleadersbecomeimportantinspreadingtheideaamidstthispopulation.
Theimplicationisthatchangeinitiativesshouldchangetheirstrategiesinaccordancewithchangingadopterchar-acteristicsiftheywanttheirinnovationtospreadtothemainstream.
Onceaninnovationhasreachedtheinnova-torsandearlyadopters(somewherearound16%adoption),themarketingstrategyneedstochangetoappealtothemorehesitantearlymajority(Moore2002;Rogers2003).
Inthisproject,wewillcomparethediffusionofSCALE-UPtotheS-curveandidentifyhowcloseSCALE-UPistothe16%tippingpoint.
IfSCALE-UPpassesthistippingFigure1S-shapedadoptioncurve,adaptedfromRogers(2003)withadoptercategories.
Thethickverticallinedenotesthe'chasm'betweenadoptionbytheadventurousearlyusers(16%ofadopters)andmorehesitantearlymajority.
Footeetal.
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stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10point,disseminationmayneedtoinvolvechangeagentsandopinionleaderstoconvincethemainstream.
RoleofadaptationDiffusioncanrangeonacontinuumfromhighlycentral-ized(topdowndiffusionfromexperttousers)withalowdegreeofadaptationtodecentralizedsystemswithahighdegreeoflocaladaptation(wherediffusionhappensthroughhorizontalnetworkswithawidesharingofpowerandcontrolamongmembers).
Ingeneral,researchanddevelopmentagenciestendtopromoteahighfidelity,top-downapproachandmaycon-siderreinventionasadistortionoftheiroriginaltechnolo-gies.
Thus,historically,disseminationofreformshastakenalinear,top-downapproachinthedevelopmentanddisseminationmodel,presentingfacultywithapackagedready-to-gocurriculumdesignedforunmodifieduse.
Thismodeldoesnotacknowledgetheexpertiseofadoptingfaculty,whorarelywanttousereformsasdesignedandmayadaptreformsbacktowardtraditionalinstruction(HutchinsonandHuberman1994;HendersonandDancy2008).
Ontheotherhand,adopterstendtothinkthatreinven-tionisadesirablequalitybecauseitpromotesacloserfitwiththeirneedsandstudiesineducation.
Researchsug-geststhatinstructorsaremoreopentoacollaborativeap-proach,whereresearchersandusersexchangespecializedknowledgeinamutuallyconstructedsocialcontext.
AsCohenandBallexplain,'Teachersviewthemselvesasin-dependent,autonomousprofessionals…Eventhemostobedientandtraditionalteachersobserved,enactedpol-iciesintheirownwaysandwereproudoftheircontribu-tions'(1990,p.
253).
Researchershaveshownthatreinventionnotonlyin-creasesthelikelihoodofadoptionbutalsoreducesthelikelihoodofdiscontinuance(BermanandPauley1975;Rogers2003).
However,thesesameeducationalstudiesalsosuggestthatwhenthelevelofreinventionisquitehigh,thenthedesiredoutcomescandiminishsubstan-tially(HendersonandDancy2008;PenberthyandMillar2002;SharpandMcLaughlin1997;Silverthornetal.
2006;HutchinsonandHuberman1994;BermanandPauley1975;BermanandMcLaughlin1978).
Thisprojectidentifieshowinstructorsanddepart-mentsadaptSCALE-UP,pedagogicallyandstructurally,andexaminehowthatrelatestoadoption,implementa-tion,andsustainability.
Wehypothesizethatadepart-ment'scommitmenttoredesigntheclassroommayhelpreducethetendencytorevertbacktotraditionalinstruc-tion,whichcanoccurineducationalreformswherein-structorshavefreedomtomakechanges.
Theliteraturelacksconsensusregardinghowtopro-moteeffectivespreadofcomplexinnovationslikeSCALE-UP.
SCALE-UPrestructurestheclassroomenvironmentandpedagogyinawaythatoftenrequiresaformaldeci-sionbyhighermembersofanorganization.
Thelargeradoptionunit-adepartmentinourcase-forinnovationsliketheseintroducecomplicatingfactorswhichmeansthatmuchoftheliteratureonindividualadoptionofsim-ple,product-basedinnovations(forexample,ineduca-tionaltechnology)cannotbegeneralized(Greenhalghetal.
2004).
Sinceradicalreformslikethesehavethebestchanceofimprovingstudentoutcomes(Redish2003),thefieldstillneedstoexaminehowinvolvedinnovationsspreadeffectively.
Thisprojectaimstodeepenourunder-standingofthisbyusingthecaseofSCALE-UPtostudyhowcomplexresearch-basedreformsspread,withinandacrossinstitutions,includinghowpeoplelearnaboutandimplementthem.
Researchquestions1)TowhatextenthasSCALE-UPspreadAretheseratesofspreadconsistentwithdiffusionofinnovationtheoryaHowmanyphysicsdepartmentshasitspreadtobHowmanyotherdisciplineshasitspreadtocHowmuchdoesSCALE-UPspreadwithinadepartmentdAretheseratesconsistentwithdiffusionofinnovationtheory2)ThroughwhatcommunicationchannelsdoesknowledgeaboutSCALE-UPspreada.
HowdoadopterslearnaboutSCALE-UPb.
Doesthecommunicationchannelaffectthewayadoptersusethereform3)HowdosecondarysitesadaptthepedagogyandstructureofSCALE-UPHowdoesthisimpactthesuccessoftheimplementationa.
HowdoesthepedagogyandstructureofenactedimplementationsvarybyuserstatusDisciplineb.
Howdoesstructuralvariation(classroomtype)relatetotheuseofactivelearningpedagogiesMethodsDatawerecollectedviaawebsurveyoffacultylikelytobeawareofSCALE-UP.
Thissectionwillfirstdescribethesur-veydesignandthendiscussthesurveyimplementation.
SurveydesignThesurveyquestionsweredesignedtoaddressthere-searchquestionsandcensusSCALE-UPuseinternation-ally.
Sincewewereexploringarespondent'sinteractionswithandinterpretationsofSCALE-UPspecifically,wewerenotabletousethepreexistingsurveyinstruments.
Theresearchteamreviewedtheliteratureandcreatedalistofpotentialsurveyquestions,basedonpastresearchandpersonalexperience.
ForthequestionsdesignedtoFooteetal.
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stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10measurefidelitytotheoriginalreformwehad,Beichner,thedeveloperofSCALE-UP,describehismodelandsharewhathehasobservedthatishappeningatothersites.
Thishelpeduscreatequestionoptionsthatcap-turedsubtledifferences.
Thesurveyincludedmultiplechoice,multipleselect,andfreeresponsequestionsthatallowedrespondentstodescribetheirimplementation.
ThesurveyisincludedinAdditionalfile1.
Theweb-basedsurveycontainedthreemainparts:(1)questionsabouttherespondent'spersonaluseofSCALE-UPattheirinstitution(demographicinformation,instruc-tionalpractices,self-describeduserstatus),(2)questionsaboutSCALE-UPuseintherespondent'sdepartment/institution(physicalroomset-up,contactperson,durationofuseandpercentageofinstructorsusingSCALE-UPinthedepartment,otherSCALE-UPdepartmentsatthein-stitution),(3)questionsaboutthespreadofSCALE-UP(HowdidyoulearnaboutSCALE-UPWhodidyoutellaboutSCALE-UP).
Additionalsurveydetailsandspecificquestionswillbediscussedasneededinthe'Resultsanddiscussion'section.
Branchingwasusedsothesurveywouldbeappropriateforinstructors,administrators,aswellaspast/potential/currentusers.
Inordertoimprovethequalityofdatacollected,thesurveytriangulatedresponsesintwoways.
First,thesur-veycontainedsomequestionsthatweredesignedtogetatthesameconstruct,butindifferentways.
Responsestothesequestionswerecomparedduringanalysis.
Thesec-ondtypeoftriangulationwasthatinmanycases,wehadmultiplerespondentsinthesameinstitutionanddepart-ment.
Thus,wewereabletodeterminetheconsistencyofresponsesforquestionsrelatingtothedepartmentandinstitution.
Wepilottestedthepreliminarysurveywiththreefac-ultymembersfromthreedifferentuniversitiesandtwodifferentdisciplines.
Aftertheycompletedthesurveyontheirown,weinterviewedtheseindividualsandusedtheirfeedbacktoimprovetheclarityandappropriate-nessofthequestions.
Afterthat,wedistributedthesur-veytoasmallsampleof50recipientstoverifysmoothadministrationoftheinstrumentbeforeinvitingadd-itionalrespondents.
SurveyimplementationThegoalofthesurveywastodevelopacensusofSCALE-UPuseathighereducationinstitutions.
Current,past,orpotentialusersofSCALE-UPstyleinstructionwerethetargetpopulationofthesurvey.
Wedidnotwishtosam-plefromthispopulation,butrathertosurveytheentirepopulation.
This,ofcourse,isanunreachablegoal.
WeusedseveraltechniquesinthesurveyimplementationtoidentifyrespondentsinoureffortstoapproachthisgoalofaSCALE-UPcensus.
First,surveysweresenttoallcurrentmembersoftheSCALE-UPwikidatabase(http://scaleup.
ncsu.
edu/).
TheSCALE-UPwikiisapassword-protectedcollectionofre-sourcesaboutimplementingSCALE-UPstyleinstruction.
Atthetimeofthesurvey,therewere1,321membersofthewiki,virtuallyallofwhomhadcontactedBeichnerrequestinginformationaboutSCALE-UP.
Inaddition,wecreatedanopensurveylink.
Thisopenlinkwasdistrib-utedviarelevantlistservs(e.
g.
,physicsmodeling,ArizonaStateUniversitysciencefaculty).
Individualswereencour-agedtosharethelinkwithotherinstructorsintheirdis-cipline.
Finally,snowballsamplingwasusedtoidentifyadditionalrespondents.
Duringthesurvey,therespon-dentswereaskedfromwhomtheyhadlearnedaboutSCALE-UPandwhomtheytoldaboutSCALE-UP,includ-ingacontactpersonintheirdepartment.
Surveyinvita-tionsweresenttoanypeoplelistedwhomwehadnotpreviouslycontacted.
Toensurethethoroughnessofthesample,wecon-ductedinternetsearchestoidentifyadditionalinstitutionsusingSCALE-UPinstruction.
Ofthetop30institutionsreturnedbyanInternetsearch,allbuttwoofthesesiteswerealreadyinthedatabaseandhadalreadybeencon-tactedforthesurvey.
Thisprovidessomeevidencethatourlistofsurveyrespondentswasreasonablycomplete.
NotethatwedoexpectthatnotallSCALE-UPimplemen-tationspublicizetheiruseoftheinnovationwithawebsite.
Approximately1,300surveyinvitationsweresentinroundsbetweenDecember2012andAugust2013.
Thee-mailinvitationdescribedthegoalofthesurvey:conduct-ingacensusofpeopleusingSCALE-UPstyleinstruction.
Thus,peoplewhofilledoutthesurveyassociatedthem-selveswithSCALE-UPuse,oratleastacknowledgedthatthereforminfluencedtheirteaching.
Threeremindersweresenttonon-respondents,andindividualscouldelecttoberemovedfromthelistiftheythoughtthesurveywasirrelevant.
Intheend,812surveyswerestartedwith84%oftheserespondentscompletingtheentiresurvey.
Forthisstudy,responseswereonlyretainedfromrespondentsatAmericanhighereducationinstitutions,leavingasampleof659,abetterthan50%responserate.
SCALE-UPorigi-natedintheUSsowechosetofocusonuniversitieswithasimilarculturalcontext.
Inothercountries,differentso-cialandculturalnormscouldcomplicatethewaySCALE-UPwasimplementedandwewantedtoremoveculturalfactorsfromaddinganadditionalvariabletothestudy.
Furthermore,since84%ofrespondentscamefromtheUS,wedecidedtofocusongettingadetailedunderstand-ingofdomesticimplementations.
Weanalyzedcompletedresponsesforeachquestionanswered,evenforincompletesurveys.
Forsomeresults,weusedthedepartmentastheunitofanalysis,combin-ingresponsesfrommultiplerespondentsinasingleFooteetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page6of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10departmenttoformapictureofimplementationatthislevel.
Whenresponsesdiffered,weeitherwentwiththemajorityofrespondents(iftherewasamajoritythatan-sweredinthesameway)ortookanaverageresponseiftherewasnotamajority.
LimitationsofthestudyUsingasurveyasamodeofdatacollectioninevitablyin-troducessomelimitationstoourstudy.
Surveymethodsrelyonself-report,whichhasbeencritiquedonvariousgroundsincludinglimitedinternalandecologicalvalidity(PodsakoffandOrgan1986;Stoneetal.
1999).
Inthefieldofhighereducation,researchershaveexpressedconcernsabouttheabilityofinstructorstoaccuratelyreportclass-roomhappeningsaccuratelyinsufficientdetail(e.
g.
,DancyandHenderson2010;Ebert-Mayetal.
2011).
Awareofthesechallenges,thesurveydidnotaskrespondentstoprovideacohesivepictureofalltheirteachingpractices,justthekeyaspectsthatrelatespecificallytoSCALE-UP.
Thequestionsweredesignedtobeasgeneralanddirectaspossibleinanefforttoavoidmisrepresentations.
Forex-ample,instructorswereaskedtoselectwhethercertainequipmentwaspresentintheirclassroom(whiteboardsonwalls,computersforsmallgroupstoaccess,projectioncapability)orestimatethepercentageoftimetheyspentlecturing,studentsspentproblemsolving,etc.
(1%to25%,25%to50%,50%to75%,75%to100%).
Whenthereweremultiplerespondentsfromadepart-ment,wecheckedtheresponsesonrelevantquestionsagainsteachotherforagreement(forexample,percent-ageofpeopleinadepartmentusingSCALE-UPtoteachintroductoryclasses,yearsSCALE-UPhasbeenusedatadepartment,structuralequipmentinclassroom).
Hav-ingmultiplerespondentsreportsimilardescriptionsofhowSCALE-UPisusedintheirdepartmentshelpsre-ducesomeconcernsaboutself-report.
Insomecases,therewereuptofiveinstructorsfromthesamedepart-mentwhereasotherdepartmentsonlyhadonerespond-ent.
Thequestionsanalyzedatthedepartmentallevel,asallquestionsonthesurvey,wereasgeneralanddirectaspossible.
Significantdisagreementsamongfacultywithinadepartmentwererare.
AnotherlimitationofourstudyisthatweusedabroaddefinitionofSCALE-UP'users'becausealmostallfacultymembersmakemodificationsandhavedifficultiescharacterizingtheiruse.
Earlyinthesurvey,respondentswereaskedtodescribetheiruserstatusofSCALE-UPstyleinstruction,whichwedefinedinthesurveyas'SCALE-UPstyleinstructionischarac-terizedbythepromotionofsocialinteractionsamongstudentsandinstructors,useofengagingactivitiesdur-ingclassalongwithasubstantialreductioninlecturing,andafocusondevelopingconceptualunderstandingandthinkingskills.
Byhavingstudentsattemptdifficulttasksinasupportiveenvironment,theyexperiencetheapplicationoftheirnewknowledge.
Studentshaveop-portunitiestopracticeteamsmanship,presentationoftheirownwork,andevaluationoftheworkofothers.
Classroomfurnishingsarespecificallychosenand/orar-rangedtofacilitatethistypeofcollaborative,interactive,guidedinquiry'.
Theresponsechoiceswere'user'(25%),'modifieduser'(33%),'influencedby'(24%),'considerer'(10%),'pastuser'(4%),and'neverheard'(3%).
Forthepurposesofthispaper,weconsider'users'tobeanyonewhorespondedthattheywere'users'aswellaspeopleclaimingtobe'influencedby','using,'or'consideringtheuseof'theSCALE-UP.
Thereasonforthisbroadde-finitionofuseristhatinpreviouswork(DancyandHenderson2010),wehavefoundthatrespondentsinter-pretself-reportedusercategoriesinverydifferentways.
Asdescribedabove,instructorsmayonly'use'innovationsinaveryloosesense.
Forexample,moreknowledgeableinstructorsmaydenybeingaSCALE-UPuseriftheycon-sciouslymadeaminormodificationintheirimplementa-tionwhilelessknowledgeableinstructorswhoareusingonlyafewideasfromSCALE-UPmayclaimtobeusers.
Additionally,sincenearlyallinstructorsmakemodifica-tions,itbecomesdifficulttodefine'use'.
Asreportedlaterintheanalysis,differentusercategorieshadveryfewsta-tisticallysignificantdifferencesintheiruseofpedagogicalandstructuralaspectsofSCALE-UP,thusjustifyingourdecision.
Insummary,relyingonsurveydatainevitablyaddscon-cernsregardingself-reportdata.
However,sinceempiricalstudiesonthespreadofcomplexeducationalinnovations,suchasSCALE-UP,islimited,theseexploratoryresultsleadtointerestingandworthwhilehypothesesthatweplantofurtherconfirmandrefinewithinterviewsandsitevisitsinsubsequentphasesofourstudy.
ResultsanddiscussionRQ1:towhatextenthasSCALE-UPspreadAretheseratesofspreadconsistentwithDiffusionofInnovationstheory1a.
HowmanyphysicsdepartmentshasitspreadtoAcrossalldisciplines,thesurveyidentified314depart-mentsat189institutionsin21countriesthatclaimtobeinfluencedbyorusingsomeversionofSCALE-UPstyleinstruction.
Overonethird(114departments)useSCALE-UPinphysics(orrelatedfields),makingphysicsthemostrepresenteddiscipline.
Itis,ofcourse,notsur-prisingthatSCALE-UPismostwidelyusedinphysicssinceSCALE-UPwasoriginallydevelopedforuniversityphysicscourses.
1b.
HowmanyotherdisciplineshasitspreadtoTheother63%ofnon-physicsdepartmentsincludeoveradozendisciplines,asseeninTable1.
MostSCALE-UPimplementations(81%)areinSTEMdepartments.
Fortherestoftheanalysis,resultspresentedbydisciplineFooteetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page7of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10willnotdisplaythe'otherSTEM'categorybecauseofitssmallpercentagethatincludesdiversesubjectareas.
MostimplementationsareinSTEMdepartments,themajorityofwhichareininstitutionsthatawardgraduatedegreesintheirdiscipline.
Thus,asexpected,SCALE-UPismostwidespreadinschoolsanddisciplinessimilartothedevelopmentsitebut,encouragingly,thiscensusshowsthateducationinnovationscancrossinstitutiontypesanddisciplines.
Adoptershaveawiderangeofcharacteristics,includingthefieldsfarfromtheoriginat-ingfield,suchassocialsciencesandthehumanities.
Othernotablefindingsinclude:16%ofthedepartmentsusingSCALE-UPareoutsidetheUnitedStates61%ofthedepartmentsusingSCALE-UParefrom4-yearcolleges/universitieswithagraduatedegreeintheirdiscipline23%ofthedepartmentsusingSCALE-UParefrom4-yearcolleges/universitieswithbachelorsdegreesintheirdiscipline8%ofthedepartmentsusingSCALE-UParefrom2-yearcolleges8%ofthedepartmentsusingSCALE-UParefromotherhighereducationinstitutions(thoseofferingprofessionaldegrees,3yearprograms,4yearprogramswithoutadegreeinthediscipline,etc.
).
Asdiscussedearlier,intheremainderofthepaper,onlyresultsfromUnitedStatesinstitutionswillbereported.
1c.
HowmuchdoesthereformspreadwithinadepartmentEventhoughSCALE-UPhasspreadwidelyacrossdepart-mentsandinstitutions,withinmostdepartments,thismodeofteachingisnotthestatusquo.
Whencomparedbydiscipline,Figure2demonstratesthatphysicshasthehighestintradepartmentaluseofSCALE-UPinintroduc-torycourses.
Soeventhoughagrowingnumberofdepart-mentsuseSCALE-UP,acrossalldisciplines,aminorityofinstructorsuseSCALE-UPstyleinstructioninintroduc-toryclasses.
Thisindicatesthatthismethodofteachingisstillrelativelyrare,andthus,thereformisstillintheearlystagesofdiffusionwithinmostdepartments.
1d.
AretheseratesofspreadconsistentwithdiffusionofinnovationtheoryAccordingtodiffusionofinnovationstheory,innovationsthatsuccessfullyspreadfollowanS-shapedadoptioncurveasshowninFigure1.
ToseethespreadofSCALE-UPovertime,thesurveyaskedrespondentshowlongSCALE-UPstyleinstructionhadbeenusedattheirinstitu-tion.
AsseeninFigure3below,physicshasbeenwidelyusingSCALE-UPthelongest.
Thenumberofbiologyandnon-STEMimplementationsjumpedwithinthepast4years.
ThetimescaleisnotresolvedenoughtocomparethisfiguretothetypicaldiffusionS-curve(Figure1)butthegeneralpatternofthebeginningstagesofspreadissimilar.
LocatingSCALE-UP'spositiononthiscurvewillallowchangeagentstoorientthemselvesaccordingtotheuserstheymaybereachingandmayneedtoreachoutto,toensurethereform'scontinuedspreadalongthecurve.
Unsurprisingly,theoriginatingdisciplineofphysicshasthelargestnumberofimplementationsusingSCALE-UPthelongest.
Thenumberofnon-physicsdepartmentsusingthisreformisincreasing.
Asmentionedintheliteraturereview,DOItheorysug-geststhatearlyadoptersaredifferentfromlateradopters.
Thus,itisimportantforchangeagentstolocatewhereTable1DistributionofdepartmentalaffiliationforsurveyrespondentswhoindicatethattheirdepartmentusesorhasbeeninfluencedbySCALE-UPDisciplinecategorySubjectsPercentageofdepartmentsPhysicsAstrophysics,Astronomy,Physics,PhysicalScience,PhysicsEducation37.
0%ChemistryChemistry,Biochemistry,ChemistryEducation12.
0%BiologyandhealthprofessionsBiology,Immunology,Microbiology,HealthProfessions,Pharmacy14.
6%HealthProfessions………….
.
3.
4%EngineeringEngineering7.
5%MathematicsandstatisticsMathematics,Statistics,ComputerScience7.
1%ComputerScience………….
.
2.
6%OtherSTEMEnvironmentalScience,Geosciences,FoodScience,Sustainability2.
6%Non-STEMArts,Architecture,Business,Communication,Economics,Education,English,FilmStudies,Psychology,SocialStudies,etc.
19.
2%Business…1.
6%Psychology…1.
6%SocialStudies………………….
2.
3%Footeetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page8of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10theirinnovationisintheadoptioncurve.
ToidentifywheretheuseofSCALE-UPbyUSphysicsdepartmentsisontheadoptioncurve,wecomparethe94USSCALE-UPdepartmentsthatofferphysicsdegreestothe751under-graduatephysicsdegreedepartmentsintheUS(NicholsonandMulvey2012).
ThissuggeststhatSCALE-UPiscur-rently(2013)usedinabout12%ofUSphysicsdepart-mentsthatofferaphysicsdegree.
Thispercentageisapproachingthe16%thresholdthatrepresentstheshiftbetweentheearlyadopterandearlymajoritystagespre-dictedbyDOItheory.
WhilereviewingthenamesofsurveyrespondentsusingSCALE-UPinphysicsdepartments,wenoticedthatmanyactivelyparticipateinthephysicseducationresearchcom-munity,afindingagainconsistentwithDOI,whichclaimsthatearlyusersarewelleducatedandinnovativeintheirfields.
TocontinuethediffusionofSCALE-UPamongthenextgroupof'earlymajorityadopters',whichRogers(2003)characterizesasdeliberatefollowerswhoseldomlead,SCALE-UPmayneedtochangeitsmessagetoap-pealtoamoremainstreamfacultypopulation.
SCALE-UPspreadappearstobeintheearlystagesforotherdisci-plines,sothereislessurgentneedtochangedissemin-ationstrategiesinsubjectareaswhereadventurousearlyuserscontinuetoadoptsincedeveloperscancontinuetoappealtotheirdesiretobeontheleadingedge.
Figure2PercentageofinstructorswithinadepartmentusingSCALE-UPstyletechniquestoteachintroductorycourses.
Figure3SCALE-UPdepartmentsinexistence,bydiscipline.
The2013surveyaskedrespondentshowlongSCALE-UPhadbeenusedintheirdepartmentwithoptions:morethan6years,4to6years,1to3years,andlessthan1year.
Footeetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page9of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10RQ2:throughwhatcommunicationchannelsdoesknowledgeaboutSCALE-UPspread2a.
HowdoadopterslearnaboutSCALE-UPThesurveyaskedrespondentshowtheyfirstlearnedaboutandhowtheylearnedthemostaboutSCALE-UP.
Re-sponsestothesetwoquestionsarecombinedinFigure4.
ThemostcommonwaypeoplelearnedaboutSCALE-UPwasthroughin-personinteractions(talks/workshopsandcolleague)ratherthanthroughtheweborliterature.
Asshown,respondentsmostfrequentlyreportdiscussionswithcolleaguesastheirsourceofinformationaboutSCALE-UP.
Thisfindingisconsistentwithotherstudies(DancyandHenderson2010;Borregoetal.
2010;Rogers2003)andtheresearchliteratureonchangethatsocialinterac-tionsareacriticalcomponentofthereformprocess.
Itisalsoaveryimportantfindingasthemostutilizedcurrentreformmodel,developmentanddissemination,doesnotsignificantlyleverageinterpersonalnetworks,whichpointstoaflawinthatapproach.
CommunicationhelpsadoptersspreadawarenessaboutSCALE-UPandshareinformationaboutimplementation.
ManyadopterslearnaboutSCALE-UPthrough'mass-market'channelsliketalksandworkshops(28%),theInternet(14%),andliterature(9%).
Withregardtoeduca-tionreform,mass-marketchannelslikethesecanreachlargeraudiences,createknowledge,andmayresultinchange,ifpeoplewerealmostready.
Audiencesattalksandworkshopsalreadycontainmanyofthecharacteristicsofinnovatorsandearlyadopters,whotendtoadoptareformfirst.
Thisaudienceisprobablywelleducated,so-cial,moreup-to-datewithcurrentresearch,andmoreopentoimprovingtheirteaching.
Mass-marketchannelsoftenprovideanoverviewofbasicinformationaboutaninnovation:1)awarenessthataninnovationexists,2)how-toknowledgeaboutusinganinnovationproperly,and3)principles-knowledgeaboutunderlyingfunction-ingprinciples.
However,informationsourcestailoredtolargeraudiencesdonotprovideagoodplatformtoex-changepersonalizedhow-toknowledgewithfacultywhowanttousetheSCALE-UPapproachintheiruniquesettings.
Interpersonalexchangesarealsosignificantmechanismsforcommunicationand11%ofrespondentsclaimedtolearnaboutSCALE-UPfromadepartmentalcolleague,11%fromaninstitutionalcolleagueoutsidethedepart-ment,and6%fromadisciplinarycolleagueoutsidethein-stitution.
Interpersonalexchangesbetterallowindividualstoclarifyinformation,overcomesomeofthebarriersasso-ciatedwithselectiveexposure,andtendtochangestronglyheldbeliefsmoreeffectively(Rogers2003).
Theexchangeofinformationbetweencolleaguesataninstitution,butindifferentdepartments,mayhavefacilitatedthe'natural'spreadofSCALE-UPintoothersubjects.
2b.
HowdoesthecommunicationchannelaffectthewayadoptersusethereformToexaminehowthesourceofinformationaboutSCALE-UPmightaffectimplementation,wecreatedtwoindicesfromsurveyresponses,'activeindicator'and'studiomatch',togaugethefidelityofthepedagogicalandstructuraluseofSCALE-UP,respectively.
SincewewantedtoseehowtheinstructionalpracticesandclassroomsofsecondarysitesrelatedtotheoriginalSCALE-UPmodel,wecreatedtheseindicestoveryroughlycomparedifferentimplemen-tationsonaspectrumoffidelitytotheoriginalmodel.
ThesetwoindicessummarizecorefeaturesofSCALE-UPinacourse,butmeaningfulwayandallowustocompareFigure4SourceofinformationaboutSCALE-UPbydurationofimplementation.
Footeetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page10of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10categoriesofsecondarysitesinordertoseetrendsinhowtheyusethereform.
ActiveindicatorSCALE-UPseekstominimizelectureinfavorofproblemsolvingandstudentpresentationsinaredesignedclassroomthatfacilitatesinteraction.
Inthesurvey,respondentsselectedhowfrequentlytheytypic-allylecture,havestudentssolvingproblems,andhavestudentspresenttotheclass(never,veryrarely,rarely,often,veryoften).
Thesequalitativeresponseswerecon-vertedintonominalcategoriesrangingfrom0to4.
Theactiveindicatorindexwasthencalculated(problemsolv-ing+studentpresentations)/(problemsolving+studentpresentations+lecture).
So,anextensivelyinteractiveclasswithnolecturingwouldhaveanactiveindicatorof1andacompletelylecture-basedclasswouldhaveanactiveindica-torof0.
Toputthesenumbersinperspective,wecalculatedahypotheticalactiveindicatorforPeerInstruction(CrouchandMazur2001),apopularphysicsreform.
InPeerIn-struction,ConcepTestclickerquestionsareinterspersedthroughoutalecturetoexposecommonmisconceptionsassociatedwiththematerial.
Studentsaregivenacoupleofminutestoformulatetheirresponsefollowedbyafewminutestoreachconsensusinsmallgroupsbeforere-voting.
Weestimatethatthismethodwouldinvolvefac-ultylecturingoften,studentssolvingproblemsoften,andpresentingtheirsolutionsveryrarely.
Thiswouldcorres-pondtoanactiveindicatorofapproximately0.
6.
ForanidealSCALE-UPimplementation,studentswouldbesolv-ingproblemsveryoften,presenttotheclassveryoften,andtheinstructorwouldlectureveryrarely,whichwouldcorrespondtoanactiveindicatorof0.
9.
StudiomatchThe'studiomatch'criteriausesthepres-enceoftablesdesignedtofacilitategroupworkasaproxyforthepresenceofastudioclassroom,akeyfeatureoftheSCALE-UPreform.
OursurveyaskedrespondentswhethertheyhadaspecializedclassroomforSCALE-UPandwhethertheyhadspecificclassroomfeatures.
Wefoundthatpeople'sdefinitionsof'specializedclassroom'varyandmayincludearenovatedlabforsomebutnotothers.
Fur-thermore,traditionalclassroomscanhaveclassroomre-sponsesystems,whiteboardsonthewall,and/orprojectioncapabilities.
ButthemainpurposeoftheSCALE-UProomistofacilitateinteraction.
Ofalltheclassroomfeatures,roundorspecialtablesseemedtobeakeytofacilitatinggroupwork.
Wefoundthatthiscaptured97%ofthepeoplewhoclaimedtohaveaspecializedclassroomsothetablecriterionappearstobeagoodproxyforthepresenceofaninteractiveclassroomconsistentwithSCALE-UP.
So,thestudiomatchcantakeonbinaryvaluesof1(specialorroundtablesexist)or0(specialorroundtablesdonotexist).
MostpeoplelearnedaboutSCALE-UPthroughmul-tiplesources(61%).
Oftherespondents,10%learnedaboutitexclusivelybyreadingtheliteratureorresearch-ingitontheInternet,16%learnedaboutitexclusivelybytalkingtocolleagues,and14%haveanother/unknownsourceofinformation.
Oftherespondents,53%learnedaboutSCALE-UPfromatalkorworkshopbutallofthesepeoplesupplementedthiswithasecondsourceofinformation,AsseeninFigure5,theimplementationofSCALE-UPdoesnotseemtodependonthesourceofinformation.
TheoneexceptionisthatpeoplewholearnedaboutSCALE-UPviacompletelypassivemodes(theliterature/Figure5Active-studioindicatorsbysourceofinformationabouttheSCALE-UPreform.
StrictlyreadingtheliteratureorInternet,strictlylearningaboutitfromcolleagues,multipleinformationsources,orother/unknownsource.
Footeetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page11of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10web)arelesslikelytohaveastudio-styleSCALE-UPclassroom.
RQ3:howdosecondarysitesadaptthepedagogyandstructureofSCALE-UPHowdoesthisimpactthesuccessoftheimplementation3a.
HowdopedagogicalandstructuraladaptationsofenactedimplementationsvarybyuserstatusDisciplineThesurveyaskedtherespondentswhethertheyconsid-eredthemselves'users','modifieduser','influencedby','considering',ora'pastuser'ofSCALE-UP-likeinstruction.
Only22respondentscharacterizedthemselvesaspastusersandafollow-upquestionrevealedthatonly2oftheseweretrueabandoners(0.
3%oftotalrespondents),whodidnotwanttoteachusingSCALE-UPagain.
TheotherpastuserswerenotcurrentlyteachingwithSCALE-UPbecauseofchangesinschedulingorteachingassign-mentsbuthopedtoreturntoSCALE-UPstyleinstructioninthefuture.
ThisprovidesadditionaljustificationwhyitwouldbeinaccuratetouseindividualsasthegrainsizetocheckthepervasivenessofSCALE-UPagainsttheDOIcurve.
Inmostdepartments,notallfacultymembersareneededtoteachusingSCALE-UP-styleinstructionatanygiventime.
Usingthedepartmentasthegrainsizehelpstoaccountforthis.
Toseehowrespondents'self-categorizationcomparedtoresearcherdefinitions,Figure6comparesactivestudioindicatorsbyuserstatus.
Notsurprisingly,self-described'users'havehigherindicators,bothpedagogicallyandstructurallycomparedtopeoplewhoclaimto'usemodi-fied'andbe'influencedby'thereform.
Theresultsofaone-wayANOVAsuggeststhatthedifferencesbetweenthefourusergroupsisstatisticallysignificantforstudiomatch(F(3,473)=36.
58,p=.
0000)andactiveindicator(F(3,426)=23.
32,pscaleup.
ncsu.
edu/)toshareideasandcurriculum.
SCALE-UPrequiresstructuralchangesand,thus,hashighobservability.
Renovatingtheclassroomandinvestinginspecialequipmentcanbeaninitialbarrier,but,oncecrossed,itmayalsosupportpermanentchangeandincreaseddisseminationwithinadepartment.
Decidingtomaketheseradicalchangesencouragesdepartment-widediscussionsandbuy-inandmakesabandoninguselesslikely.
Sincestructureimpactspractice(HendersonandDancy2007),itmayencouragebroaderadoptionofreformedtechniques.
Thedeveloperhasextensivelyleveragedinterpersonalmethodstodisseminatethereformandhasnotreliedexclusivelyonat-a-distancemechanisms,suchaspapersandwebsites.
Beichnerhasgivenover300SCALE-UPtalks,workshops,anddepartmentalvisitsaroundtheworld.
Eachofthesepotentialkeyattributeswillbefurtherinvestigatedintheinterview-based,secondphaseofthisstudy.
Findingtwo:thedisseminationofSCALE-UPinphysicsmaybeatthetippingpointbetweenadventurousearlyusersandthemainstreammajorityThespreadofSCALE-UPappearstofitdiffusionofinnovationtheoryintermsofthecharacteristicsofearlyadoptersandanacceleratingrateofspread.
ForuptakeinphysicstocontinuetoincreaseandfollowtheS-curveofasuccessfulreform,themarketingmessagemayneedtochangetoappealtomorehesitantpotentialadopters.
Implicationtwo:diffusionofinnovationtheorysuggeststhedisseminationstrategyofSCALE-UPshouldchangeAroughestimaterevealsthatphysicsmaybenearatip-pingpoint.
TomaintainS-shapedgrowth,itneedstocrossthechasmfromappealingtoinnovativeearlyadopterstoreachingthemorepractical,hesitantgeneralpopulation.
Moore(2002)statesthatearlyadoptersaremorelikelytoembracearadicaldiscontinuityfromtraditionalteaching,tochampionthecauseagainstlocalresistance,andtoFigure10ThedepartmentalstanceonbuildingaSCALE-UPclassroom,scaledbydiscipline.
Footeetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page15of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10perseverethroughinevitableglitches.
Asmanyearlyusersinthisstudywereconnectedwiththephysicseducationresearchcommunity,theyareprobablymoreeducatedaboutinnovativepedagogiesandwillingtoexperimentwithradicalreformsinhopesofdrasticallyimprovinglearninggains.
Incontrast,theearlymajoritywantstoim-proveexistingoperationswhileminimizingdisruptiontotheiroldways.
Theytendtorelymoreonsocialnetworkstolearnaboutandsupporttheiradoption,oftendemandevidenceofeffectivenessbeforedecidingtoadoptandarelesstolerantofimplementationdifficulties(Moore2002).
Toappealtomorehesitantfacultymembers,thedis-seminationofSCALE-UPmayneedtoinvolvemorechangeagentsandopinionleaderstocrossthechasmtothemorehesitantmajority.
Specifically,implementersmayneedmoreguidancefromnear-peersandopinionleaderstoreduceimplementationchallenges.
Leveragingsocialnetworkscouldhelpfacilitateaflowofinforma-tionaboutSCALE-UPandprovideanencouragingandsupportivecommunity.
EnlistingtheaidofchangeagentsthatuseSCALE-UPindiverseeducationalset-tingsmaydemonstratetohesitantadoptersthattheycanuseelementsoftheradicalreformwithoutover-throwingthestatusquo.
However,sincemuchofthesuccessofSCALE-UPcomesfromtheradicalnatureofthereform,resourcesshouldbedevelopedandsharedtoensurethatinstructorscanproductivelyadaptSCALE-UPtotheirlocalsetting.
Findingthree:interpersonalinteractionspromotesuccessfuldisseminationWhilemanypeoplelearnaboutSCALE-UPthroughtyp-icaldisseminationviamass-marketchannels(talks/workshopsandtheInternet),justasmanyreportlearn-ingthroughinterpersonalinteractionswithcolleagues.
Thisisconsistentwithdiffusionofinnovationtheoryandtheauthors'priorresearch(DancyandHenderson2010;Borregoetal.
2010;Rogers2003).
Implicationthree:leveraginginterpersonalnetworkscanimprovedisseminationThecommondevelopmentanddisseminationmodelofreformdoesnotaccountforhowinterpersonalinterac-tionsshareandsupportreforms,potentiallyreducingtheimpactofexistingreforms.
Abetterdisseminationmodelshouldrecognizeandutilizeinteractionsasawaytoencouragechange,especiallywhentryingtoreachthemainstreamadopterswhomaynotseekoutinformationaboutareform.
However,thisalternatemodelshouldcautiouslyavoidanoverrelianceoninformaldissemin-ation.
Anoverdependenceonword-of-mouthmaymeanlessfamiliaritywiththeunderlyingresearchoutlinedinprimarysources.
Ifpotentialadaptersonlysee/hearaboutmodifiedversionsofSCALE-UP,thelikelihoodof(potentiallydetrimental)modificationswillincrease.
Strategically,expandingthenumberofmulti-disciplinarychangeagentsfamiliarwiththeunderlyingresearchandcouldhelpcontrolthequalityofinformationspreadthroughinterpersonalnetworks.
Findingfour:astudioclassroomisanimportantfeatureofSCALE-UPOuranalysisindicatesthatthepresenceofastudioclassroomisassociatedwithhigherlevelsofactivelearn-ing.
Wealsofoundsiteswithoutaclassroomthatattri-butethistothelackoffacultydiscussionorfinancialresources,rarelybecauseinstructorswerenotinterested.
Implicationfour:itisimportanttobetterunderstandtheroleofaspecializedclassroominthespreadofSCALE-UPOurfindingsrelatedtothestudioclassroomareassocia-tive,notcausal.
Learningmoreatthenatureofthesere-lationshipsmayprovidevaluableguidanceforthoseinterestedinpromotingreform.
Thepresenceofastudioclassroomisnotenoughtoimprovelearninggains,ifthepedagogydoesnotmatchthegoaloftherenovatedroomdesign(Lasryetal.
2014).
Wefoundthatthepres-enceofastudioclassroomisassociatedwithahigherlevelofactivepedagogiesandplantoinvestigatethisfurther.
Renovatingaclassroomtypicallyrequiresafinancialin-vestmentandadministrativesupportsousuallyitgetsde-partmentstalkingaboutSCALE-UP.
Ourinitialresultsindicatingalownumberoftrueabandonersstronglysug-gestthatinvestinginaspecialclassroomreducestheten-dencytorevertbacktotraditionalinstruction.
Aswecontinueourstudywithinterviews,weplantofurtherin-vestigatehowbuildingaclassroomaffectsthenumberofadopterswithinadepartment.
Forexample,howdoestheprocessofbuildingaspecialclassroomimpactfacultywhoareonthefringesofthereformeffortDoresearch-basedreformsthatrequiredepartmentaldiscussions(forex-ample,tobuildaspecializedclassroom)increaseuptakeOurdatasuggestthatbuildingaspecialspacemayreducethechancesofrevertingbacktotraditionalinstruction.
In-terviewswillcontinuetoprobethisinitialfinding,andfu-turestudiesshouldinvestigatehowtoapplythistospreadingotherresearch-basedreforms.
Findingfive:reformsaremodifiedThewidevariationofuseofactivelearningpedagogyandstudioclassroomfeaturesdemonstratesthatinstruc-torsdifferintheirimplementationofSCALE-UP.
Thissupportspreviousresearchthatinstructorsanddepart-mentsmodifySCALE-UP,bothpedagogicallyandstruc-turally(HendersonandDancy2008;PenberthyandMillar2002;SharpandMcLaughlin1997;Silverthornetal.
2006;HutchinsonandHuberman1994).
RespondentsreportedFooteetal.
InternationalJournalofSTEMEducation2014,1:10Page16of18http://www.
stemeducationjournal.
com/content/1/1/10widevariationintheirclassroomequipmentandactivelearninglevelsduringtheirSCALE-UPimplementationefforts.
Implicationfive:secondarysiteswillbenefitfromhavingresearch-basedrecommendationsonhowtoadapttheirimplementationsuccessfullyFacultyrarelyimplementaninnovation'asis',usuallyadaptingideastotheiruniqueenvironment,goals,per-sonality,andmore.
Developersshouldacknowledgethisandfocusonhelpingfacultytonavigatethedifferencebetweenproductiveandunproductivechanges,byusingchangeagentsorcomingupwithwrittenrecommenda-tions.
Theyshouldprovideadviceonhowtoovercomestructuralbarriers(i.
e.
,budgetlimitationsthatprohibittheidealclassroomdesign)andotherchallenges,espe-ciallywiththelessindependent,moreimpatientearlymajorityadopters.
SummaryTheresultsofthisstudyindicatethattheimpactofSCALE-UPisgrowingandprovidesinsightstoguidethoseinterestedineducationaltransformation.
Currently,weareconductinginterviewstodevelopamoredetailedunderstandingofhowinstructorsanddepartmentslearnabout,implement,andspreadSCALE-UP.
Sinceinstruc-torstendtomakemodifications,findingoutmoreaboutthisprocesscanhelpinthedevelopmentofresourcestosupportinstructoradaptationofthereformtotheirlocalcircumstancesinproductiveandsuccessfulways.
AdditionalfileAdditionalfile1:SCALE-UPsurvey.
CompetinginterestsTheauthorsdeclaretheyhavenocompetinginterests.
Authors'contributionsKFprimarilydesignedandadministeredthesurveyandconductedstatisticalanalysis.
RB,CHandMDprovidedfeedbackthroughoutandXNconductedtheANOVAanalysis.
Allauthorsreadandapprovedthefinalmanuscript.
Authordetails1PhysicsDepartment,NorthCarolinaStateUniversity,StinsonDrive,Raleigh,NC27606,USA.
2PhysicsDepartment,1903W.
MichiganAvenue,Kalamazoo,MI49008,USA.
3PhysicsDepartment,LibbyDr,Boulder,CO80302,USA.
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