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StructuresofCoastalResilienceCatherineSeavittNordensonGuyNordensonJuliaChapmanIslandPress'missionistoprovidethebestideasandinformationtothoseseekingtounderstandandprotecttheenvironmentandcreatesolutionstoitscomplexproblems.
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StructuresofCoastalResilienceWashington|Covelo|LondonStructuresofCoastalResilienceCatherineSeavittNordenson,GuyNordenson,andJuliaChapmanStructuresofCoastalResilience2018CatherineSeavittNordenson,GuyNordenson,andJuliaChapmanAllrightsreservedunderInternationalandPan-AmericanCopyrightConventions.
Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeanswithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher:IslandPress,Suite650,2000MStreet,NW,Washington,DC20036ISLANDPRESSisatrademarkoftheCenterforResourceEconomics.
Keywords:Adaptation,adaptivemanagement,climatechange,CoastalStormRiskManagement(CSRM),FederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA),floodrisk,floodplainmanagement,NationalFloodInsuranceProgram(NFIP),NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA),nonstructuralfloodriskmanagementmeasures,sealevelrise,stormsurge,UnitedStatesArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE),UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey(USGS),vulnerability,waterquality,wetlandLibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017958675AllIslandPressbooksareprintedonenvironmentallyresponsiblematerials.
ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica10987654321ContentsForewordbyMichaelKimmelman,architecturecritic,TheNewYorkTimesixAcknowledgments.
xiiiChapter1.
DesigningforCoastalResiliency.
1Chapter2.
VisualizingtheCoast.
11Chapter3.
ReimaginingtheFloodplain.
73Chapter4.
MappingCoastalFutures.
123Chapter5.
CentennialProjections.
167AfterwordbyJeffreyP.
Hebert,vice-presidentforadaptationandresilience,TheWaterInstituteoftheGulf.
183Endnotes.
187Glossary.
197Index.
211ForewordMichaelKimmelmanarchitecturecritic,thenewyorktimesAwhileback,havingdraggedaborrowedkayakoutoftheLosAngelesRiver,IcalledafriendinWestHollywoodwhomIhadarrangedtomeet.
ItoldhimIwasrunninglate.
MytriphadtakenlongerthanI'danticipated,andIwassoakingwetinaremotestretchofwoods.
Hefellsilentforalongtime.
"Whatriver"hefinallysaid.
TheLosAngelesRiver,aroundwhichthecityfirstevolved,canbeadimconceptevenforlifelongAngelenos.
WhatmayvaguelycometomindistheconcretebasinfromTerminator2,glimpsedfromtheSixthStreetBridge:thearea,downtown,thattheUnitedStatesArmyCorpsofEngineerscanalizedmanydecadesagoafteraseriesoffloodssockedthecity.
Muchoftherestoftheriver,includingthepartwhereIkayaked,haslongbeenobscuredbyrailtracksandhighways—theneglectedbackyardinpoorEastLosAngelesandotherneighborhoods.
ThisisbecausetheArmyCorps'techno-bureaucraticattitudeformuchofthetwentiethcentury,liketheattitudeofmostpublicofficials,wasthatwaterwasanenemy.
Itneededtobesubdued,sequesteredfromvaluablerealestate.
Hydrologicsolutionsdemandedhardstructures—revetments,bulkheads,x|StructuresofCoastalResilienceandlevees.
Therewasnexttonoconcernforhowcitiesandregionsmightlivewithnatureratherthanfightagainstit;howthedestructionofcoastline,marshes,andfloodplainsmightcomebacktobiteus;andleastofall,littleornothoughtgiventodesignoraesthetics(landscapearchitectureseemedfrillyandexpensive).
Asaconsequence,inacitysuchasLosAngeles,millionsofpeopleendedupcutofffromtheriver,manyfromjobs,theurbanfabricslicedupinwaysthatisolatedvulnerableneighborhoods.
Thereisnobiggerchallengetodaythanthemanagementofcoastalecolo-gies.
Withclimatechange,thischallengehasbeguntotakeonanexistentialdimension,threateningthewholeglobaleconomyandthestabilityofnations.
Hurricanes,heatwaves,andfloodsthatusedtoberaritiesarebecomingthenewnormal.
ThemajorityofpeopleonEarthtodayliveonornearcoasts,anumberswiftlyescalatinginthisfirsturbancenturyinhumanhistory,withcoastalpopulationdensitiestwicetheworldaverage.
Mostofourlargestcit-iesarecoastalmegalopolises,andtheirgrowth(fromHoustontothePearlRiverDelta,MiamitoJakarta)hasinvolvedrunawaydevelopment,withvast,criticalswathesofmangrove,wetlands,prairies,andforests,whichmitigatetheimpactofstormsandrisingseas,rippedouttomakewayformilesandmilesofconcreteandasphalt.
Attheheartofthisbookistheroledesignneedstoplayindevisingnewapproachestocoastalresilience.
Aswe'vewitnessedoverandover,wecan'tsimplycontinuetobattlenaturewithwallsandgates.
Theywon'tsuffice,andthey'reoftencounterproductive.
Thebookrethinks"structural"solutionstomeanmorethanthingsbuiltoutofconcreteandsteel.
Therealsoneedtobestructuresinplacefordealingwithpoliticsandpeople.
Thebookembracesanemergingparadigmshifttowardriskmanagement,encouragingclimatescientistsandengineerstoteamupwithdesigners,planners,andcommunityleaders.
Itsgoalistoreplacedatedconceptsoffloodcontrolwithstrategiesforcontrolledflooding:hardinfrastructure,whichisneverinfallible,withamixofhardandsofttacticsthatcanproduceallsortsofbenefitsasidefromkeepingpeople'sfeetdryandpropertysafe.
Thisisinkeepingwithabroadershiftinprogressivethinkingthathastakenplaceduringthetwenty-firstcentury.
IncitiessuchasRotterdam,Madrid,Seoul,andNewYork,waterfrontsarebeingrecuperated,turnedintoparks,andtreatedasassets,notobstacles.
Themovementtoincludeecologicalandlandscapedesignintostrategiesforcoastalresiliencehasrunheadlongintoentrenchedpolitics,neoliberaleconomics,andaverycom-monhumandesiretolivewhereverwewant,nevermindtheconsequences,Foreword|xibutithasbeengainingavoiceinAmericaatleastsinceHurricaneKatrina.
Nowithaspenetratedthinkingatmanyarchitectureschoolsandgovernmentagencies,includingtheArmyCorps,whichremainsacumbersomeandoftencounterproductiveplayerbuthasshownitselftobemoreopentoevolvingideasaboutcoastalprotectionandwatermanagement,evenatsitessuchastheLosAngelesRiver,wheresocialandeconomiclogicdictatesthatneigh-borhoodrevitalizationgohandinhandwithwetlandrestorationandnewinfrastructureforcapturingwater.
Thisisbecausethehuge,drought-plaguedcitycannolongeraffordsimplytodumpbillionsofgallonsofwaterfromtheriverintotheocean.
FrankGehryisthelatestarchitecttojoininthiseffort,asignofrecognitionthatarchitectureanddesignareintegraltoprogressiveresilienceplanning.
Famously,theDutchhavebeenpromotinganintegratedapproachtowatermanagementforalongwhile.
WithmuchoftheNetherlandsbelowsealevelandsinking,livingwithwaterhasbeenadailymatterofsurvivalforaslongasthecountryhasbeenaround.
TheDutchtriedbuildingmassivefortificationstostoptheNorthSea.
In1916,astormoverwhelmedtheDutchcoastline,inauguratingaspateofconstructionthatfailedtoholdbackthewaterin1953whenanovernightstormkilledmorethan1,800people.
TheDutchstillcallitTheDisaster.
Theyredoublednationalefforts,inauguratingtheDeltaWorksprojectthatdammedtwomajorwaterwaysandproducedtheMaeslantkering,thegiantseagate,completedin1997,aspectacularfeatofarchitecturalengineeringthatkeepsopentheimmensecanalthatservicestheportofRotterdam.
Butdikesandgatesstillweren'tenough,theyrealized,becausetheNorthSeawasn'ttheonlythreat.
Withclimatechange,theriversthatflowedintothecountrywereswellingandposedanevengreaterchallenge.
SotheDutchinrecentyearsundertookaprogramcalledRoomfortheRiver,whichfoundwaystoturnpoldersintoretentionpondsandallowretentionpondstodoubleasrecreationsites,dikestodoubleasparks,andindustrialriverfronttomorphintoleafynewneighborhoods,businessincubators,andtouristattractions.
Environmentalandsocialresiliencegohandinhand,theDutchmaintain,andprotectionfromwatershouldalsoimproveneighborhoods,promotepublichealth,andmakecitiesricher,moreattractive,andmoreequitable—becausethosecitieswillbemorecapableoffacingtheinevitablestressescli-matechangeimposesonsociety.
That'swhatresilienceactuallymeans.
ThisbookexaminesNorthAmericansitessuchasJamaicaBayinNewYork,wherethethreatofrisingseastoanalreadyfragileecosystemiscompli-xii|StructuresofCoastalResiliencecatedbyalegacyofpublichousingfromtheRobertMosesdaysandtheexis-tenceofcriticalcityinfrastructure,includingJohnF.
KennedyInternationalAirport.
Proposalsforprotectioninvolveamixofnaturalandnature-basedsolutionsthatpromotetheexistingmarshecologyandalsosupportlong-standingcommunities,forwhomtheendangeredbayishome.
Inthelongrun,what'seconomicalisalsowhat'senvironmentallyandpoliticallysustain-able,thebookargues.
Andthisiswheredesignplaysakeyrole.
Tolivewiththechallengesofthenewurbancenturyrequiresdevisingcit-ieswherepeoplewanttolive,affordableplacesthatarehealthyandefficient,thatpromotediversity,attractnewbusinesses,andlookbeautiful.
Designisnotafrill.
Itisnecessary—gooddesign,anyway.
PennsylvaniaStation,inNewYork,isthehemisphere'sbusiestandpossiblymosthorrendoustran-sithub,adangerousfiretrapandshamefulundergroundrat'smaze,servingsome650,000peopleaday,roughlyequivalenttothepopulationofBoston.
Thosepassengerssufferanagingrailsystemthatconstantlybreaksdown,withapairofcentury-oldpassengerrailtunnelsundertheHudsonRiver,strainedtocapacity,whosedaysarenumbered.
Whenoneofthosetunnelsfails,therippleeffectswillregisteronthenationalgrossdomesticproduct.
Butnewtunnelsaren'tenough.
NewtunnelswithoutanimprovedPennStation—astationthat'sinviting,safe,andeveninspired,likeGrandCentralTerminal—istantamounttobuyingafancygardenhosewithoutswappingouttherustylittlebucketthewaterpoursinto.
What'sneededisaplacewor-thyofNewYork,attunedtothecity'saspirationsanddemocraticideals.
Thisrequiresarchitectureandfreshideasaboutpublicspace.
Formillionsofrid-ers,it'sabasicmatterofdignityandequity.
Designmarriedtoimprovedengineering,socialjustice,andeconomicgrowth.
That'sabetterstrategyforthenewcentury.
Atthewaterfrontandelsewhere,it'stheonlywayforward.
AcknowledgmentsTheauthorsarehappytohavetheopportunitytothankthemanyindividualsandinstitutionswhosupportedthesuccessfulcompletionofthisbook.
TheRockefellerFoundationdeservesspecialmention,asitgenerouslysupportedtheStructuresofCoastalResilience(SCR)designinitiativewitharesearchgrantin2013,allowingustogatheracoalitionofuniversitiestoworkcloselywiththeUnitedStatesArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE)NorthAtlanticDistrict,exploringnewstrategiesforcoastalprotectionduringthe2yearsafterthelandfallofHurricaneSandyontheAtlanticseaboard.
NancyKeteandSamuelCarter,formermanagingdirectorsoftheResilienceTeamattheRockefellerFoundation,providedanunerringvisionfortheproject'ssuc-cess.
ChiefJosephR.
VietrianddeputydirectorRoselleHennStern,bothoftheUSACENorthAtlanticDivision'sNationalPlanningCenterforCoastalStormRiskManagement,welcomedthecollaborativedesignapproachiniti-atedbySCR.
PeterWeppler,chiefoftheEnvironmentalAnalysisBranch,andLisaBaron,projectmanagerofCivilWorks,bothoftheUSACENewYorkDistrictOffice,providedinvaluablesuggestionsandsupportthroughouttheprocess.
WeareindebtedtoourSCRscienceteamatPrincetonUniversityfortheirinnovativeworkonsealevelriseandprobabilisticstormmodel-ingforthisproject,withaspecialacknowledgmenttoNingLin,MichaelOppenheimer,TaleaMayo,andChristopherLittle.
WearealsogratefultotheSCRcollaborativedesignteamsatthefourparticipatinguniversities,ledbyprincipalinvestigatorsMichaelVanValkenburghandRosettaElkinatHarvardUniversity,CatherineSeavittatCityCollegeofNewYork,PaulLewisatPrincetonUniversity,andAnuradhaMathurandDilipdaCunhaattheUniversityofPennsylvania.
JuliaChapman'sroleasprojectmanagerofSCRwasinvaluable,andherdiligenceandinsightwereinstrumentaltothesuccessoftheproject,andindeedthecompletionofthisbook.
EachSCRdesignteamwasmadeupofinvaluableindividuals,andwearegratefulforxiv|StructuresofCoastalResiliencetheirtalentsandcontributionstotheproject,withspecialthankstoMichaelTantala,ElizabethHodges,EnriqueRamirez,TessMcNamara,EmmaBen-intende,KjirstenAlexander,DanaeAlessi,EliSands,MichaelLuegering,MarissaAngell,MichalisPiroccas,AnnaKnoell,KevinHayes,CaitlinSquier-Roper,JameeKominsky,GrahamLairdPrentice,andMatthewWeiner.
WewouldliketoacknowledgetheMuseumofModernArt(MoMA),itsdirectorGlennLowry,anditscuratorBarryBergdoll,whopreviouslyservedasdirectoroftheDepartmentofArchitectureandDesignfrom2009to2013.
BarrycreatedaradicalnewworkshopprogramattheMoMA,withitsfirstiterationin2009–2010titled"RisingCurrents:ProjectsforNewYork'sWater-front.
"AlsofundedbytheRockefellerFoundationundertheleadershipofformerpresidentJudithRodinandformervicepresidentDarrenWalker(nowpresidentoftheFordFoundation),thissuccessfulworkshopandexhibitionwasinitiatedbythedesignresearchpresentedinourbookOntheWater:Pali-sadeBay(HatjeCantz/MoMA,2010),co-authoredwithAdamYarinsky.
WeremainespeciallygratefultotheFellowsoftheAmericanInstituteofArchi-tects(FAIA)andLatrobePrizejurorsDanielS.
Friedman,FAIA,chair;FrankE.
Lucas,FAIA,chancellor;MartinFischer,PhD;LeonR.
GlicksmanPhD;FrancesHalsband;andJamesTimberlake,FAIA,forawardingusthebian-nualBenjaminHenryLatrobePrizein2007fortheproposal"OntheWater:AModelfortheFutureNewYorkandNewJerseyUpperBay.
"Thisresearchprojectbecametheaforementionedbookandinitiatedourongoingworkoncoastalresiliencyinlightofclimatechangeandsealevelrise.
Weacknowledgetheongoingintellectualsupportofourhomeacademicinstitutions,theCityCollegeofNewYorkandPrincetonUniversity.
ThanksareduetotheinterimdeanoftheBernardandAnneSpitzerSchoolofArchi-tectureatCityCollege,GordonGebert,andtotheformerdeanofthePrinc-etonUniversitySchoolofArchitecture,StanAllen,aswellasthegenerousandcapableadministrativestaffatbothinstitutions.
Wearealsogratefulforthestimulatingacademicenvironmentprovidedbyourtalentedcolleagues,withparticularthankstoMichaelOppenheimer,AlbertG.
MilbankProfes-sorofGeosciencesandInternationalAffairsintheWoodrowWilsonSchoolofPublicandInternationalAffairsandtheDepartmentofGeosciencesatPrincetonUniversity,whohasenthusiasticallysupportedourcoastaldesigninitiativesfromtheverybeginning.
Weareindebtedtothegenerosityofourmanydesigncolleagueswhocontributedtheirworktothisbook,withspecialthankstoPaulLewis,MarcTsurumaki,andDavidJ.
LewisofLTLArchitects;KateOrffofSCAPE;AdamAcknowledgments|xvYarinsky,StephenCassell,andKimYaoofArchitectureResearchOffice;MimiHoangandEricBungeofnARCHITECTS;MatthewBairdofMatthewBairdArchitects;andSusannahDrakeofDLANDstudio.
Wearealsogratefultothemanyartists—andtheirestatesandarchives—whosecreativeworkanduniqueperspectivespresentedhereincontinuetodeeplyinspireus.
Twoindividualsdeserveaveryspecialnoteofgratitudefortheircontri-butionstothisbook.
MichaelKimmelman,architecturecriticofTheNewYorkTimes,providedthethoughtfulforeword,andweareindebtedforhiscontinuinginterestinandchampioningoftheworkthatdesignersenvisionfortheurbanrealm.
JeffreyP.
Hebert,thevice-presidentforadaptationandresilience,TheWaterInstituteoftheGulf,wrotetheinsightfulandtimelyafterword.
Hisongoingworkonthegroundistherealization,throughadvo-cacyandpolicy,ofthedesignvisionsproposedbythisbook.
WeareparticularlygratefultoIslandPressandoureditorCourtneyLix,whosesupportofthisprojectfromitsinitiationasasimpleprospectuswasunflaggingandwhoseinsights,edits,andadviceregardingitsadvancementwereconsistentlyonthemark.
Courtney'scomments,suggestions,andprov-ocationsledtoasignificantreshapingandclarificationofthemanuscriptanditsarguments.
OurthankstoIslandPressextendtovicepresidentandexecutiveeditorHeatherBoyerandtothecopyeditingandproductionteamsfortheirexceptionalworkthroughoutthebook'seditinganddesignprocess.
Finally,ourgreatestacknowledgmentistoourfamilies,andespeciallytotwoboys,SébastienandPierreNordenson,fortheirpatience,curiosity,andinterestinthisenduringprojectthathasencompassedtheirentirelives.
Ourwork,ultimately,isforthem.