detailsuperpi

327TheAuthor(s)2018H.
Lintsenetal.
,Well-being,SustainabilityandSocialDevelopment,https://doi.
org/10.
1007/978-3-319-76696-6_15Chapter15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoneyFrankVeraart,RickHlsgens,andBenGalesAbstractTwoenergytransitionscharacterisedtheperiod1910–1970:theriseandfallofanationalminingindustryandtheshiftfromcoaltooilandnaturalgas.
DomesticcoalmadetheNetherlandslessdependentonforeignsupplies.
Worldwarsandeconomiccriseslonginspiredalifestylebasedonlowenergyconsumption.
Anenergy-intensivelifestyleemergedafterthe1960swiththeimportofcheapoilandthediscoveryofnaturalgasinGroningen.
Thediscoveryalsoledtotheattractionofenergy-intensiveindustries,tothemassiveuseofnaturalgasingreen-housefarmingandtoanationalgasgridforhouseholds.
Oilandgasalsolaidthebasisfortheproduction,processinganduseofplastics.
Thesebecamethesymbolofmodernityandoftheriseoftheconsumersociety.
Aspackagingmaterialandrawmaterialforcheapconsumergoodstheyalsoinitiatedthewastesocietyandformedtheiconicexampleofthelineareconomy.
Theprod-uctsofthislineareconomyendedupenmasseontherapidlygrowingwasteheaps.
Increasingenergyconsumptioninindustryandhouseholdscausedlocalairpol-lution.
ThefirstinvestigationsofandpolicymeasuresintheareaofairpollutionContents15.
1WorkingonaNationalEnergySupply32815.
1.
1VulnerableEnergySuppliesandPublicWelfare32815.
1.
2DomesticCoalProduction33015.
1.
3TheEndofDomesticCoal33215.
1.
4AWarmHouse33415.
1.
5NaturalGastoSpare33715.
2WellfarewithPlastics33915.
2.
1TheNetherlandsasLeader33915.
2.
2ThePlasticsRevolution34115.
2.
3SymboloftheLinearEconomy34215.
3DarkCloudsGatherAboveWell-beingandtheHumanEnvironment34315.
3.
1The'SuperPipe'34315.
3.
2PollutedAirasaNuisance34515.
3.
3ANationalMonitoringNetworkforAirPollution34615.
3.
4TheOverturetoNewSustainabilityProblems348Literature.
351328wereinitiatedfromtheviewpointofpublichealth.
Pollutionmobilisedlocalresis-tanceagainsttheexcessesofmodernisation.
Localenvironmentalgroupswerethecradleofabroadsocietalconcernabouttheenvironment,ecologyandclimatechangeinthefollowingdecades(seeChaps.
17,18,19,20and21).
KeywordsEnergysupply·Coal·Oil·Naturalgas·Plastics·Waste·Lineareconomy·Airpollution·Environmentalmovement15.
1WorkingonaNationalEnergySupply15.
1.
1VulnerableEnergySuppliesandPublicWelfare'Acountrythatdoesnotknowhowtouseitsnaturalsourcesofwealthprovesthatitdoesnotdeservethem,'accordingtothesecond-chamberparliamentarianfromtheprovinceofLimburg,W.
H.
Nolens,speakinginDecember1897.
Weallknowthatsocietalincome,thematerialcomponentofnationalwell-being,comesintobeingthroughthecombinationofnaturalgivenswithlabour,capitalandentrepreneur-ialambition,thatthesizeofthisincomewilldependonthequantityofeachcomponentandfromthemoreorlesscorrectproportionswithwhichtheyarebroughtintocontactwithoneanother.
.
.
1Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,subsoilcoresampleshaddemonstratedmine-ablelayersofcoalundersignificantportionsofSouthLimburg.
Despitevariousrequestsforminingconcessionsandtheconstructionofarailwaylinetothesouth,aflourishingcoal-miningindustryremainedadistantvision.
Nolenscharacterisedcoalminingasvitalto:thenationalinterest.
.
.
theeconomicindependenceofourcountry.
.
.
AmeasurebytheGermanGovernmenttotemporarilyprohibittheexportofcoalwouldbedisastrousforourcountry,evennow.
21W.
H.
NolensinHandelingenTweedeKamer,35stevergadering,22-12-1897,675,italicsinoriginal.
2W.
H.
NolensinHandelingenTweedeKamer,35stevergadering,22-12-1897,675,italicsinorigi-nal,NolensreferredtoanarticleentitledEenNationaalBelang,DeIngenieur4(1889),no.
25.
Nolens'remarkssuggestthatpolicymakersaboveallfearedtheNetherland'sdependencyonGermany.
AroundtheturnofthecenturyGermancoalincreaseditsmarketshareintheNetherlandsandthelatterbecameevermoredependentontheRuhrregion.
Butpublicopinionalsoreferredtoothersuppliers.
See,forexample,H.
C.
vanderHouvenvanOordtandG.
Vissering,EconomischebeteekenisvanafsluitingendroogleggingderZuiderzee,(Leiden1901),250:'ShouldwarwithEnglandeverbreakoutagain,thentheStateMineswillbeofdecisiveimportance.
'TheBoerWarsinSouthAfricamadesuchaconflictconceivable.
Anevengreaterthreatwasperceivedin'thathugespider'theUnitedStates.
ButitmustbenotedthattheNetherlandsalsohadsomeadvantages.
BecauseofBritishcom-petitiontheRhineland-WestphaliancoalsyndicatekeptpricesontheDutchmarketlowerthanintheirhomemarket.
329HiscalltomodifytheMiningLawswereheardbythegovernment,thatsubse-quentlymadeeffortstopromotethedevelopmentofdomesticmining.
Fromtheperspectiveofwell-being,Nolens'argumentwastelling.
Firstofall,hemadeanexplicitconnectionbetweennationalwell-beingandtheexploitationofnaturalcapital.
Inthenineteenthcentury,inimitationofEngland,theNetherlandshadinvestedinsteamenginesandrailways.
Thiswasaccompaniedbyatransitioninenergysupply.
CoalincreasinglysupplementedDutchdemandsforenergy.
In1870theDutchenergysupplystillconsistedfor62%ofclassicsources:turfandwood,windandwaterandthemusclepowerofhumansandanimals.
Around1900thissharehaddeclinedto34%.
3ThegradualenergytransitiontocoalmadetheNetherlandscompletelydepen-dentonforeignsupplies,whichmadethecountryvulnerable.
ThiswasNolen'ssecondpoint.
Heregardedthedevelopmentofadomesticcoalsupplyastheneces-sarypreconditionforastableandsustainabledevelopmentoftheeconomyandofwell-being.
Thethemeofforeigndependencyrecurredregularlythroughoutthetwentiethcentury.
Between1870and1970theNetherlandspassedthroughtwoenergytransi-tions.
Thefirstwasthetransitionfromtraditionalformsofenergytocoal(1870–1910),thesecondthetransitiontooilandnaturalgas(1950–1970).
Thefirsttransitionwasalreadyanticipatedbytheendofthenineteenthcentury,butalmostnoonecouldimaginethatafterabitmorethan50yearsdomesticcoalproductionwouldbetradedinforoilandnaturalgas.
Fromapresent-dayperspectivetheener-geticvaluesofcoal,oilandnaturalgasandanincreasingenergyconsumptionseemalmostautonomousdriversforthistransformationprocess.
4Thetruthlayelsewhere.
Thenewfuelsthatshapedthemodernisationofsocietywerescarcegoodsthroughoutmostofthetwentiethcentury.
Thetwoworldwarsandtheiraftermathsledtorationing.
Foreignconflictsmeantfluctuationsinpriceanddelivery.
Thisabsoluteandrelativescarcitywasacontinuousspurtoimprovementsinenergyconsumption.
Inthischapterweshallfirstofallconsidertheenergyquestion.
HowdependentwastheNetherlandsandhowdidthecountrydevelopinthetwentiethcenturyFrombeinganetimporterofenergyaround1900,by1970theNetherlandshadchangedintoanetexporterofenergy,thankstothediscoveryofnaturalgasintheGroningensubsoil.
WhateffectsdidthishaveontheDutcheconomyandenergyconsumptionCoal,oilandnaturalgasvariedincomposition.
Therawmaterialshadinmanycasestobeprocessedbeforetheycouldbeused.
Thepurificationandrefiningoffossilassetswerethebasisforthedevelopmentofchemicalcomplexes.
Thesecom-3H.
N.
M.
Hlsgens,EnergytransitionintheNetherlands:Sustainablechallengesinahistoricalandcomparativeperspective(Groningen2016),20.
4Theenergeticorcombustionvaluesareexpressedinunitsofproducedenergy(joule)perkilo-gram.
Formethane-themajorfractionofnaturalgas-thisisbetween50–55MJ/kg,forpetrol(gasoline)thisis44–47MJ/kg,fordieselthisisabout45MJ/kg,anthracitecoalis27MJ/kg,lig-nitecoalabout15MJ/kg,andwoodanddryturfalsoabout15MJ/kg.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney330plexesproducednotonlyfuels,butotherproductsaswell.
AftertheSecondWorldWar,plasticsbecameanimportantsectorwithcompanieslikeDSMandShelldeployingagreatdealofinnovativeprowess.
Wediscussthissectorinthesecondpartofthechapter.
Weconcludewiththeecologicaldownsidesofthefossiltransition.
Whateffectsdidproductionandconsumptionhaveonair,waterandsoilHowdidthesenegativeeffectsgraduallyfindtheirwayontothepoliticalagendaHowdidtheseevolveintotheoriginsofthepresent-daysustainabilitychallengesWefocusinparticularonairpollution.
15.
1.
2DomesticCoalProductionParliamentarianNolens'declamationshavetobeviewedinthelightoftheslowanddifficultdevelopmentofcoalminingintheNetherlands.
Ontheeveofthetwentiethcenturycoalwasminedinonlytwosmallmines,theDomanialeandtheNeuprickMinesinKerkrade.
From1850on,geologicalexplorationsconfirmedthepresenceofcoaloveralargerareainSouthLimburg.
Around1860andespeciallyafter1876,15concessionsweregrantedonthebasisofFrenchmininglawsdatingfrom1810.
Inthisperiodofliberaldominance,manyentrepreneurssucceededinstakingaclaim.
Theseconcessionswereaboveallamatterofspeculationandthecreationofreservesbyforeignminingcompanies.
In1891theMinisterofPublicWorks,TradeandIndustryputastoptothisbyrecallingtheconcessionsandgrantingtheCompanyfortheExploitationofLimburgCoalMinesaconcessionfortheOranje-NassauMine.
Fromtheverybeginning–withthediggingoftheshafts–theenterprisestruggledwithtechnicalproblemsandaccidents.
Policymakersbecameincreas-inglyirritatedwiththedelay.
In1898newconcessionsweregrantedfortheexploi-tationoftheWillem,SophiaandLauraenVereenigingmines.
Inearly1901MinisterLelyproposedestablishingstate-ownedminesinLimburg.
Insteadofalimitedarea,thegovernmentreservedtheentireterritoryknowntocontaincoalinitssubsoilatthatpointintime.
Thiswas,internationallyspeaking,auniquemove.
Inadditiontoeconomicandnationalistmotivations,socialconsiderationsplayedarole.
Astateenterprise,accordingtotheCatholicparties,couldpreventlabourconflictsandthedisruptionoftraditionalsociety.
ThedebateabouttheStateMinestookplaceduringthe'coalcrisis.
'ThepriceofGermancoalhadrisensteeply.
SubsequentlyGreatBritainimposeddutiesonitscoalexports.
GiventhesecircumstancesthepublicandparliamentconcurredinLely'sproposition.
In1903constructionwasstartedontheWilhelminaStateMineandin1906theEmmaStateMineopeneditsgates,followedbytheHendrikStateMinein1911.
Atthesametimevariousprivateminesstartedproducing:OranjeNassau(1899,withasecondminein1904),WillemSophia(1902)andLaura(1907).
5Inbarelyadecade5AdKnotter(eds.
),LimburgKolenland,overdeGeschiedenisvandeLimburgseKolenmijnbouw(Zwolle2015),66–67.
331aseriousminingindustryhadcomeintoexistencethankstomuchhardworkbothbyprivatepartiesandthestate.
Thedomesticproductionofcoalincreasedsteadilyafter1910.
NonethelessthespectreofforeigndependencycametohauntthecountryduringtheFirstWorldWar.
Coalshortagesfollowedontheabruptcessationofforeignimports.
Onlyafterdifficultnegotiationsandinexchangeforotherimportant'warcommodities'likefood,wastheNetherlandsagainabletoimportverymodestquantitiesofcoal.
Inthefinalyearsofthewarthisledtorationingandtheclosingoffactories.
Ittookuntilthemid-1920sbeforecoalconsumptionagainreachedpre-warlev-els.
Inthemeantime,however,domesticproductionwasmeeting60%ofthedemand.
In1937theDutchminesevensuppliedabout90%ofthedomesticdemand.
InthefirstyearsoftheSecondWorldWar,coalproductionremainedstable,butafter1942warcircumstancesbegantoplayaroleandproductiondeclined.
Afterthewartheidealofself-sufficiencywasquietlylaidtorest.
6Importsmetanincreas-inglylargepartofthedemandforcoalandthiscausednoworries.
UptotheannouncementoftheLimburgmineclosuresinthemid-1960s,thestatemineswereresponsiblefordelivering60–80%ofthedomesticdemandforcoal(Graph15.
1).
7Self-sufficiencyandforeigndependencebecameincreasinglyunimportantfac-tors.
Butthepreoccupationwitharesponsibleuseofsubsoilresourcesremainedundiminished.
Policymakersfearedthattheminingcompanies,inpursuitofquickprofits,wouldfirstconcentrateonthericherlayersandtherebymaketheextraction6H.
N.
M.
Hlsgens,'ResourcevulnerabilityandenergytransitionsintheNetherlandssincethemid-nineteenthcentury'inEnergyPolicy,Forthcoming.
7Hlsgens,EnergytransitionintheNetherlands,42–43.
600PJ%50040030020010001901190619111916192119261931193619411946195119561961196619711976198119861991199620012006201112010080604020totalcoalconsumptiondomesticcoalproductionshare0Graph15.
1Consumptionanddomesticproductionofcoalinpetajoules(leftscale)andshareofdomesticproductionintotalconsumptioninpercent(rightscale)Source:B.
GalesandH.
Hlsgensin:H.
N.
M.
Hlsgens,EnergytransitionintheNetherlands:Sustainablechallengesinahistoricalandcomparativeperspective(Groningen2016),207–21715EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney332ofotherlayersimpossible.
Byalsotakingonthethinnerlayersfromtheoutset,costswouldriseby10–15%butintheendtheentiresupplywouldbeutilized.
Thisbecameanimportantpointinthedebateonthenationalisationoftheprivateminesthattookplaceafter1946.
Intheevent,nationalisationwasnotpursuedbuta'thinlayerspolicy'becamethenorm.
Alessthanoptimallevelofproductivitybecamethepriceforlesswaste.
8Thetraditionofresponsibleusewascontinuedinthe1970sindecisionstofirsttacklethesmallernaturalgasfieldsandtokeepthebigfieldatSlochterenpartlyinreserve.
15.
1.
3TheEndofDomesticCoalCoalstillplayedanimportantroleinthepost-warenergysupplyandthusoccupiedacentralplaceinDutchsociety.
Thedecision,in1952,toopenanewStateMine(Beatrix)inVlodropattestedtothat.
Thepreviousyear,theNetherlandshadbecomepartoftheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity(ECSC),acooperativetradeandproductionagreementsignedbyFrance,Germany,Italy,Belgium,Luxembourg,andtheNetherlands.
Thiscooperativeventurehaddevelopedalongthetransna-tionalcartelsofthepowerfulironandsteelindustriesofespeciallyFrance,Germany,BelgiumandLuxembourg.
FromaDutchperspective,theemergenceofWest-EuropeancooperationintheECSCwasacomplexjuxtapositionofnationalinter-estsaimedattherapidrecoveryofexportmarkets,atmonetaryintegrationatthebehestoftheUSAandofopeningupmarketsforcoalandsteelthatwereimportantforreconstructionandindustrialisation.
9WiththisEuropeancooperation,domesticminingactivitiesfoundthemselvesinanewinternationalplayingfield.
TheSuezcrisisof1956,andparticularlytheblockageofthecanal,movedenergytothetopoftheEuropeanagenda.
ReportsbytheECSChighauthoritydemonstratedthatWestEuropeanenergydemandscouldnotbemetwithcoalmining.
Increasingdemandwouldhavetobemetbyimportingcoalandoil.
Nuclearpoweralsoofferedhope.
In1958,withthefoundingoftheEuropeanEconomicCommunity(EEC),cooperationontheEuropeanmarketinten-8StaatscommissieingesteldbijKoninklijkBesluitvan26November1946No.
1,DenHaag1948,25–26,33.
9ThecooperationamongFrance,Germany,Italy,Belgium,LuxembourgandtheNetherlandsintheECSChaddiverseorigins.
ImportantrootsweretheformationofeconomiccooperationbetweenBelgiumandLuxembourginthe1920s,theeconomiccooperationintheframeworkoftheBeneluxsince1944,aswellaspost-warinternationalcooperativearrangementsliketheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope(UNECE)andtheOrganisationforEuropeanEconomicCooperation(OEEC).
MoreonthisinW.
KaiserandJ.
Schot,WritingtherulesforEurope:Experts,cartelsandinternationalorganisations,(London2014),212–16.
Concerningthenationalandmacro-economicconsiderationsoftheDutchgovernmentintherealisationoftheECSC,see:J.
LuitenvanZandenandR.
T.
Griffith,EconomischegeschiedenisvanNederlandinde20eeeuw,(Utrecht1989),247–54.
333sified.
AtthesametimeEuratomstartedaprogramtosatisfyincreasingenergydemandswithnuclearenergy.
ThesedevelopmentsturnedDutchcoalminingintoaplaythinginaworldofcovertnationalsubsidyprogramsinthesurroundingcountries.
10Moreover,oilbegantocompetewithcoal.
Mountingimportsofforeigncoalandoilerodedprofit-ability.
Processimprovementsinthesteelindustrymeantamuchlowerdemandforcokes,leadingtooverproduction.
Toaddinsulttoinjury,thediscoveryofnaturalgasinGroningencastanentirelynewlightonthenationalimportanceofcoalmining.
MiningengineerspointedoutthatDutchcoalmineswereamongthemostmod-erninWesternEurope.
Butthegovernmenthaddoubtsaboutthesizeofthereservesandtheprofitabilityofmining.
Theyplacedthesedoubtsoveragainstthealternativeofnationalexploitationofnaturalgasandachoiceforthelatterbecameinevitable.
In1962thefirstdecisionsforthegradualphasingoutoftheminesweretaken.
In1965theMinisterofEconomicAffairs,JoopdenUyl,announcedthedefinitiveclosingoftheminesinaspeechinthemunicipaltheatreinHeerlen,headquartersoftheStateMines.
Nineyearslater,colliersemployedbytheOranjeNassauminebroughtopthelastoftheDutchcoal.
11In1958morethanhalftheenergyconsumptionwasstillprovidedbycoal,whiletheshareofoilwasabout40%.
By1964thefiguresweretheinverse.
12Statisticsonenergyconsumptionshowthefueltransitionsinthe1960sacrossdifferentsectors(Table15.
1).
Abouthalfoftheenergywasconsumedbyelectricityproductionandindustrialapplications(both24%).
Thesesectorsconsumedmainlyoilandcoal.
Inindustry,coaldemanddeclinedonlygradually,butitsconsumptionwasdwarfedbythegrowinguseofoilandnaturalgasfromthelate1960sonward.
Transportationwaslargelyoil-drivenandaccountedforabout10%oftheenergydemand.
Householdsandsmallbusinesseswerethemainconsumersofcoal(41%in1962).
Inthelate1960sthesesmall-scaleusersalsotransferredtooil.
Withthisshiftinenergyconsumption,dependencyonforeignsourcesagainincreased.
And,asaresultoftheincreasinguseofoilandthefoundingofOPECin1960–thecartelofoil-exportingcountries–Dutchenergysuppliesbecameevenmorevulnerable.
13Justasattheoutsetofthetwentiethcentury,theNetherlandswasnowalsoinlargemeasuredependentonforeignsuppliers.
Butnowtooithadtheoptionofpartiallycompensatingitsdependency.
Bythemid-1960stheenormous10OnthedevelopmentofminingandthenationalsubsidyprogramsoftheparticipantsintheECSCseeB.
Breij,Demijnengingenopen,demijnengingendicht(AlphenaandenRijn1991).
125–128and147–165.
11Thehistoryofthemineclosuresismorecomplicatedthancanbedescribedhere.
Howthesitua-tionevolvedandwhichargumentswereusedbydifferentgroupsofengineersandpoliticiansisdescribedindetailinB.
Gales,'Delfstoffen.
'inJ.
W.
Schotetal.
(eds.
)TechniekinNederlandindetwintigsteeeuw-Delfstoffen,energie,chemie(Zutphen2000),61–65.
andC.
E.
P.
M.
Raedts,Deopkomst,deontwikkelingendeneergangvandesteenkolenmijnbouwinLimburg(Assen1974),198–201.
12Hlsgens,EnergytransitionintheNetherlands,31–32.
13CalculationsconcerningthevulnerabilityoftheNetherlandswithrespecttoenergysuppliesanddifferentenergysourcescanbefoundinHlsgens,EnergytransitionintheNetherlands,19–59.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney334gasfieldinGroningenhadturnedtheNetherlandsintoanetexporterofenergy.
Worriesaboutscarcity,atleastforthecomingdecades,wereathingofthepast.
15.
1.
4AWarmHouseConcernsaboutenergyscarcity,foreigndependencyandcostshadgovernedtheuseoffossilresourcesuptotheendofthe1960s.
FrugalitywaswovendeeplyintothefabricofDutchsociety,andextendedtotheuseoffuels.
Infirms,innovationsforenergy-savingandforincreasedproductionoftenwenthandinhand.
Forexample,thebrickandglassprocessingindustriesintroducednewovenssothatprogressivelylessfuelwouldbeneededperunitproduct.
14Theeffectsofsuchinvestmentscouldbeseenintherelationshipbetweenenergyconsumptionandinvestmentsinmachinesandapparatus.
Overthelongtermthesefiguresexhibitacontinualdecline,withtheexceptionofshortperiodsbeforeandaftertheFirstWorldWarandattheendofthe1960s.
1514G.
B.
Janssen,BaksteenfabrikageinNederland,1850–1920(Zutphen1987),276–78.
;E.
J.
GvanRoyenandH.
Buiter,Grofkeramischeindustrie(Zeist1994).
;B.
A.
vanVeen,Glas-englasbewerk-ingsindustrie(Zeist1994).
15Hlsgens,EnergytransitionintheNetherlands,81–83.
Table15.
1Energyconsumptionbyfuelandsector1958–1974(inPJ)19581962196419661968197019721974Coal152145137131133733432Oil117230303202514243170Gas791340133245312IndustryCoal1101059295817680Oil161182198234168293353Gas5742132266434499TransportCoal2Oil118185250252Gas233Other(Incl.
Households)Coal3092382021309346199Oil219363440318574348214Gas102063166306518607AllCoal460495444353322201129121Oil61477594193912551135989Gas223611734070612001420GrandTotals4601131125514121601216224642531Electicityproduction152268376447375721522515Industry277294332461515803932Transport120188253255Other(incl.
houseoulds)309466585634577925886829Total4601131125514121601216224642531ElectrictyproductionSources:CBSStatisticalYearbooks1967,1971,1973,1975335Inthehousehold,frugaluseoffuelswasencouragedbythebuildingcodes.
Thenationalgovernmentwasabletoinfluencetheconstructionofpublichousingviavariousguidelines.
Theseso-called'suggestions'wereinspiredbytheideologyofsimplicityandsobriety.
Guidelinesintheareaofheatingdatedfromthe1920sandassumedastoveinthekitchenandahearthinthelivingroom.
Thesehadtoprovidewarmthfortheentirehome.
ComparedtosurroundingcountriesDutchheatingfacilitieswereextremelyfrugal.
FromtimetotimeNetherlanderssufferedfromcoldenmasse.
16DuringtheSecondWorldWar,architectsdevelopednewconceptsinhousingconstruction.
Amongotherthingsthisincludedheatingthehomebymeansofcen-tralheatingorblockheating,whichwereheldtoimprovethecomfortofthehomeaswellasitscompatibilitywiththefuture.
17Buttheseideaswereatloggerheadswiththestringentpost-warrestrictionsimposedbythegovernmentonscarcemate-rialsandmeans.
Thegovernmentwasabletocontroltheproductionofmaterialsviaitssystemofdistributionandtocontrolthespecificationofhousingstandardsviaitssystemsoffinancing.
Itwasevenabletoregulatetheconfigurationofneighbour-hoodsbymeansofitsground-pricepolicy.
18Giventhelimitedfinancialmeans,thegovernmenttriedtoaugmenthousingpro-ductionbyimplementingaradicalstandardisationoffloorplansfordwellings.
Inthiswaythegovernmentconsciouslyorunconsciouslyalsoshapedthelevelofcom-fortandheatingofthehome.
ThesepoliticshadafavourableeffectonthelowexpendituresfordomesticfuelsandontheenergyrationingaroundandduringtheSecondWorldWar.
Thefearoffutureenergyshortagescausedthesemeasurestoremaininforceuntilwellintothe1950s.
Itseemedthattheoccupantsthemselveswerenotoverlyconcernedaboutthecoldinthehouse.
Dissatisfactionseemedlimitedtoexperts,whokeptinsistingonstructuralimprovementstofacilitiesinthehome.
Buthouseholdsplottedtheirowncourseinimprovingdomesticcomfort.
Supplementaryheatingbymeansofmobileelectricorpetroleumstovessuppliedthedesiredcomfort.
AsurveyconductedinUtrechtin1948revealedthatmorethan20%ofthehouseholdskeptthecoldatbayinthisfashion.
Anationwidesurveyin1957revealedthat27%oftheDutchhouse-holdsusedanelectricand6%apetroleumstoveassupplementaryheating.
In1964,61%ofthehouseholdsownedanelectricstoveandonly24%ofthehouseholdshadnoformofsupplementaryheating.
19Theguidedheatingpolicyseemedtobeeffectiveonthesupplyside.
Modestheatingfacilitieslimitedthedemandfordomesticsolidfuels.
Butportablestovescompensatedthelackofcomfortinthehomes.
Fromafinancialpointofviewthis16B.
Gales,'GemütlichAmOfen',ZentrumFürNiederlande-Studien-Jahrbuch,2009,91–112.
17Gales,'GemütlichAmOfen',100.
18K.
SchuytandE.
Taverne,1950:Welvaartinzwartwit(DenHaag2000),204–5.
19P.
vanOverbeeke,Kachels,geisersenfornuizen:KeuzeprocessenenenergieverbruikinNederlandsehuishoudens,1920–1975(Hilversum2001),179.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney336didnotseemtobetheidealsolution.
Electricstovescost200centsper100mega-joules(about28kwh)ofheat.
20Thedetourofusingelectricitytoproducewarmthalsoentailedextraenergycosts.
Theenergeticefficiencyofcoal-firedelectricityplantsintheNetherlandsinthelate1950shoveredaround28%.
21Inexchangeforcomfortandease,householdswerepreparedtosufferhigherenergyconsumptionandhighercosts.
Incomparisonwithsurroundingcountriesstoveslongremainedcommonplace.
InSweden,by1961,99%ofthenewresidenceshadcentralheating.
Withonly5%,theNetherlandsstruckadiscordantnoteamongotherWestEuropeannations.
22Around1960,architectsandsocietalorganisationsbecameevermoreinsistentinaddressingthequestionofheating.
'GoodLiving'(GoedWonen),afoundationforpromotingamodernlifestyle,typifiedthebedroomasapolarregion.
Initsviewitwasnecessarytoputanimmediateendtothisdiresituation.
23Thetransitiontonatu-ralgasmarkedtheturningpoint.
Fromtheearly1960sonthenumberofnewhous-ingunitsinwhichcentralheatingwasinstalledgrewexplosively.
After1965almostallnewflatswereequippedwithcentralheating;around1970thiswasalsothecaseforone-familyhomes.
Inthatyearonly26%ofthedwellingsintheNetherlandshadcentralheating;bytheearly1980sthiswasabout50%andonlyaroundtheturnofthemillenniumhadhomeswithoutcentralorcollectiveheatingbecomeanexcep-tion(seeTable15.
2).
Theguidedenergypolicyreverberatedlongafteritsinception.
20Otheroptionswerebottledgas(180cents),municipalgas(105cents)andpetroleum(55cents)forthesamequantityofheat.
SeevanOverbeeke,Kachels,geisersenfornuizen,180.
21Thismeantthatmostoftheenergyincoalwaslostinfriction,heatandtransformationlosses.
J.
H.
deBoer,'Primaireensecundaireenergiebronnen,'inBevolkingsgroeienenergie-Verbruik(symposiumattheUniversityofAmsterdamheldinthesummerof1957,Assen:VanGorcum&CompNV,1958),76.
Internationallyinthe1950sand60stheefficiencyvariedbetween30–40%.
SeeV.
Smil,Energyinworldhistory(Oxford1994),171–75.
22CentralheatinginhomesinWestEuropeancountriesin1961:Switzerland(90%),Denmark(76%),Belgium(70%),France(44%)andWestGermany(24%).
VanOverbeeke,Kachels,geisersenfornuizen,165.
23Gales,'GemütlichAmOfen',107.
Table15.
2Differenttypesofheatinginpercent,1947–19981947195719661968197019721974197819811998Coalstove/hearth978458}61432617100OilStove0819210Gasstove/hearth031121313942403411Individualcentralheating}35811162430475578Block/neighborhood/districtheating47101111101011Source:PetervanOverbeeke,Kachels,GeisersenFornuizen,(Eindhoven2001)27233715.
1.
5NaturalGastoSpareThefirstdrillingfornaturalgaswasin1959,butittookmorethan4yearsbeforethedifferentpartieswereabletoreachagreementonanacceptablewaytoexploitthisnewnaturalresource.
Sincetheinterbellum,explorationforandexploitationofoilandgashadbeenthemonopolyoftheDutchPetroleumOilCompany(NederlandseAardolieMaatschappij,NAM).
TheNAMwasajointventureoftheoilcompaniesShellandEsso.
Earliergasfindshadbeenentirelyfinancedanddis-tributedbytheStateGasCompany(SGB).
ButgiventhegiganticsizeoftheGroningengasfield,thisconstructionbecameuntenable.
Againstthisbackground,negotiationscommenced,aboutbuildinganinfrastructureofpipelines,thesaleofgasdomesticallyandabroad,andthedivisionoftheincome.
TheroleofthegovernmentwasacomplicatingfactorforShellandEsso.
Foreigngovernmentsofoil-producingcountriesdemandedabigcutinsalesincomesfromtheoilcompanies.
WeretheDutchgovernmenttomakesimilardemandswithrespecttotheGroningengas,thiswouldcompromiseShell'sandEsso'snegotiatingpositionelsewhere.
TheMinisterofEconomicAffairs,J.
W.
dePous,hadtoweightheconsiderableinvestmentsofthesecompaniesintheNetherlands,liketheoilrefineriesinRotterdam'sBotlekarea,againstthepossibil-ityofextractionviaastateenterprise.
Inthecourseofthenegotiations,thegovernmentproposedthatitsotherenergyenterprise,theStateMines(nowadaysDSM)becomeapartnerintheextractionanddistributionoftheGroningennaturalgas.
In1962,afternationalisticsentimentswithinthegovernmenthadbeenquelled,theministerpresenteda'MemorandumregardingtheNaturalGas'.
ThisledtothefoundingoftheGasUnion(Gasunie)in1963,ajointventureinwhichDSMparticipatedfor40%,Shellfor25%,Essofor25%andthestatefor10%.
Thankstothisdivisionofsharesaswellascorporatetaxes,about70%oftheincomeaccruedtothestate.
24Inthecourseofthenegotiations,EssoandShelldevelopedplansforsellingnatu-ralgastohouseholdsandsmallbusinesses.
Theoilcompaniescalculatedthatthiscouldbethemostprofitablemarket.
Thegascouldbecoupledtoexistingmunicipalgasnetworksbymeansofanationaldistributionnetwork,whichwouldmakeitimmediatelycompetitivewithcoalsandfueloil.
Householdsweretoutilizethegasforspaceheating,cookingandwarmwater.
Additionally,plansweremadetodevelopaso-calledpremiummarketforapplicationsinthechemical,metalandceramicindustries.
Privateusersandfirmsconsuminglargequantitiesofgascouldbargainforsignificantdiscounts.
2524G.
P.
J.
Verbong,'Energie,'inJ.
W.
Schotetal.
(eds.
),TechniekinNederlandindetwintigsteeeuw-Delfstoffen,energie,chemie,(Zutphen2000),206–10.
,W.
Kielich,Ondergrondsrijk:25jaargasunieenaardgas(Groningen1988),41–45.
,A.
Correlje,Hollandswelvaren:Degeschie-denisvaneenNederlandsebodemschat(Hilversum1998),27.
25Correlje,Hollandswelvaren,21–32.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney338In1963theGasunielaiddownthefirsthigh-pressurepipelinesthatweretodeliverthegasfromSlochterentothemunicipalgascompanies.
Within5yearsalmostallonshoreDutchmunicipalitieswereconnectedtothenaturalgasnetwork.
Inthecitiesandtownsgascompanieswerebusymodifyingandinstallingnewheat-ingandcookingappliances.
Intheearly1970shouseholdsbecameoneofthelargestconsumersofnaturalgas(seeTable15.
1andGraph15.
2).
Bythemid-sixtiesexpectationsaboutnuclearenergyweredrivingthesaleofgastonewheights.
Itwasself-evidentthatnuclearenergywasdestinedtobecometheenergysourceofthefutureandtoreplacefossilfuels.
Thatwouldbetheendofnaturalgasprofits.
After1966naturalgaswasincreasinglyusedtofuelconven-tionalelectricpowerplants.
LowgaspriceswereemployedtoseduceindustrieswithlargeenergyrequirementsintoinvestingintheNetherlands.
Inthiswayacon-sortiumconsistingoftheBillitonCompany,AlusuisseandHoogovensfoundedanaluminiumsmeltingfacility,AluminiumDelfzijl(Aldel),intheprovinceofGroningen.
Thegovernmentagreedtoaconsignmentof13billioncubicmetresofnaturalgas,enoughtoproduce60,000tonsofaluminiumin40years.
Thealumin-iumorewasprovidedbytheBillitonCompanyandcamefrombauxiteminesinSurinam.
26Otherenergy-intensivesectorsalsoprofitedfromthedecliningenergypricesduetotheavailabilityofnaturalgas.
Naturalgas,forexample,utterlytransformedthegreenhousefarmingindustry.
Greenhouseswereheatedwithnaturalgasandalsosuppliedwithcarbondioxide(CO2).
Thecultivationofvegetablesincommercialgardeningunderglassincreasedbetween1960and1970from4200to5300hectares,thecultivationofcutflowersfrom500to1700hectares.
InadditiontherewasayieldincreasethankstotheadditionofCO2.
Theyieldoftomatoes,forexample,increasedfrom10to15kilogramspersquaremeter.
27Alongsuchdeviouspaths,26H.
Beukema,Lichtmetaalopzwaregrond:40jaarAldel(Delfzijl2006).
27J.
Bieleman,BoereninNederland:Geschiedenisvandelandbouw,1500–2000(Amsterdam2008),553–560.
504030Coal,fualoil,steamandwarmth,nuclearenergyNaturalgas(correctedfortemperature)GJ/capElectricity(equivalentamountoffossilfualneededforelectricityproduction)2010019501960197019801990200020102020Graph15.
2Domesticenergyconsumptionperinhabitant1950–2012Source:CBS/okt14,www.
clo.
nl/nl003617339Groningen'snaturalgashadfundamentalconsequencesforenergyuseandtheindustrialstructureoftheNetherlands.
Naturalgas,oilandcoalwerenotonlyusedtomakefuels.
Theywerealsorawmaterialsforcountlesschemicalproductsandmaterials.
Anewtypeofmaterialwasthesyntheticmaterials,especiallyplastics.
28PriortotheSecondWorldWartherehadbeenanumberofbasicinventionsinthisarea,especiallyinGermanyandtheUnitedStates.
Afterthewar,plasticstechnologycreatedarevolution.
A1949aDutchtreatiseonthestateoftheartinplasticsopenedwiththesesentences:Nexttoatomicphysicsandradarthereisprobablynodomainthathassoexercisedthepublicimaginationasthatofplastics.
Throughouttheworldnewmaterialshavecomeintouseandnewapplicationsforthesematerialshavebeenfound,thankstowhichnewindus-trieshavecomeintobeingorexistingindustrieshaveexpandedbeyondrecognition.
.
.
29Inthepost-warNetherlands,plasticswerethefastestgrowingindustrialsector.
Atthesametimeitveryquicklywontheheartofthewelfaresociety.
Itofferedthemassesease,comfortandpleasure.
Atthesametime,plasticswerefromtheveryfirstcontroversialmaterials.
Theywereassociatedwithpoorquality,consumerismandenvironmentalproblems.
Thehistoryofplasticsisasublimeillustrationofthetensionbetweenwell-beingandsustainability.
Asapartofthefossilmaterialflows,plasticswillgetspecialattentioninthenextsectionandinthenextpart.
3015.
2WellfarewithPlastics15.
2.
1TheNetherlandsasLeaderPlasticsarebuiltupfromlongchainsofmostlycarbonatoms,withmoleculesthatare1000to100,000timesbiggerthanmoleculesofsubstanceslikewaterandsugar.
Duringmanufacturetheycanbemouldedorarefluidandatthefinalstagetheyassumeamoreorlesspermanentform.
Inthecourseofmouldingorcasting,i.
e.
plasticshaping,thesesyntheticmaterialsacquiretheirmaterialfunction.
28Inthepast,elaboratefactorycomplexeshaddevelopedaroundfossilsubsoilresources.
AnearlyexamplewastheriseofthesyntheticdyeindustryinGermanyafter1870,anentirelynewbranchofindustrythatsettledamongotherplacesintheneighbourhoodofcoalbasins.
IntheNetherlands,small-scalechemicalindustryflourishedaroundtheproductionofcity-gasinmunicipalgasworks.
InLimburgalarge-scalechemicalcomplexdevelopedunderthecontroloftheStateMinesoncecoaldepositstherebegantobeexploited.
29R.
vandeKasteele,Hetkunststoffengebied:Chemie,grondstoffenentoepassingen(Amsterdam1949),13.
30Seeforthefollowing:H.
W.
Lintsen,M.
HollestelleandR.
Hlsgens,ThePlasticsRevolution.
HowtheNetherlandsbecameaglobalplayerinplastics(Eindhoven2017),theprologueandpartI.
Furthermore:E.
M.
L.
BervoetsenF.
C.
A.
Veraart,'Bezinning,ordeningenafstemming1940–1970',in:J.
W.
Schotetal.
,TechniekinNederlandindetwintigsteeeuw(Zutphen2003)PartVI,214–239.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney340Bakelite–inventedaround1907bytheBelgianLeoBaekeland–wasthefirstsyntheticmaterialderivedfromafossilrawmaterialandsubstancesderivedthere-from(inthiscasecoalanditsderivatives).
31ThethreeplasticsthatasbulkproductswoulddominatethemarketaftertheSecondWorldWarhadbeendevelopedinthe1920sand1930sinlargeforeignchemicalenterprises:polystyreneattheAmericanDowChemicalCompanyandtheGermanIGFarben,polyvinylchloride(PVC)atIGFarben,andpolyethyleneattheBritishICI.
Themostimportantplasticfibre,nylon,wasinventedattheAmericanchemicalfirmDuPont.
PriortotheSecondWorldWar,Dutchfirmsplayednexttonoroleinplasticstechnology.
In1923Philipsbecameoneofthecompaniesthatproducedandpro-cessedBakelite.
Itwasusedtomakespeakers,radiocabinetsandinsulatingbaseplatesforx-rayapparatus,butalsoforlightbulbfittings,plugsandswitches.
AfewfirmsspecializedinBakelitemoulding.
32AfterthewartheNetherlandslaggedfarbehindtheUSA,EnglandandGermany.
Despitethis,within20yearsitwouldsuc-ceedinbecomingoneofthefront-runnersinplasticstechnology.
Animportantreasonwasthepresenceofrawmaterialsforplasticsproduction.
DSMwasperchedontopofthecoalintheLimburgsubsoil.
ShellhadaccesstooilandrefineriesinPernis.
PernisandEuropoortdevelopedintothelargeststorageandtrans-shipmentlocationforcrudeoilinEurope.
Thatattractedforeignfirms.
TheplasticsindustrythusrepresentedaclassicallyDutchtypeofindustry,namelythetrafiek,aprocessingandvalue-addingindustrybasedonflowsoftrade.
AsecondreasonwasthattheNetherlandswasabletoappropriateplasticstech-nologyveryquickly.
Shell,DSMandAKU(GeneralArtificialSilkUnion)investedlargesumsinresearchanddevelopmentandbuiltworld-classcompetenciesintheproductionandprocessingofplastics.
TNO,thelargestpublicresearchorganisation31Asearlyasthemid-nineteenthcentury,materialsthatcouldbemoldedweretheobjectofexten-siveexperimentation.
Variousmaterialslikepaper-maché(basedonpaperandglue)andvulca-nisednaturalrubber(basedonnaturalrubberandsulphur)werenot(andarenot)countedassyntheticmaterials.
Parkesine,namedafteritsinventorAlexanderParkes(1813–1890),wasthefirstsubstancethatlateracquiredthatpredicate,albeitsomewhathalf-heartedly.
Somespeakofahalf-syntheticsubstancebecausecottonwasthebasicmaterial.
Thecottonwastreatedwithamix-tureofnitricandsulphuricacidandsubsequentlymixedwithvegetableoilandorganicsolvents.
Thisproducedakneadabledoughthatcouldbecast,formed,cutandpaintedtoproduceavarietyofproductslikemedallions,billiardballs,buttonsandletteropeners.
Butthematerialwasbrittle,breakableandflammable.
Animportantimprovementwastheadditionofcamphor,thatmadethematerialstrongandflexible.
TheAmericanJohnWesleyHyatt(1837–1920)succeededattheendofthenineteenthcenturyinproducingthismaterial(thatnowiscalledcelluloid)anditsderivativeproductsatanindustrialscale.
32Withabitofgoodwillwecanalsocounttheartificialhornandartificialsilkindustryaspartoftheplasticssector.
Butthesewereinfacthalf-syntheticplastics(tospeakincontemporaryterms)becausetheartificialhornwaspreparedfromcasein,aby-productofthedairyindustryandtheartificialsilkfromcellulosederivedfromwoodandcotton.
TheInternationalArtificialHornIndustry(IKI)forexample,belongedtotheplasticssector.
ENKA(theFirstNetherlandsArtificialSilkFactoryinArnhem,foundedin1912)wasthefirstproducerofartificialsilkintheNetherlands.
Otherartificialsilkfactoriesfollowed.
In1928theENKAtookoveroneofthosefirms,theHollandArtificialSilkIndustryandmergedin1929withtheGermanVereinigteGlanzstoffFabrikenAGtoformtheAlgemeneKunstzijdeUnieNV(AKU).
341intheNetherlands,foundedthePlasticsInstituteTNO,thatdevelopedintothenationalcentreofexpertiseinplastics.
Inthe1960sthesectorgrewatanextraordinaryrate.
TheNetherlandsexpandeditsplasticsproductioncapacitysoquicklythatbythemid-1970sitrankedamongthetopproducersworldwide.
33Domesticconsumptionrosefrom1.
7kgperinhabit-antin1950,to9.
1kgin1960,to35kgin1971.
34Themostimportantmarketforplasticsinthe1970swasconstruction(30%).
Productsincludedwaterconduits,gutters,rainpipes,bathroomfixtures,andsinks.
Asecondbigcategorywaspackag-ing(23%)suchasbags,bottles,cratesandshrink-wraps.
Thentherewereseveralsmallermarketsegmentsamongwhichweretransport(6%)especiallyapplicationsincars;households(5%)withutilitarianobjects,decorationsandtoys.
Inadditiontherewerenumerousothermarketsandapplicationdomains,likeelectronics,machine-building,furniture,paintsandmedicines.
15.
2.
2ThePlasticsRevolutionThecareerofplasticsaftertheSecondWorldWarcanjustifiablybecharacterisedasarevolution.
WhereplasticswerestillmarginalmaterialsjustbeforetheSecondWorldWar,only30yearslatertheyhadbecomeoneofthemostprominentmateri-alsintheNetherlands.
Therevolutionwascausedby,amongotherthings,theextremelylowoilpricesatthetime,arawmaterialscost-factorthatimmediatelymadeplasticsprice-competitivewithclassicalmaterialslikewood,metal,cottonandwool.
Anotherimportantfactorwasthegreatvarietyofplastics–eachwithitsownfunctionality.
35Whatalsomadeplasticssoattractivewasthepromiseof33Productionofplasticspercapitainvariouscountriesin1963and1975(kg).
Production(kg/cap)1963Estimatedproduction(kg/cap)1975West-Germany24.
378UnitedStates20.
645England13.
7Italy12.
4Netherlands11.
2106France10.
54134InitiallythiswassignificantlylessthantheaverageAmerican,thelargestuserofplastics.
ThedifferencebetweenAmericaandtheNetherlands(andotherWesternEuropeancountries)dimin-ishedinthecourseofthe1950s.
Around1970Germanywouldbecomethelargestuserwith62kgperyearpercapita.
35F.
VanderMost,F.
V.
Homburg,E.
HooghoffandA.
VanSelm,'Nieuwesynthetischeproducten:plasticsenwasmiddelennadeTweedeWereldoorlog',inJ.
W.
Schot,H.
W.
Lintsen,A.
RipandA.
A.
AlbertdelaBruhèze(eds.
),TechniekinNederlandindeTwintigsteEeuw–deelII(Zutphen2000),364.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney342mass-production,thepossibilityofimitationandtheallureofmodernity.
Growingwelfaredidtherest.
Crockery,statues,medals,chains,dollsandacornucopiaofconsumerarticlescouldbeproducedcheaplyandenmasse.
Thesekindsofproductswereformerlymadeofwood,leather,glass,earthenware,metalorivory.
Andcomponentsofdura-bleproductslikecupboards,tablesandchairscouldbemadeofplasticortreatedwithsyntheticpaints.
Dresses,shirts,socksandotherclothingmadeoftricotweavescouldalsobefabricatedwithsyntheticfibres.
Manyproductshadformerlyonlybeenaffordableforthemiddleandupperclass.
Nowtheycamewithinthereachoftheworkingclass.
Andwithplastics,moderndesignalsoenteredthehome.
Middleandupper-classconsumerscouldflaunttheirgoodtastewithradiocasesofsatinyblacklaminatesinstreamlinedforms,eleganttableswithshinyplasticsurfacesandachrome-platedframeorcastplasticclocksofeccentricdesign.
Originally,plastichadabadreputation:aplasticproductwascheapjunkandofpoorquality.
Thisimprovedinthecourseoftime.
Inthe1960saplasticproductstoodfor'strong,hygienic,washable,lightweight,attractivelycolouredand.
.
.
apleasantdesign.
'36Plasticplayedanessentialroleintheriseandtheshapingofconsumersociety.
15.
2.
3SymboloftheLinearEconomyLowproductioncostsalsomadeplasticseminentlysuitableaspackagingmaterial.
Thelightweight,thecheaprawmaterialsandtheeasewithwhichitcouldbeshaped,increasinglycausedplasticstobeseenastheidealmaterialfordisposablepackaging.
37This,togetherwiththeriseoftheself-servicestore,resultedinincreas-inguseofpre-packagedfoodproductsandbeverages.
Expertsinthepackagingindustrystatedin1957:'Themostimportantdevelopmentincastplasticsinsofarasitrelatestopackagingistheacceptanceoftheideathatpackagingismadetobethrownaway.
'38Recyclingofrags,rubber,glassandpaperdeclinedandmoreandmorematerialwasdisposedofaswasteorburned.
InearliertimestheNetherlanderwascarefulofhispossessionsandwasconstantlyrefurbishingandre-usingthem.
Nowthereweregoodsthatonethrewawayafterusingthembrieflyandonlyonce.
Thefirstdispos-ablepackagingwasmadeofpaper,glassortinnedsteel,materialsthatwereincreas-36G.
Staal,'Hetwonder,hetwantrouwenendeweerstand',inM.
Boot,A.
VonGraevenitz,H.
OverduinandG.
Staal(eds.
),Deeersteplasticeeuw:Kunststoffeninhetdagelijksleven(DenHaag1981),22.
37G.
Hawkins,'Madetobewasted:PETandtopologiesofdisposability',inJ.
Gabrys,G.
HawkinsandM.
Michael(eds.
),Accumulation:Thematerialpoliticsofplastic(London2013),49–67;J.
L.
Meikle,'MateriaNova:PlasticsandDesignintheU.
S.
,1925–1935',inS.
MossmanandT.
Morris(eds.
),Thedevelopmentofplastics(Cambridge1994).
38InHawkins'MadetobeWasted',5citedinLintsen,HollestelleandHlsgens,ThePlasticsRevolution,partI.
343inglyreplacedbyplastic.
Theconsumersocietyalsobecameawastesociety.
Thatwasanewphenomenonandplasticwastebecameitssymbol.
Untiltheearly1970s,thedebateonplasticwasteremainedrestrictedtothoseprocessingthewaste.
Between1950and1970thevolumeofhouseholdwasteperinhabitantdoubled.
In1972thefourmainwastecategoriesinweightandvolumewerevegetable,fruitandgardenwaste(GFT),paper,glassandplastics.
DespitetheirasyetbriefpresenceinDutchhouseholds,in1972about12kgofplasticwasthrownoutperhousehold.
Thatamountedtoavolumeofabout234litres(seeTable15.
3).
Itbecamemoreandmoredifficulttoturnthegarbageintocompost.
Theincreas-ingglutofmaterialslikeglass,paperandplasticsthatdecomposedonlywithdiffi-culty,ifatall,forcedwasteprocessorstoswitchtonewmethods.
Thenewcompositionofmunicipalwastesincreasedtheircaloricvalue,causingmanymunicipalitiestoconsiderinvestmentsinwasteincinerators.
39Thisappearedtosolvethespatialaspectofthegrowingwasteburden.
Theproblemwentupinsmoke,atleastpartly.
Afinesolution,soitseemed,butcertainlyonethatfitsinwithalinearproductionandconsumptionchain.
Withtheadventofplasticsthecirculareconomybecameevermoredistant.
15.
3DarkCloudsGatherAboveWell-beingandtheHumanEnvironment15.
3.
1The'SuperPipe'OnSeptember26,1965,theunder-ministerofsocialaffairsandpublichealthcere-moniallyrammedthefirstof196pilesintothegroundthatwouldserveasafounda-tionforthe'SuperPipe,'a213meter-highsmokestackattheShellrefinerycomplexatPernis.
Thesmokestackwascompletedin1968andwaspartofthefightagainstairpollution.
Twenty-fiveprocessingunitswereconnectedtothesmokestackthat39W.
vanDieren,Eengrondigezaak:50jaarvuilafvoermaatschappijVAM,1929–1979(Amsterdam1979),131–36.
Table15.
3HouseholdwasteintheNetherlandsin1972Veg.
Fruit&Garden(GFT)PaperPlasticsGlassFerroTextileSpecificgravity:kg/m330012050300400250inmillionkg1,53480015634810066inmillionm35.
16.
73.
11.
20.
20.
3perhouseholdinkg11660122675inliters385503234871920ProcesseddataofCBS–CompositionofHouseholdWaste,1940–201115EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney344coulddisposeof1000m3ofwastegassespersecond.
Notwithoutatouchofpride,Shellrefineryengineersannouncedin1969thatsincethesmokestackhadcomeonline,ithasbecomenecessarytoinstallmoresensitiveapparatusintheShellmonitoringstationsinordertomeasuresulphurdioxideconcentrations[.
.
.
]Wehavetriedtofollowthecloudwithamobilelaboratory.
Despitealloureffortsithasprovedimpossibletodefinetheloca-tionwherethecloudtouchestheground.
Nothingremainsofthesulphur-dioxideconcen-trationsafterthecloudhastravelledseveralkilometresinthehigherairlayers.
40Airpollutionproblemsseemedtohavedissolved,literallyandfiguratively.
Itmighthaveseemedsurprisingthatanunder-ministerofpublichealthshouldhaveper-formedthestart-upceremonyattheShellrefinery.
Fromapresent-dayperspectivethe'SuperPipe'iscertainlyinnowayasolutionforairpollution.
Thepresenceoftheunder-ministershowsthatatthattimeairpollutionwasseenasapublichealthissue.
Urbanliveabilityandenvironmentalproblemsbelongedtothemostimportantpoliticalandsocietaltopicsattheendofthe1960sandthebeginningofthe1970s.
Localgroupsofexpertscalledattentiontotheissue.
Theymobilisedlocalresidentsandjournalists.
Newpoliticalcurrentspoliticisedtheenvironmentalissues.
41Thiswasthecontextinwhichenvironmentallegislationaroundsurfacewater(1970)andairpollution(1972)waspassed.
Thisraisesvariousquestions.
Howseri-ouswasairpollutionHowdiddifferentgroupsthroughoutthetwentiethcenturylookuponairpollutionandwhatconclusionsandinterventionsfollowedWeshallattempttoanswerthesequestionsinthefollowingsection.
Westartwiththelastquestion.
40Reportsonthe'SuperPipe'in:Tegendeluchtvervuiling:ReuzentorenvoorShellinPernisinDeTelegraaf28februari1964;EerstepaalvoorSuperpijpvanShellinGereformeerdGezinsblad27september1965andcitationfromHenkThonen'Vuilstort'derStaatmiijnenooknogonderraf-finaderijwolkeninLimburgsDagblad,11oktober1969.
FurthermoreF.
V.
Homburg,A.
Selm,andP.
F.
G.
Vincken,'Industrialisatieenindustrie-complexen:Dechemischeindustrietussenover-heid,technologieenmarkt',inJ.
W.
Schot,H.
W.
Lintsen,A.
RipandA.
A.
AlbertdelaBruhèze(eds.
),TechniekinNederlandindetwintigsteeeuw–deelII(Zutphen2000),.
376–401.
41Top5problemsaccordingtosurveyofDutchvoters1967197119721977Unemployment2931157Housingshortage2128156Environment122184PoliticalProblems114123IncomeandPrices87157FromAarts1989CitedinH.
T.
Siraa,A.
J.
vanderValk,andW.
L.
Wissink,Methetoogopdeomgeving:HetMinisterievanVolkshuisvesting,RuimtelijkeOrdeningenMilieubeheer,1965–1995(DenHaag,1995),234.
34515.
3.
2PollutedAirasaNuisanceForcenturieslocalauthoritiesissuedregulationstolimitwaterandairpollutionseenasanuisanceandathreattohealth.
Theseruleswereaimedatperceptiblepol-lution,i.
e.
pollutionthatyoucouldseeandsmell.
In1896,thevariousregulationswerenationallyintegratedintotheformoftheNuisanceLaw.
Thislawwasintendedtopreventnuisanceanddangerscausedbyindustrialactivities,forexampleexplo-sions,poisoningofwaterandpollutedair.
42Stench,smoke,sootandashwerethedirectlyperceptiblecomponentsofairpollution.
ThemeasuresprescribedintheNuisanceLawaimedatthesecomponents,suchaszoningforsmellyenterpriseslikeslaughterhouses,tanneriesandsteam-poweredfactories.
In1905,theministerofAgriculture,IndustryandTradecontactedtheexecutiveboardoftheSocietyforIndustry(MaatschappijvanNijverheid)inordertodiscusspossiblenewarticlesintheNuisanceLaw'againstsmokingfactorychimneys.
'InspiredbyGermanandBritishexamples,theindustrialistsadvocatedthepromo-tionof'economicsteamproduction,'wherebythankstototalcombustionlesssootwasproduced.
Theconsultationledneithertothesubsidizedstokers'coursesadvo-catedbytheindustrialistsnortonewrules.
Ontheminister'sadvicetheSocietyforIndustryfoundedtheAssociationforthePromotionofSmoke-freeStoking.
This'inordertocombatsmokeformationbyfactorychimneysonourownpower.
'43In1910theassociationcounted54membersresponsiblefor244boilers.
InthatyeartheassociationmergedwiththeNetherlandsAssociationagainstWaterPollutiontoformtheNetherlandsAssociationagainstWater,SoilandAirPollution.
Themem-bersoftheassociationincludedindustrialists,butalsopublichealthinspectorsandrepresentativesofpublicworksandmunicipalutilities.
Theassociationemphasizedthatitwasnot'hostile'or'lesssympathetic'totheinterestsofagricultureandindustry.
Theuniversalinterestincleanair,waterandsoilhadtobeachievedbymutualconsultationandenlightenment.
44Waterpollutionwasthedominanttopicintheassociation'sjournal,Water,Soil,Air.
ThesporadicarticlesonairpollutionwerelargelyaccountsofBritishandGermanresearchintotheeffectsofcoalcombustion.
Smokewasseenasadangertohealthchieflyinclosedspacesandincasesofdirectinhalationofsootclouds.
Municipalhealthservicesinvestigatedtheeffluentsofspecificfactoriesaftercom-plaintsbynearbyresidents.
IncidentalinvestigationswerecarriedonincooperationwithresearchinstituteslikeagriculturalexperimentalstationsandtheCentral42T.
J.
Dijkstra,Hetbezwaar:Debelevingvanleefomgevingshinderindeperiode1870–2000indeFriesehavenstadHarlingen(Groningen2006),54–58.
;E.
M.
T.
Beenakkers,Aandachtvandeover-heidvoorbodembescherming:Sindswanneer(DenHaag1991),7–15.
;Siraa,vanderValk,andWissink,Methetoogopdeomgeving,230–233.
43J.
deKuijser,'Mededeelingenbetreffendedevereenigingtotbevorderingvanrookvrijstoken'inWaterBodem,Lucht,vol1.
1910–1911,p.
7–1044Redactie,'DeOprichtingDerVereeniginginWater,BodemLucht,1(1910–1911),19–20;seealsoH.
vanderWindt,'DeTotstandkomingvandeNatuurbescherminginNederland,'TijdschriftVoorGeschiedenis107(3)(1994):485–507.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney346LaboratoryforPublicHealth,foundedin1909.
Thesolutionwasfoundinoptimiz-ingthecombustionofcoalanddilutingthesmokeconcentration.
Giventherightchimney-heightthelattercouldbeachievedandthis,mostcriticsagreed,solvedtheproblems.
4515.
3.
3ANationalMonitoringNetworkforAirPollutionInDecember1930sixty-threepeoplediedinadeadlyfogintheMeuseValleytownofEngisinWallonia(Belgium).
Immediatelyafterthedisaster,itwasspeculatedthatpoisonouschemicalsweretoblame.
Subsequentinvestigationshowedthedisasterwastheresultofseriousairpollution.
Thisconclusioncausedhardlyarip-pleintheNetherlands,despitetheparticipationoftheLeidenphysician,WillemStormvanLeeuwen,intheinvestigation.
Airpollution–asthereportsoftheAssociationagainstWater,SoilandAirPollutionattest–wasaforeignproblemespeciallyintheindustrialisedareasofGermany,EnglandandBelgium.
Inthoseregions,forthetimebeing,nomeasureswerebeingtakentocurbpollution.
46Inmedicalcirclestherewas,however,concernaboutairpollutionandconse-quencesforlabourandpublichealth.
IntheNetherlands,theinspectorofpublichealth,M.
J.
N.
Schuursma,spokeoutaboutthedangersofairpollution.
Airpollutionduetosmoke,exhaustgasesandcondensationnucleiareprevalentwheretherearelargeconcentrationsofindustryandcanproduceirritationanddanger.
Asindus-trialisationincreasesitisdesirabletopayattentiontothismatter.
'47In1948,thecityofRotterdamestablishedacommissionforSoil,WaterandAir.
Inthe1950sthisbodyinvestigatedexcessivequantitiesoffluorideandsulphur-dioxideintheregion'satmospherecausedbyartificialfertiliserfactories,electricalpowerplantsandoilrefineries.
Onthebasisofdatafrom18air-qualitymeasurementsta-tions,thecommissionwasableforthefirsttimeintheNetherlandstochartthegeographicaldispersionofpollution.
London's'GreatSmog'ofDecember1952gaveanextraimpulsetothepublichealthaspectsandencouragedamoreintegralapproachtopollution.
Medicalresearchconcludedthatabout4000peoplediedasaresultofthesmog.
InGreatBritaintheeventledtothemakingofnewlawsonairpollutionthatcameintoforcein1956.
Thelegislationfocusednotonlyonindustry,butalsoontheuseofcoalindomesticstovesandcookingstoves.
IntheNetherlandstoo,investigationsfocused45Redactie,'Luchtverontreiningingdooreeneloodaschbranderij'inWaterBodem,Lucht,5(1915),89–91;J.
DeKuijser,'Luchtverontreiningingenhinderwetaangelegenheden',inWaterBodem,Lucht,6(1916),45–56andE.
Buijsman,Erzijeenmeetnet.
.
.
:EengeillustreerdegeschiedenisvanhetluchtmeetnetvanhetRIV(M)(Bilthoven2003),18–19.
46B.
Nemery,P.
H.
M.
Hoet,A.
Nemmar,'TheMueseValleyfogof1930:anairpollutiondisaster',inTheLancet,Vol.
357,(2001);Redactie,'MistinhetMaasdal'inWater,Bodem,Lucht21(1931),8–9;E.
Buijsman,'DeMoordendeMist:DeRampinMaasvalleibijLuikin1930(Houten2010).
47Buijsman,Erzijeenmeetnet,20–21.
347moreexplicitlyonregionsratherthanonspecificindustrialplants.
Rotterdamwasaprimeexampleofaregionwithahighconcentrationofindustryandwasthefirstmunicipalitytofocusattentionontheregionalsituation.
In1953TNOfollowedinRotterdam'sfootsteps,investigatingpollutionintheenvironsoftheHoogovens.
In1956theNationalInstituteforPublicHealth(RIV)startedinvestigationsintoairpollutionaroundtheStateMinesinLimburgandinAmsterdam'sharbourarea.
48Themeasurementsshowedanextremelyhighlevelofairpollution.
Scientistsbegantouseevermoreforcefulterminology.
In1958,prof.
W.
F.
J.
MKrul,chairmanofTNO'sInstituteforHealthTechnology,statedthatthefuturehabitabilityofthe'RandstadHollandwilldependinlargemeasureonwhetherthetechnicalandeco-nomicproblemsofairpollutionwilladmitofasolution.
'49ButaccordingtotheministerofSocialAffairsandPublicHealth:.
.
.
theairpollutionis[.
.
.
]notsoserious,thatitendangerspublichealth.
.
.
AccordingtotheNationalWeatherService(KNMI)theNetherlandsdoesnothavetofearforinversionssuchasthosethatincombinationwithanumberofotherfactorscauseLondon"smog".
50ButinJanuary1959andDecember1962Rotterdamsuffered'wintersmog'undertheinfluenceofthepollutedair.
Thisaddedfueltothefireinthedebateamongscientists,politiciansandpolicymakers,adebatethatnowfounditswaytothepagesofthepublicmedia.
Theresearchfocusedonthehealtheffectsofairpollu-tion.
TheRotterdamCommissionforSoil,WaterandAirregisteredaslightincreaseinmortalityrates,hospitalisationsandsick-leave,butdidnotconsiderthesituationalarming.
Itconcludedthatairpollutionstill'playedaninsignificantrolecomparedtosicknessandmortalityassociatedwithtrafficaccidents,poornutritionalhabits,substandardhousingandspoiledfood.
'Andotherresearchthatfocusedespeciallyontheincreaseinlungcancerconcludedthatexplanationsshouldbesoughtinsmoking,ratherthaninpollutedair.
51Publicreviewofthevariousinvestigationsexpressedincreasingconcernaboutairpollution.
Theuneasewasnotquelled,despitethesoothingconclusions.
ProtestgroupsliketheSocietyagainstAirPollutioninandaroundtheNewWaterway(1963)andtheCommitteefortheHabitabilityoftheWaterwayRegion(1968)becametheprotagonistsofthedissat-isfaction.
Municipalpoliticians,scientistsandlocalexpertstooktheinitiative.
Thelocalgroupscontinuedtodemandattentionforliveabilityandenvironmentalissues.
48E.
Buijsman,EengeannoteerdoverzichtvanpublicatiesoverchemischesamenstellingvanluchtenneerslaginNederland(Houten2011),10.
49CitedinJ.
W.
Tesch'Volksgezondheidsaspectenvanluchtverontreiniging'inWaterBodem,Lucht,50(1960),44.
50'VerslagvanhetmondelingeoverlegbetreffendeafdelingVII(Volksgezondheid)',Rijksbegrotingvoorhetdienstjaar1960,HandelingenvandeTweedeKamer,zitting1959–1960,KamerstukTweedeKamer1959–1960kamerstuknummer5700XIIondernummer19,p.
17–18.
51'UitRotterdamsrapportblijkt:Sterkeluchtverontreinigingwerktziekteindehand-Lichtetoe-namesterfgevallentijdenszwaremist',inDeWaarheid,25april1984,p.
3;'Dr.
Bierstekersver-rastinproefschrift:Verontreinigdeluchtzogevaarlijknogniet.
'inDeTijd,dagbladvoorNederland,30–6-1966,p.
5.
15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney348In1963thegovernmentmovedtoappointaCouncilonAirPollution.
Ayearlateritproducedadraftlawonairpollution.
Thelawwasratifiedin1970andcameintoforceayearlater.
Itcoupledtheairpollutionofemissionstospecificlimitingvalues.
Thelimitvaluewasdefinedasthatpointwhereemissions'cannegativelyaffecthumanhealthorcreateanuisanceforhumans,orcausedamagetoanimals,plantsorgoods.
'52Thelawwasaso-calledframeworklaw.
GeneralAdministrativeOrdinancesweretofillinthefurtherdetails.
Thenewregulativestructurewasthusimpossiblewithoutknowledgeofairqual-ity.
In1965theministryofSocialAffairsandPublicHealthconsultedwithexpertsintheInspectorateofEnvironmentalHygiene,RoyalDutchMeteorologicalInstitute(KNMI),TNOandRIV(NationalInstituteforPublicHealth).
Thesetalksresultedinanumberofinvestigationsandadesignforanationalairqualitymonitoringnet-work.
TheRIVwasassignedthetaskofrealisingacompletelyautomatedmeasure-mentnetwork.
By1967,incooperationwiththeKNMI,TNOandPhilips,ithadatestnetworkupandrunninginTwente.
Automationplacednewdemandsonthemeasurementsystemandtheprocessingofthedata.
Thefirstautomatedpieceofapparatuswasasulphur-dioxidemonitordesignedinpartbyPhilips.
Whileexpertsrealisedthatothersubstanceswerealsorelevantfordeterminingthelevelofairpol-lution,sulphur-dioxidelevelsthusbecamethebenchmarkforairquality.
Thefirstfullyautomatedmeasurementnetwork,usingsocalled'sniffingpoles'tomonitorairquality,wassetupin1969inRotterdam'sharbourregionatthebehestoflocalhealthservicesandtheRijnmondRegionalAuthority(OpenbaarLichaamRijnmond).
Provincesandmunicipalitiesgotinvolvedintheplansforanationalmonitoringnetwork.
InNovember1970theunder-ministerofpublichealthgrantedapproval.
In1975anationalair-qualitymonitoringnetworkwascompleted.
5315.
3.
4TheOverturetoNewSustainabilityProblemsDuringthe1960sforthefirsttimeanoverallpictureofthenationaldiffusionofairpollutionbecameavailable.
HowseriouswasairpollutionThemeasurementsfocusedontwoimportantcomponents:sulphur-dioxide(SO2)andso-called'blacksmoke,'dustparticlessmallerthanfourmicrons.
Bothsubstanceswererelatedtothecombustionofcoal,thecustomaryfuelinindustryandhouseholds.
Theconcen-trationofsulphur-dioxidewasmeasuredbymeansofsamplingandchemicalanaly-sis,thatofblacksmokebymeansoffiltrationtechniques.
Thefirstinvestigationsfocusedonproblemsaroundspecificfactoriesandonextremesituationssuchasthesmogepisodesinthewintersof1952and1962.
The52Citedinandtranslatedfrom:G.
H.
Dinkelman,Verzuringenbroeikaseffect:DewisselwerkingtussenproblemenenoplossingeninhetNederlandseluchtverontreinigingsbeleid(1970–1994)(Amsterdam1995),36.
53Buijsman,Erzijeenmeetnet.
,13–75;E.
Buijsman,'Vanmosterdgasnaarzwaveldioxide:Overdeoorsprongvandeeerstezwaveldioxidemonitor,'Studium3(8)(2015),159–62.
349measurementsshowedthatthesulphur-dioxidelevelsatRotterdamin1962begantoapproachthoseoftheBigSmoginLondon10yearsearlier(Table15.
4).
Systematicmeasurementsdatingfromthe1960srevealedhighconcentrationsofsulphurdioxideand'blacksmoke.
'Theconcentrationsofbothsubstancesdeclinedafterthemid-1960s(Graph15.
3).
Thetransitionfromcoaltonaturalgashadbenefi-cialside-effects.
TheswitchliberatedtheNetherlandsfromthestronglypollutingcoalfumesinthecitiesandthesurroundingindustrialparks.
Theheydayofchokingairpollutionseemedtobedefinitelyonthewayoutbytheendofthe1960s.
Thedifferenceinratesofdeclinebetweensulphurdioxideandblacksmokewerethefirstindicationofotherdevelopments(Graphs15.
3and15.
4).
54MeasurementsinUtrechtshowedthatmotorisedtrafficcontributedstronglytothepresenceofdustparticles(Graph15.
5).
55Moreresearchwasneeded.
Theneedformoredataonthecompositionoftheairanditsconsequencesforhealthshapedanewagendaforresearchinstitutesandpolicymakers.
Localinterestsgroupsdevelopedintoenvi-ronmentalorganisations.
Theneworganisationsinthe'societalmidfield'developednewstrategiestoinfluencepublicopinionandgovernment.
Whileduringthefirstdecadesafterthewar,waterandairpollutionwerestilldismissedasinevitablecol-lateralconsequencesofwelfare,around1970somewereconcludingthatthepriceofthiskindofwelfarewasfartoohigh.
Newdemandsonthequalityofair,waterandsoilbecametheoverturetothesustainabilityproblemsofthefollowingdecades.
54Buijsman,EengeannoteerdoverzichtvanpublicatiesoverchemischesamenstellingvanluchtenneerslaginNederland;E.
Buijsman,Metenwaarmensenzijn:DeontwikkelingvanstedelijkeluchtkwaliteitinNederland(Houten2010).
55E.
Buijsman,StofinNederland:EenreconstructievanhistorischemetingeninNederland(Houten2010).
Table15.
4ExtremeairpollutioninEurope,1952and1962SulphurDioxide(SO2)inμg/m3Smoke(dust)inμg/m31952London(8Dec)1800–20001200–15001962Rotterdam&Surr.
(5Dec)1040–1610160–530Paris(7Dec)840–1260600–800Ruhr(6Dec)2300–4000–London(5Dec)1400–46501700–4550Norm2016Dailyaverage(max3days)125(Limitvalue)Hourlyaverage(24xp.
j.
)350(Limitvalue)Hourlyaverage(3hours)500(Alarmvalue)Sources:E.
Buijsman,ErZijeenMeetnet.
.
.
,EenGeillustreerdeGeschiedenisvanhetLuchtmeetnetvanhetRIV(M)(Bilthoven2003),38andF.
M.
W.
deJongandP.
J.
C.
M.
Jansen,LuchtnormenGeordend,(Bilthoven2010)15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney350100g/m3500196019701980199020002010Graph15.
4Concentrationblacksmoke,1963–2005Source:E.
Buijsman,MetenWaarMensenZijn,deOntwikkelingvanStedelijkeLuchtkwaliteitinNederland(Houten2010),14–17300gSO2/m32001000196019701980199020002010RotterdamAmsterdamGraph15.
3YearlyaveragesulphurdioxideconcentrationsinAmsterdamandRotterdam,1965–2005Source:E.
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15EnergyandPlastics:TowardaFossilLandofMilkandHoney