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orgInfo@vtpi.
orgPhone&Fax:250-360-15601999-2011ToddAlexanderLitmanAllRightsReservedWin-WinTransportationSolutionsMobilityManagementStrategiesThatProvideEconomic,SocialandEnvironmentalBenefits18December2014ToddLitmanVictoriaTransportPolicyInstituteAbstractWin-WinTransportationSolutionsarecost-effective,technicallyfeasiblemarketreformsthathelpsolvetransportationproblemsbyincreasingconsumeroptionsandremovingmarketdistortionsthatencourageinefficienttravelbehavior.
Theyprovidemultipleeconomic,socialandenvironmentalbenefits.
Iffullyimplementedtothedegreethatiseconomicallyjustified,Win-Winstrategieswouldsignificantlyincreasetransportationsystemefficiency.
Theyare"noregrets"measuresthatarejustifiedregardlessofuncertaintiesaboutglobalwarmingorotherenvironmentalandsocialimpacts.
Becausetheyprovidemultiplebenefitstheyofferopportunitiesforcooperationandcoordinationamongvariousorganizationsandpoliticalinterests.
ThispaperdiscussestheWin-WinconceptanddescribesvariousWin-Winsolutions.
Originallypublishedas:ToddLitman(2003),"TransportationDemandManagementand'Win-Win'TransportationSolutions"Chapter45,HandbookofTransportandtheEnvironment,Elsevier,pp.
805-814.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute1ContentsIntroduction.
2HowWin-WinSolutionsWork.
6Win-WinStrategies.
10LeastCostTransportationPlanning10MobilityManagementPrograms.
11CommuteTripReductionPrograms11CommuterFinancialIncentives12FuelTaxes-TaxShifting13Pay-As-You-DrivePricing.
14RoadPricing.
15ParkingManagement16TransitServiceImprovements.
17Ridesharing.
17HOVPriority18WalkingandCyclingImprovements19SmartGrowthLandUsePolicies.
20LocationEfficientDevelopment20MobilityManagementMarketing.
21FreightTransportManagement.
21SchoolandCampusTripManagement22RegulatoryReforms22Carsharing.
23TrafficCalmingandTrafficManagement23SummaryofWin-WinStrategies24EvaluationGuidelines27HowMuch27EstimatingTotalImpacts.
27Benefits.
28ConsumerImpacts28EconomicImpacts.
29Conclusions30ReferencesandInformationResources31Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute2IntroductionPeopleoftenassumethatenvironmental,socialandeconomicgoalsconflict.
Forexample,policiestoreducepollutionemissionsandprogramstoimprovemobilityfordisadvantagedpeopleareoftencriticizedasthreatstobusinessandjobs.
Butsuchconflictscanbeavoided.
Somestrategiesthatsupportenvironmentalandsocialobjectivesalsobenefittheeconomy.
Thisreportidentifiesmorethanadozensuchstrategies,whichwecallWin-WinTransportationSolutions.
Thesearecost-effective,technicallyfeasiblepolicyreformsandprogramsthathelpsolvetransportproblemsbyimprovingtransportoptionsandcorrectingmarketdistortionsthatresultineconomicallyexcessivemotorvehicletravel.
1Thesearenoregretsstrategiesbecausetheyarejustifiedeveniftheseverityofenvironmentalrisks,suchasclimatechange,isuncertain.
ToappreciateWin-Winsolutionsitisnecessarytousecomprehensiveanalysisthatconsidersallsignificantbenefitsandcosts.
Transportplanningoftenstartsbydefiningvarioustransportsystemproblems(orcosts),whichdescribetheconditionsthatpeopleconsiderundesirable.
Commontransportproblemscaninclude:InconvenientanduncomfortabletravelconditionsTrafficcongestionHighcostsofbuildingandmaintainingroadsandparkingfacilitiesTrafficaccidentsPollutionemissionsHighcoststoconsumersofowningandoperatingcosts,andpayingtransitfaresInadequatemobilityfornon-driversExcessiveenergyconsumptionandassociatedeconomiccostsandenvironmentaldamagesInadequatephysicalfitnessandresultinghealthproblemsPlanningobjectives(orbenefits)describedesirableoutcomes.
Thesearetheinverseofproblems.
Forexample,iftrafficcongestionisaproblemthencongestionreductionisaplanningobjective,andiftrafficaccidentsareaproblemthenimprovedtrafficsafetyisaplanningobjective.
Thisdescribeswhatacommunitywantstoachieve.
Conventionaltransportplanningtendstofocusoncertainplanningobjectivesandoverlookothers,particularlyinformaleconomicevaluationinwhichimpactsarequantifiedandmonetized(measuredinmonetaryvalues),assummarizedinTable1.
1Economicallyexcessivetravelisvehicle-travelconsumerswouldforegoiftransportpoliciesbetterreflectedmarketprinciples,souserbenefitsaresmallerthantotalcoststosociety.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute3Table1ComprehensivePlanningObjectives(Litman2010)PlanningObjectiveDefinitionConsiderationinConventionalPlanningIncreaseduserconvenienceandcomfortMoreconvenientandcomfortableconditionsfortransportsystemusers,suchasbetteruserinformation,nicerwalkingfacilitiesandtransitwaitingareas,andlesscrowdedtransitvehicles.
Althoughoftenrecognizedasdesirable,notgenerallyquantifiedorincludedinbenefit-costanalysis.
CongestionreductionReduceddelays,andassociatedreductionsintraveltime,fuelcostsandpollutionemissions.
Motorvehiclecongestioncostsarewidelyrecognizedandquantified,butdelaystonon-motorizedtravel(calledthe"barriereffect"isgenerallyignored.
RoadwaycostsavingsReducedcostsforbuildingandmaintainingroadways.
Generallyconsidered.
ParkingcostsavingsReducedcostsforbuildingandmaintainingparkingfacilities.
Generallyignored.
Forexample,theparkingcostsavingsthatresultwhentravelshiftsfromautomobiletoalternativemodesisnotgenerallyconsideredwhenevaluatingtransportpolicesandprojects.
ConsumercostsavingsReducedcoststouserstoownandoperatevehicles,andforpublictransitfares.
Operatingcostsavingsaregenerallyrecognizedbutvehicleownershipsavings(suchasifimprovedtraveloptionsallowshouseholdstoreducetheirvehicleownership)aregenerallyignored.
ReducedtrafficaccidentsReducedpercapitatrafficcrashesandassociatedcosts.
Crashrisk,measuredpervehicle-mile,isoftenconsidered,butimpactsofchangesinvehiclemileagearegenerallyignored.
ImprovedmobilityoptionsImprovedquantityandqualityoftransportoptions,particularlyaffordablemodesthatservenon-drivers.
Sometimesrecognizedasaplanningobjectivebutseldomquantifiedorincludedinformaleconomicevaluation.
EnergyconservationReducedenergyconsumption,particularlypetroleumproducts.
Sometimesrecognized.
PollutionreductionReducedemissionsofharmfulair,noiseandwaterpollution.
Sometimesrecognized.
PhysicalfitnessandhealthImprovedphysicalfitnessandhealth,particularlymorewalkingandcyclingbyotherwisesedentarypeople.
Notusuallyconsideredinthepast,butisincreasinglyrecognized,althoughseldomquantified.
LanduseobjectivesSupportforvariouslanduseplanningobjectives(called"smartgrowth"),includingmorecompact,mixeddevelopment(whichimprovesaccessibilityandreducespublicservicecosts),openspacepreservation,andcommunityredevelopment.
Sometimesrecognizedasaplanningobjectivebutseldomquantifiedorincludedinformaleconomicevaluation.
"Planningobjectives"aredesirableoutcomes,theoppositeof"problems.
"Thistablelistsvarioustransportplanningobjectivesandthedegreetheyareconsideredinconventionalplanning.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute4Manytransportimprovementstrategiesonlyhelpachieveafewplanningobjectives.
Forexample,expandinghighwaysincreasesmotoristcomfortandreducestrafficcongestion.
2Moreefficientandalternativefueledvehiclesconserveenergyandreducepollutionemissions.
3Byimprovingtraveloptionsandreducingtotalvehicletravel,Win-Winstrategiestendtoprovideamuchbroaderrangeofbenefits,manyofwhichareoverlookedorundervaluedbyconventionaltransportplanning,asindicatedinTable2.
Table2ComparingStrategies(Litman2005)PlanningObjectiveRoadwayExpansionEfficientandAlt.
FuelVehiclesWin-WinSolutionsImpactsonVehicleTravelIncreasedIncreasedReducedIncreaseuserconvenienceandcomfortCongestionreductionRoadwaycostsavingsParkingcostsavingsConsumercostsavingsReducedtrafficaccidentsImprovedmobilityoptionsEnergyconservationPollutionreductionPhysicalfitnessandhealthLanduseobjectives(=Achieveobjectives.
)Roadwayexpansionandmorefuelefficientvehiclesprovidefewbenefits.
Win-WinSolutionsimprovetraveloptionsandencouragemoreefficienttravelpatterns,whichhelpsachievemanyplanningobjectives.
Win-winbenefitsbecomemoreevidentiflong-termtravelimpactsareconsidered.
Forexample,overthelong-run,roadwayexpansionofteninducesadditionalvehicletravel,whichreducescongestionreductionbenefitsandincreasestotaltrafficproblemsincludingdownstreamcongestion(forexample,expandinghighwaysoftenincreasessurfacestreetcongestion),roadandparkingfacilitycosts,accidents,energyconsumption,pollutionemissionsandsprawl.
Similarly,morefuel-efficientvehiclestendtoreduceenergyconsumption,pollutionemissionsandfuelcost(althoughthesesavingsareoftenoffsetbyincreasedvehiclepurchasecosts).
However,becausetheycostlesstodrive,ownersoffuelefficientvehiclestendtodrivemoreannualmiles,whichcanincreasetrafficproblemsincludingroadandparkingfacilitycosts,accidents,andsprawl.
2Congestionreductionstendtoreduceenergyconsumptionandpollutionemissionspervehicle-mile,buttheseareincludedinmostmonetizedestimatesofcongestionreductionbenefits,andsomecongestionreductionstrategiesinduceadditionalvehicletravelwhichoffsetssomeofthesesavings.
3Moreefficientandalternativefuelvehiclesreducevehicleoperatingcosts,butgenerallyincreaseownershipcosts,soconsumercostimpactsareuncertain.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute5Win-Winstrategiescanhelpachievemultipleplanningobjectives.
Improvingtransportoptions(walking,cycling,ridesharing,publictransit,etc.
)tendstodirectlybenefitthepeoplewhousethesemodes,andbyreducingtotalvehicletravelthisbenefitsotherresidentsbyreducingtheircongestion,accidentriskandpollutionexposure.
Pricingreformscanalsoprovidemanybenefits:theyincreasesomecostsbutreduceothers.
Forexample,roadtollsandparkingfeesincreasethecostsofdrivingbutreducethetaxesandtheportionofrentsthatwouldotherwisebeneededtofinanceroadsandparkingfacilities.
Inaddition,bygivingmoretravelersincentivetousealternativemodes,pricingreformstendtoimprovetransportoptions,forexample,byencouragingmiddle-incomeresidentstosupportpedestrian,cyclingandpublictransitserviceimprovements,andbymakinguseofthesemodesmoresociallyacceptable.
Smartgrowthdevelopmentpoliciesreducethedistancespeoplemusttraveltoaccessservicesandactivities,whichprovidesdirectandindirectbenefits.
Whenallimpactsareconsidered,theseWin-Winstrategiesareoftenthemostcosteffectiveandbeneficialsolutionstotransportproblems.
Table3ComparingStrategiesIncludingTravelImpactsPlanningObjectiveRoadwayExpansionFuelEfficientVehiclesTransportOptionsPriceReformsSmartGrowthMotorVehicleTravelImpactsIncreasedIncreasedReducedReducedReducedUserconvenienceandcomfortCongestionreduction/4RoadwaycostsavingsParkingcostsavingsConsumersavings/5/6ReducedtrafficaccidentsImprovedmobilityoptions/7EnergyconservationPollutionreductionPhysicalfitnessandhealthLanduseobjectives(=Achieveobjectives.
=Contradictsobjective.
)Roadwayexpansionandmorefuelefficientvehiclesprovidefewbenefits,andbyincreasingtotalvehicletraveltheycanexacerbateotherproblemssuchascongestion,accidentsandsprawl.
Win-WinSolutionsimprovetraveloptions,encourageuseofalternativemodesandcreatemoreaccessiblecommunities,whichreducestotalvehicletravelandincreaseseconomicefficiency.
Thishelpsachievemanyplanningobjectives.
4Congestionisreducedontheexpandedfacilitybutoftenincreasesdownstream,suchasonsurfacestreets.
5Morefuelefficientvehiclestendtohavehigherpurchasecostsbutloweroperatingcosts.
6Userfeesincreasesdrivingcostsbutreducegeneraltaxesusedtofinanceroadsandparkingfacilities.
7Higherfuel,roadandparkingpricesmakedrivinglessaffordable,butdistance-basedpricingandlowerpublictransitfaresmaketravelmoreaffordable,andbyencouraginguseofalternativemodes,pricingreformstendtoimprovethequalityofalternatives,suchasimprovedwalkingandcyclingconditions,improvedpublictransitservices,andincreasingthesocialstatusofalternativemodes.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute6HowWin-WinSolutionsWorkTheseare,admittedly,bigclaims.
Tounderstandwhysuchlargebenefitsarepossibleitisusefultoconsidersomebasicmarketprinciples("MarketPrinciples,"VTPI2007).
Efficientmarketshavecertainrequirements,includingviableconsumeroptions,cost-basedpricing,andeconomicneutrality.
Transportmarketsoftenviolatetheseprinciples.
8Forexample,althoughconsumershavemanyoptionswhenpurchasingavehicle,theyoftenhavefewalternativemobilityoptions.
Thisresults,inpart,fromplanningbiasesthatfavorautomobiletraveloverothermodes.
Forexample,manyjurisdictionshavededicatedfundsforroadsandparkingfacilitiesthatcannotbeusedforothertypesoftransportationimprovements,eveniftheyaremorecosteffective.
Thisencouragesdecision-makerstochooseautomobile-orientedsolutionstotransportationproblems,evenwhenalternativesarebetteroverall.
Othermarketdistortionsinvolveunderpricing(Vermeulen,etal.
2004;Litman2004;Parry,WallsandHarrington2007).
Currentuserfeesfailtoreflectmarginalcostsasrequiredforanefficientmarket.
Althoughmotorvehiclesareexpensivetoown,theyarerelativelycheaptodrive,costingjustafewcentspermileindirectexpenses.
Depreciation,insurance,registrationandresidentialparkingcostsarelargelyfixed,notdirectlyaffectedbyhowmuchavehicleisdriven.
Thisencouragesmotoriststomaximizetheirvehicletraveltogettheirmoney'sworthfromsuchexpenditures.
Othercostsareexternal,notbornedirectlybyusers,includingsubsidizedparking,roadsfundedthroughgeneraltaxes,andcongestion,accidentriskandpollutioncostsimposedonothers.
Lessthanhalfthecostsofdrivingareefficientlypriced,asindicatedinFigure1.
Figure1AutomobileCostDistribution("TransportationCosts,"VTPI2007)Automobiletravelisunderpriced.
Morethanhalfofautomobilecostsareexternalorfixed.
8Inthiscase,transportmarketsincludeanythingthataffectsthetypeandamountoftravelconsumed,includingthesupply,priceandmanagementoftransportationfacilitiesandservices,andlandusepoliciesthataffectthelocationofdestinations.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute7Figure2illustratesestimatedautomobiletravelexternalcosts.
Thereareseveralofthesecosts.
Asaresult,astrategythatreducesonecostbutincreasesothersmaybeharmfuloverall.
Forexample,strategythatreducescongestionby10%butincreasescrash,parkingandenvironmentalcostsby5%eachisprobablynotworthwhile,butacongestionreductionstrategythatalsoreducescrashes,parkingandenvironmentalcostsbyevenasmallamountisworthmuchmorethanonethatonlyreducescongestion.
Figure2AnnualCostsofAutomobileUse("TransportationCosts,"VTPI,2007)Thisfigureillustratesestimatedper-milecostsofmotorvehicleownershipanduse.
Putdifferently,currentpricingfailstorewardconsumersforthesavingsthatresultwhentheydriveless.
Forexample,shiftingfromdrivingtoalternativemodesorcloserdestinationsreducescongestion,parking,crashandpollutioncosts,butthesesavingsarenotreturnedtotheindividualswhomakethechange.
Consumersthereforelacktheincentivetochoosethemostcosteffectiveoption,asillustratedinFigure3.
Thisisinefficientandunfair,becausepeoplewhodrivelessthanaverageareforcedtosubsidizethecostsofotherswhodrivemorethanaverage,andsincevehicletraveltendstoincreasewithincome,marketdistortionsfavoringautomobiletraveltendtoberegressive.
Figure3EfficientMarketsReturnSavingsToIndividualsWhoReduceMileageMotoristReducesMileage(walks,bikes,ridestransit,closerdestination,etc.
)ReducedCosts(roadwear,parking,accidents,etc.
)SavingsAreWidelyDistributed(reducedtaxes,reducedbusinesscosts,etc.
)MotoristReducesMileage(walk,bike,ridetransit,closerdestination,etc.
)ReducedCosts(roadwear,parking,accidents,etc.
)SavingsReturnedToTheIndividualThatReducedMileageIncurrentmarkets,savingsthatresultwhenmotoristsreducemileagearewidelydistributedthroughtheeconomy.
Inefficientmarkets,savingsthatresultwhenmotoristsreducemileagearepassedbacktothatindividual.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute8Win-Winstrategiescorrectsuchdistortions,asdescribedinTable4.
Win-Winstrategiesareatypeofpreventivemedicine,equivalenttoputtingthetransportationsystemonahealthierdiet.
Thiscanavertmoredifficultandexpensivemeasuresthatwouldotherwiseberequiredtoaddresstransportproblems.
Table4Win-WinstrategiesSupportMarketPrinciples(Litman2005)MarketRequirementsCurrentMarketDistortionsWin-WinSolutionsOptions.
Consumersneedviabletransportandlocationoptions,andinformationaboutthoseoptions.
Consumersoftenlackviablealternativestoautomobiletransport,andlivinginautomobiledependentcommunities.
ManyWin-Winstrategiesincreasetraveloptionsdirectly,andallincreaseoptionsindirectlybystimulatingdemandforalternatives.
Cost-basedpricing.
Pricesforeachgoodshouldreflectitsproductioncosts.
Motorvehicletravelissignificantlyunderpriced:manycostsareeitherfixedorexternal.
ManyWin-Winstrategiesresultinmoreefficientpricing.
Economicneutrality.
Publicpolicies(laws,taxes,investments,etc.
)shouldnotarbitrarilyfavoroneactivityorgroup.
Manylaws,tax,planningandfundingpracticesfavorautomobiletraveloveralternatives.
ManyWin-Winstrategieshelpcorrectbiasesthatfavorautomobiletransportovermodesandgoods.
LandUse.
Landusepoliciesshouldnotfavorautomobileorienteddevelopment.
Manycurrentlandusepoliciesencouragelower-density,automobile-dependentlandusepatterns.
SomeWin-Winstrategiescorrectlandusebiasesthatencouragesprawlandautomobiledependency.
Win-Winstrategiescorrectmarketdistortions,creatingamoreefficientandequitabletransportsystem.
Thesemarketdistortionscreateeconomictraps(alsocalledatragedyofthecommons),inwhichcompetitionforresourcescreatesconflictsbetweenindividualinterestsandthecommongood,makingsocietyworseoffoverall.
Althoughindividualmarketdistortionsmayseemmodestandjustified,theireffectsarecumulativeandsynergistic(totalimpactsaregreaterthanthesumofindividualimpacts),significantlyincreasingtransportproblemsandcosts.
Thesedistortionsskewcountlesstraveldecisionsinwaysthatincreasemotorvehicletravelbeyondwhatisoptimal.
Thesedistortionshavemanyimpactssoanalyzingthemindividuallyunderestimatestheirtotalharm,andpotentialbenefitsofreforms.
Forexample,underpricedparkingnotonlyincreasesparkingproblems,italsoexacerbatescongestion,roadway,crashandpollutioncosts.
Similarly,underpricingroaduseincreasesnotonlycongestionandroadwaycosts,butalsoparking,crashandpollutionproblems.
Inadditiontotheirshort-termimpactsthesedistortionscontributetoalong-termcycleofautomobiledependency(Figure4).
Thesedistortionsarewellentrenched.
Reformsfaceskepticismandobstacles;theyareoftengreetedwith"whyme,""whynow"and"whybother.
"Yet,manytransportproblemsarevirtuallyunsolvablewithoutsuchreforms.
Forexample,urbantrafficcongestionisunlikelytodeclinesignificantlywithoutacombinationofimprovedtraveloptionsandpricingreforms(Goodwin,1997).
Whenpeoplevoteagainsttransportmarketreformstheyarevotinginfavorofproblemssuchastrafficcongestion.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute9Figure4CycleofAutomobileDependencyVariousmarketdistortionsreinforcethecycleofautomobiledependency,leadingtoeconomically-excessiveautomobileownershipanduse.
Manyofthesedistortionsarelegaciesofpastconstraintsandobjectives.
Forexample,untilrecentlyitwasdifficulttochargeefficientlyforroadsandparkingfacilityuse,butnewpricingmethodsaremorecosteffectiveandconvenient.
Similarly,inthepastunderpriceddrivingmayhavebeenjustifiedtotakeadvantageofeconomiesofscaleinvehicleandroadwayproduction;butsuchpoliciesarenotjustifiedinamaturetransportsystem.
Inotherwords,thejustificationforWin-Winstrategiesincreaseswithimprovedtechnologyanddiminishingmarginalbenefitfromvehicletravel.
Thisisnottosuggestthatdrivingshouldbeprohibitedorthatitprovidesnobenefits.
Thisanalysissimplyindicatesthatinamoreoptimalmarketconsumerswouldchoosetodrivelessandbebetteroffasaresult.
Asananalogy,foodisessentialforlifeandthereforeprovidestremendousbenefits.
However,thisdoesnotmeanthateverybodyshouldincreasetheirfoodconsumptionorthatsocietyshouldsubsidizeallfood.
Atthemargin(relativetocurrentconsumption)manypeoplearebetteroffeatingless.
Foodsubsidiesmaysometimesbejustified,butitwouldbeeconomicallyandmedicallyharmfultosubsidizeallfoodforeverybody.
Similarly,thatmobilityprovidesbenefitsdoesnotprovethatmoredrivingisbetter,thatcurrentlevelsofdrivingareoptimal,orthatdrivingshouldbesubsidized.
Manymotoristswouldprefertodriveless,providedthatthealternativesareconvenient,comfortableandaffordable.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute10Win-WinStrategiesThissectiondescribesspecificWin-Winstrategies.
Formoreinformationseeappropriatechaptersinthe"OnlineTDMEncyclopedia(VTPI,2007)andotherreferenceddocuments.
LeastCostTransportationPlanningLeast-costtransportationplanningisatermformorecomprehensiveandneutralplanningthat:Considersallsignificantimpacts(costsandbenefits),includingindirecteffects.
Considersdemandmanagementequallywithfacilitycapacitysolutions.
Forexample,leastcostplanningmeansthatfundingforroadsandparkingfacilitiescouldbeusedtoimprovealternativemodesorsupportmobilitymanagementprogramsiftheyaremorecosteffectiveatachievingtransportationplanningobjectives,suchasprovidingmobilityandreducingcongestion,consideringallbenefitsandcosts.
Conventionaltransportplanningpracticestendtofavorautomobiletravelandundervaluealternativemodesinvarious,sometimessubtleways(Sussman,2001;BeimbornandPuentes,2003;Litman,2006b;"ComprehensiveTransportPlanning,"VTPI,2007).
Thereisoftensignificantfundingdedicatedtoroadsandparkingfacilitiesthatcannotbeshiftedtoothermodes,andfundingdedicatedtocapitalprojectsthatcannotbeusedformanagementprograms.
Thisencouragesdecision-makerstoexpandroadsandparkingfacilitiesevenwhenalternativeoptionsaremorecosteffectiveoverall.
Conventionaltransportationevaluationpracticesrelyprimarilyonindicatorsofmotorvehicletravelquality,suchasroadwaylevel-of-serviceratingsandaveragetrafficspeed,butignoreimpactsonothermodes.
Asaresult,theseplanningpracticesfavorroadwaycapacityexpansionevenifitdegradeswalkingandcyclingconditions(andthereforetransitaccess,sincemosttransittripsinvolvewalkinglinks),andleadstomoredispersed,automobile-dependentlandusepatterns.
Thesepracticesfavormobilityoveraccessibilityandautomobiletraveloverothermodes.
ImplementationLeast-costplanningisgenerallyimplementedbytransportplanningorganizations,butcanalsobeappliedbybusinesses,forexample,whenevaluatingsolutionstoparkingproblems.
ArelatedstrategyistorequireindividualtransportationplanstosupportVMTreductionandpollutionemissionreductionobjectives(Steinberg,2007).
TravelImpactsLeast-costplanningcanaffectvirtuallyalltypesoftravel.
Itsimpactsvarydependingoncircumstances,andoftentakemanyyearstobefullyrealized,butoftenresultsin10-20%reductionsinautomobiletravelcomparedwithwhatwouldotherwiseoccur.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute11MobilityManagementProgramsMobilitymanagement(alsocalledTransportationDemandManagementorTDM)programsprovideservicesthatencouragemoreefficienttravelbehavior,includingridesharematching,transitimprovements,bicycleandpedestrianfacilityimprovements,parkingmanagement,andpromotionofalternativemodes("TDMPrograms,"VTPI,2007).
TransportationManagementAssociationsareprivate,non-profit,member-controlledorganizationsthatprovidesuchservicesinaparticulararea,suchasacommercialdistrictorindustrialpark.
ImplementationTDMprogramsandTMAsaregenerallyimplementedbygovernmentagencies(transportationorenvironmental)andbybusinessassociations.
TravelImpactsTDMprogramsandTMAsimpactsvarydependingoncircumstances.
Theyaremostcommoninurbanareas.
Comprehensiveprogramsoftenreduceautomobiletravel10-20%comparedwithwhatwouldotherwiseoccur.
CommuteTripReductionProgramsCommuteTripReduction(CTR)programsencourageemployeestouseefficientcommuteoptions.
CTRprogramstypicallyincludesomeofthefollowingstrategies:CommuterFinancialIncentives(describedbelow).
Alternativescheduling(flextimeandcompressedworkweeks).
Telework(allowingemployeestoworkfromhomeorataneighborhoodworkcenter).
Ridesharematching.
Marketingandpromotionactivities.
GuaranteedRideHome.
Companytravelpolicyreforms,suchasallowingreimbursementforbicycleortransitmileageforbusinesstripswhenthesemodesarecosteffective.
ImplementationCommuteTripReductionprogramsaregenerallyimplementedbyindividualbusinesses,transportationmanagementassociationsorgovernmentagencies.
TravelImpactsCommuteTripReductionprogramsaffectthe20%oftravelthatconsistsofcommuting.
Programstypicallyreduceautomobilecommuting5-15%iftheylackfinancialincentives(describednext),andtwicethatiftheydoincludefinancialincentives.
Inurbanareastheytendtoshifttraveltowalkingandpublictransit.
Insuburbanandruralareastheytendtoshifttraveltocyclingandridesharing.
Shiftstoteleworkingdependonthetypeofworkratherthangeographiclocation.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute12CommuterFinancialIncentivesCommuterFinancialIncentivesincludeseveraltypesofincentivesthatencouragealternativecommutemodes:ParkingCashOutmeansthatcommuterswhoareofferedsubsidizedparkingarealsoofferedthecashequivalentiftheyusealternativetravelmodes.
Forexample,anemployeemaybeabletochoosebetweenafreeparkingspaceiftheydrivetowork,or$75permonthiftheyuseanalternativemode.
Travelallowancesareafinancialpaymentprovidedtoemployeesinsteadofparkingsubsidies.
Commuterscanusethismoneytopayforparkingorforanothertravelmode.
Transitandridesharebenefitsarefreeordiscountedtransitfaresprovidedtoemployees.
Reducedemployeeparkingsubsidiesmeansthatcommuterswhodrivemustpaysomeoralloftheirparkingcosts.
Companytravelreimbursementpoliciesthatreimbursebicycleortransitmileageforbusinesstripswhenthesemodesarecomparableinspeedtodriving,ratherthanonlyreimbursingautomobilemileage.
Thesestrategiesaremoreefficientandequitablethanthecommonpracticebybusinessesofsubsidizingparkingbutofferingnocomparablebenefittoemployeeswhousealternativemodes.
Commuterfinancialincentivescanbeproratedaccordingtohowmuchemployeesusealternativemodes.
Forexample,employeeswhodrivetwiceaweekwouldreceive60%ofthefullParkingCashOutallowance.
ImplementationCommuterFinancialIncentivesareusuallyimplementedbybusinesses,sometimeswithgovernmentencouragement.
Theyaresometimesimplementedaspartofaparkingmanagementprogram,toreduceparkingfacilitycosts.
Publicpoliciescanencouragetheirimplementation,byreducingparkingrequirementsifsuchincentivesareoffered(forexample,zoningcodesmightrequire100parkingspacesataparticularofficeifparkingisfreeandnootherincentivesareofferedtoemployees,butonly80spacesifemployeesareofferedparkingcashout(anexampleofaParkingManagement,describedlater).
TravelImpactsCommuterFinancialIncentivesaffectthe20%oftravelthatconsistscommuting.
Theytypicallyreduceautomobilecommuting10-30%comparedwithwhatwouldotherwiseoccur.
Travelimpactsvarydependingonthemagnitudeofthefinancialincentive,thetraveloptionsavailable,andthetypeofemployees.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute13FuelTaxes-TaxShiftingSincegovernmentsmusttaxsomethingtoraiserevenue,manyeconomistsrecommendshiftingtaxesfromdesirableactivitiestothosethatareharmfulorrisky,forexample,reducingtaxesonemploymentandcommercialtransactions,andincreasingtaxesontheconsumptionofpolluting,non-renewableresourcessuchaspetroleum(CBO,2006;Litman,2008b).
Currentfueltaxesarerelativelylow,particularlyintheU.
S.
andmanydevelopingcountries.
Thereareseveralspecificjustificationsforincreasingtaxesonpetroleumproductsingeneralandmotorvehiclefuelinparticular("FuelTaxIncrease,"VTPI,2007;Wachs,2003):Toreflectinflation.
Fueltaxesaregenerallyunitbased(centspergallonorliter),asopposedtoapercentageoftheretailprice,andsotheirrealvaluedeclineswithinflation.
Thereal,inflationadjustedvalueoffueltaxeshasdeclinedsignificantlyinmanyjurisdictions.
Increasingtaxesandindexingthemtoinflationisjustifiedtomaintainconstantrevenue.
Asaroaduserfee.
Specialfueltaxesaregenerallyconsideredaroaduserfee,whichshouldatleastpaythecostsofbuildingandmaintainingroadways,andperhapsmoretorecoverotherassociatedcosts,suchastrafficservices.
Inmanyjurisdictionsfueltaxesaretoolowtofinanceroadwaycosts,soincreasesarejustified.
Toencourageenergyconservationinordertoreducedependenceonimportedresources,increaseeconomicefficiency,reducepollutionemissions(includingclimatechangeemissions)andtoleavemorepetroleumforfuturegenerations(Litman,2007c).
Tointernalizepetroleumproductionsubsidies,externalcostsandtaxexemptions.
ImplementationFueltaxincreasesaregenerallyimplementedbystate/provincialandfederalgovernments,althoughsomeareashavelocalfueltaxes.
Suchincreasesshouldbepredictableandgradual(suchasa10%annualfueltaxincreaseoverseveralyears)tominimizetransitioncosts.
Optimalfueltaxesareatleasthighenoughtocoverafairshareofallpubliccostsforprovidingroadwayandproducingandimportingpetroleum,andcouldbehighertoachieveothersocialobjectives,suchasreducingpollutionemissions.
Thiswouldincreasefueltaxesby40-100%.
Virtuallyanyfueltaxincreasecanbejustifiedasataxshift,providedrevenuessubstituteforothertaxes,althoughtotalincreasesmaybelimitedbyfueltaxratesinnearbyjurisdictions.
TravelImpactsTheelasticityofvehicletravelwithrespecttofuelpricetendstobe–0.
1to-0.
3,andtheelasticityoffuelconsumptionwithrespecttofuelpriceis–0.
3to–0.
7(inthelongertermmotoristscanrespondtohigherfuelpricesbypurchasingmorefuelefficientvehicles).
Graduallyincreasingfueltaxessopricesincreaseby40-100%wouldreduceautomobiletravel5-15%comparedwithwhatwouldotherwiseoccur,andreducefuelconsumptionby25-65%.
Itaffectsvirtuallyalltypesofmotorvehicletravel.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute14Pay-As-You-DrivePricingPay-As-You-Drive(PAYD)pricing(alsocalledDistance-BasedandMileage-Basedpricing)meansthatvehicleinsuranceorotherfeesarebaseddirectlyonhowmuchitthevehicleisdriven("Pay-As-You-DrivePricing,"VTPI,2007).
Thiscanbedonebychangingthepricingunit(i.
e.
,howfeesarecalculated)fromthevehicle-yeartothevehicle-mile,vehicle-kilometerorvehicle-minute.
Existingpricingfactorsareincorporatedsohigher-riskmotoristspaymoreperunitthanlower-riskdrivers.
Forexample,a$375annualinsurancepremiumbecomes3permile,anda$1,250annualpremiumbecomes10permile.
AnaverageU.
S.
motoristwouldpayabout7permileforPAYDinsurance.
Similarly,currentlyfixedvehicletaxes,registration,licensingandleasefees,andtaxescanbeconvertedtodistance-basedfeesbydividingexistingfeesbyaverageannualmileageforeachvehicleclass.
Forexample,ifavehicle'sannualregistrationfeesare$300anditsclassaverages12,000annualmiles,thedistance-basedfeeis2.
5permile.
Pay-As-You-Drivepricingrequiresannualodometeraudits,whichmeansthataservicestation,vehicleemissioninspectionstationorinsurancebrokerchecksthevehicle'sspeedometerforsignsoftamperingandrecordstheodometerreading.
Suchauditstypicallyrequire5to10minutes,andlessifperformedwithothervehicleservicing(tuneups,emissioninspections,etc.
),withanincrementalcostof$5to$10.
Oncethesystemisestablished,thereisvirtuallynoincrementalcosttopricinganyfeebasedonmileage.
Pay-As-You-Drivepricinghelpsachieveseveralpublicpolicygoalsincludingfairness,affordability,roadsafety,consumersavingsandchoice,andreducedtrafficproblemssuchastrafficcongestion,roadandparkingfacilitycosts,pollutionemissionsandsprawl.
PAYDshouldreduceaverageannualmileageofaffectedvehiclesby10-15%,reducecrashratesbyagreateramount,increaseequity,andsaveconsumersmoney.
Itreducestheneedforcross-subsidiescurrentlyrequiredtoprovide"affordable"unlimited-mileagecoveragetohigh-riskdrivers.
Itcanparticularlybenefitlower-incomecommunitiesthatcurrentlypayexcessivepremiums.
SomeinsurancecompaniesnowofferversionsofPAYDpricing,butimplementationislimited.
ImplementationPAYDinsurancecouldbeaconsumeroption,inwhichcaseonlyasmallportionoftotalvehicletravelwouldbeaffected(10-30%dependingonprogramdesign),oritcouldbemandatory,inwhichcaseitwouldaffectvirtuallyallprivatevehicles.
PAYDinsuranceisimplementedbyinsurancecompanies,whichcanbeencouragedormandatedbystate/provincialpoliciesandincentives.
PAYDregistrationisimplementedbystateorprovincialgovernments.
TravelImpactsPay-As-You-Driveinsurancecanapplytovirtuallyallprivateautomobiletravel,andPAYDregistrationfeesandtaxescouldapplytoallvehicles.
PAYDpricingtypicallyreducesaffectedvehicles'averageannualmileage10-15%,dependingonhowfeesarestructured.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute15RoadPricingRoadPricingmeansthatmotoristspaydirectlyfordrivingonaparticularroadwayorinaparticulararea("RoadPricing,"VTPI,2007).
CongestionPricing(alsocalledValuePricing)referstoroadpricingwithvariablefeesdesignedtoreducetrafficcongestion.
Transportationeconomistshavelongadvocatedroadpricingasawaytofundtransportationimprovementsandtoreducecongestionproblems.
Roadtollsarejustifiedsincemanyroadandbridgeprojectswouldotherwisebefundedtroughgeneraltaxes,orbytaxespaidbymotoristswhoseldomorneverusecostlynewfacilities.
Someroadsincludebothpricedandunpricedlanes,allowingmotoriststochoosebetweenfinancialandtimesavings.
Experiencewithroadtollsandvarioustypesofcongestionpricingindicatethatmotoristsrespondtosuchfees,shiftingtraveltime,route,destinationandmode,increasingoveralltransportationsystemefficiency.
ImplementationRoadpricingisgenerallyimplementedbyregionalorstate/provincialgovernments,sometimesthroughpublic-privatepartnerships.
Itcanbeusedtofinancenewhighwaysandbridges,tofinancetransportationprograms,andasademandmanagementstrategy.
TravelImpactsRoadpricingtypicallyreduces10-20%ofaffectedvehicletravel(travelonroadswithroadpricingfees).
Althoughonlyasmallportionoftotalvehicletraveloccursonnewhighwaysorunderurban-peakconditions,theprimecandidatesforroadpricing,thistravelimposesrelativelyhighparking,pollutionandcongestioncosts(sincethesecostsarehighestinurbanareas),sototalbenefitsarerelativelylarge.
Forexample,roadpricingimposedonthe10%ofvehicletravelthatconsistsofurban-peakhighwaytrafficmightreducetotalvehiclemileagebyjust1-2%,butreduceparkingandpollutioncostsby5-10%andcongestioncostsby10-30%.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute16ParkingManagementParkingManagementincludesavarietyofstrategiesthatencouragemoreefficientuseofexistingparkingfacilities,assummarizedinthetablebelow.
Table5ParkingManagementStrategies("ParkingManagement,"VTPI,2007)StrategyDescriptionTypicalReductionTrafficReductionSharedParkingParkingspacesservemultipleusersanddestinations.
10-30%ParkingRegulationsRegulationstoprioritizeuseofthemostdesirableparkingspaces.
10-30%MoreAccurateandFlexibleStandardsAdjustparkingstandardstomoreaccuratelyreflectdemandinaparticularsituation.
10-30%ParkingMaximumsEstablishmaximumparkingstandards.
10-30%RemoteParkingProvideoff-siteorurbanfringeparkingfacilities.
10-30%SmartGrowthEncouragemorecompact,mixed,multi-modaldevelopmenttoallowmoreparkingsharinganduseofalternativemodes.
10-30%WalkingandCyclingImprovementsImprovewalkingandcyclingconditionstoexpandtherangeofdestinationsservicedbyaparkingfacility.
5-15%MobilityManagementUseresourcesthatwouldotherwisebedevotedtoparkingfacilitiestoencourageuseofalternativemodes.
10-30%ParkingPricingChargemotoristsdirectlyandefficientlyforusingparkingfacilities.
10-30%ImprovePricingMethodsUsebetterchargingtechniquestomakepricingmoreconvenientandcosteffective.
VariesFinancialIncentivesProvidefinancialincentivestoshiftmode,suchasparkingcashout.
10-30%UnbundleParkingRentorsellparkingfacilitiesseparatelyfrombuildingspace.
10-30%ParkingTaxReformChangetaxpoliciestosupportparkingmanagementobjectives.
5-15%BicycleFacilitiesProvidebicyclestorageandchangingfacilities.
5-15%ImproveUserInformationProvideconvenientandaccurateinformationonparkingavailabilityandprice.
5-15%ImproveEnforcementInsurethatparkingenforcementisefficient,considerateandfair.
VariesOverflowParkingEstablishplanstomanageoccasionalpeakparkingdemands.
VariesAddressSpilloverProblemsUsemanagement,enforcementandpricingtoaddressspilloverproblems.
VariesThistablesummarizesvariousparkingmanagementstrategies.
ImplementationParkingmanagementisgenerallyimplementedbypropertyownersandlocalgovernments,oftenwithlocalorregionalgovernmentsupportandencouragement.
TravelImpactsManyparkingmanagementstrategiesreducevehicletraveldirectly,andallsupportmorecompact,multi-modaldevelopment.
Parkingmanagementprogramstypicallyreducevehicletrips5-15%iffinancialincentives(suchaspricing)areexcluded,and10-30%ifincluded.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute17TransitServiceImprovementsTherearemanywaystoimprovepublictransitservices,andencouragetransituse,includingincreasedserviceareaandfrequency,increasedtransitspeedandreliability(includinguseoftransitprioritysystemsthatallowtransitvehiclestobypasscongestion),reducedcrowding,morecomfortablevehicles,nicerwaitingareas(stationsandstops),reducedandmoreconvenientfares,improvedriderinformationandmarketingprograms,transitorientedlandusedevelopment,pedestrianandcyclingimprovementsaroundtransitstops,bikeandtransitintegration(bikeracksonbuses,bicycleparkingatstations,etc.
),park-and-ridefacilities,improvedsecurityfortransitusersandpedestrians,andtransitservicestargetingparticularneedssuchasexpresscommuterbusesandspecialeventservices("TransitImprovements,"VTPI,2007).
Marketingprogramsthatraisethesocialstatusoftransittravelcanalsobeconsideredatypeofserviceimprovement.
ImplementationTransitserviceimprovementsaregenerallyimplementedbylocal,regionalandstate/provincialgovernments,oftenwithfederalsupport.
Transitimprovementsmayrequirenewfundingsources.
Someimprovements(suchastransitlanes)requiresupportbyothergovernmentagencies.
TravelImpactsTransitimprovementsprimarilyaffecturbantravel.
Theyhavebothdirectandindirecttravelimpacts.
Directimpactsreflectthepassenger-milesshiftedfromdrivingtothesemodes.
Indirectimpactsreflecttheeffectsthattransitandrideshareimprovementscanhaveonpercapitavehicleownershipandlandusepatterns,whichaffectsbothcommuteandnon-commutetravel(Litman,2006a).
Residentsofcommunitieswithgoodtransitservicestendtodrive10-20%lessthaninmoreautomobile-orientedareas.
RidesharingRidesharingreferstocarpoolingandvanpooling,inwhichvehiclescarrymultiplepassengers.
Carpoolingusesparticipants'ownautomobiles,whilevanpoolsusealargervehiclethatisoftenleasedforthepurpose.
Ridesharinghasminimalincrementalcostsbecauseitmakesuseofvehicleseatsthatwouldotherwisebeunoccupied.
ImplementationRideshareprogramscanbeimplementedbyanindividualemployer,byaTransportationManagementAssociation,atransitagency,oraregionaltransportationagency.
TravelImpactsRidesharingprogramstypicallyattract5-15%ofcommutetripsiftheyofferonlyinformationandencouragement,and10-30%iftheyincludeincentivessuchasHOVpriorityandcommuterfinancialincentives.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute18HOVPriorityHOVPriorityreferstostrategiesthatgiveHighOccupantVehicles(buses,vanpoolsandcarpools)priorityovergeneraltraffic("HOVPriority,"VTPI,2007).
HOVprioritymeasurescanbejustifiedasamoreefficientandequitableallocationofroadspace(travelerswhoshareavehicleandthereforeimposelesscongestiononotherroadusers,arerewardedbybearinglesscongestiondelay),anefficientuseofroadcapacity(theycancarrymorepeoplethanageneraluselane),andasanincentivetoshifttomoreefficientmodes.
HOVPrioritystrategiesinclude:HOVhighwayandarteriallanes.
HighOccupancyToll(HOT)lanes(HOVlanesthatallowloweroccupancyvehiclesthatpayatoll.
Busways(speciallanesfortransitbuseswithfeaturestoimprovetransitservicequality).
Queue-jumpinglanesandintersectioncontrolsthatgiveprioritytoHOVs.
Preferredparkingspacesorparkingfeediscountsprovidedtoridesharevehicles.
ImplementationHOVPrioritycanattractmorepeak-periodtravelerstotransitandridesharing.
Implementationcanbebasedontheircosteffectivenessatachievingconventionalplanningobjectives,andoftenmoretoachieveother,moredifficulttoquantifyobjectives.
Itisgenerallyimplementedbyregionalandstate/provincialgovernments,oftenwithfederalsupport.
TravelImpactsHOVpriorityprimarilyaffectstravelonmajorroadwaysunderurban-peakconditionswhichrepresentsarelativelysmallportionoftotaltravel(typically5-10%),butprovidesproportionallylargerreductionsincongestionandparkingcosts.
AmajorHOVpriorityprogramthatprovidessubstantialtimesavingstohighoccupantvehiclestypicallyshifts10-20%ofautomobiletripstotransitandridesharing,andsotypicallyreduces0.
5%to2%ofautomobilemiles.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute19WalkingandCyclingImprovementsWalkingandcyclingtravelcansubstituteforsomemotorvehicletripsdirectly,andsupportsotheralternativemodessuchaspublictransitandridesharing.
Residentsofcommunitieswithgoodwalkingandcyclingconditionsdrivelessandusetransitandridesharemore.
Therearemanyspecificwaystoimprovenonmotorizedtransportation(WalkingandCyclingImprovements,"VTPI,2004):Improvesidewalks,crosswalks,pathsandbikelanes.
Increaseroadandpathconnectivity,withspecialshortcutsfornonmotorizedmodes.
Pedestrianorientedlanduseandbuildingdesign.
Trafficcalming,speedreductionsandvehiclerestrictions,toreduceconflictsbetweenmotorizedandnonmotorizedtraffic.
Safetyeducation,lawenforcementandencouragementprograms.
Convenientandsecurebicycleparking.
Addresssecurityconcernsofpedestriansandcyclists.
ImplementationWalkingandcyclingimprovementsaregenerallyimplementedbylocalandregionalgovernments.
Theycanbejustifiedbasedontheircosteffectivenessatachievingconventionalplanningobjectives(congestionreductionandparkingcostsavings),andoftenmoretoachieveotherobjectives(suchasequity,basicmobilityfornon-drivers,improvedpublichealth,livablecommunities,tourismdevelopment),ortocorrectdecadesofautomobile-orientedplanningpractices.
TravelImpactsWalkingandcyclingimprovementsprimarilyaffectshort-distancetrips(lessthanthreemiles)butcaninfluencelongertripsbysupportingpublictransittravel.
Also,ashortwalkingorcyclingtripoftenreplacesalongerautomobiletrip,forexample,whenimprovedwalkingconditionsconvincepeopletoshoplocallyratherthandrivingtoamoredistantstore.
Peoplewholiveinmorewalkableandbikeablecommunitiestypicallydrive10-20%lessthantheywouldinmoreautomobile-orientedcommunities,butsomeofthisreflectsself-selection(peoplewhoprefernonmotorizedtravelchoosemorewalkablecommunities).
Comprehensivenonmotorizedimprovementprogramscanprobablyreducepercapitavehicletravelby1-4%,andmoreinconjunctionwithotherWin-Winstrategies.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute20SmartGrowthLandUsePoliciesCurrentlandusepolicieslimitdevelopmentdensity,dispersedestinationsandfavorautomobileaccessoveralternativemodes.
Smartgrowthpolicies,suchasthosedescribedbelow,reducevehicletravelandprovideotherbenefits("SmartGrowth,"VTPI,2007).
Encouragecompactdevelopmentwithdiversehousingtypes(singleandmulti-family).
Createmorecomplete,self-containedcommunities.
Forexample,locatingschools,parksandshopswithinneighborhoods.
Encourageinfilldevelopment,suchasredevelopmentofolderbuildingsandneighborhoods.
Concentratecommercialactivitiesincompactcentersordistricts.
Useaccessmanagementtopreventarterialstripcommercialdevelopment.
Usedevelopmentfeesandutilitypricingthatreflectsthehighercostsofprovidingpublicservicesatlower-densitysites.
Developadensenetworkofinterconnectedstreet.
Keepstreetsasnarrowaspossible,particularlyinresidentialareasandcommercialcenters.
Designstreetstoaccommodatewalkingandcycling.
Createamaximumnumberofconnectionsfornon-motorizedtravel,suchastrailsthatlinkdead-endstreets.
Applyparkingmanagementandreduceparkingrequirements.
ImplementationSmartgrowthpoliciesareimplementedbydevelopers,andgovernments.
TravelImpactsComprehensiveSmartGrowthprogramscanreduceresidentandemployeevehicletravelby10-30%,orevenmore,comparedwithautomobile-orienteddevelopment.
LocationEfficientDevelopmentLocationEfficientDevelopmentreferstobuilding,neighborhoodandcommunitydevelopmentthatreflectsSmartGrowthprinciples.
LocationEfficientMortgagesrecognizethesavingsthatresultincreditassessments,givinghomebuyersmoreincentivetochooseefficientlocations.
ImplementationLocationefficientdevelopmentisgenerallyimplementedbydevelopers,lenders,andlocalandregionalgovernments.
LocationEfficientMortgagesareimplementedbybanksandotherlendinginstitutions.
TravelImpactsLocationefficientdevelopmenttendstoreduceresidents'vehicletravelby10-30%.
Similarly,employeesworkingatlocationefficientbusinessestendtoreducetheirautomobilecommutetripsby10-30%.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute21MobilityManagementMarketingMobilityManagementMarketinginvolvesvariousactivitiestoimproveconsumers'knowledgeandacceptanceofalternativemodes,andtoprovideproductsthatbettermeettravelers'needsandpreferences("MobilityManagementMarketing,"VTPI,2007).
Givenadequateresources,marketingprogramscansignificantlyincreaseuseofalternativemodesandreduceautomobiletravel.
ImplementationMobilitymanagementmarketingbejustifiedbasedontheireffectivenessatachievingconventionaltransportplanningobjectives,suchascongestionreduction,andevenmoretoachieveadditional,moredifficulttoquantifyobjectivessuchasimprovedmobilityoptionsfornon-driversandcommunitylivability.
Itisgenerallyimplementedbylocalandregionalgovernments,andbypublictransitagencies.
TravelImpactsMobilitymanagementmarketingtendstoaffectlocalpersonaltravel.
Effectivemarketingprogramscansignificantlyincreaseuseofalternativemodes,andtypicallyreduceautomobiletravelby5-10%(Cairns,etal.
,2004).
FreightTransportManagementFreightTransportManagementincludesvariousstrategiesofincreasingtheefficiencyoffreightandcommercialtransport("FreightTransportManagement,VTPI,2007).
Thiscanincludeimprovingdistributionpracticessofewervehicletripsareneeded,shiftingfreighttomoreresourceefficientmodes(suchasfromairandtrucktorailandmarine),improvingefficientmodessuchasmarine,railandbicycle,bettersitingofindustriallocationstoimprovedistributionefficiency,improvingvehicleoperationandimplementingfleetmanagementtoreduceimpactssuchasnoiseandairpollution,andbyreducingthetotalvolumeofgoodsthatneedtobetransported.
Becausefreightvehiclestendtobelarge,energy-intensiveandhighpolluting,arelativelysmallimprovementinfreightefficiencycanprovidesignificantbenefits.
ImplementationFreighttransportmanagementisgenerallyimplementedbylocalandregionalgovernments.
Itbejustifiedbasedonitseffectivenessatachievingconventionaltransportplanningobjectives,suchascongestionreduction,andevenmoretoachieveadditional,moredifficulttoquantifyobjectivessuchasimprovedproductivity.
TravelImpactsAlthoughcommercialvehiclesrepresentlessthan10%oftotaltraffic,theytendtobeheavyvehiclesthatimposelargeimpacts.
Reductionsof5-15%offreightvehicletravelcanbeachieved.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute22SchoolandCampusTripManagementTheseprogramshelpovercomebarrierstotheuseofalternativemodes,andprovidepositiveincentivesforreduceddrivingtoschoolsandcollegeoruniversitycampuses("SchoolTransportManagement,"VTPI,2007).
Schooltripmanagementusuallyinvolvesimprovingpedestrianandcyclingaccess,promotingridesharing,andencouragingparentstousealternativeswhenpossible.
Campustripmanagementprogramsoftenincludediscountedtransitfares,ridesharepromotion,improvedpedestrianandcyclingfacilities,andincreasedparkingfees.
Theseprogramsgivestudents,parentsandstaffmoretravelchoices,encourageexercise,andreduceparkingandcongestionproblems.
ImplementationSchooltransportmanagementisgenerallyimplementedbyschoolsandlocalgovernments.
TravelImpactsSchoolandcampustransportmanagementaffects5-10%oftripsinvolvingtraveltoschools.
Suchprogramstypicallyreduceautomobiletravelby5-15%,reducing0.
25-1.
5%oftotalautomobiletrips.
RegulatoryReformsManyjurisdictionslimittransportationservicecompetition.
Privatebusandjitneyservicesareoftenprohibitedorrestrictedtofavorexistingserviceproviders.
Taxiregulationsoftenrestrictthenumberoftaxivehiclesthatcanoperateandtheservicestheycanprovide.
Manyoftheseregulationsareoutdatedorunnecessarilyrestrictive.
Althoughtherearereasonstoregulatetransportationservicestomaintainquality,predictabilityandsafety,unnecessaryregulationscanbechangedtoaddressspecificproblemswhileencouragingcompetition,innovationanddiversity("RegulatoryReform,"VTPI,2007).
Specificreformsincludeallowingsharingoftaxitravel,andcreatinglegalframeworksfornewtransportationservices,suchassubscriptioncommuterbusservices.
ImplementationRegulatoryreformsaregenerallyimplementedbylocal,regionalandstate/provincialgovernments.
TravelImpactsRegulatoryreformsaffectvarioustypesoftravel.
Impactsvarydependingoncircumstancesandcantakemanyyearstobefullyrealized.
Theirimpactsaregenerallysmall,butmaybesignificantinspecificcircumstances.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute23CarsharingCarsharingprovidesaffordable,short-term(hourlyanddailyrate)motorvehiclerentalsinresidentialareasasanalternativetoprivateownership("Carsharing,"VTPI,2007).
Becauseithaslowerfixedcostsandhighervariablecoststhanprivatevehicleownership,carsharingtendstosignificantlyreduceannualvehiclemileagebyparticipants.
ImplementationCarsharingisgenerallyimplementedbyprivatecompaniesornon-profitorganizations,oftenwithlocalorregionalgovernmentsupport.
Itcanbejustifiedbasedonitseffectivenessatachievingconventionaltransportplanningobjectives,suchascongestionreductionandparkingcostsavings,andevenmoretoachieveadditional,moredifficulttoquantifyobjectivessuchasimprovedmobilityfornon-drivers.
TravelImpactsCarsharingservicesareusuallylocatedinurbanareaswheretherearesuitabletraveloptionssoasignificantportionofresidentsdonotneedownanautomobile.
Inatypicalregion20-40%ofresidentsliveinneighborhoodssuitableforcarsharing,andperhaps2-5%ofthoseresidentswouldcarshareratherthanownaprivatevehicleownershipiftheservicewereavailable.
Peoplewhoshiftfromowningaprivatevehicletocarsharingaretypicallylower-annual-mileagedriverswhoreducetheirvehicletravelabout50%(i.
e.
,theyreducetheirmileagefrom6,000to3,000annualmiles).
Thissuggeststhatcarsharingservicescanreducetotalvehicletravelby0.
1%to0.
6%.
TrafficCalmingandTrafficManagementTrafficcalmingincludesvariousstrategiestoreducetrafficspeedsandvolumesonspecificroads("TrafficCalming,"VTPI,2007).
Typicalstrategiesincludetrafficcirclesatintersections,sidewalkbulbsthatreduceintersectioncrossingdistances,raisedcrosswalks,andpartialstreetclosurestodiscourageshort-cuttrafficthroughresidentialneighborhoods.
Thisincreasesroadsafetyandcommunitylivability,createsamorepedestrian-andbicycle-friendlyenvironment,andcanreduceautomobileuse.
ImplementationTrafficcalmingcanbejustifiedbasedonitssafetybenefits,toimprovemobilityfornon-drivers,andtoincreasecommunitylivabilityandpropertyvalues.
Itisgenerallyimplementedbylocalgovernments.
TravelImpactsTrafficcalmingprimarilyaffectslocalstreettravel,andcanprovidemodestreductionsinaffectedtravelbyimprovingtherelativeconvenience,speedandsafetyofwalkingandcycling.
Inatypicalcommunityperhaps3-6%oftotaltravelmaytakeplaceonroadssuitablefortrafficcalming,andperhaps3-6%ofmileageonthoseroadsisreduced,resultingin0.
1%to0.
4%totalreductionsinvehiclemileage.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute24SummaryofWin-WinStrategiesTable6summarizesthesevariousWin-Winstrategies.
Table6Win-WinStrategiesNameDescriptionTransportImpactsLeast-CostPlanningMorecomprehensiveandneutralplanningandinvestmentpractices.
Increasesinvestmentandsupportforalternativemodesandmobilitymanagement,improvingtransportoptions.
MobilityManagementProgramsLocalandregionalprogramsthatsupportandcourageuseofalternativemodes.
Increasesuseofalternativemodes.
CommuteTripReduction(CTR)Programsbyemployerstoencouragealternativecommuteoptions.
Reducesautomobilecommutetravel.
CommuterFinancialIncentivesOfferscommutersfinancialincentivesforusingalternativemodes.
Encouragesuseofalternativecommutemodes.
FuelTaxes-TaxShiftingIncreasesfueltaxesandothervehicletaxes.
Reducesvehiclefuelconsumptionandmileage.
Pay-As-You-DrivePricingConvertsfixedvehiclechargesintomileage-basedfees.
Reducesvehiclemileage.
RoadPricingChargesusersdirectlyforroaduse,withratesthatreflectcostsimposed.
Reducesvehiclemileage,particularlyundercongestedconditions.
ParkingManagementVariousstrategiesthatresultinmoreefficientuseofparkingfacilities.
Reducesparkingdemandandfacilitycosts,andencouragesuseofalternativemodes.
ParkingPricingChargesusersdirectlyforparkingfacilityuse,oftenwithvariablerates.
Reducesparkingdemandandfacilitycosts,andencouragesuseofalternativemodes.
TransitandRideshareImprovementsImprovestransitandrideshareservices.
Increasestransituse,vanpoolingandcarpooling.
HOVPriorityImprovestransitandridesharespeedandconvenience.
Increasestransitandrideshareuse,particularlyincongestedconditions.
WalkingandCyclingImprovementsImproveswalkingandcyclingconditions.
Encouragesuseofnonmotorizedmodes,andsupportstransitandsmartgrowth.
SmartGrowthPoliciesMoreaccessible,multi-modallandusedevelopmentpatterns.
Reducesautomobileuseandtripdistances,andincreasesuseofalternativemodes.
LocationEfficientHousingandMortgagesEncouragebusinessesandhouseholdstochoosemoreaccessiblelocations.
Reducesautomobileuseandtripdistances,andincreasesuseofalternativemodes.
MobilityManagementMarketingImprovedinformationandencouragementfortransportoptions.
Encouragesshiftstoalternativemodes.
FreightTransportManagementEncouragebusinessestousemoreefficienttransportationoptions.
Reducestrucktransport.
SchoolandCampusTripManagementEncourageparentsandstudentstousealternativemodesforschoolcommutes.
Reducesdrivingandincreasesuseofalternativemodesbyparentsandchildren.
RegulatoryReformsReducedbarrierstotransportationandlanduseinnovations.
Improvestraveloptions.
CarsharingVehiclerentalservicesthatsubstituteforprivateautomobileownership.
Reducesautomobileownershipanduse.
TrafficCalmingandTrafficManagementRoadwaydesignsthatreducevehicletrafficvolumesandspeeds.
Reducesdriving,improvedwalkingandcyclingconditions.
TherearevariousWin-Winstrategies,whichencouragemoreefficienttransportation.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute25Virtuallyallofthesestrategieshavebeensuccessfullyimplementedsomewhere(CCAP,2005;ICLEI,2005;VTPI,2007),althoughvirtuallynocommunityhasimplementedallWin-Winstrategiesthatareeconomicallyjustified.
Althoughexactimpactsaredifficulttopredict,acomprehensiveWin-Winprogramthatincludesallcosteffectivestrategieswouldprobablyhavesignificantimpacts,asindicatedinTable7.
Table7Win-WinTravelImpacts(Win-WinEvaluationSpreadsheet,www.
vtpi.
org/win-win.
xls)NameDirectlyAffectsTravelPortionofVehicleTravelAffectedTypicalReductionsByAffectedTravelTotalReductionsPlanningReformsNo100%10-20%10-20%MMProgramsNo30-50%.
Mainlyurbantravel.
10-20%4-8%CommuteTripReduction(CTR)Yes15-20%.
Urbancommutetravel.
5-15%1-3%CommuterFinancialIncentivesPartly(includesparkingpricing)15-20%.
Urbancommutetravel.
10-30%1-6%FuelTaxes-TaxShiftingYes100%5-15%5-15%Pay-As-You-DrivePricingYes80-90%.
Privateautomobiletravel.
10-15%7-13%RoadPricingYes5-15%.
Drivingonneworcongestedroadways.
10-20%1-3%ParkingManagementYes40-50%.
5-10%2-8%ParkingPricingYes40-50%.
10-20%3-10%TransitandRideshareImprovementsYes20-40%.
Mainlyurbantravel.
10-20%2-12%HOVPriorityYes5-10%.
Congestedroadways.
10-20%1-2%WalkingandCyclingImprovementsYes10-20%.
Shorter-distancetrips.
10-20%1-4%SmartGrowthReformsYes30-50%.
Mainlyurbantravel.
10-30%3-15%LocationEfficientHousingandMortgagesNo(IsaSmartGrowthReform)10-20%.
Travelbyhouseholdsthatchangelocation.
10-30%1-6%MobilityManagementMarketingYes30-50%.
Mainlyurbantravel.
5-10%2-5%FreightTransportManagementYes5-15%.
Freightandcommercialtravel.
5-15%0.
3-2%SchoolandCampusTripManagementPartly(isatypeofCTRprogram)5-10%.
Schoolandcampustrips.
5-15%0.
3-1.
5%RegulatoryReformsNo10-20%5-10%0.
1-1.
0%CarsharingYes1-2%.
Householdsthatcanchoosethisoption.
20-30%0.
2-0.
6%TrafficCalmingYes3-6%.
Localurbantravel.
3-6%0.
1-0.
4%ThistableindicatesthemagnitudeofvehicletravelreductionscausedbyWin-Winstrategies,assumingtheyareimplementedtothedegreeeconomicallyjustified.
The"DirectlyAffectsTravel"columnindicatestowhetherastrategyaffectstravelitselforhelpsimplementotherWin-Winstrategiesthatdo,andsowhetherornotitshouldbecountedtowardcumulativeeffects.
Thisanalysissuggeststhatawell-coordinatedprogramofWin-Winstrategiesimplementedtothedegreeeconomicallyjustifiedwouldprobablyreducetotalvehicletravel30-50%comparedwithcurrentplanningandpricingpractices(Litman,2007b).
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute26Thisestimatecanbevalidatedbycomparingannualvehiclemileageinvariouswealthycountries(Figure5).
Countrieswithmorediversetransportationsystemsandhigherfueltaxeshave30-40%lowerpercapitavehiclemileagethanintheU.
S.
,althoughtheyhavenotwidelyimplementsomeWin-WinstrategiessuchasPay-As-You-Drivefeesandcongestionpricing,indicatingpotentialforadditional,cost-effectivevehicletravelreductions.
Figure5PerCapitaMotorVehicleTravel,2004(OECD,2004)Percapitavehicletravelis30-40%lowerinwealthycountriesthathaveWin-Wintypepolicies.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute27EvaluationGuidelinesThissectiondiscussessomefactorstoconsiderwhenevaluatingWin-Winbenefits.
Formoreinformationsee"GuidetoCalculatingMobilityManagementBenefits"(Litman,2007a).
HowMuchSomeWin-Winstrategiesareclearlyjustifiedbymarketprinciples.
Mosteconomistssupportcost-basedpricingandmoreneutraltransportationpoliciesandplanningpractices.
Forexample,Pay-As-You-Drivevehicleinsuranceisjustifiedtothedegreethatcrashratesincreasewithvehiclemileage,andincreasedinvestmentinalternativemodesiscertainlyjustifiediftheyarethemostcosteffectivenesswaytoachieveconventionaltransportplanningobjectives(trafficandparkingcongestionreduction,increasedsafety),andpossiblyhighertoachieveother,moredifficulttoquantifyobjectives,suchasincreasedequityandimprovedpublichealth.
Thereislegitimatedebateastotheoptimalleveltowhichsomestrategiesshouldbeimplemented,suchasthemagnitudeoffueltaxes,transitinvestmentsandSmartGrowthpolicies.
However,aslongasmarketdistortionsfavoringautomobiletravelandsprawlexist,policiesthatsupportalternativemodes,discouragedriving,andencouragemoreaccessiblelandusearejustifiedonsecond-bestgrounds.
EstimatingTotalImpactsTravelreductionimpactsdependonthetypeoftravelaffected.
Forexample,sincecommutingrepresentsabout20%ofalltravel,anincentivethatreducesautomobilecommutingby15%reducestotalvehicletravelabout3%(0.
20x0.
15)ifimplantedateveryworksite,orabout1%ifone-thirdofemployeesareaffected.
Somestrategiesdonotaffecttraveldirectlybutsupportstrategiesthatdo.
Forexample,TransportationManagementAssociations(TMAs)provideaninstitutionalframeworkforimplementingstrategiessuchasCommuteTripReductionprogramsandParkingCashOut.
WhileitwouldbetruetosaythataTMAcanreducevehicletrafficby10-30%comparedwithnothavingsuchanorganization,itwouldbeincorrecttoaddthedemandreductionsoftheTMAtotheimpactsoftheindividualstrategiesithelpsimplement.
SpecialcareisneededwhenevaluatingtheimpactsofmultipleWin-Winstrategies.
Totalimpactsaremultiplicativenotadditive.
Forexample,ifonestrategyreducestrafficby15%andanotherreducestrafficby20%,togethertheywouldcausea32%totaltrafficreduction,sincethe20%reductionappliestoabasethatisalreadyreduced15%(calculatedas85%x80%),notthe35%calculatedbyadding15%and25%.
ManycombinationsofWin-Winstrategieshavesynergisticeffects(totalimpactsaregreaterthanthesumoftheirindividualimpacts),andsobecomemoreeffectiveifimplementedtogether.
Forexample,parkingpricingandtransitserviceimprovementsmayeachreduceparkingrequirementsjust10%ifimplementedalone,but25%ifimplementedtogetherbecausetheyarecomplementary.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute28BenefitsManyWin-Winstrategiesreducerelativelycostlyvehicletravelandsoproviderelativelylargebenefits.
Forexample,commutetripreductionprograms,congestionpricingandHOVpriorityprimarilyreduceurban,peak-periodautomobiletrafficandsoproviderelativelylargereductionsincongestion,parkingandpollutioncosts.
Similarly,freighttransportmanagementreducesheavyvehicletravel,andsoalsoproviderelativelylargecongestion,roadandaccidentcostreductions.
Pay-As-You-Drivevehicleinsurancetendstoreducerelativelyhigh-riskvehiclemiles,andsoprovideslargesafetybenefits.
Win-Winstrategiestendtoprovidebothmobilityandefficiencybenefits(Litman,2006a).
Mobilitybenefitsresultwhenimprovedtransportoptionsallowdisadvantagedpeopletotravelmore,forexample,ifimprovedwalkingandtransitserviceallownon-driversbetteraccesstoeducationandemployment.
Efficiencybenefitsresultwhenincentivescausetravelerstoshifttoamoreefficientmode,forexample,ifHOVprioritycausescommuterstoshiftfromdrivingalonetoridesharingorusingpublictransit.
BothtypesofbenefitsshouldbeconsideredwhenevaluatingWin-Winstrategies.
Thiscanbeconfusing,however,becausetheyaremeasuredindifferentways:mobilitybenefitsareindicatedbyincreasedaccessibilitybydisadvantagedpeople,whileefficiencybenefitsareindicatedbyreductionsintotalmotorvehicletravel.
ConsumerImpactsSomepeopleareskepticalthatWin-Winstrategiesareoverallbeneficialsincetheycauseconsumerstoreducetheirvehicletravel.
Butmanystrategiesbenefitconsumersdirectly,byimprovingtraveloptionsorprovidingpositiveincentivessuchascashrewardsforusingalternativemodes,soconsumersonlyreducetheirdrivingwhentheyconsiderthemselvesbetteroff.
Motoristswhocontinuedrivingarenoworseoff,andbenefitfromreducedcongestion,accidentriskandpollution.
Ifpeoplechangetravelbehaviorinresponsetopositiveincentives(suchasimprovedwalkingconditionsortransitservices)orfinancialrewards(suchasparkingcashout),theymustbebetteroffoverall,ortheywouldnotchange.
Consumersurplusanalysiscanbeusedtodeterminenetuserimpactsfrompricechangesandfinancialincentives(Litman2001).
Strategiesthatinvolvenegativeincentives,suchasparkingpricing,roadpricingandfueltaxescanbenefitconsumersindirectlybyprovidingrevenuesthatoffsetotherconsumercostsandtaxes;byreducingtrafficcongestion,accidentriskandexposuretopollutionemissionsbymotorists;andbyreducingtheneedformotoriststochauffeurnon-drivingfriendsandfamilymembers.
Win-Winstrategiestendtoincreaseequity.
Forexample,withcurrent"free"parking,everybodypaysforparkingindirectly,throughhighertaxes,rentsandretailprices,butsomepeoplebenefitlittle,andsooverpaytheirfairshare.
ParkingCashOutmeansthatnon-driversreceiveemployeebenefitscomparableinvaluetotheparkingsubsidiesgivenmotorists.
VirtuallyallWin-Winstrategiesincreasetraveloptionsforpeoplewhocannotdriveduetophysicaloreconomicalconstraints.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute29EconomicImpactsEconomicDevelopmentreferstoprogresstowardacommunity'seconomicgoals,includingincreasesineconomicproductivity,employment,businessactivityandinvestment(Litman2011).
Manypeopleassumethatsincemotorvehicleownershipandusetendtoincreasewithincome,motorvehicletravelmustsupporteconomicdevelopmentandreformsthatreducevehicletravelmustbeeconomicallyharmful.
Transportplanningdecisionsaresometimesportrayedasatradeoffbetweentheeconomicdevelopmentbenefitsofincreasedmobility,andsocialandenvironmentalbenefitsfromreduceddemand.
But,Win-Winstrategiessupporteconomicdevelopmentoverallbyincreasingtransportsystemefficiencyandprovidingeconomicsavings.
Forexample,roadandparkingpricingreducescongestionandfacilitycosts,andleastcostplanningincreasetheeconomicreturnontransportationinvestments.
Totaleconomicbenefitscanbelarge.
Marketreformscanprovidehundredsofdollarsinannualeconomicsavingsandproductivitygainspercapita.
Thiscanincreaseinvestmentandcompetitiveness,supporteconomicdevelopmentandmakeconsumerswealthier.
Vehicleandfuelcostsavingsbenefittheeconomyoverall.
Expendituresonautomobiles,fuelandroadwayfacilitiesproviderelativelylittleregionaleconomicactivitybecausetheyarecapitalintensiveandasignificantportionofvalueisimported.
Transportpoliciesthatreducevehicleownershipanduse,andthereforetheamountthatconsumersspendonvehiclesandfuel,tendtoincreaseregionalemploymentandproductivity(Cortright2007).
Althoughabasichighwaysystemisimportantforeconomicdevelopment,oncethesystemmaturesandthemostcosteffectiveprojectshavebeenimplemented,furtherexpansionprovidesmuchlessbenefit.
Forexample,U.
S.
highwayinvestmentsshowedhighannualeconomicreturnsduringthe1950sand1960s,buttheratesofreturndeclinedbythe1980s,andthesetrendsarelikelytocontinue,sincethemostcost-effectiveinvestmentshavealreadybeenmade(CBO1998).
ThisindicatesthatWin-Winstrategiesthatresultinmoreefficientuseofexistingtransportationfacilities,suchasroadandparkingpricing,areoverallbetterfortheeconomythanfurtherroadwayexpansion.
Win-WinTransportationSolutionsVictoriaTransportPolicyInstitute30ConclusionsWin-Winsolutionsarecost-effective,technicallyfeasiblepolicyreformsandprogramsthathelpsolvetransportproblemsbyimprovingtransportoptionsandcorrectingmarketdistortionsthatresultineconomicallyexcessivevehicletravel.
Theyhelpcreateamoreefficientandequitabletransportationsystemwhichprovidesmanyeconomic,socialandenvironmentalbenefits,andhelpsachievevariousstrategicplanningobjectives.
Manytransportationproblemsarevirtuallyunsolvablewithoutsuchreforms.
IndividualWin-Winstrategiestendtoprovidemultiplebutmodestbenefits,andmanyoftheirbenefitsareoutsidethetraditionalscopeofconventionalplanning,whichtendstofocusonalimitedsetofimpactsandobjectives.
Asaresult,Win-Winsolutionstendtobeundervalued.
Theyareseldomconsideredthebestwaytosolveanyparticulartransportproblem.
However,theirimpactsarecumulativeandsynergistic.
AnintegratedprogramofWin-Winstrategiesisoftenthemostcost-effectivewaytoimprovetransportoverall.
Conventionalplanninggenerallyconsidersdemandmanagementstrategiesasmeasuresoflastresort,toaddressspecificproblemssuchascongestionandairpollution,ifnoothersolutionisfeasible.
Win-Winplanningtakestheoppositeapproach–itappliestransportmarketreformswhenevercosteffective,takingintoaccountallcostsandbenefits,andonlyimplementscapacityexpansionasalastresort.
Win-Winstrategiesarethebestwaytocreatemoresustainabletransportsystemsthatbalanceeconomic,socialandenvironmentalobjectives.
Iffullyimplementedtothedegreeeconomicallyjustified,Win-Winstrategieswouldprobablyreducemotorvehicletravelby30-50%,althoughexactimpactsaredifficulttopredictandvarydependingongeographic,demographicandeconomicconditions.
TheycouldmeetKyotoemissionreductiontargetswhileincreasingconsumerbenefitsandeconomicdevelopment.
Althoughfewmotoristswanttogiveupdrivingaltogether,atthemargin,thatis,comparedwiththeircurrenttravelpatterns,manypeoplewouldprobablyprefertodrivelessandrelymoreonalternatives,providedtheyareconvenient,comfortable,safeandaffordable.
Win-Winstrategiesprovidesuchoptions,makingconsumersbetteroffoverall.
Thereareothersuccessfulexamplesofvoluntaryconsumerbehaviorchange,includingreductionsinsmokingandincreasesinrecyclingandseatbeltuse.
Ineachcase,acombinationofimprovedoptions,publiceducationandincentivescausedpeopletoshifttheirbehavior,indicatingthatmanypeoplewanttochangeifgivensuitablesupport.
BecauseWin-Winstrategiesprovidemanydifferentbenefits,organizationsandindividualsrepresentingawiderangeofinterestshavereasonstosupporttheirimplementation.
Thisofferstheopportunityforpoliticalcoalitionstoadvocateforthesereforms.
Transportationprofessionals,localgovernmentandtaxpayergroups,environmentalorganizations,economicdevelopmentandbusinessinterests,socialequityadvocates,andevenmotoristsallhavereasonstosupportWin-Winsolutions.
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