scheme中国_英国与欧洲的客运铁路的近期发展背景_英文_

Review:

Background of recent developments of passenger railways in

China, the UK and otherEuropean countries

Roderick A. SMITH, Jing ZHOU‡

(DepartmentofMechanical Engineering,Imperial College London,London SW72AZ,UK)

E-mail:roderick smith@imperial ac uk;zhoujing_zju@126 com

Received Sept 25,2014;Revision acceptedNov 3,2014;CrosscheckedNov 12,2014

Abstirat ct:f Tbhiis fpiapter,dbatsied tontha lhecitutre givedn duringi tour ufndielrtakeni inthMUayK201d4Cohfi key rdailwaiytiestabflishilmentsd-in Cihitnha,lconsfs so a reinhro uc on o e sforyan choimhparsonsoira wiayisln ei f anil nai,a escfrhpi hono rai spee up n iefast ew decades n t e UK,and notes o current g speed tra ns S m ar br e deta s are gven o g speed n Europe Br emention is made of comp arative railway safety The development of high sp eed rail in China is discussed and the UK High Sp eeddevelop ment p lan is briefly introduced The p ap er concluded that high sp eed train sy stem has tremendous advantages in increasingthe efficiency and convenience of transp ort without adding to carbon generation

Key words:Railway s,High sp eed,Safety,History,Vehicles, Infrastructure,Systemdoi:101631/jzusA1400295 Documentcode:A CLC number:U271;U238

1h EaKrly rai lway development in China and than 100000 km today,nearly half of’which is elec-t eU trified.Chinanowhas6%’ oftheworldsrailwaysandcarries 20%of the world s rail traffic.

The first rail line in China was built in 1876, The first major passenger railway in Britain wasfdurini g the’last dl ays of thi e QShing Ehmipirei,hto hconniect that between the northern cities of Liverpool anddorekgnerts Wsett emenTtsh nt diang a w t t Je driver Manchester.George STEPHENSON and his loco-

‡ perhaps Isambard Kingdom Brunel deserves special

large country and has a huge population.The result is

The railways in the UK grew rapidly in extent in that although it has the largest network in route lengththe 19th century and reached a peak in the early 20th. in the world, it only amounts to the length of a ciga-The railways had been built and operated by many rette, 70 mm,per person. Japan has more than twicedifferent private companies with the result that there this figure and the UK more than three times. Thewas duplication, unnecessary competition and inco- greatest difference is in the average length of railwayherence in the system.The two World Wars and the journey:an astonishing 518 km in China(a huge jus-depression of the Thirties left the railways in poor tification for the new high speed network) comparedphysical shape when they were nationalised and were with only 17 km in Japan, a figure arising from therun by the state from 1948.The network was sharply dense commuter journeys in Tokyo and Osaka in par-contacted in the late 1950s and 1960s in order to make ticular. The UK and Germany have more balancedit more viable economically in the face of competition figures of around 40 km. In the case of the UK, thefrom private car ownership which increased strongly area round London accounts for a high proportion ofin these decades. In 1994 the railways were privatised railways business:very little traffic is generated inonce again:with very mixed results.Vertical inte- Scotland,Wales, the west of England, and north of agration was lost as the railway was fragmented into line connecting Manchester and Leeds.This geogra-many parts in a most probably misguided attempt to phy of population has, of course, implications forinject competition.Costs have risen dramatically,but future high speed developments. In contrast, the pop-passengers have increased in number and are now ulation of China is more concentrated on the east sideback to the 1910 peak(Fig. 1). of the country and there are many cities with large

It is instructive to compare some basis statistics populations; 160 greater than 1 million including 15of the railways in China and the UK:Germany and cities in conurbations greater than 5 million.AgainJapan have been added to the comparison. Table 1 these are fertile conditions for high speed rail.

Table 1 Some international railway comparisons

UK 0242 628 15775 25 40 93

Germany 0349 82 33707 41 41 63

Japan 0378 127 5 20852 16 17 516

3 Speed-up and high speed rail in the UK world speedrecord for dieseltractionwhen ittouched

238 km/h.Even today, this train forms the backbone

Although Britain was the birthplace of the rail- of several major intercity routes in the UK, and isways, in recent decades it has lagged behind in their regarded by many, the authors included, as still thedevelopment.Nevertheless, it still holds the world best train on the UKnetwork.speed records for both steam and diesel traction, but

ticulated.dIinfi 1d975 a speteid oflt245.k1 kbmt/hthwas achtieved Fig. 3 The 125 High Speed Train (HST): introduced inon unmo e conven ona rac , u e projec was I1t9i7s6than dhostldilelrgofinthgeswtrornldg’tsodaieysel

abandoned in 1987.However, the expertise g eneratedby thehprojeKct’fed into the desfignl of iwhat has harguIably- A further spin-off from the advanced passengereen t e U s most success u tra n ever, t e nter train project was the InterCity 225,an electric versionCity 125 High lSpeed Train(HST)h(Fig. 3h).Tlihis traini-, of the HST, introduced in 1990.Although designed tobased on d ese power cars at eac end au ng var travel at 225 km/h, the speed in service has been lim-ous combiinations iof ci on1ventionhal coaches,was linf- ited to 200 km/h because of the lack of in-cab signal-troduced nto serv ce n 976.T e modern appea o ling.Nevertheless, in a test run it achieved a speed ofits clean aerodynamic lines bolstered by a publicity 261.7 km/h. The train is still used on the so-calledcampaign.This is the age of the train, rapidly estab- East Coast Main Line to the north from King’s Crosslished its popularity in the eyes of the travelling pub- in London to Doncaster, York, Newcastle andlic. In November 1987 it achieved what is still the Edinburgh.

4 Channel Tunnel and its l ink to London ferent signalling system andhad to operate within therestricted loading gauge of the UK network.All these

Twenty years ago, on 6 May 1994, the 50.5 km factors added both to complexity and expense, andlong Channel Tunnel opened, linking at last Britain to reduced reliability. Secondly issues relating to safetyFrance and onwards to Western Europe by rail. This have arisen.Major fires occurred in the Tunnel inproject had an incredibly long history:a scheme was 1996 and 2008,both originating from Heavy Goodsfirst mooted in 1802, followed by several others, Vehicles (HGV)on shuttle wagons.There have beenwhich in 1881 resulted in physical exploratory works several breakdowns resulting in severe disruptions tostarting on both sides of the Channel,but which were services.The service tunnel has proved its worth, butsoon abandoned because of doubts about national the vulnerability of long tunnel systems and the lacksecurity.Finally modern defence technology helped of alterna’tive paths should always be uppermost into overcome isolationist views and real work on the operators minds.Finally on HS 1,a domestic serviceproject started in 1988. The tunnelling preceded is run,by Hitachi Javelin trains which run on both thesmoothly, the chalk undersea geology between dedicated high speed line and on/off to conventionalFolkestone and Calais was favourable to tunnelling, track(Fig. 5). Several of the issues of dual compati-but the costs escalated and far exceeded the initial bility have arisen adding to the complexity of theestimates.The scheme of the tunnel is that twin bores trains.connected by a service tunnel and pressure release

London Waterloo station. lFiig.l4i AkiEurLostadr traind tohn BCrhitain’lsTfirst dledicated HS1

5 Development of high speed in Europe leaves something to be desired,an issue compoundedby the mixed running. It is also worthy of note that a

The significant openings of dedicated high speed new generation modified and shortened version of theline symbolized the development of high speed in TGV achieved the world speed record of 574.8 km/hEurope (Fig. 6). Seventeen years after the opening of on 3 April 2007: speeds in service are, of course,the Shinkansen in Japan,France inaugurated the first considerably lower,320 km/h is the typical maximum.true high speed service in Europe when the dedicated The France efforts earned them considerable recog-line from Paris to Lyon opened in 1981. In many nition in Europe with the result that other countriestechnical aspects the TrainàGrande Vitesse (TGV) were persuaded to join the high speed revolution.differed from the Shinkansen.The line was built with Germany was the next to enter the High Speedmore severe gradients, but cut straight lines across arena with its Inter City Express (ICE) trains in 1991.Frances rather sparsely populated countryside.Power But the network is quite different from those of thecars at front and rear led to rather higher axle loads, Shinkansen and the TGV.Germany, the more so after17 t,and public social spaces such as bar areas led to reunification, is a large polycentric country lacking alower passenger densities and, in general, a much single c ity focus like Tokyo or Paris.Much of thehigher structural mass per seat. Double decker or running of TGV trains is on conventional track, alt-duplex carriages have been introduced to improve hough upgraded to allow 160 or 230 km/h running.capacity on some popular routes.The carbon footprint, Very little is run at 300 km/h on dedicated’ lines.however,was very low because of the high nuclear Nevertheless, the ICE has captured the public s im-generating capacity in France (interestingly, the agination and is rightly known as the flagship of theoriginal intention was for gas turbine power to be German railways. Several services run into adjacentused,but the idea was dropped after the 1973 oil crisis countries:France,Austria, Switzerland,The Nether-and conventional electric power from overhead sup- lands,Belgium,and Denmark.ply lines substituted). Over the succeeding years, Spain was a later but important entrant. Thefurther lines have been added, basically on a radial Madrid Seville service opened on dedicated track inpattern from Paris,and more destinations were added 1992.The Alta Velocidad Española(AVE) translatesto the TGV network through on/off running onto to Spanish High Speed,but the initials are also a punconvention tracks.The current dedicated network is on the word ave,meaning bird.Uniquely,on the linejust over 2000 km.Although the frequencies of de- from Madrid to Seville, the service guarantees arrivalpartures of the TGV fall way below the intensive within 5 min of the advertised time,and offers a fullservice offered by the Shinkansen, the punctuality refund if the train is late,although only a very small

number 0.16%are so delayed. Spain now has over Santiago de Compostela in Spain occurred on 24 July3000 km of high speed lines: the second in the world 2013,when an Alvia high-speed train,derailed at highonly to China.One might also make particular men- speed on a curve about 4 km outside the station.Oftion of Turkey where in recent years over 1400 km of the 222 people aboard,around 140 were injured andtrack has been cleared for 200 km/h operations. 79 died. Investigation showed that the train wastravelling at twic e the allowed maximum for the curveand was operating outside the ATC system of the6 Safety of high speed trains dedicated track on alength of conventional track as itapproached the station. Similarly, on 23 July 2011,

accidents have occurred on separated high speed track. Fig.7 Clear signs of the development of a fatigue crack inThe tragedy at Eschede which killed 101 people on 3 the fractured wheel rim which caused the Eschede disas-June 1998 involved an ICE train on convention track ter of June 1998

(Fig. 7).The first author was consulted by Deutsche

Bahn in the aftermath: the immediate cause was the Much is made of the comparison of the safetyfatigue failure of the rim of a resilient wheel. The records of different modes of transport.Perhaps toodesign had failed to measure the dynamic response of much attention is paid to this kind of data.We choosesuch an unusual construction, and laboratory tests had a transport mode for its appropriateness and availa-failed to identify the critical failure region of the in- bility.For example,a short journey to the local shopsside of the rim.Furthermore,no account was taken of is undertaken on foot, car or by bicycle and not bythe removal of material from the tread of the rim in airp lane, even though flying has in general an envia-order to maintain profile and its effect on reducing the ble safety record and cycling does not! In comparisonbending stiffness of the rim. The major accident at with cars, trains are much safer per passenger km

travelled.A curious statistic from the UK is that in The authors’ own research efforts have beenrecent years,more people have been killed on the associated with the Future Rail Research Centre atroads per year than the total number of passenger Imperial College London (FRRC)which has beenkilled on railways since their inception.The price of generously supported by Network Rail, the Royalsafety is eternal vigilanc e,attention from the humans Academy of Engineering and by Hitachi. Some of thecan and has in many cases been replaced by auto- major topics which have been studied over the lastmated systems,but the standards of maintenance of decade or so are outlined and referenced below.equipment, vehicles, and infrastructure must be ex- Several Chinese students have worked in thetremely high: this is a substantial part of the ongoing Centre. Not surprisingly the development of thecosts of running a high speedrailway. railway system in China has been of considerableinterest (Xue et al. , 2002a; 2002b),but these paperspredated the rapid development of the high speed7 Rai lwayresearch in the UK rCailwayiinChinaihwhichrichlyddieserviels afurhtherstbudy.onnectons w t Japan an ts ra ways ave een

When the railways of the UK were integrated strong. Several students from FRCC have spent pe-under British Rail, the national research laboratories riods working at universities in Japan and at thewere located in Derby and became a world renowned Railway Technical Research Centre(RTRI) in Tokyo.centre for railway research. Particular successes The first author has spent periods as a Visiting Pro-might be mentioned: the dynamics of bogies, signal- fessor at Tokyo University, supported by JR(Japanling systems,and operations control research. Railway) Central Railway Company,Kyushu Uni-

The privatisation and fragmentation of the rail- versity and at the Tokyo Institute of Technology.Aways from 1995 lead to a much more stringent fi- paper reviewing the birth of the Japanese Shinkansennancial view of research based on shortermism. The (Smith, 2003) proved to be a catalyst for the UKclosure of the national laboratories resulted in some railway when a Minister of Transport was impressedparts being sold to private concerns.A few of these by the story it told.Bringing this up to date, a newsurvive as consultant partners to the industry, but paper has reviewed the history of the Shinkansenmuch of the technical in house expertise and stored (Smith,2014) to mark its 50th anniversary in 2014.knowledge was lost.More recently a more strategic The first author studied fatigue and structuralview has prevailed and an attempt has been made to integrity for many years at the beginning of his re-reintroduce some longer term thinking,mainly based search career. There are many applications in rail-around university research groups.More than 40 ways: in fact fatigue came to be studied in the earlyuniversities are joined together in a grouping called days of the railways because of broken axles (SmithRailway Research UK(RRUK), carrying out EPSRC and Hillmansen,2004).This theme has been taken up(The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research and revisited applying modern developments inCouncil) funded projects;however,RRUK ended in fracture mechanics (Hillmansen and Smith,2004). Inthis form in about 2010.RRUK survives in what is the early days of the privatisation of the railways innow known as RRUKA(The Rail Research UK As- the UK, issues involving rolling contact fatigue ofsociation),which is a grouping of partner universities rails caused a significant accident which led to con-and industry with some limited funding provided by siderable efforts to rediscover issues originally wellRSSB(The Rail Safety&Standards Board).Major understood by British Rail Research.The first authorcontributions to these efforts are made at the univer- was involved in investigating technical aspects of thesities of Birmingham,Huddersfield,Newcastle,Not- accident in question: and some of the advances intingham, Sheffield, and Southampton. Again full understanding were discussed in a review(Zerbst,details can be found on their respective websites. 2009).

Whilst this research is both useful and commendable Recent years have seen increasing attention be-it lacks the synergistic effects of a single centre, and ing paid to global warming: therefore the energy andthe ability to perform large scale experimental work emissions performance of the railways had comefrom a long term perspective has been lost. under scrutiny (Inderwildi and King, 2013). The

energy efficient modes of transport (Smith, 2003a; than many other modes of transport, safety is both2003b), but there are several caveats to this simple costly and requires eternal vigilance. It is therefore aview(not the least of which is the load factor of pas- worth topic of study(Santos-Reyes et al. ,2005).sengers). Issues such as driving style (Read et al. ,

2011) and alternative energy sources (Read et al. ,

2009)have been studied. 8 Development of high speed in China

In principal, the faster we go, the more energywe use.Thus, the topic of energy use of high speed In Asia,Korea opened its Seoul–Busan line 40trains raises many questions (Zhou and Smith,2013). years after the opening of the Shinkansen.However,Many aspects have been studied using the FRRC train the most remarkable developments in Asia have oc-energy calculator and many sensitivity studies have curred more recently in China.The development ofbeen computed(Zhou and Smith,2013;2014). high sibpeeid rahil surgbed in i2b010d(FigC.h6i),anTdhthe mainf

Switches andcrossing are verycostly in terms of cCohnitr’utdon las to tehattrbute bto l tnla. te piahcie omaintenance and the dynamics of the passage of a Th na s deive-opm-len as een ial so u e y as okn sd ngl-.train through a crossing causes many interesting dy- e mte t um ttoi otng term Crhaiwa’y networ evei

fodr the HUK rail industrilydto carry ohuti such ai projelc-t Heavy Industries. In 2004, the Chinese State Councilhto ayh. ofowa ecvoemr, teattaioneal reastheaercthans eoxngeorinmgenatatl and the Ministry of Railways decided to introduceug X lpu2005 2007 p foreign advanced technology, in order to bring thenature( ue et a. , ; ). joint design and production, and finally to build

Several studies of a more general nature have Chinese brand.been undertaken, including a study of ways of intro- Chinese engineers then re-designed train sys-ducing new technology to the railway industry (Lov- tems and built indigenous trains based on self-ell et al. , 2011) and ways of increasing innovation developed key techniques.To unite the academic andinto an essentially conservative industry(Lovell and industrial research interests and resources, the Chi-Smith,2008). nese Ministry of Science and Technology and the

Ministry of Railways set up a―Ch‖ina’s High Speed on a network of approximately half the size), theTrain Innovation Joint Ac’tion Plan in 2008.On 30th population of England is growing rapidly,what wasJune, 2011, the World s longest high speed line 52 million in 2008 will become 60 million in 2033linking Beijing and Shanghai was completed,with a and 70 million by 2050,and there is a pressing need toworld record speed of 486.1 km/h(Fang,2011). develop the industrial towns of the north by better

The development of high speed rail has risen interconnections between themselves and with Lon-research interests from many aspects in China. Till don.Although the proposed network will eventuallynow,contributions have been made from: infrastruc- cover most of the country, the initial p lan is for a Y-ture(Duan et al. ,2011;Yang and Shi,2014), traction shaped network, from London to Birmingham thensystem(Chang, 2014), operation strategy(Lu et al., onwards to Manchester and Leeds.There is consid-

2011),aerodynamics (Li et al. ,2011;Yu et al.,2013; erable opposition from people who live near theCui et al. ,2014),etc.On a recent trip from Hangzhou proposed line: as there was for HS 1 to the Channelto Beijing, the first author was astonished by the ex- Tunnel,but the consensus then was that when the linecellent ride quality of Chinese trains operating at was built, the results were by no means as discom-speeds over 300 km/h,and by the passenger service forting as the opponents originally feared.There isand comfort matching anything offered in other re- also opposition of the grounds of costs:could more begions of the world. One can only’stand back in achieved by improving the―exist‖ing network, orastonishment and applaud China s remarkable spending the money on other good things: schools,achievement. ’ hospitals, soc ial s ervic es, etc.?Currently there is a

However,from the author s personal perspective, consensus amongst the major political parties that thesome issues may still need a bit further consideration: project should go ahead and appropriate Bill is beingThe design life of slab track is usually around 60 steered through Parliament:a process which may takeyears; however, no slab track system in the world two or more years. The timetable may appear lei-currently lives long enough to examine its end-of-life surely to many people:the plan is to start constructionstage.Whether the system is able to withstand the in 2016/2017 and to open the first sections by 2026.long period depends hugely on the quality of concrete. This is a constraint of a democratic parliamentaryPeriodical renewal of components is required to system but simultaneously is a frustration to themaintain the riding quality.After a period of service, achievement of a long overdue addition to thethe strength of the infrastructure decreases and crack transport infrastructure of the country. It is unlikelymay initiate in some components, thus the rail infra- that any procurement of rolling stock will take placestructure is more vulnerable to sudden external im- until around 2020: by then many innovations andpacts, like natural disasters. It is likely for the infra- improvements will have been made, but we are as-structure to fail before the predicted end of its service sured that all offers both domestic and internationallife. For safety reasons, non-destructive testing will receive fair and open consideration.method could be needed to examine the cracks whichmight be embedded in the core of a slab.

10 Concludingremarks

9 Future high speed rai l in the UK A’s the 50th anniversary of the opening of theworld s first dedicated High Speed railway ap-

Plans are now being made to extend the high proaches, we can reflect on how the Japanesespeed rail system of the UK:a project known as High Shinkansen has become a catalyst for the develop-Speed Two(HS2).The principal drivers are that the ment and rebirth of railways in many other countriesexisting conventional network is overcrowded and in the world. In Europe,France and Germany led thehas seen a huge increase in patronage in recent years way, but the most astonishing aspect has been the(an increase in passenger km of 100%,doubling from more recent development of an extensive High Speed750 million in 1995 to 1500 million now, leading to system in China, surpassing by far on scale all pre-levels of traffic as great as any since about 1910 but vious developments and still growing rapidly.