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ArticleTheInuenceofKnowledgeonResidents'PerceptionsoftheImpactsofOvertourisminP2PAccommodationRentalDesiderioGutiérrez-Tao1,JoanB.
Garau-Vadell2andRicardoJ.
Díaz-Armas1,*1DepartmentofBusinessManagementandEconomicHistory,UniversityofLaLaguna,38071LaLaguna,Tenerife,Spain;dgtano@ull.
es2DepartmentofBusinessEconomics,UniversityoftheBalearicIslands,07122Palma,Spain;joan.
garau@uib.
es*Correspondence:rjdiaz@ull.
es;Tel.
:+34-922-317-069Received:24January2019;Accepted:13February2019;Published:17February2019Abstract:AccommodationrentalactivitythroughP2Pplatformshasexperiencedexponentialgrowthinrecentyears,andinmanycitieshasgenerateddiscomfortamongresidentswhoholditresponsibleforovertourismandothernegativeimpacts.
Understandingresidents'perceptionsandattitudesisfundamentalforthesustainabledevelopmentoftourismactivity.
Thisstudyinvestigatestheinuenceofresidents'"knowledge"oftheactivityontheirperceptionofimpactsandtheirattitudetowardsit.
Usingthesocialexchangetheoryasatheoreticalframework,thispapercomparesthedataobtainedintheworld-classdestinationMajorca,in2015and2017.
Datawasgatheredthroughaconveniencesamplingprocedurewithself-administeredquestionnaires.
Theresultsconrmtheinuenceofthisvariableontheperceptionoftheimpactsanditsmoderatingeffectonresidents'attitudes.
Thestudyconrmstheinuenceofagreaterlevelofknowledgeoftheactivityontheperceptionoftheimpactsandonattitudesanditgenerallyresultsinagreaterperceptionofthecostsandalesserimpactofbenets.
Theimplicationsintermsofdestinationmanagementarealsodiscussed.
Keywords:residents'attitudes;P2Paccommodation;impactperception;knowledge;overtourism1.
IntroductionExtensiveliteraturecompiledoverthelast30yearshasstudiedandhighlightedthecrucialsignicanceofresidents'supportwhenencouragingtourismdevelopments[1–6].
Thebeliefthat"understandingresidents'perceptionsandattitudesisfundamentaltothesuccessfulandsustainabledevelopmentoftourismactivity"[7]isthemainreasonforwhywehavewitnessedincreasedresearchintoresidents'attitudestowardstourism.
WiththeadvanceoftheInternet,theholidayaccommodationsectorisundergoingarevolution[8,9].
PortalssuchasAirbnb,HomeAway,HomeExchange,orCouchsurnghavesimpliedandfacilitatedcontactbetweenhostsandguestssosuccessfullythatattheendof2015,thenumberofbedsadvertisedalreadyexceededthenumberofoffersintraditionaltourismestablishments[10,11].
Themagnitudeofthephenomenonhasleddifferentauthorstoconsideritasoneofthemainforcesofchangeinthetourismsector,callingintoquestionthetraditionalsupremacyofconventionalaccommodationmodels[12,13].
However,thedevelopmentofthesenewmodalitiesofaccommodationandtheirimplementationindifferentdestinationsisneitherstablenorwithoutconict,andthisdoesnotseemlikelytochangeinthefuture[14,15].
Inthissense,aswellasthedebateaboutthelegitimacyandlegalityofthisnewworldofexchangeandthestrongoppositionfromsignicantadvocatesfortraditionalbusinessmodels,whoaccusetheportalsofunfaircompetition[10,16,17],conicthasariseninsomedestinationsSustainability2019,11,1043;doi:10.
3390/su11041043www.
mdpi.
com/journal/sustainabilitySustainability2019,11,10432of17betweenresidentsandtourists.
IncitieslikeBarcelonaorBerlin,theseincidentshaveledtolouddemonstrationsbycitizens,whoblameuncontrolledholidayaccommodationfor,amongotherthings,overcrowdingofthedestination,increasedrentalprices,alowerqualityoflife,adeteriorationinthecoexistenceofneighbouringcitizensandlocalresidentsbeingforcedtoleave[18].
Manyofthesenegativearguments,especiallyindestinationswithahigherincidenceofholidayaccommodation,havebeenwidelypublished,bothinthepressandviaothermeansofcommunication[19].
DespitetheconstantincreaseinP2Pholidaytourism,researchrelatedtotheformationofresidents'attitudestowardsthisactivityisextremelylimited[20].
Todate,themajorityhasconsistedofpartialreportsdrawnupattheparties'request[10,21]andparticularlystressesthebenetsorharmderivedfromthephenomenon,dependingonhowconvenientitisfortheinterestsofsaidparties.
However,itdoesnotanalyseindepthwhyresidentschoosetosupportP2Pholidayaccommodationornot.
Onlyrecentlyhaveseveralattemptsbeenmadetocreateamodelofhowsupportisformedforthisnewtourismactivity[20].
Thesestudies,usingtheSocialExchangeTheory(SET)asaconceptualframework[22],suggestthatresidents'supportlargelydependsonhowtheyperceivethepositiveandnegativeimpacts.
Understandingthevariablesthataffecthowresidentsperceivetheimpactsisoneofthemainchallengestoberesearched[7].
Thisknowledgeisextremelyusefulformanagersoftourismdestinations,asitenablesthemtodesignpoliciesandregulationswhichaimtoachieveaharmoniousrelationshipbetweenthedifferentstakeholdersatthedestination(residents,tourists,administration,industry,etc.
).
Thisharmoniousrelationshipisconsideredtobekeyforachievingsustainabletourismdevelopment[2,3,23–25].
Inthissense,oneofthevariablesthathavebeensuggestedtobeinuentialforresidents'perceptionoftheimpactsoftourismisthedegreeofknowledgethattheyhaveofsaidactivity[26–28].
Thisdegreeofknowledgeisimportantonthewhole,butinthespeciccaseofP2Ptourism,thisvariableseemstobeevenmorerelevant.
Theexponentialgrowthoftheactivity,theconictsinsomecities,thelargenumberofnewsreportsrelatedtothesubject(normallynegative),thepressureoflobbygroupsinthetraditionalaccommodationsectors(normallyagainstit)and,ofcourse,thepassingoftime,havewithoutadoubtmultipliedtheinformationthatisavailabletoresidentsontheactivityandsohaveincreasedtheirknowledge.
However,probablyduetothefactthatthisphenomenonisquitenew,thereisnoresearchthatlooksintoitsinuenceontheperceptionoftheimpactsgeneratedbyP2Pholidayrentals.
Thisresearchdecitcanbeaddedtothendingsofseveralliteraturereviews[7,29],whichpointoutthescarcityofresearchrelatedtotheformationofresidents'attitudesintoptourismdestinations,meaningthatitisnotavailabletothedestinationsthatwouldmostbenetfromsuchresearch.
Tollthisvoid,thisstudyanalysestheinuenceexertedbybroaderknowledgeofP2Pholidayaccommodationonperceptionoftheimpactsandonresidents'attitudestowardssaidactivity.
UsingtheSETasatheoreticalframework,thisstudyanalysesthevariationoftheperceptionoftheimpactsandthesupportforholidayrentalsinworld-classtourismdestinationMajorcaintwodifferentyears—2015and2017.
Whereasin2015,holidayrentalswerestartingtoemergeandthedegreeofknowledgewasslowlystartingtogrow,in2017,measurementsweretakenwithinthecontextofgreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
MallorcaisthelargestislandoftheBalearic'sarchipelago,oneoftheforemostmasstourismdestinationsintheworld,welcomingmorethan16.
5milliontouristsperyear.
Mallorca,inhabitedbyslightly880,000residents,hostsmorethan11.
5milliontouristsperyear[30].
P2PvacationalrentalsofferinMallorcaishigh;in2017,atotalnumberofvacationalrentalspublishedonplatformsof29,280wasestimated;thisamountrepresentsanestimatedtotalnumberof155,184beds[31].
TheexposureofMallorcaresidentstotourismandP2Pvacationalrentalsgivesthemaprivilegedobservatoryforevaluatingit.
Theultimategoalofthisworkistoincreasetheunderstandingofhowresidents'supportisformedtowardsP2Prentals,andmorespecically,oftheinuencethatresidents'"knowledge"oftheactivityexertsontheirperceptionoftheimpactsandtheirattitudestowardsit.
Furthermore,Sustainability2019,11,10433of17theimplicationsthatcanbederivedfromtheresultsobtainedintermsofdestinationmanagement(managementofpotentialconicts,understandingregulatorydecisions,etc.
)willalsobediscussed.
2.
Residents'SupportforP2PHolidayAccommodationInthisstudy,theSocialExchangeTheory(SET)[22]hasbeenusedasatheoreticalframeworktoexplainhowresidents'supportforthistourismactivityisformed.
TheSETproposesthattheattitudesofanindividualwillbeinuencedbytheevaluationthattheymakeofthepositiveandnegativerepercussionsthattheactivityhasonthecommunity[22,32–35].
Accordingtothistheory,itisassumedthatthemorepositivetheperceptionsontourismimpacts(economic,social,cultural,andenvironmental)are,themorefavourableresidents'attitudeswillbetowardstourismdevelopment[36–38].
2.
1.
EconomicImpactsTobemoreprecise,inthecaseofP2Paccommodation,Fangetal.
[12]suggestthatthistypeofaccommodationwillleadtoanincreaseinthenumberoftouristsduetothelowercost,resultinginturninanincreaseinthenumberofjobsasthetourismgrows.
Otherpositiveeconomicaspectsthatareattributedtothedevelopmentofcollaborativeaccommodationincludetheencouragementofanentrepreneurialspirit,thegenerationofadditionalincomeforfamiliesatthedestinationandagreaterdistributionofincomefromtourismamongthebusinessesandneighbourhoodsthatdonotusuallybenetfromit[39].
Moreover,itisarguedthatthistypeofaccommodationattractsvisitorswhoaremorelikelytoreturntothedestination,willingtostayformoredaysandtospendmoremoneyinthecity,generatingeconomicgrowthinthosecitiesanddestinationswithouttheneedfornewinfrastructureortourismdevelopments[21].
Conversely,regardingthenegativeeconomicaspects,theemergenceofthesenewmodalitiesmayleadtoadecreaseddemandfortraditionalhotelaccommodation[40],anditwillmeanareductioninthenumberofjobs[12].
Reductionsinthetaxrevenueassociatedwiththedevelopmentofthissector,whichismoreinformal,arealsoindicated[10].
2.
2.
SocioculturalImpactsAsetofpositivesocioculturalimpactsisalsoattributedtothecollaborativeeconomyincludingasenseofcommunity,thepromotionofculturalexchangeandincreasedempathyandtolerance.
Inaddition,itisarguedthatastheguestsvisitingthedestinationcomefromelsewhere,andthehostsinteractwithgueststhatspeakdifferentlanguages,itisalsoanopportunityforresidentstolearnandpractisethem.
Itcanalsoforgeasenseofbelonginginthecommunity,thankstothecloserelationshipsthatareformedbetweenvisitorsandresidents.
Together,theyndwaysofsupportingeachotherasmembersofthesamecommunity[21].
However,notallofthesocioculturalaspectsarepositive.
InthespeciccaseofP2Ptourism,atsomedestinationsconictshavearisenbetweenthetouristsstayinginthistypeofaccommodationandtheresidents,whoblamethesevisitorsforadeteriorationintheirqualityoflifeandcoexistence,aswellasfordrivingoutlocalresidentswhoareunabletopayforincreasedrentalprices[10,41,42].
Therecentgrowthoftourisminmanycitiesandurbandestinationsrequiresthesectortoguaranteesustainablepoliciesandpracticesthatminimisethenegativeeffectsoftourismontheuseofnaturalresources,infrastructures,mobilityandsaturation,aswellasitssocioculturalimpact.
Inthissense,casesofhostileattitudesoflocalresidentstowardsvisitorsareincreasing,duetoovercrowding,noiseandotherissues.
Oneofthekeyelementsisthatholidayaccommodationis,toalargeextent,blamedforthenegativeeffectsandovercrowdingofdestinations.
Creatingasharedresponsibilitybetweenthepartiesdirectlyorindirectlyinvolvedintourismdevelopmentisessentialforensuringsustainabilityinthelong-term[43].
Sustainability2019,11,10434of172.
3.
EnvironmentalImpactsInthecaseofP2Paccommodation,thereareargumentsinfavourofthepositiveeffectslinkedtothereducedneedtousenewlandresourcestoaccommodatetourists,amoreefcientuseofexistingresourcesandthepromotionofasustainableformoftravel.
Alongtheselines,somestudiesarguethat,comparedtotraditionalaccommodation,thistypeoftourismsignicantlyreducesenergyandwaterconsumption,aswellaswasteproduction[21].
Conversely,theexistenceofasetofnegativeenvironmentalimpactsastheconsequenceofP2Pholidayaccommodationhasalsobeendebated,includingaspectssuchasincreasedpollution(particularlynoise,waste,etc.
)andtrafccongestion,fasterdeteriorationofneighbourhoodinfrastructureandgreatersaturationofareasthatarenormallyusedbyresidents[10,41].
3.
TheInuenceoftheKnowledgeofTourismonthePerceptionofImpactsManyresearchershavefocusedtheirstudiesonidentifying,measuringandcomparingthevariablesthatcaninuencethewayinwhichtourismanditsimpactsareperceivedwiththeaimofexplainingandpotentiallypredictingresidents'responsestotourism.
Sharpley[7]carriesoutanextensivereviewofthefactorsanalysedbytheliteratureinthiseldandclassiesthemasintrinsic(relatedtotheindividual)andextrinsic(morerelatedtothedestination).
Amongtheintrinsicfactors,somerecentstudieshaveinvestigatedtheinuencethatthelevelofknowledgeoftheresidentshasondifferentaspectsofthetourismactivity.
Knowledgereferstotheresidents'understandingoftheissuesoftourismdevelopment,aswellastheroleofthegovernmentintheirmanagement.
Inthiscontext,Moscardo[44]suggeststhatresidents'knowledgeoftourismisanimportantaspectforthesustainabilityandgoodmanagementofthesector.
Ontheotherhand,Cooketal.
[45]considerthatinthestructureofthesocialexchangetheory,knowledgeisanimportantresourceforthoseinvolved,anditdeterminestheirpositioninasocialexchangenetwork.
Theworksthathavestudiedtheinuenceofresidents'knowledgeoftourismontheirattitudestowardstheperceivedimpactsinthesectorareinconclusive.
Residentswithknowledgeoftourismaremorelikelytorecognisethebenetsandcostsofitsdevelopment[26].
Davis,AllenandCosenza[27]discoveredthattourism"haters"includedresidentswhogenerallyhadapoorknowledgeofthesubject.
ThestudybyAnderecketal.
[26]indicatedthatresidentswithknowledgeoftourismweremorelikelytoreportpositiveimpacts,whilstNunkoo[28]onlyreportedasignicantrelationshipbetweenknowledgeandthenegativeimpactsperceived.
Contrarytothesendings,LátkováandVogt[46]foundthatknowledgeisaninsignicantpredictorofthepositiveandnegativeimpacts.
Theresidents'perceptionofthedifferentimpactsassociatedwiththedevelopmentofP2Paccommodationispredictedtobeaffecteddifferentlyifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity,butuntilrecently,thisactivitywasnotwidelyknownbythegeneralpublic.
Thegrowthoftheactivity,thelargenumberofnewsreportsrelatedtothesubject,theconictsinsomecities,thepressurefromlobbygroups,andtheimpactsofthisactivityhaveledresidentsatthesetourismdestinationstobecomemoreawareofthephenomenoninrecentyears.
Inthissense,basedontheSETandtherevisedliterature,thefollowinghypotheseshavebeenmaderelatingtotheinuenceoftheperceivedimpactsandresidents'attitudes:Theperceptionofthebenetsincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity:-H1a:TheperceptionoftheeconomicbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H1b:TheperceptionofthesocialbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H1c:TheperceptionoftheculturalbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Sustainability2019,11,10435of17-H1d:TheperceptionoftheenvironmentalbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Theperceptionofthecostsincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity:-H2a:TheperceptionoftheeconomiccostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H2b:TheperceptionofthesocialcostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H2c:TheperceptionoftheculturalcostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H2d:TheperceptionoftheenvironmentalcostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H3:Theresidents'attitudetowardstheactivity,accordingtotheSETtheory,willincreaseordecreasetogetherwiththelevelofknowledge,dependingonwhethertheincreaseintheperceptionofthebenetsisgreaterorlesserthantheincreaseintheperceptionofthecosts.
4.
Methodology4.
1.
MeasurementsForthisstudy,aquantitativeresearchdesignwasusedintheformofaquestionnaire.
Togathertheinformation,astructuredquestionnairewasdevised,whichaimedtomeasurethedifferentconstructsanalysedinthisstudy.
Therstconstruct,"residents'supportforP2Pholidayaccommodation"wasputintooperationusingascaleformedbyfouritemstakenfrompreviousstudies[20,47,48].
Theresidents'perceptionofthedifferentimpacts(economic,cultural,socialandenvironmental)wasmeasuredusingspecicconstructsformedbyadaptingtheelementsusedintheexistingscalestothespeciccaseofP2Pholidayaccommodation[49–52].
Forclassicationpurposes,thequestionnaireincludedasetofdemographicvariables,suchasgender,ageandemployment.
Thequestionnairealsoincludedaseriesofquestionsrelatingtoknowledgeanduse(bothasaguestandhost)ofholidayrentalplatforms.
Beforegatheringthedata,agroupofvetourismexpertsconrmedtheapparentvalidityofthequestions.
Then,withtheaimofguaranteeingunderstandingandtheadaptationoftheresearchtool,apriortestinvolving65residentswasperformedbeforetheeldworkwasnallycarriedout.
4.
2.
SampleThetargetpopulationofthisstudywereinhabitantsovertheageof18whoarepermanentresidentsofMajorca.
DatawasgatheredinDecember2015andDecember2017throughaconveniencesamplingprocedure,withself-administeredquestionnairesintherespondents'placeofresidence.
Theinterviewersgavethequestionnairestoresidentsattheirhomes.
Structuredself-administeredquestionnaireswereoptedfor,astheresponserateishigherandinterferenceonthepartoftheresearcherisreducedtoaminimum[53].
Atotalof510responseswereobtainedfromresidentsinMajorcain2015,and605in2017.
Table1showsthesociodemographicproleofthemembersofthesampleineachoftheyearsanalysed.
Itcanbeseenthatbothsampleshadasimilardistribution,enablingthemtobecompared.
Intermsofgender,inbothsamplessimilarpercentageswereobtained—50.
1%womenin2015and51.
2%in2017.
Similarpercentageswerealsoobtainedintermsofagedistribution:thoseinthe18–25agegroupmadeup21.
9%in2015and21.
3%in2017;26–45yearoldsrepresented41.
6%in2015and42.
1%in2017;nally,thoseovertheageof45madeup36.
6%in2015and36.
7%in2017.
Likewise,thepercentagesweresimilarwhenweanalysedthedistributionintermsofemployment:thoseworkingmadeup63.
3%in2015and67.
5%in2017;studentsrepresented16.
5%in2015and13.
5%in2017;thosenotworking20.
2%in2015and19%in2017.
Asfarasincomewasconcerned,Sustainability2019,11,10436of17thosewhoconsideredthemselvestobeearninganaveragesalarymadeup61.
4%in2015and57.
5%in2017,thoseearningbelowaveragerepresented14.
7%bothin2015and2017,andthoseearningaboveaverageconstituted23.
9%in2015and27.
8%in2017.
Table1.
Characteristicsoftherespondents.
Year20152017GENDERFemale50.
1%51.
2%Male49.
9%48.
8%AGE18–2521.
9%21.
3%26–4541.
6%42.
1%>4536.
6%36.
7%EMPLOYMENTWorking63.
3%67.
5%Student16.
5%13.
5%Notworking20.
2%19.
0%SECTORTourism16.
3%16.
9%Other83.
7%83.
1%INCOMEBelowaverage14.
7%14.
7%Average61.
4%57.
5%Aboveaverage23.
9%27.
8%Total5106054.
3.
DataAnalysisTondouttheeffectof"knowledge"ontheperceptionofimpactsandontheresidents'attitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodation,thefollowingapproachwastaken:Firstly,aviabilityandvalidityanalysiswasperformedonthemeasuringscaletoverifythatthemeasurementwassuitable.
Evaluationofthemeasuringinstrumentconsistsofanalysingwhetherthetheoreticalconceptsaremeasuredcorrectly.
Thisisaquestionofcheckingthatourmeasurementsarevalidandreliable,andofcalculatingthevaluesinthelatentvariablesbeforetryingtodrawconclusionsregardingthedifferencesbetweenthemeasurementsatthetwodifferentmomentsintime.
Theevaluationofthemeasurementtoolwascarriedoutbymeasuringthereliabilityofthescale(individualfortheitemandcombined)andtheconrmationoftheconvergentanddiscriminatoryvalidityoftheconstruct[54].
Secondly,thedescriptiveresultsofeachoftheitemsformingthedifferentconstructsanalysedarepresented.
Thirdly,ananalysisiscarriedouttoverifytheexistenceofdifferencesinthedegreeoftheresidents'knowledgeoftheP2Pactivity.
Finally,thedifferencesbetweentheresidents'perceptionofimpactsandtheirattitudesinthetwoperiodsmentionedwereanalysed.
Thisanalysiswascarriedoutbyperformingameansdifferencetest(Student'sT-test)betweenthevaluesoftheconstructsineachoftheyearsinwhichthemeasurementsweretaken.
5.
Results5.
1.
ReliabilityandValidityoftheScaleBeforeperformingthemeansdifferenceanalysis,itwasdeemednecessarytovalidatethemeasuringinstrument.
Intermsofreliability,theresultsobtained(Table2)conrmedtheindividualreliabilityofeachitem.
Inallcases,thefactorloadsobtainedweregreaterthan0.
6,whichisthereferencevaluethatisusednormally[55].
Likewise,thecombinedreliabilitywasalsochecked,giventhatinallcasesvaluesgreaterthan0.
8wereobtained,whichisthestrictestvaluerequiredinbasicresearch[56].
Theaimoftheconvergentvalidityanalysisistoguaranteethatthescalesmeasureexactlytheconceptthatisintendedtobemeasured,insteadofotherfactorsthatareexternaltotheconstruct.
Sustainability2019,11,10437of17Convergentvalidityexistswhenseveralmeasurementitemsusedtoevaluatethesameconceptcorrelatewitheachother[57].
EvaluationsaregenerallycarriedoutbyusingtheaveragevarianceextractedorAVE[58]andCronbach'salpha[56].
TheAVEvaluesandtheCronbach'salphacoefcientsobtained(Table2)werehigherthan0.
5and0.
7respectivelyinallcases,whichservedtoconrmtheconvergentvalidityoftheconstructs,astheyexceededthereferencevalues.
Table2.
Reliabilityandvalidityoftheconstruct.
Construct/ItemLoadingCronbach'sAlphaCombinedReliabilityAVEP2Paccommodationsupport0.
9420.
9580.
851Verypositivefortheisland0.
9150Shouldbepromotedmore0.
9037Iaminfavourofthistypeofaccommodation0.
9389Iwouldlikeittobedeveloped0.
9330Economicbenets0.
8040.
8840.
718Itgeneratesjobs0.
8494Ithelpsalotoffamiliesnancially0.
8198Itrevitalisesthelocaleconomy0.
8715Economiccosts0.
7280.
8300.
553Itgeneratesprecariousjobs0.
7779Itpayslesstax0.
7514Itdestroysjobs0.
8187Itincreasesthecostofliving0.
6084Socialbenets0.
7930.
8780.
706Thebenetsoftourismareshared0.
8578Thebenetsoftourismreachmoreplaces0.
8172Itencourageshomemaintenance0.
8446Socialcosts0.
8510.
9100.
770Deteriorationofcoexistenceofcitizens0.
8730Itdrivesoutresidents0.
8652Qualityoflifedecreasesandthereismorenoise0.
8948Culturalbenets0.
8090.
8880.
725Itfavoursexchangebetweendifferentcultures0.
8727Chancetointeractwithotherpeople0.
8865Itimprovestheleisureactivitiesonoffer0.
7925Culturalcosts0.
8280.
8980.
745Lossofidentityandlocalculture0.
8798Residentsfeelliketheydonotbelong0.
8939Itdoesnotbenettheresidents0.
8145Environmentalbenets0.
8230.
8950.
740Moresustainablethantraditionalaccommodation0.
8060Itvaluesprotectednaturalareasmore0.
8890Morerespectfultowardstheenvironment0.
8837Environmentalcosts0.
8400.
8920.
675Itcausesalotofpollution0.
8074Itisresponsiblefortrafccongestion0.
7517Theneighbourhoodinfrastructuresdeteriorate0.
8647Spacesareovercrowded0.
8584Boldnumbers:namesandvaluesofconstructs.
Thediscriminatoryvalidityisthedegreebywhicheachlatentvariableisdifferentfromotherconstructs[59].
InordertomeetFornell–Larcker'scriterion[60],thesquarerootoftheAVEforeachconstructmustbegreaterthanallthecorrelationsbetweentheconstructsandtheotherconstructs.
Inaddition,itmustbeveriedthatalloftheconstructsarerelatedtoagreaterextenttotheirownmeasurementsthantootherconstructs[54].
Moreover,theheterotrait–monotrait(HTMT)[61]hasrecentlybeenestablishedasasuperiorcriterionforevaluatingthediscriminatoryvalidity,whichrepresentstheaverageofheterotrait–heteromethodcorrelationsrelativetotheaverageofmonotrait-heteromethodcorrelations[61].
Inthisstudy,themostdemandingmethodofHTMT.
90hasbeenusedtoevaluatethediscriminatoryvalidity[61].
Tables3–5showtheresultsoftheevaluationofthediscriminatoryvalidityofthemeasurementsaccordingtoFornell–Larcker'scriteria,crossedloadsandHTMT.
90,respectively,andindicatethattheconstructshavediscriminatoryvalidity.
Sustainability2019,11,10438of17Table3.
Discriminatoryvalidity(Fornel–Lacker).
AttitudetowardsP2PAccommodationSocialBenetsCulturalBenetsEconomicBenetsEnvironmentalBenetsCulturalCostsEconomicCostsEnvironmentalCostsSocialCostsAttitudetowardsP2Paccommodation0.
9227Socialbenets0.
53840.
8401Culturalbenets0.
48120.
46370.
8516Economicbenets0.
64390.
52520.
48290.
8472Environmentalbenets0.
46470.
47860.
39520.
42150.
8604Culturalcosts0.
50130.
41850.
36160.
38640.
39900.
8634Economiccosts0.
45850.
39740.
25170.
39220.
30290.
49960.
7433Environmentalcosts0.
37570.
34500.
18650.
22680.
33170.
50000.
45340.
8218Socialcosts0.
46350.
38720.
27950.
31770.
35320.
64830.
52620.
59540.
8777Boldnumbers:squarerootofAVE.
Sustainability2019,11,10439of17Table4.
Crossedloads.
AttitudetowardsP2PAccommodationEconomicBenetsEconomicCostsSocialBenetsSocialCostsCulturalBenetsCulturalCostsEnvironmentalBenetsEnvironmentalCostsVerypositivefortheisland0.
91500.
60190.
40420.
49010.
42190.
42220.
45550.
42540.
3371Shouldbepromotedmore0.
90370.
56000.
41520.
47200.
39880.
44970.
43770.
39050.
3353Iaminfavourofthistypeofaccommodation0.
93890.
60950.
44600.
50970.
44670.
44710.
48200.
45700.
3581Iwouldlikeittobedeveloped0.
93300.
60380.
42600.
51420.
44170.
45730.
47370.
44000.
3557Itgeneratesjobs0.
55880.
84940.
34550.
40490.
26660.
37710.
27680.
32830.
1750Ithelpsalotoffamiliesnancially0.
49200.
81980.
33360.
43610.
25880.
38890.
34390.
32550.
2009Itrevitalisesthelocaleconomy0.
58020.
87150.
31970.
49260.
28150.
45860.
36330.
41320.
2020Itgeneratesprecariousjobs0.
34630.
27990.
77790.
31940.
40360.
24910.
40170.
26880.
3890Itpayslesstax0.
31580.
29760.
75140.
27570.
36600.
16730.
29460.
18630.
2730Itdestroysjobs0.
41710.
40030.
81870.
36920.
43480.
20850.
42970.
25670.
3168Itincreasesthecostofliving0.
26060.
14170.
60840.
18550.
35690.
10470.
35120.
17640.
3968Thebenetsoftourismareshared0.
47880.
48440.
37910.
85780.
33250.
38060.
36090.
37460.
2883Thebenetsoftourismreachmoreplaces0.
37240.
36490.
25360.
81720.
26000.
36290.
30200.
37490.
2652Itencourageshomemaintenance0.
48970.
45930.
35230.
84460.
36950.
42050.
38200.
45160.
3116Deteriorationofcoexistenceofcitizens0.
38870.
25260.
49050.
31680.
87300.
20390.
58430.
31710.
5205Itdrivesoutresidents0.
42240.
29400.
43320.
31960.
86520.
27280.
54580.
26570.
4834Qualityoflifedecreasesandthereismorenoise0.
40790.
28800.
46400.
38260.
89480.
25620.
57820.
34890.
5649Itfavoursexchangebetweendifferentcultures0.
40200.
39110.
21960.
39190.
25480.
87270.
31760.
33370.
2027Chancetointeractwithotherpeople0.
39160.
39830.
22220.
37040.
25670.
88650.
34910.
35430.
1723Itimprovestheleisureactivitiesonoffer0.
43000.
43820.
20030.
41630.
20320.
79250.
25860.
31990.
1041Lossofidentityandlocalculture0.
45070.
31720.
45140.
34270.
58660.
26510.
87980.
33960.
4657Residentsfeelliketheydonotbelong0.
43480.
34160.
42340.
37990.
57550.
30870.
89390.
37580.
4599Itdoesnotbenettheresidents0.
41190.
34360.
41830.
36260.
51440.
36790.
81450.
31740.
3652Moresustainablethantraditionalaccommodation0.
38970.
37340.
25700.
41500.
21710.
32440.
28660.
80600.
2421Itvaluesprotectednaturalareasmore0.
39980.
37060.
26440.
43250.
35800.
35610.
36510.
88900.
3081Morerespectfultowardstheenvironment0.
40940.
34460.
26030.
38810.
33350.
33900.
37580.
88370.
3043Itcausesalotofpollution0.
30860.
17290.
37040.
31170.
52160.
14720.
43890.
30800.
8074Itisresponsiblefortrafccongestion0.
23990.
08490.
30440.
18600.
36790.
08560.
28200.
16380.
7517Theneighbourhoodinfrastructuresdeteriorate0.
34800.
25600.
40220.
32590.
54710.
20250.
47600.
33340.
8647Spacesareovercrowded0.
32420.
20360.
40120.
28930.
49640.
15950.
41820.
25980.
8584Sustainability2019,11,104310of17Table5.
Heterotrait–Monotraitratio(HTMT).
AttitudetowardsP2PAccommodationSocialBenetsCulturalBenetsEconomicBenetsEnvironmentalBenetsCulturalCostsEconomicCostsEnvironmentalCostsSocialCostsAttitudetowardsP2PaccommodationSocialbenets0.
6144Culturalbenets0.
54930.
5736Economicbenets0.
73710.
64910.
5952Environmentalbenets0.
52720.
58970.
48400.
5167Culturalcosts0.
56700.
51190.
44550.
47550.
4824Economiccosts0.
54500.
50070.
32030.
49450.
38670.
6409Environmentalcosts0.
41740.
41240.
22080.
26620.
38920.
58750.
5886Socialcosts0.
51660.
46380.
33610.
38290.
42160.
77200.
66920.
6960Sustainability2019,11,104311of175.
2.
DescriptiveStatisticsTable6containstheaveragescoresoftheitemsofthedifferentconstructs.
Aswecansee,theattitudetowardsP2Paccommodationwashighlypositiveinalloftheindicators,bothin2015and2017.
Theperceptionsofthebenetsoftheactivitywerehighinallofthedimensions,particularlyintheeconomicandsocialdimensions.
However,althoughitwasstillhigh,wecouldseelesssupportforthistypeofaccommodationin2017thanin2015.
Theperceptionoftheeconomicimpactshardlyvariedbetween2015and2017;however,wecouldseeasmallerperceptionofthebenetsandagreaterperceptionofthecostsinthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalimpacts.
Table6.
Meansoftheconstructitems.
YearIncrease20152017P2PaccommodationsupportVerypositivefortheisland3.
563.
268%Shouldbepromotedmore3.
443.
149%Iaminfavourofthistypeofaccommodation3.
573.
308%Iwouldlikeittobedeveloped3.
603.
289%EconomicbenetsItgeneratesjobs3.
273.
251%Ithelpsalotoffamiliesnancially3.
743.
594%Itrevitalisesthelocaleconomy3.
423.
313%EconomiccostsItgeneratesprecariousjobs3.
053.
153%Itpayslesstax3.
423.
441%Itdestroysjobs3.
253.
105%Itincreasesthecostofliving2.
973.
239%SocialbenetsThebenetsoftourismareshared3.
243.
056%Thebenetsoftourismreachmoreplaces3.
453.
246%Itencourageshomemaintenance3.
413.
196%SocialcostsDeteriorationofcoexistenceofcitizens2.
853.
1711%Itdrivesoutresidents2.
593.
1220%Qualityoflifedecreasesandthereismorenoise2.
753.
2318%CulturalbenetsItfavoursexchangebetweendifferentcultures3.
453.
207%Chancetointeractwithotherpeople3.
543.
277%Itimprovestheleisureactivitiesonoffer3.
313.
126%CulturalcostsLossofidentityandlocalculture2.
512.
8012%Residentsfeelliketheydonotbelong2.
432.
7714%Itdoesnotbenettheresidents2.
612.
869%EnvironmentalbenetsMoresustainablethantraditionalaccommodation3.
403.
293%Itvaluesprotectednaturalareasmore3.
272.
9510%Morerespectfultowardstheenvironment3.
272.
9510%EnvironmentalcostsItcausesalotofpollution2.
833.
2414%Itisresponsiblefortrafccongestion2.
833.
4020%Theneighbourhoodinfrastructuresdeteriorate2.
663.
0816%Spacesareovercrowded2.
823.
4021%5.
3.
KnowledgeThisactivityhasbeencarriedoutexponentiallyoveraperiodofveryfewyears,andithasbeensubjectedtowidespreadmediaattention,withconstantnewsreportsaboutitspotentialeffects.
Sustainability2019,11,104312of17Thisfact,togetherwithgreaterexperienceorevenuseonthepartoftheresidents,enablesustoanticipatethat,inthespaceofafewyears,residents'knowledgeandcriteriaforevaluatingtheimplicationsoftheactivityhaveincreased.
Infact,inTable7,wecouldseethelargeincreaseinknowledge,forexampleoftheP2PholidayaccommodationreferenceplatformAirbnb,whichhasgonefrombeingknownby28.
1%ofthesampleanalysedin2015to47.
3%in2017;thatis,anincreaseof68%.
Table7.
Evolutionofthelevelofknowledgeoftheactivity.
YearIncrease20152017KnowsAirbnb28.
1%47.
3%68%HasusedAirbnb17.
2%23.
0%34%Likewise,inTable7,wecouldseetheincreaseintheexperienceasusers(guests)ofthisplatform,risingfrom17.
2%in2015to23.
0%in2017(increaseof34%).
5.
4.
DifferencesinthePerceptionofImpactsandAttitudeTondouttheeffectof"knowledge"ontheresidents'attitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodationandontheperceivedimpactsinthetwoperiodsanalysed,ameansdifferenceanalysis(Student'sT-test)wascarriedoutusingasanindependentvariabletheyear,andasdependentvariables,ontheonehand,theconstruct"SupportfortheP2Pholidayaccommodationcommunity"and,ontheotherhand,theconstructsofthescaleofperceivedeconomic,social,culturalandenvironmentalimpacts,bothonbenetsandcosts.
Thecalculationwascarriedoutintwoways:usingthemeansoftheconstructitemsandtakingthevaluesofthelatentvariables(constructs)calculatedbasedontheconrmatoryfactorialanalysis.
Table8containstheresultsaddedfromtheStudent'sT-testfortheanalysisconstructs,aswellasthecalculationoftheincreaseinthevaluebetween2015and2017.
Table8.
Student'sTmeansdifferencetest.
MeansLatentFactorsYearSig.
IncreaseYearSig.
2015201720152017AttitudetowardsP2P3.
543.
150.
000***11%0.
20690.
17890.
000***Economicbenets3.
483.
380.
086*3%0.
05590.
04820.
080*Economiccosts3.
173.
230.
191ns2%0.
03120.
02690.
328nsSocialbenets3.
373.
160.
000***6%0.
12470.
10780.
000***Socialcosts2.
733.
170.
000***16%0.
24460.
21150.
000***Culturalbenets3.
433.
200.
000***7%0.
15120.
13070.
000***Culturalcosts2.
522.
810.
000***11%0.
17160.
14850.
000***Environmentalbenets3.
313.
060.
000***7%0.
14920.
12910.
000***Environmentalcosts2.
783.
280.
000***18%0.
29470.
25480.
000***Signicancelevel<0.
01***;<0.
05**;<0.
1*.
AswecanseeinTable8,ingeneral,thegreatertheknowledgeoftheactivity,themoretheperceptionofthebenetsdecreasesandthatofthecostsincreases.
Consistentwiththatestablishedbythesocialexchangetheory,thesupportdecreases.
HypothesesH1aandH2awerenotconrmed,thatis,agreaterknowledgeofP2Pholidayaccommodationactivitydoesnotchangetheperceptionsthattheactivityleadstohigheconomicbenetsandlowcosts.
Oftheperceivedimpacts,theeconomicbenetswerethehighest,bothin2015and2017.
Theperceptionoftheeconomicbenetsandcostshardlyvariedbetweenthetwoperiods(3%and+2%respectively).
Sustainability2019,11,104313of17TherelationshipsproposedbyhypothesesH1b,H1candH1dwereestablished,butinanoppositemanner;thatis,theresidents'perceptionofthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalbenetsdecreasedwithagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Theperceptionofthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalbenetsdiminishedslightly,althoughsignicantly,betweenthetwotimeperiods(6%,7%and7%respectively).
TherelationshipsproposedbyhypothesesH2b,H2candH2dwereconrmed;thatis,theresidents'perceptionofthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalcostsincreasedwithagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Theenvironmentalcostswerethosewiththegreatestsignicantincrease,risingfromameanof2.
78to3.
28(an18%increase).
Therewasalsoanobviousincreaseinthesocialcosts,fromameanof2.
73to3.
17(a16%increase).
Althoughverylow,theculturalcostsalsounderwentasignicantincrease,fromameanof2.
52to2.
81(an11%increase).
HypothesisH3wasconrmedaccordingtothatsetoutbytheSETtheory;thatis,supportforP2Pholidayaccommodationdecreasesduetoaperceptionofgreatercostsandfewerbenets.
TheattitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodationwasstillhighlyfavourable,althoughitdecreasedsignicantly(8%)between2015and2017.
6.
DiscussionThisstudyhasfocusedonndingouttheeffectofknowledgeontheresidents'attitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodationandtheperceptionsofthenegativeandpositiveimpactsinthefourdimensions(economic,social,culturalandenvironmental),asafundamentalkeyaspectforsustainabilityandeffectivemanagementofthesector[44].
Itwaspossibletocheckthereliabilityandvalidityofthescaleinordertomeasuretheresidents'perceptionoftheimpactsandtheirattitudestowardsP2Pholidayrentals,contributingtothestate-of-the-artscopeofapplicationsofthesocialexchangetheoryfornewsituationsandactivitiesinthetourismindustry.
Theincreaseinthedegreeofknowledgeoftheresidentpopulationregardingthisactivityisconrmed,derivedfromagreateruseofthistypeofaccommodationandprobablytheextensivepublicationofnewsinthemediarelatedtoit.
Likewise,thestudyconrmstheinuenceofagreaterlevelofknowledgeandawarenessoftheactivityontheperceptionoftheimpactsandonattitudes.
ThevalidityoftheSETisconrmed,meaningthatthelowertheperceptionofbenetsorthehigherthecosts,thelowertheresidents'attitudetowardstheactivityevaluated.
Accordingtotheresultsofthestudy,knowledge—referringtoagreaterunderstandingoftheactivityonthepartoftheresidents—generallyresultsinagreaterperceptionofcostsandalesserimpactofbenets,contrarytoLátkováandVogt's[46]suggestionthatknowledgeisaninsignicantpredictorofthepositiveandnegativeimpacts.
Inthissense,theresultsconcerningtheperceptionofcostsconrmtheresultsofAnderecketal.
[26],Nunko[62]andDavisetal.
[27],whichshowthatgreaterknowledgeonthepartoftheresidentsimpliesaperceptionofgreatercosts.
However,inthepartofthisstudyconcerningbenets,wehavefoundthatthegreatertheknowledge,thelessertheperceptionofbenets,whichdoesnotagreewiththatputforwardbyAnderecketal.
[26].
Furthermore,theseresultsarecoherentwiththatsuggestedbythesocialexchangetheory,giventhatwhenthereisanincreaseintheperceptionofthecostsandareductionintheperceptionofthebenets,thiswouldimplylesssupporttowardstheactivity;apointwhichisconrmed.
Therefore,thisstudyratiestheproposalofCooketal.
[45]regardingthefactthatknowledgeisanimportantresourceforthoseinvolved,anditdeterminestheirpositioninasocialexchangenetwork,makingitanimportantconstructintheSET.
Inaddition,theresultsofthisresearchimplyaseriesofimplicationsforthoseresponsiblefordestinationswithinthescopeofmanagementandregulationoftheactivity.
Sustainability2019,11,104314of17Agreaterunderstandingofthevariablesthataffecttheperceptionoftheimpactswillhelptourismdestinationmanagerstotakemeasurestowardstheappropriatemanagementoftheactivity.
Inthiscontext,ithasbeenpossibletoseehowknowledgeaffectstheperceptionofimpactsandconsequentlyattitudestowardsP2Pholidayaccommodation.
Destinationmanagerswouldbeabletocarryoutobjectivestudiesthatevaluatetheextentoftheactivityanditseffects,andsubsequentlyinformthepopulation.
Theaimofthiswouldbetoprovidemoreobjective,impartialinformation.
Informationgatheredbyinterestedpartiescanbiastheinterpretationoftheeffectsoftheactivity,andthismayleadtorejectionoracceptancethatmayhavemid-andlong-termeffectsinconictsorunwantedsituationswiththelocalpopulation.
Therefore,itseemstobenecessaryforgovernmentstodevelopsuitableinformationsystemsthatdiffuseandexplainthetruecharacteristics,dimensionsandimpactsofthisactivityobjectively.
Inthisway,residentswouldbelessinuencedbyanydiffusionofdataandinformationthataimstocreatecertainopinionsagainstorinfavouroftheactivity.
Transparencyinmanagementfromthoseresponsibleisimposedasacriteriontobeabletodealwithnewsituationsandchallengesthatareposedbythenewformsoftourismactivityandbusinessmodels.
7.
LimitationsoftheStudyTheresultsofthisresearchmaybelimitedbycontextualaspectsthatitwouldbenecessarytoevaluateinfurtherstudies.
Firstly,theanalysishasonlybeencarriedoutatonetourismdestination,anditwouldneedtoberepeatedtobeabletogeneralisethetheoreticalresultsobtained.
Furthermore,thestudyhasbeencarriedoutatadestinationwheretherehavebeennorelevantconictswiththeresidents.
Thestudymakesacomparisonattwomomentsintimebetweenwhichacleardifferenceinknowledgehasbeennoted,butthereisanapparentstabilityinotheraspects.
However,othervariablesmayexistthatcouldaffectthechangeofperceptionsandknowledge.
Inaddition,themediapressurerelatedtothisactivityinrecentyearsmayhavecausedsubjectiveeffects,andtheincreasein"knowledge"maynothavebeenneutralorobjective.
Thecomparisonbetween2015and2017maybetooclose.
Inthissense,researchershaveopenednewlinesofresearchaimedat:-Toobtaindatabetweenlongerperiodsoftime-Replicatethestudyelsewhereinordertobeabletoextendtheresults-AnalyseotherpossiblevariablestoincludeinthechangeinperceptionofimpactsandattitudetowardsP2PaccommodationAuthorContributions:D.
G.
-T.
,J.
B.
G.
-V.
andR.
J.
D.
-A.
conceivedanddesignedthestudy;J.
B.
G.
-V.
gatheredthedata;D.
G.
-T.
processedthedata;R.
J.
D.
-A.
carriedoutthebibliographicalanalysis;J.
B.
G.
-V.
andD.
G.
-T.
drewuptherstdraft;D.
G.
-T.
,J.
B.
G.
-V.
andR.
J.
D.
-A.
analysedanddiscussedtheresults.
Funding:ThisresearchreceivedfundsforresearchbytheCajaCanariasFoundation.
Acknowledgments:WearegratefulforthesupportreceivedfromtheCajacanariasFoundationinfundingthisproject.
ConictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarenoconictofinterest.
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LicenseeMDPI,Basel,Switzerland.
ThisarticleisanopenaccessarticledistributedunderthetermsandconditionsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution(CCBY)license(http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.
0/).
Garau-Vadell2andRicardoJ.
Díaz-Armas1,*1DepartmentofBusinessManagementandEconomicHistory,UniversityofLaLaguna,38071LaLaguna,Tenerife,Spain;dgtano@ull.
es2DepartmentofBusinessEconomics,UniversityoftheBalearicIslands,07122Palma,Spain;joan.
garau@uib.
es*Correspondence:rjdiaz@ull.
es;Tel.
:+34-922-317-069Received:24January2019;Accepted:13February2019;Published:17February2019Abstract:AccommodationrentalactivitythroughP2Pplatformshasexperiencedexponentialgrowthinrecentyears,andinmanycitieshasgenerateddiscomfortamongresidentswhoholditresponsibleforovertourismandothernegativeimpacts.
Understandingresidents'perceptionsandattitudesisfundamentalforthesustainabledevelopmentoftourismactivity.
Thisstudyinvestigatestheinuenceofresidents'"knowledge"oftheactivityontheirperceptionofimpactsandtheirattitudetowardsit.
Usingthesocialexchangetheoryasatheoreticalframework,thispapercomparesthedataobtainedintheworld-classdestinationMajorca,in2015and2017.
Datawasgatheredthroughaconveniencesamplingprocedurewithself-administeredquestionnaires.
Theresultsconrmtheinuenceofthisvariableontheperceptionoftheimpactsanditsmoderatingeffectonresidents'attitudes.
Thestudyconrmstheinuenceofagreaterlevelofknowledgeoftheactivityontheperceptionoftheimpactsandonattitudesanditgenerallyresultsinagreaterperceptionofthecostsandalesserimpactofbenets.
Theimplicationsintermsofdestinationmanagementarealsodiscussed.
Keywords:residents'attitudes;P2Paccommodation;impactperception;knowledge;overtourism1.
IntroductionExtensiveliteraturecompiledoverthelast30yearshasstudiedandhighlightedthecrucialsignicanceofresidents'supportwhenencouragingtourismdevelopments[1–6].
Thebeliefthat"understandingresidents'perceptionsandattitudesisfundamentaltothesuccessfulandsustainabledevelopmentoftourismactivity"[7]isthemainreasonforwhywehavewitnessedincreasedresearchintoresidents'attitudestowardstourism.
WiththeadvanceoftheInternet,theholidayaccommodationsectorisundergoingarevolution[8,9].
PortalssuchasAirbnb,HomeAway,HomeExchange,orCouchsurnghavesimpliedandfacilitatedcontactbetweenhostsandguestssosuccessfullythatattheendof2015,thenumberofbedsadvertisedalreadyexceededthenumberofoffersintraditionaltourismestablishments[10,11].
Themagnitudeofthephenomenonhasleddifferentauthorstoconsideritasoneofthemainforcesofchangeinthetourismsector,callingintoquestionthetraditionalsupremacyofconventionalaccommodationmodels[12,13].
However,thedevelopmentofthesenewmodalitiesofaccommodationandtheirimplementationindifferentdestinationsisneitherstablenorwithoutconict,andthisdoesnotseemlikelytochangeinthefuture[14,15].
Inthissense,aswellasthedebateaboutthelegitimacyandlegalityofthisnewworldofexchangeandthestrongoppositionfromsignicantadvocatesfortraditionalbusinessmodels,whoaccusetheportalsofunfaircompetition[10,16,17],conicthasariseninsomedestinationsSustainability2019,11,1043;doi:10.
3390/su11041043www.
mdpi.
com/journal/sustainabilitySustainability2019,11,10432of17betweenresidentsandtourists.
IncitieslikeBarcelonaorBerlin,theseincidentshaveledtolouddemonstrationsbycitizens,whoblameuncontrolledholidayaccommodationfor,amongotherthings,overcrowdingofthedestination,increasedrentalprices,alowerqualityoflife,adeteriorationinthecoexistenceofneighbouringcitizensandlocalresidentsbeingforcedtoleave[18].
Manyofthesenegativearguments,especiallyindestinationswithahigherincidenceofholidayaccommodation,havebeenwidelypublished,bothinthepressandviaothermeansofcommunication[19].
DespitetheconstantincreaseinP2Pholidaytourism,researchrelatedtotheformationofresidents'attitudestowardsthisactivityisextremelylimited[20].
Todate,themajorityhasconsistedofpartialreportsdrawnupattheparties'request[10,21]andparticularlystressesthebenetsorharmderivedfromthephenomenon,dependingonhowconvenientitisfortheinterestsofsaidparties.
However,itdoesnotanalyseindepthwhyresidentschoosetosupportP2Pholidayaccommodationornot.
Onlyrecentlyhaveseveralattemptsbeenmadetocreateamodelofhowsupportisformedforthisnewtourismactivity[20].
Thesestudies,usingtheSocialExchangeTheory(SET)asaconceptualframework[22],suggestthatresidents'supportlargelydependsonhowtheyperceivethepositiveandnegativeimpacts.
Understandingthevariablesthataffecthowresidentsperceivetheimpactsisoneofthemainchallengestoberesearched[7].
Thisknowledgeisextremelyusefulformanagersoftourismdestinations,asitenablesthemtodesignpoliciesandregulationswhichaimtoachieveaharmoniousrelationshipbetweenthedifferentstakeholdersatthedestination(residents,tourists,administration,industry,etc.
).
Thisharmoniousrelationshipisconsideredtobekeyforachievingsustainabletourismdevelopment[2,3,23–25].
Inthissense,oneofthevariablesthathavebeensuggestedtobeinuentialforresidents'perceptionoftheimpactsoftourismisthedegreeofknowledgethattheyhaveofsaidactivity[26–28].
Thisdegreeofknowledgeisimportantonthewhole,butinthespeciccaseofP2Ptourism,thisvariableseemstobeevenmorerelevant.
Theexponentialgrowthoftheactivity,theconictsinsomecities,thelargenumberofnewsreportsrelatedtothesubject(normallynegative),thepressureoflobbygroupsinthetraditionalaccommodationsectors(normallyagainstit)and,ofcourse,thepassingoftime,havewithoutadoubtmultipliedtheinformationthatisavailabletoresidentsontheactivityandsohaveincreasedtheirknowledge.
However,probablyduetothefactthatthisphenomenonisquitenew,thereisnoresearchthatlooksintoitsinuenceontheperceptionoftheimpactsgeneratedbyP2Pholidayrentals.
Thisresearchdecitcanbeaddedtothendingsofseveralliteraturereviews[7,29],whichpointoutthescarcityofresearchrelatedtotheformationofresidents'attitudesintoptourismdestinations,meaningthatitisnotavailabletothedestinationsthatwouldmostbenetfromsuchresearch.
Tollthisvoid,thisstudyanalysestheinuenceexertedbybroaderknowledgeofP2Pholidayaccommodationonperceptionoftheimpactsandonresidents'attitudestowardssaidactivity.
UsingtheSETasatheoreticalframework,thisstudyanalysesthevariationoftheperceptionoftheimpactsandthesupportforholidayrentalsinworld-classtourismdestinationMajorcaintwodifferentyears—2015and2017.
Whereasin2015,holidayrentalswerestartingtoemergeandthedegreeofknowledgewasslowlystartingtogrow,in2017,measurementsweretakenwithinthecontextofgreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
MallorcaisthelargestislandoftheBalearic'sarchipelago,oneoftheforemostmasstourismdestinationsintheworld,welcomingmorethan16.
5milliontouristsperyear.
Mallorca,inhabitedbyslightly880,000residents,hostsmorethan11.
5milliontouristsperyear[30].
P2PvacationalrentalsofferinMallorcaishigh;in2017,atotalnumberofvacationalrentalspublishedonplatformsof29,280wasestimated;thisamountrepresentsanestimatedtotalnumberof155,184beds[31].
TheexposureofMallorcaresidentstotourismandP2Pvacationalrentalsgivesthemaprivilegedobservatoryforevaluatingit.
Theultimategoalofthisworkistoincreasetheunderstandingofhowresidents'supportisformedtowardsP2Prentals,andmorespecically,oftheinuencethatresidents'"knowledge"oftheactivityexertsontheirperceptionoftheimpactsandtheirattitudestowardsit.
Furthermore,Sustainability2019,11,10433of17theimplicationsthatcanbederivedfromtheresultsobtainedintermsofdestinationmanagement(managementofpotentialconicts,understandingregulatorydecisions,etc.
)willalsobediscussed.
2.
Residents'SupportforP2PHolidayAccommodationInthisstudy,theSocialExchangeTheory(SET)[22]hasbeenusedasatheoreticalframeworktoexplainhowresidents'supportforthistourismactivityisformed.
TheSETproposesthattheattitudesofanindividualwillbeinuencedbytheevaluationthattheymakeofthepositiveandnegativerepercussionsthattheactivityhasonthecommunity[22,32–35].
Accordingtothistheory,itisassumedthatthemorepositivetheperceptionsontourismimpacts(economic,social,cultural,andenvironmental)are,themorefavourableresidents'attitudeswillbetowardstourismdevelopment[36–38].
2.
1.
EconomicImpactsTobemoreprecise,inthecaseofP2Paccommodation,Fangetal.
[12]suggestthatthistypeofaccommodationwillleadtoanincreaseinthenumberoftouristsduetothelowercost,resultinginturninanincreaseinthenumberofjobsasthetourismgrows.
Otherpositiveeconomicaspectsthatareattributedtothedevelopmentofcollaborativeaccommodationincludetheencouragementofanentrepreneurialspirit,thegenerationofadditionalincomeforfamiliesatthedestinationandagreaterdistributionofincomefromtourismamongthebusinessesandneighbourhoodsthatdonotusuallybenetfromit[39].
Moreover,itisarguedthatthistypeofaccommodationattractsvisitorswhoaremorelikelytoreturntothedestination,willingtostayformoredaysandtospendmoremoneyinthecity,generatingeconomicgrowthinthosecitiesanddestinationswithouttheneedfornewinfrastructureortourismdevelopments[21].
Conversely,regardingthenegativeeconomicaspects,theemergenceofthesenewmodalitiesmayleadtoadecreaseddemandfortraditionalhotelaccommodation[40],anditwillmeanareductioninthenumberofjobs[12].
Reductionsinthetaxrevenueassociatedwiththedevelopmentofthissector,whichismoreinformal,arealsoindicated[10].
2.
2.
SocioculturalImpactsAsetofpositivesocioculturalimpactsisalsoattributedtothecollaborativeeconomyincludingasenseofcommunity,thepromotionofculturalexchangeandincreasedempathyandtolerance.
Inaddition,itisarguedthatastheguestsvisitingthedestinationcomefromelsewhere,andthehostsinteractwithgueststhatspeakdifferentlanguages,itisalsoanopportunityforresidentstolearnandpractisethem.
Itcanalsoforgeasenseofbelonginginthecommunity,thankstothecloserelationshipsthatareformedbetweenvisitorsandresidents.
Together,theyndwaysofsupportingeachotherasmembersofthesamecommunity[21].
However,notallofthesocioculturalaspectsarepositive.
InthespeciccaseofP2Ptourism,atsomedestinationsconictshavearisenbetweenthetouristsstayinginthistypeofaccommodationandtheresidents,whoblamethesevisitorsforadeteriorationintheirqualityoflifeandcoexistence,aswellasfordrivingoutlocalresidentswhoareunabletopayforincreasedrentalprices[10,41,42].
Therecentgrowthoftourisminmanycitiesandurbandestinationsrequiresthesectortoguaranteesustainablepoliciesandpracticesthatminimisethenegativeeffectsoftourismontheuseofnaturalresources,infrastructures,mobilityandsaturation,aswellasitssocioculturalimpact.
Inthissense,casesofhostileattitudesoflocalresidentstowardsvisitorsareincreasing,duetoovercrowding,noiseandotherissues.
Oneofthekeyelementsisthatholidayaccommodationis,toalargeextent,blamedforthenegativeeffectsandovercrowdingofdestinations.
Creatingasharedresponsibilitybetweenthepartiesdirectlyorindirectlyinvolvedintourismdevelopmentisessentialforensuringsustainabilityinthelong-term[43].
Sustainability2019,11,10434of172.
3.
EnvironmentalImpactsInthecaseofP2Paccommodation,thereareargumentsinfavourofthepositiveeffectslinkedtothereducedneedtousenewlandresourcestoaccommodatetourists,amoreefcientuseofexistingresourcesandthepromotionofasustainableformoftravel.
Alongtheselines,somestudiesarguethat,comparedtotraditionalaccommodation,thistypeoftourismsignicantlyreducesenergyandwaterconsumption,aswellaswasteproduction[21].
Conversely,theexistenceofasetofnegativeenvironmentalimpactsastheconsequenceofP2Pholidayaccommodationhasalsobeendebated,includingaspectssuchasincreasedpollution(particularlynoise,waste,etc.
)andtrafccongestion,fasterdeteriorationofneighbourhoodinfrastructureandgreatersaturationofareasthatarenormallyusedbyresidents[10,41].
3.
TheInuenceoftheKnowledgeofTourismonthePerceptionofImpactsManyresearchershavefocusedtheirstudiesonidentifying,measuringandcomparingthevariablesthatcaninuencethewayinwhichtourismanditsimpactsareperceivedwiththeaimofexplainingandpotentiallypredictingresidents'responsestotourism.
Sharpley[7]carriesoutanextensivereviewofthefactorsanalysedbytheliteratureinthiseldandclassiesthemasintrinsic(relatedtotheindividual)andextrinsic(morerelatedtothedestination).
Amongtheintrinsicfactors,somerecentstudieshaveinvestigatedtheinuencethatthelevelofknowledgeoftheresidentshasondifferentaspectsofthetourismactivity.
Knowledgereferstotheresidents'understandingoftheissuesoftourismdevelopment,aswellastheroleofthegovernmentintheirmanagement.
Inthiscontext,Moscardo[44]suggeststhatresidents'knowledgeoftourismisanimportantaspectforthesustainabilityandgoodmanagementofthesector.
Ontheotherhand,Cooketal.
[45]considerthatinthestructureofthesocialexchangetheory,knowledgeisanimportantresourceforthoseinvolved,anditdeterminestheirpositioninasocialexchangenetwork.
Theworksthathavestudiedtheinuenceofresidents'knowledgeoftourismontheirattitudestowardstheperceivedimpactsinthesectorareinconclusive.
Residentswithknowledgeoftourismaremorelikelytorecognisethebenetsandcostsofitsdevelopment[26].
Davis,AllenandCosenza[27]discoveredthattourism"haters"includedresidentswhogenerallyhadapoorknowledgeofthesubject.
ThestudybyAnderecketal.
[26]indicatedthatresidentswithknowledgeoftourismweremorelikelytoreportpositiveimpacts,whilstNunkoo[28]onlyreportedasignicantrelationshipbetweenknowledgeandthenegativeimpactsperceived.
Contrarytothesendings,LátkováandVogt[46]foundthatknowledgeisaninsignicantpredictorofthepositiveandnegativeimpacts.
Theresidents'perceptionofthedifferentimpactsassociatedwiththedevelopmentofP2Paccommodationispredictedtobeaffecteddifferentlyifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity,butuntilrecently,thisactivitywasnotwidelyknownbythegeneralpublic.
Thegrowthoftheactivity,thelargenumberofnewsreportsrelatedtothesubject,theconictsinsomecities,thepressurefromlobbygroups,andtheimpactsofthisactivityhaveledresidentsatthesetourismdestinationstobecomemoreawareofthephenomenoninrecentyears.
Inthissense,basedontheSETandtherevisedliterature,thefollowinghypotheseshavebeenmaderelatingtotheinuenceoftheperceivedimpactsandresidents'attitudes:Theperceptionofthebenetsincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity:-H1a:TheperceptionoftheeconomicbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H1b:TheperceptionofthesocialbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H1c:TheperceptionoftheculturalbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Sustainability2019,11,10435of17-H1d:TheperceptionoftheenvironmentalbenetsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Theperceptionofthecostsincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity:-H2a:TheperceptionoftheeconomiccostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H2b:TheperceptionofthesocialcostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H2c:TheperceptionoftheculturalcostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H2d:TheperceptionoftheenvironmentalcostsofP2Pholidayaccommodationincreasesifthereisagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
-H3:Theresidents'attitudetowardstheactivity,accordingtotheSETtheory,willincreaseordecreasetogetherwiththelevelofknowledge,dependingonwhethertheincreaseintheperceptionofthebenetsisgreaterorlesserthantheincreaseintheperceptionofthecosts.
4.
Methodology4.
1.
MeasurementsForthisstudy,aquantitativeresearchdesignwasusedintheformofaquestionnaire.
Togathertheinformation,astructuredquestionnairewasdevised,whichaimedtomeasurethedifferentconstructsanalysedinthisstudy.
Therstconstruct,"residents'supportforP2Pholidayaccommodation"wasputintooperationusingascaleformedbyfouritemstakenfrompreviousstudies[20,47,48].
Theresidents'perceptionofthedifferentimpacts(economic,cultural,socialandenvironmental)wasmeasuredusingspecicconstructsformedbyadaptingtheelementsusedintheexistingscalestothespeciccaseofP2Pholidayaccommodation[49–52].
Forclassicationpurposes,thequestionnaireincludedasetofdemographicvariables,suchasgender,ageandemployment.
Thequestionnairealsoincludedaseriesofquestionsrelatingtoknowledgeanduse(bothasaguestandhost)ofholidayrentalplatforms.
Beforegatheringthedata,agroupofvetourismexpertsconrmedtheapparentvalidityofthequestions.
Then,withtheaimofguaranteeingunderstandingandtheadaptationoftheresearchtool,apriortestinvolving65residentswasperformedbeforetheeldworkwasnallycarriedout.
4.
2.
SampleThetargetpopulationofthisstudywereinhabitantsovertheageof18whoarepermanentresidentsofMajorca.
DatawasgatheredinDecember2015andDecember2017throughaconveniencesamplingprocedure,withself-administeredquestionnairesintherespondents'placeofresidence.
Theinterviewersgavethequestionnairestoresidentsattheirhomes.
Structuredself-administeredquestionnaireswereoptedfor,astheresponserateishigherandinterferenceonthepartoftheresearcherisreducedtoaminimum[53].
Atotalof510responseswereobtainedfromresidentsinMajorcain2015,and605in2017.
Table1showsthesociodemographicproleofthemembersofthesampleineachoftheyearsanalysed.
Itcanbeseenthatbothsampleshadasimilardistribution,enablingthemtobecompared.
Intermsofgender,inbothsamplessimilarpercentageswereobtained—50.
1%womenin2015and51.
2%in2017.
Similarpercentageswerealsoobtainedintermsofagedistribution:thoseinthe18–25agegroupmadeup21.
9%in2015and21.
3%in2017;26–45yearoldsrepresented41.
6%in2015and42.
1%in2017;nally,thoseovertheageof45madeup36.
6%in2015and36.
7%in2017.
Likewise,thepercentagesweresimilarwhenweanalysedthedistributionintermsofemployment:thoseworkingmadeup63.
3%in2015and67.
5%in2017;studentsrepresented16.
5%in2015and13.
5%in2017;thosenotworking20.
2%in2015and19%in2017.
Asfarasincomewasconcerned,Sustainability2019,11,10436of17thosewhoconsideredthemselvestobeearninganaveragesalarymadeup61.
4%in2015and57.
5%in2017,thoseearningbelowaveragerepresented14.
7%bothin2015and2017,andthoseearningaboveaverageconstituted23.
9%in2015and27.
8%in2017.
Table1.
Characteristicsoftherespondents.
Year20152017GENDERFemale50.
1%51.
2%Male49.
9%48.
8%AGE18–2521.
9%21.
3%26–4541.
6%42.
1%>4536.
6%36.
7%EMPLOYMENTWorking63.
3%67.
5%Student16.
5%13.
5%Notworking20.
2%19.
0%SECTORTourism16.
3%16.
9%Other83.
7%83.
1%INCOMEBelowaverage14.
7%14.
7%Average61.
4%57.
5%Aboveaverage23.
9%27.
8%Total5106054.
3.
DataAnalysisTondouttheeffectof"knowledge"ontheperceptionofimpactsandontheresidents'attitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodation,thefollowingapproachwastaken:Firstly,aviabilityandvalidityanalysiswasperformedonthemeasuringscaletoverifythatthemeasurementwassuitable.
Evaluationofthemeasuringinstrumentconsistsofanalysingwhetherthetheoreticalconceptsaremeasuredcorrectly.
Thisisaquestionofcheckingthatourmeasurementsarevalidandreliable,andofcalculatingthevaluesinthelatentvariablesbeforetryingtodrawconclusionsregardingthedifferencesbetweenthemeasurementsatthetwodifferentmomentsintime.
Theevaluationofthemeasurementtoolwascarriedoutbymeasuringthereliabilityofthescale(individualfortheitemandcombined)andtheconrmationoftheconvergentanddiscriminatoryvalidityoftheconstruct[54].
Secondly,thedescriptiveresultsofeachoftheitemsformingthedifferentconstructsanalysedarepresented.
Thirdly,ananalysisiscarriedouttoverifytheexistenceofdifferencesinthedegreeoftheresidents'knowledgeoftheP2Pactivity.
Finally,thedifferencesbetweentheresidents'perceptionofimpactsandtheirattitudesinthetwoperiodsmentionedwereanalysed.
Thisanalysiswascarriedoutbyperformingameansdifferencetest(Student'sT-test)betweenthevaluesoftheconstructsineachoftheyearsinwhichthemeasurementsweretaken.
5.
Results5.
1.
ReliabilityandValidityoftheScaleBeforeperformingthemeansdifferenceanalysis,itwasdeemednecessarytovalidatethemeasuringinstrument.
Intermsofreliability,theresultsobtained(Table2)conrmedtheindividualreliabilityofeachitem.
Inallcases,thefactorloadsobtainedweregreaterthan0.
6,whichisthereferencevaluethatisusednormally[55].
Likewise,thecombinedreliabilitywasalsochecked,giventhatinallcasesvaluesgreaterthan0.
8wereobtained,whichisthestrictestvaluerequiredinbasicresearch[56].
Theaimoftheconvergentvalidityanalysisistoguaranteethatthescalesmeasureexactlytheconceptthatisintendedtobemeasured,insteadofotherfactorsthatareexternaltotheconstruct.
Sustainability2019,11,10437of17Convergentvalidityexistswhenseveralmeasurementitemsusedtoevaluatethesameconceptcorrelatewitheachother[57].
EvaluationsaregenerallycarriedoutbyusingtheaveragevarianceextractedorAVE[58]andCronbach'salpha[56].
TheAVEvaluesandtheCronbach'salphacoefcientsobtained(Table2)werehigherthan0.
5and0.
7respectivelyinallcases,whichservedtoconrmtheconvergentvalidityoftheconstructs,astheyexceededthereferencevalues.
Table2.
Reliabilityandvalidityoftheconstruct.
Construct/ItemLoadingCronbach'sAlphaCombinedReliabilityAVEP2Paccommodationsupport0.
9420.
9580.
851Verypositivefortheisland0.
9150Shouldbepromotedmore0.
9037Iaminfavourofthistypeofaccommodation0.
9389Iwouldlikeittobedeveloped0.
9330Economicbenets0.
8040.
8840.
718Itgeneratesjobs0.
8494Ithelpsalotoffamiliesnancially0.
8198Itrevitalisesthelocaleconomy0.
8715Economiccosts0.
7280.
8300.
553Itgeneratesprecariousjobs0.
7779Itpayslesstax0.
7514Itdestroysjobs0.
8187Itincreasesthecostofliving0.
6084Socialbenets0.
7930.
8780.
706Thebenetsoftourismareshared0.
8578Thebenetsoftourismreachmoreplaces0.
8172Itencourageshomemaintenance0.
8446Socialcosts0.
8510.
9100.
770Deteriorationofcoexistenceofcitizens0.
8730Itdrivesoutresidents0.
8652Qualityoflifedecreasesandthereismorenoise0.
8948Culturalbenets0.
8090.
8880.
725Itfavoursexchangebetweendifferentcultures0.
8727Chancetointeractwithotherpeople0.
8865Itimprovestheleisureactivitiesonoffer0.
7925Culturalcosts0.
8280.
8980.
745Lossofidentityandlocalculture0.
8798Residentsfeelliketheydonotbelong0.
8939Itdoesnotbenettheresidents0.
8145Environmentalbenets0.
8230.
8950.
740Moresustainablethantraditionalaccommodation0.
8060Itvaluesprotectednaturalareasmore0.
8890Morerespectfultowardstheenvironment0.
8837Environmentalcosts0.
8400.
8920.
675Itcausesalotofpollution0.
8074Itisresponsiblefortrafccongestion0.
7517Theneighbourhoodinfrastructuresdeteriorate0.
8647Spacesareovercrowded0.
8584Boldnumbers:namesandvaluesofconstructs.
Thediscriminatoryvalidityisthedegreebywhicheachlatentvariableisdifferentfromotherconstructs[59].
InordertomeetFornell–Larcker'scriterion[60],thesquarerootoftheAVEforeachconstructmustbegreaterthanallthecorrelationsbetweentheconstructsandtheotherconstructs.
Inaddition,itmustbeveriedthatalloftheconstructsarerelatedtoagreaterextenttotheirownmeasurementsthantootherconstructs[54].
Moreover,theheterotrait–monotrait(HTMT)[61]hasrecentlybeenestablishedasasuperiorcriterionforevaluatingthediscriminatoryvalidity,whichrepresentstheaverageofheterotrait–heteromethodcorrelationsrelativetotheaverageofmonotrait-heteromethodcorrelations[61].
Inthisstudy,themostdemandingmethodofHTMT.
90hasbeenusedtoevaluatethediscriminatoryvalidity[61].
Tables3–5showtheresultsoftheevaluationofthediscriminatoryvalidityofthemeasurementsaccordingtoFornell–Larcker'scriteria,crossedloadsandHTMT.
90,respectively,andindicatethattheconstructshavediscriminatoryvalidity.
Sustainability2019,11,10438of17Table3.
Discriminatoryvalidity(Fornel–Lacker).
AttitudetowardsP2PAccommodationSocialBenetsCulturalBenetsEconomicBenetsEnvironmentalBenetsCulturalCostsEconomicCostsEnvironmentalCostsSocialCostsAttitudetowardsP2Paccommodation0.
9227Socialbenets0.
53840.
8401Culturalbenets0.
48120.
46370.
8516Economicbenets0.
64390.
52520.
48290.
8472Environmentalbenets0.
46470.
47860.
39520.
42150.
8604Culturalcosts0.
50130.
41850.
36160.
38640.
39900.
8634Economiccosts0.
45850.
39740.
25170.
39220.
30290.
49960.
7433Environmentalcosts0.
37570.
34500.
18650.
22680.
33170.
50000.
45340.
8218Socialcosts0.
46350.
38720.
27950.
31770.
35320.
64830.
52620.
59540.
8777Boldnumbers:squarerootofAVE.
Sustainability2019,11,10439of17Table4.
Crossedloads.
AttitudetowardsP2PAccommodationEconomicBenetsEconomicCostsSocialBenetsSocialCostsCulturalBenetsCulturalCostsEnvironmentalBenetsEnvironmentalCostsVerypositivefortheisland0.
91500.
60190.
40420.
49010.
42190.
42220.
45550.
42540.
3371Shouldbepromotedmore0.
90370.
56000.
41520.
47200.
39880.
44970.
43770.
39050.
3353Iaminfavourofthistypeofaccommodation0.
93890.
60950.
44600.
50970.
44670.
44710.
48200.
45700.
3581Iwouldlikeittobedeveloped0.
93300.
60380.
42600.
51420.
44170.
45730.
47370.
44000.
3557Itgeneratesjobs0.
55880.
84940.
34550.
40490.
26660.
37710.
27680.
32830.
1750Ithelpsalotoffamiliesnancially0.
49200.
81980.
33360.
43610.
25880.
38890.
34390.
32550.
2009Itrevitalisesthelocaleconomy0.
58020.
87150.
31970.
49260.
28150.
45860.
36330.
41320.
2020Itgeneratesprecariousjobs0.
34630.
27990.
77790.
31940.
40360.
24910.
40170.
26880.
3890Itpayslesstax0.
31580.
29760.
75140.
27570.
36600.
16730.
29460.
18630.
2730Itdestroysjobs0.
41710.
40030.
81870.
36920.
43480.
20850.
42970.
25670.
3168Itincreasesthecostofliving0.
26060.
14170.
60840.
18550.
35690.
10470.
35120.
17640.
3968Thebenetsoftourismareshared0.
47880.
48440.
37910.
85780.
33250.
38060.
36090.
37460.
2883Thebenetsoftourismreachmoreplaces0.
37240.
36490.
25360.
81720.
26000.
36290.
30200.
37490.
2652Itencourageshomemaintenance0.
48970.
45930.
35230.
84460.
36950.
42050.
38200.
45160.
3116Deteriorationofcoexistenceofcitizens0.
38870.
25260.
49050.
31680.
87300.
20390.
58430.
31710.
5205Itdrivesoutresidents0.
42240.
29400.
43320.
31960.
86520.
27280.
54580.
26570.
4834Qualityoflifedecreasesandthereismorenoise0.
40790.
28800.
46400.
38260.
89480.
25620.
57820.
34890.
5649Itfavoursexchangebetweendifferentcultures0.
40200.
39110.
21960.
39190.
25480.
87270.
31760.
33370.
2027Chancetointeractwithotherpeople0.
39160.
39830.
22220.
37040.
25670.
88650.
34910.
35430.
1723Itimprovestheleisureactivitiesonoffer0.
43000.
43820.
20030.
41630.
20320.
79250.
25860.
31990.
1041Lossofidentityandlocalculture0.
45070.
31720.
45140.
34270.
58660.
26510.
87980.
33960.
4657Residentsfeelliketheydonotbelong0.
43480.
34160.
42340.
37990.
57550.
30870.
89390.
37580.
4599Itdoesnotbenettheresidents0.
41190.
34360.
41830.
36260.
51440.
36790.
81450.
31740.
3652Moresustainablethantraditionalaccommodation0.
38970.
37340.
25700.
41500.
21710.
32440.
28660.
80600.
2421Itvaluesprotectednaturalareasmore0.
39980.
37060.
26440.
43250.
35800.
35610.
36510.
88900.
3081Morerespectfultowardstheenvironment0.
40940.
34460.
26030.
38810.
33350.
33900.
37580.
88370.
3043Itcausesalotofpollution0.
30860.
17290.
37040.
31170.
52160.
14720.
43890.
30800.
8074Itisresponsiblefortrafccongestion0.
23990.
08490.
30440.
18600.
36790.
08560.
28200.
16380.
7517Theneighbourhoodinfrastructuresdeteriorate0.
34800.
25600.
40220.
32590.
54710.
20250.
47600.
33340.
8647Spacesareovercrowded0.
32420.
20360.
40120.
28930.
49640.
15950.
41820.
25980.
8584Sustainability2019,11,104310of17Table5.
Heterotrait–Monotraitratio(HTMT).
AttitudetowardsP2PAccommodationSocialBenetsCulturalBenetsEconomicBenetsEnvironmentalBenetsCulturalCostsEconomicCostsEnvironmentalCostsSocialCostsAttitudetowardsP2PaccommodationSocialbenets0.
6144Culturalbenets0.
54930.
5736Economicbenets0.
73710.
64910.
5952Environmentalbenets0.
52720.
58970.
48400.
5167Culturalcosts0.
56700.
51190.
44550.
47550.
4824Economiccosts0.
54500.
50070.
32030.
49450.
38670.
6409Environmentalcosts0.
41740.
41240.
22080.
26620.
38920.
58750.
5886Socialcosts0.
51660.
46380.
33610.
38290.
42160.
77200.
66920.
6960Sustainability2019,11,104311of175.
2.
DescriptiveStatisticsTable6containstheaveragescoresoftheitemsofthedifferentconstructs.
Aswecansee,theattitudetowardsP2Paccommodationwashighlypositiveinalloftheindicators,bothin2015and2017.
Theperceptionsofthebenetsoftheactivitywerehighinallofthedimensions,particularlyintheeconomicandsocialdimensions.
However,althoughitwasstillhigh,wecouldseelesssupportforthistypeofaccommodationin2017thanin2015.
Theperceptionoftheeconomicimpactshardlyvariedbetween2015and2017;however,wecouldseeasmallerperceptionofthebenetsandagreaterperceptionofthecostsinthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalimpacts.
Table6.
Meansoftheconstructitems.
YearIncrease20152017P2PaccommodationsupportVerypositivefortheisland3.
563.
268%Shouldbepromotedmore3.
443.
149%Iaminfavourofthistypeofaccommodation3.
573.
308%Iwouldlikeittobedeveloped3.
603.
289%EconomicbenetsItgeneratesjobs3.
273.
251%Ithelpsalotoffamiliesnancially3.
743.
594%Itrevitalisesthelocaleconomy3.
423.
313%EconomiccostsItgeneratesprecariousjobs3.
053.
153%Itpayslesstax3.
423.
441%Itdestroysjobs3.
253.
105%Itincreasesthecostofliving2.
973.
239%SocialbenetsThebenetsoftourismareshared3.
243.
056%Thebenetsoftourismreachmoreplaces3.
453.
246%Itencourageshomemaintenance3.
413.
196%SocialcostsDeteriorationofcoexistenceofcitizens2.
853.
1711%Itdrivesoutresidents2.
593.
1220%Qualityoflifedecreasesandthereismorenoise2.
753.
2318%CulturalbenetsItfavoursexchangebetweendifferentcultures3.
453.
207%Chancetointeractwithotherpeople3.
543.
277%Itimprovestheleisureactivitiesonoffer3.
313.
126%CulturalcostsLossofidentityandlocalculture2.
512.
8012%Residentsfeelliketheydonotbelong2.
432.
7714%Itdoesnotbenettheresidents2.
612.
869%EnvironmentalbenetsMoresustainablethantraditionalaccommodation3.
403.
293%Itvaluesprotectednaturalareasmore3.
272.
9510%Morerespectfultowardstheenvironment3.
272.
9510%EnvironmentalcostsItcausesalotofpollution2.
833.
2414%Itisresponsiblefortrafccongestion2.
833.
4020%Theneighbourhoodinfrastructuresdeteriorate2.
663.
0816%Spacesareovercrowded2.
823.
4021%5.
3.
KnowledgeThisactivityhasbeencarriedoutexponentiallyoveraperiodofveryfewyears,andithasbeensubjectedtowidespreadmediaattention,withconstantnewsreportsaboutitspotentialeffects.
Sustainability2019,11,104312of17Thisfact,togetherwithgreaterexperienceorevenuseonthepartoftheresidents,enablesustoanticipatethat,inthespaceofafewyears,residents'knowledgeandcriteriaforevaluatingtheimplicationsoftheactivityhaveincreased.
Infact,inTable7,wecouldseethelargeincreaseinknowledge,forexampleoftheP2PholidayaccommodationreferenceplatformAirbnb,whichhasgonefrombeingknownby28.
1%ofthesampleanalysedin2015to47.
3%in2017;thatis,anincreaseof68%.
Table7.
Evolutionofthelevelofknowledgeoftheactivity.
YearIncrease20152017KnowsAirbnb28.
1%47.
3%68%HasusedAirbnb17.
2%23.
0%34%Likewise,inTable7,wecouldseetheincreaseintheexperienceasusers(guests)ofthisplatform,risingfrom17.
2%in2015to23.
0%in2017(increaseof34%).
5.
4.
DifferencesinthePerceptionofImpactsandAttitudeTondouttheeffectof"knowledge"ontheresidents'attitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodationandontheperceivedimpactsinthetwoperiodsanalysed,ameansdifferenceanalysis(Student'sT-test)wascarriedoutusingasanindependentvariabletheyear,andasdependentvariables,ontheonehand,theconstruct"SupportfortheP2Pholidayaccommodationcommunity"and,ontheotherhand,theconstructsofthescaleofperceivedeconomic,social,culturalandenvironmentalimpacts,bothonbenetsandcosts.
Thecalculationwascarriedoutintwoways:usingthemeansoftheconstructitemsandtakingthevaluesofthelatentvariables(constructs)calculatedbasedontheconrmatoryfactorialanalysis.
Table8containstheresultsaddedfromtheStudent'sT-testfortheanalysisconstructs,aswellasthecalculationoftheincreaseinthevaluebetween2015and2017.
Table8.
Student'sTmeansdifferencetest.
MeansLatentFactorsYearSig.
IncreaseYearSig.
2015201720152017AttitudetowardsP2P3.
543.
150.
000***11%0.
20690.
17890.
000***Economicbenets3.
483.
380.
086*3%0.
05590.
04820.
080*Economiccosts3.
173.
230.
191ns2%0.
03120.
02690.
328nsSocialbenets3.
373.
160.
000***6%0.
12470.
10780.
000***Socialcosts2.
733.
170.
000***16%0.
24460.
21150.
000***Culturalbenets3.
433.
200.
000***7%0.
15120.
13070.
000***Culturalcosts2.
522.
810.
000***11%0.
17160.
14850.
000***Environmentalbenets3.
313.
060.
000***7%0.
14920.
12910.
000***Environmentalcosts2.
783.
280.
000***18%0.
29470.
25480.
000***Signicancelevel<0.
01***;<0.
05**;<0.
1*.
AswecanseeinTable8,ingeneral,thegreatertheknowledgeoftheactivity,themoretheperceptionofthebenetsdecreasesandthatofthecostsincreases.
Consistentwiththatestablishedbythesocialexchangetheory,thesupportdecreases.
HypothesesH1aandH2awerenotconrmed,thatis,agreaterknowledgeofP2Pholidayaccommodationactivitydoesnotchangetheperceptionsthattheactivityleadstohigheconomicbenetsandlowcosts.
Oftheperceivedimpacts,theeconomicbenetswerethehighest,bothin2015and2017.
Theperceptionoftheeconomicbenetsandcostshardlyvariedbetweenthetwoperiods(3%and+2%respectively).
Sustainability2019,11,104313of17TherelationshipsproposedbyhypothesesH1b,H1candH1dwereestablished,butinanoppositemanner;thatis,theresidents'perceptionofthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalbenetsdecreasedwithagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Theperceptionofthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalbenetsdiminishedslightly,althoughsignicantly,betweenthetwotimeperiods(6%,7%and7%respectively).
TherelationshipsproposedbyhypothesesH2b,H2candH2dwereconrmed;thatis,theresidents'perceptionofthesocial,culturalandenvironmentalcostsincreasedwithagreaterknowledgeoftheactivity.
Theenvironmentalcostswerethosewiththegreatestsignicantincrease,risingfromameanof2.
78to3.
28(an18%increase).
Therewasalsoanobviousincreaseinthesocialcosts,fromameanof2.
73to3.
17(a16%increase).
Althoughverylow,theculturalcostsalsounderwentasignicantincrease,fromameanof2.
52to2.
81(an11%increase).
HypothesisH3wasconrmedaccordingtothatsetoutbytheSETtheory;thatis,supportforP2Pholidayaccommodationdecreasesduetoaperceptionofgreatercostsandfewerbenets.
TheattitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodationwasstillhighlyfavourable,althoughitdecreasedsignicantly(8%)between2015and2017.
6.
DiscussionThisstudyhasfocusedonndingouttheeffectofknowledgeontheresidents'attitudetowardsP2Pholidayaccommodationandtheperceptionsofthenegativeandpositiveimpactsinthefourdimensions(economic,social,culturalandenvironmental),asafundamentalkeyaspectforsustainabilityandeffectivemanagementofthesector[44].
Itwaspossibletocheckthereliabilityandvalidityofthescaleinordertomeasuretheresidents'perceptionoftheimpactsandtheirattitudestowardsP2Pholidayrentals,contributingtothestate-of-the-artscopeofapplicationsofthesocialexchangetheoryfornewsituationsandactivitiesinthetourismindustry.
Theincreaseinthedegreeofknowledgeoftheresidentpopulationregardingthisactivityisconrmed,derivedfromagreateruseofthistypeofaccommodationandprobablytheextensivepublicationofnewsinthemediarelatedtoit.
Likewise,thestudyconrmstheinuenceofagreaterlevelofknowledgeandawarenessoftheactivityontheperceptionoftheimpactsandonattitudes.
ThevalidityoftheSETisconrmed,meaningthatthelowertheperceptionofbenetsorthehigherthecosts,thelowertheresidents'attitudetowardstheactivityevaluated.
Accordingtotheresultsofthestudy,knowledge—referringtoagreaterunderstandingoftheactivityonthepartoftheresidents—generallyresultsinagreaterperceptionofcostsandalesserimpactofbenets,contrarytoLátkováandVogt's[46]suggestionthatknowledgeisaninsignicantpredictorofthepositiveandnegativeimpacts.
Inthissense,theresultsconcerningtheperceptionofcostsconrmtheresultsofAnderecketal.
[26],Nunko[62]andDavisetal.
[27],whichshowthatgreaterknowledgeonthepartoftheresidentsimpliesaperceptionofgreatercosts.
However,inthepartofthisstudyconcerningbenets,wehavefoundthatthegreatertheknowledge,thelessertheperceptionofbenets,whichdoesnotagreewiththatputforwardbyAnderecketal.
[26].
Furthermore,theseresultsarecoherentwiththatsuggestedbythesocialexchangetheory,giventhatwhenthereisanincreaseintheperceptionofthecostsandareductionintheperceptionofthebenets,thiswouldimplylesssupporttowardstheactivity;apointwhichisconrmed.
Therefore,thisstudyratiestheproposalofCooketal.
[45]regardingthefactthatknowledgeisanimportantresourceforthoseinvolved,anditdeterminestheirpositioninasocialexchangenetwork,makingitanimportantconstructintheSET.
Inaddition,theresultsofthisresearchimplyaseriesofimplicationsforthoseresponsiblefordestinationswithinthescopeofmanagementandregulationoftheactivity.
Sustainability2019,11,104314of17Agreaterunderstandingofthevariablesthataffecttheperceptionoftheimpactswillhelptourismdestinationmanagerstotakemeasurestowardstheappropriatemanagementoftheactivity.
Inthiscontext,ithasbeenpossibletoseehowknowledgeaffectstheperceptionofimpactsandconsequentlyattitudestowardsP2Pholidayaccommodation.
Destinationmanagerswouldbeabletocarryoutobjectivestudiesthatevaluatetheextentoftheactivityanditseffects,andsubsequentlyinformthepopulation.
Theaimofthiswouldbetoprovidemoreobjective,impartialinformation.
Informationgatheredbyinterestedpartiescanbiastheinterpretationoftheeffectsoftheactivity,andthismayleadtorejectionoracceptancethatmayhavemid-andlong-termeffectsinconictsorunwantedsituationswiththelocalpopulation.
Therefore,itseemstobenecessaryforgovernmentstodevelopsuitableinformationsystemsthatdiffuseandexplainthetruecharacteristics,dimensionsandimpactsofthisactivityobjectively.
Inthisway,residentswouldbelessinuencedbyanydiffusionofdataandinformationthataimstocreatecertainopinionsagainstorinfavouroftheactivity.
Transparencyinmanagementfromthoseresponsibleisimposedasacriteriontobeabletodealwithnewsituationsandchallengesthatareposedbythenewformsoftourismactivityandbusinessmodels.
7.
LimitationsoftheStudyTheresultsofthisresearchmaybelimitedbycontextualaspectsthatitwouldbenecessarytoevaluateinfurtherstudies.
Firstly,theanalysishasonlybeencarriedoutatonetourismdestination,anditwouldneedtoberepeatedtobeabletogeneralisethetheoreticalresultsobtained.
Furthermore,thestudyhasbeencarriedoutatadestinationwheretherehavebeennorelevantconictswiththeresidents.
Thestudymakesacomparisonattwomomentsintimebetweenwhichacleardifferenceinknowledgehasbeennoted,butthereisanapparentstabilityinotheraspects.
However,othervariablesmayexistthatcouldaffectthechangeofperceptionsandknowledge.
Inaddition,themediapressurerelatedtothisactivityinrecentyearsmayhavecausedsubjectiveeffects,andtheincreasein"knowledge"maynothavebeenneutralorobjective.
Thecomparisonbetween2015and2017maybetooclose.
Inthissense,researchershaveopenednewlinesofresearchaimedat:-Toobtaindatabetweenlongerperiodsoftime-Replicatethestudyelsewhereinordertobeabletoextendtheresults-AnalyseotherpossiblevariablestoincludeinthechangeinperceptionofimpactsandattitudetowardsP2PaccommodationAuthorContributions:D.
G.
-T.
,J.
B.
G.
-V.
andR.
J.
D.
-A.
conceivedanddesignedthestudy;J.
B.
G.
-V.
gatheredthedata;D.
G.
-T.
processedthedata;R.
J.
D.
-A.
carriedoutthebibliographicalanalysis;J.
B.
G.
-V.
andD.
G.
-T.
drewuptherstdraft;D.
G.
-T.
,J.
B.
G.
-V.
andR.
J.
D.
-A.
analysedanddiscussedtheresults.
Funding:ThisresearchreceivedfundsforresearchbytheCajaCanariasFoundation.
Acknowledgments:WearegratefulforthesupportreceivedfromtheCajacanariasFoundationinfundingthisproject.
ConictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarenoconictofinterest.
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