Sutcliffecontent.ie5

ORIGINALARTICLETheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurityinContrasttoSafetyS.
H.
Jore1Received:28June2017/Accepted:16October2017/Publishedonline:7November2017TheAuthor(s)2017.
ThisarticleisanopenaccesspublicationAbstractIncreasedfocusonprotectionfromterrorism,espionage,cybersecurityandothermaliciouscrimeshasledtoincreasedacademicinterestinthetopicofsecurity,especiallyinriskandsafetystudies.
Thisarticleaimstoinvestigatetheconceptualandscienticdemarcationofsecurityincontrasttosafety,anddiscussthestatusofsecurityasanindependentscience.
Securityisamultifacetedconceptandacademicdenitionsoftendistinguishsecurityfromsafetyintermsofinten-tionality.
However,intentionalityalsoplaysapartinsafetyresearchthusthisisnotasufcientparameterfordistinguishingthetwoelds.
Thedichotomyofnon-maliciousversusmaliciousissuggestedasameansfordifferentiation.
Anewdenitionofsecuritythatincorporateselementsassociatedwiththecurrentsecurityresearcheldisproposed.
Securitycanbedenedastheperceivedoractualabilitytopreparefor,adaptto,withstand,andrecoverfromdangersandcrisescausedbypeople'sdeliberate,intentional,andmaliciousactssuchasterrorism,sabotage,organizedcrime,orhacking.
Theconclusionisthatbeforesecuritycanbeestab-lishedasanindependentdiscipline,itisnecessarytodeterminewhatconceptsandtheoriesarerelatedtotheeld,whatlevelsofandobjectsinsocietyshouldbeincluded,inadditiontotheinterrelationshipsandinterdependencieswithotherdisciplines.
KeywordsSecuritySecurityscienceDenitionDemarcation&S.
H.
Joresissel.
h.
jore@uis.
no1UniversityofStavanger,Postboks,8600,FORUS,4036Stavanger,Norway123EurJSecurRes(2019)4:157–174DOI10.
1007/s41125-017-0021-91IntroductionDuringthelastcoupleofyears,EuropeancountrieshavewitnessedanincreaseinterroristattacksstemmingfromIslamicterrorism,andtheprospectofsimilarattackstooccurinthefutureseemsalarminglylikely(Hegghammer2016).
Thethreatofterrorism,espionage,cyber-attacksandorganizedcrimeshavebecomeubiquitousfeaturesofEuropeansocieties,andconsequentlythedemandforresearchonhowtomitigateandprotectsocietyfromintentionalandmaliciousthreatsisstrongerthanever.
Consequently,security,meaningprotectionfromintentionalandmaliciousharm,isontheriseasapressingresearchtopic.
Insafetyandriskstudies,securityhasbecomeahottopic.
Severalauthorshaverecognizedsimilaritiesbetweensecurityandsafetyresearch(Brewer1993;CourtoisandLeveson1996).
Othershaveexploredthepropositionthatsecurityandsafetyareaduality,andthatmuchcouldbegainedbyonedomainadoptingtheknowledge,theories,andmethodologiesoftheother(Aven2007;Brewer1993;Kriaaetal.
2015;Pie`-Cambacede`sandBouissou2013).
Otherscholarshavearguedthatsecurityhasspeciccharacteristicsthatneedtobefurtherexplored.
Alongwiththislatterargument,severalscholarshaveclaimedthatsecurityshouldbedevelopedasanindependentscience,detachedfromsafetyscience(Jore2017;SmithandBrooks2012).
Thisarticleaimstoinvestigatetheconceptualandscienticdemarcationofsecurityincontrasttosafety.
First,themeaningofsecurityisinvestigated.
Second,thesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweensecurityandsafetyareoutlinedinthelightofthedemarcationbetweensecurityandsafetystudies.
Theshortcomingsofcurrentdenitionsofsecurityareexaminedbeforeanewdenitionofsecurityandsecurityriskmanagementisproposed.
Finally,wediscussthestatusofthesecurityeldasanindependentscience.
Assuch,thisarticleisaconceptualarticlewheretheaimistocontributetoconceptualandtheoreticaldevelopmentinthesafetyandsecurityelds.
2WhatisSecurityAlthoughsecurityhasbecomeanomnipresentaspectofmodernsocieties,theconceptofsecurityinitselfhasdrawnsurprisinglylittlescholarlyattentioncomparedtosimilarconceptssuchasriskandsafety.
Ineverydayuse,thewordinvokestheassociationofsafetyandtheabsenceofthreats,promisingsomemeasuresofassuranceandcertaintyofbeingfreefromharm(JarvisandHolland2014).
Consequently,theconceptofsecurityimpliesthefeelingofbeingsafeandsecure,thelackofthreats,andthemanagementoffuturerisks.
However,theconceptofsecuritydoesnotonlyevokesuchpositiveconnotationsasbeingsafeandfreefromdanger.
Inherentintheconceptisalsotheassociationofobjectssuchasguns,securitytechnologiesandevenwars—objectsnotnecessarilycontributingtomakingsocietyandtheworldmoresecure.
ThisiswhatJarvisandHolland(2014)refertoastheparadoxicalelementofsecurity.
158S.
H.
Jore123Despitetheimportanceoftheconceptofsecurityasacentralelementinresearchprograms,universitycourses,academicliterature,andinpractice,thereexistsnoacademicconsensusdenitionofsecurity,andthereisanongoingdebateonwhethersuchaconsensusdenitionisachievableanddesirable.
Manunta(1999)hasarguedthatthegoalistoachieveasharedconceptualmeaningofsecurity.
Bycontrast,otherscholarshaveclaimedthatsecurity,likemostconcepts,doesnothaveanagreedmeaningbecausetheconceptiscontext-depended;itsmeaningchangesinaccordancewithchangesinperceptionsanddiscoursesofthreatanddangers.
Theconceptofsecuritywasoriginallyusedinphilosophyasreferringtothesecurityoftheindividualhuman.
AftertheSecondWorldWar,thedenitionchangedtodesignatethesurvivalofthenation-stateoftenreferredtointhebipolarlogicoftheColdWar.
However,thepoliticalsecuritylandscapeaftertheendoftheColdWarwithfocusonpeace,humanrights,andtherobustnessofsocietyitself,allowedforanextensionandbroadeningofthesecurityconcept.
Duringthisperiod,newconceptualizationsofsecurityemergedsuchassocietalsecurity,humansecurity,internationalsecurity,andhomelandsecurity(Baldwin1997;Rothschild1995).
Thepresentmeaningofsecurityhasbecomebroaderandcoversmoresectorsinsocietythanpreviously(Brooks2010).
Currently,securityisperceivedasasharedresponsibilitycoveringdifferentlevelsandsectorsinsociety(Aly2013;Jore2012).
Thisisinstarkcontrasttoafewdecadesago,whensecuritywaspredominantlyperceivedastheresponsibilityofthepoliceandarmy.
Alongwiththebroadeningofthemeaningofsecurity,inadditiontomorefocusonsocietyitselfasanobjectofsecurity,securityisnolongerexclusivelyconnectedtothenation-state.
Giventhediversemeaningsofsecurity,itisnotobvioustowhomandtowhattheconceptofsecurityrefers.
Today,securityisassociatedwithmanylevelsanddimensions.
Severalscholarshavedemonstratedthatsecuritytakesnumerousformsandhavetriedtooutlineitsdimensions;(Collins2016;SmithandBrooks2012;Zedner2009)(Table1).
Table1Thedimensionsofsecurity(basedonCollins2016;SmithandBrooks2012andZedner2009)LevelAssociatedsecurityconceptKeyfeaturesofsecurityIndividualHumansecurityTheindividual,humanrightsObjects,buildingsandpublicspacesObjectsecurity,onsitesecurityAssetprotection,protectionofpublicplacesOrganizationOrganizationalsecurity,privatesecuritySecurityriskmanagement,securitycultureCriticalinfrastructureCriticalinfrastructuresecuritySystemvulnerability,cascadingeffectsSocietySocietalsecurity,publicsecurity,homelandsecurityAbilitytoprepareforanddealwithcrisis,feelingofsafetyandtrustStateNationalsecurityProtectionofborders,survivalofthestateInternationalInternationalsecurityInternationalorganizations'effortstoachievestabilityandpeaceTheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurity……159123Asthetableillustrates,securityismulti-dimensionalinnatureanddiverseinpractice.
Whenscholarsinriskandsafetysciencepointto''security''asascienticeld,theymostoftenrefertothelevelsofobjects,buildingsandpublicspaces,organizations,criticalinfrastructure,andsociety.
Whenotherlevelsarereferredto,theyoftenmeancompoundconceptssuchashumansecurityornationalsecurity.
However,securitystudiesarealsoasub-disciplinewithinotherdisciplines.
Withincriminology,crimepreventionhasbeenacentralresearchtopicformanyyearsandwithininternationalrelationsthefocushasshiftedfromnationalsecurityrelatedissuestomorefocusonriskmanagement,humansecurity,andsocietalsecurity(JarvisandHolland2014;Petersen2012;Zedner2009).
Thismultidimensionalityofsecuritymeansthatitisimpossibletoagreeuponaconsensusdenitiontoapplytoalllevelsanddimensionsofsecurity.
Consequently,thedenitionofsecuritywilldependonthehistoricalandpoliticalcontextoftheutilizationoftheconceptofsecurity.
3TheDemarcationofSafetyvsSecurityNumerousassumptionsexistaboutthenatureandrelationbetweentheconceptsofsecurityandsafetyinordinarylanguageandinacademia.
Boholmetal.
(2015)comparedtheuseandmeaningofsecurityandsafetyandfoundthatthetermsfrequentlyhavesimilarmeanings,andarethusoftentreatedassynonyms.
However,regardlessofthecommonfeaturesofsecurityandsafety,theconceptsalsohaveseparatemeaningsandapplications,andmostoftheirspecicconnotationsarenotshared.
Furthermore,securityandsafetyareconnectedwithdifferentprotectivemeans(safetywithinstrumentsandsecuritywithactors)andsectors:safetyislinkedwithtrafcandtransportation,workplaceconditions,foodquality,andregulation,whilesecurityisassociatedwithinternationalrelations,informationtechnology,andtheeconomy.
Themultiplemeaningsofthetermsmakethemdifculttodeneinanintegratedandsimpleway,andacademicdenitionsoftenfocusononeofseveralaspectsoftheterms.
Severalscholarshaveproposedthatitismeaningfultodistinguishbetweensecurityandsafetytoseparatetheeldsofriskandcrisismanagement.
Accordingtothesescholars,protectionfromterrorismandotherintentionalcrimesisdenotedassecurity,whilesafetyimpliesprotectionfromunintentionalacts(Boholm2012,2016;Boholmetal.
2015;JoreandEgeli2015;Pie`-Cambacede`sandChaudet2010;ReniersandAudenaert2014;Reniersetal.
2011).
Thesescholarsclaimthatthedifferencebetweensecurityandsafetyliesinwhethertheincidentisinictedintentionallyornot;safetyrisksarecharacterizedbybeingaccidentale.
g.
,industrialaccidentsandsecurityisintentionalordeliberate,aswithterrorismordeliberatesabotage(George2008;Johnson2008;Randall2008;ReniersandAudenaert2014).
Securityandsafetyarethusdifferentinthenatureoftheincidents.
Thisdifferentiationbetweensecurityandsafetyismeaningfultomanyscholarsandpractitionersandisoftenusedtodescribetwodifferentapproachestohandlingrisks.
Multipleauthorsdescribethisdemarcationofintentionality(ReniersandAmyotte2012):160S.
H.
Jore123SafetyProtectionagainsthumanandtechnicalfailure(HoltropandKretz2008).
Harmtopeoplecausedbyarbitraryornon-intentionalevents(Hessami2004).
Naturaldisasters,humanerrororsystem,orprocesserrors(Eliasetal.
2008).
SecurityProtectionagainstdeliberateactsofpeople(HoltropandKretz2008).
Losscausedbyintentionalactsofpeople(Hessami2004).
Intentionalhumanactionerrors(Eliasetal.
2008).
ThesamedistinctionofintentionalityisalsofoundintheSRAglossary(2015)andintheSEMAreferentialframework(Pie`-Cambacede`sandChaudet2010).
Allthesedenitionsfocusondeningsecurityandsafetyintermsofintentionality.
Atasuperciallevel,thesedenitionscanbebenecialfordistinguishingtheeldsfromeachother.
However,thesedenitionsdonotserveasameansofdeningthescopeofsecurityresearch.
Todenearesearchscopeexclusivelyfromantagonismtoanotherresearcheldisnotsufcienttodescribewhatsecurityscienceshouldcontain.
Furthermore,isintentionalityreallyagoodindicatorforhowtheeldsshouldbedistinguishedfromeachother4TheDemarcationBetweenSecurityandSafetyisnotExclusivelyonIntentionalityThedifferenceinintentionalitybetweensecurityandsafetyisnotnecessarilyasrigidasthedenitionssuggest.
Thesedenitionsarebasedonapresumptionthatintentionalitydoesnotplayaroleinsafetyresearch,andthisisnotnecessarilythecase.
Theleadingtheoriesinsafetysciencearebuiltonthenotionthataccidentsdonot''justhappen''.
Theunderlyingideaofthisresearchisthataccidentscanbepreventedbydoingriskanalysis,buildingasafetyculture,ororganizationalresilience.
Inotherwords,todescribesafetyaspertainingonlyto''arbitraryornon-intentionalevents''isnotinlinewiththecurrenttheoreticalperspectivesinsafetyresearch.
Theliteratureonorganizationalsafetyhasforseveraldecadesacknowl-edgedthataccidentsareneitherarbitrarynorrandom,butratheraresultoflackoffocusofsafetyplanning.
Accordingtothesetheories,humanintentcanplayaroleincausingaccidents,andorganizationsshouldsubsequentlydesignrobustmeasuresthatcancoverwhatusedtobereferredtoas''''humanerror''(Perrow2011a,b;Reason1990,1997;WeickandSutcliffe2011;Woodsetal.
2012).
Severalofthesetheoriesarebasedonthepresuppositionthataccidentsoftenarecausedbydeliberateandintentionalindividualactions.
Reason(1997),forexample,claimsthatorganizationalaccidentsoftendependupontwokindsoffailure:thefailureofactionstogoasintendedandthefailureofintendedactionstoachievetheirdesiredconsequences.
Additionally,headdsacategoryofintentionalactionsnamedviolations;thesearesituationsinwhichhumansintendnottofollowsafetyTheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurity……161123procedures.
Reasondistinguishesbetweenthreetypesofviolations.
First,excep-tionalviolationsaresingularviolationsoccurringinaparticularsetofcircum-stances.
Second,routineviolationsareoftenhabitual,forminganestablishedpartofanindividual'sbehavioralrepertoire:humans,forexample,takeshortcutsbecausemostsafetyproceduresinvolvesomekindofburdenfortheworker.
Third,recklessviolationsarewhenanindividualdeliberatelybreaksasafetyprocedure,buttheintenttoharmothersisnotpresent.
Thiscould,forexample,benotwearingahelmetorsafetyjacket.
Reasonstatesthatothercategoriesofviolation,suchassabotage,alsoexist.
Thismeansthatincontrasttowhatthedenitionsofsecurityandsafetysuggest,humanintentplaysaroleinbothsecurityandsafety(LillebyandEgeli2014).
Inbothsecurityandsafetyaviolatorcouldbepresent,butinthecaseofsecuritytheviolatorhasamaliciousintentanddeliberatelyaimstocauseharm.
Accordingly,itisnotsufcienttoclaimthatsafetyisunintentionalandthatsecurityisintentional;itisthemaliciousintentthatseparatessafetyfromsecurity.
Asaresult,thedemarcationbetweensecurityandsafetyshouldbedrawnintermsofthedichotomyofnon-maliciousversusmaliciousintent,notbetweenintentionalandunintentional.
Figure1illustratesthedemarcationbetweensecurityandsafety.
Sabotageandterrorismwillbeexamplesofsecurityincidents,whereasotherviolationswithnomaliciousintenttoharmotherswillbeexamplesofsafetyincidents.
Whilesomesafetyincidentsalsocouldbeconsideredcrimes,allsecurityincidentsfallundertheclassicationofcriminalactivity.
Anotherquestionrelatedtothecontentofthescienticeldofsecurityiswhatconstitutesasecuritythreat.
Theconceptofthreathasmultiplemeanings,butthreatscanbedescribedasaperceivedpossibilityofharmorapossibleperpetrator'sintentiontocauseharm(MeloyandHoffmann2013).
Centralinthedenitionofthreatsareapossibleperpetrator'sintent.
Intentliesinthemotivationordesiretocauseharmandexpectedoutcomes.
Athreatalsodependsonaperpetrator'scapabilitiesintermsofresourcesandknowledge(SmithandBrooks2012).
Thedemarcationofmaliciousversusnon-maliciousintentoftheviolatorhelpstooutlinetherangeofperpetratorsthatfallunderthecategoryofsecurity.
Fromthisdivisionbetweensecurityandsafety,perpetratorswithmaliciousintentofcausingharmsuchasahackeroraterroristwillbeasecuritythreat,whileaworkerabusingdrugsorviolateasafetyprocedure,andthusisengagedinacriminalactivitythatcancauseamajoraccidentwillbeasafetythreat.
Consequently,theeldofsecuritycoversvarioustypesofcriminalactivities:opportunisticcrimesSafetySecurityNon-maliciousintentMaliciousintentFailuresViolationsOpportunisticcrimesOrganizedcrimesPoliticalcrimesFig.
1Demarcationbetweensecurityandsafety(basedonLillebyandEgeli2014andJore2017)162S.
H.
Jore123e.
g.
,thieves,organizedcrimese.
g.
,sabotage,kidnapping,espionageoraninsiderleakingsensitiveinformationandpoliticalcrimessuchasterroristattacks.
Fromthisperspective,possiblesecuritythreatswillcoverseveralcriminalactivities,forexample:TheftVandalismOrganizedcrimesSabotageKidnappingHackersTerrorismEspionageSecuritypoliticalcrisesWhatthesethreatshaveincommonisthattheyareallformsofcriminalactivity.
Theseperpetratorscanrangefromindividualsoperatingalone,suchaslone-wolfterroristsorindividualhackers,toorganizedgroups,suchaskidnappersandterrorists,tothoseoperatingonastatelevel(e.
g.
,informationwarfareorespionage).
Thisimpliesthatalthoughtheconceptofsecurityisoftenappliedinreferencetoterrorismandothermajorcrimes,theconceptalsocoversmore''''ordinarycrimes''suchastheftandvandalism.
Accordingly,threatstosecurityconstitutesawiderangeofperpetratorsstemmingfrommultiplesourcesandlevels.
5HowisSecurityDifferentfromSafetyInthecurrentthreatlandscape,thereisanexpectationthatorganizationsandauthoritieshavearesponsibilityforsecurityandsafety.
However,fromamitigationperspective,theserisksarefundamentallydifferentinnature.
Safetyrisksareassociatedwithanorganization'sproductionandprot.
Productionsofgoodsandservicesarealwaysconnectedwithsomekindofrisk,andtheseareriskstheorganizationiswillingtotaketoproduceitsdesiredoutcomeandtogainprot.
Thesourcesoftheserisksaregenerallywell-known,andtheorganizationcanusereliablehistoricaldataintheriskmanagementprocess.
Sinceorganizationshaveknowledgeconcerningtherisks,theyusuallyalsoknowhowtheseriskscanbemitigated.
Thedecisionsonwhethertoimplementrisk-reducingmeasuresareoftenaresultofquantitativeprobabilityassessmentsandcost-benetsassessments.
Inaviation,forexample,safetyrisksaremostoftenknownandconnectedtotheregularcharacteristicsofthesystem(e.
g.
,enginefailure,fatigueandmisunderstandings)andarepossibletolocalizeduetocontinuousexperimental-andexperience-basedlearningwithincivilaviation(PettersenandBjrnskau2015)Conversely,securityinvolvesthethreatstowhichorganizationsareexposed.
Securityrisksarenotnecessarilydirectlylinkedtotheproductionofanorganization,andare,therefore,lesscontrollablefromanorganizationalperspective(Petersen2014).
SincesecuritythreatsarenotdirectlylinkedtotheproductionofanTheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurity……163123organization,organizationsdonothavethesameknowledgeregardingpossibleriskscenariosforsecurityrisksasforsafetyrisks.
Althoughallriskassessmentsarecharacterizedwithuncertaintiesregardingpossiblescenarios,thoserelatedtowho,what,howandwhenanattackmightoccuraremuchgreaterforsecurityrisksthanforsafetyrisks.
Quantitativemethodsarehistoricallymorewidelyusedintheeldofsafetythaninsecurity,sincesecuritythreatsarebynaturemoredifculttocharacterizeinquantitativeterms.
Qualitativemethodscombinedwithexpertopinionsareoftenpreferredfordescribingandassessingsecurityrisks(AvenandRenn2009;Pie`-Cambacede`sandBouissou2013).
Thewidespreaduseofqualitativeapproacheswithinthesecurityeldisalsorelatedtothelowfrequencyofmostsecurityevents,whichmeansthereisalackofrelevanthistoricaldataonwhichtobuildriskassessments.
This,however,isnotnecessarilythecaseforallsecurity-relatedrisksfacedbyorganizationssincethescopeofsecuritycoversawidespectrumofactivities,fromvandalismtoterrorismorpoliticalsecuritycrises.
Formanysecurity-relatedriskssuchasmore''ordinarycrimes'',historicaldataexistthatcouldberelevanttoorganizationalsecurityriskmanagement.
Sincethenatureofthethreatoftenisrootedoutsidetheorganization,mostorganizationsdonothavethemeanstofullyunderstandandreducethethreat.
Mostorganizationswilllacktheunderstandingandtheresourcestofullyundertakethreatassessments,andtheyhavetorelyontheintelligenceserviceswhichinmostcountriespublishmoregeneralthreatassessmentsthanontheindividualorgani-zationallevel.
Moreover,organizationswillinmanycasesalsolackthemeanstoreducesecuritythreatssinceitisthestatethathasthemandatetodiscoverandarrestthieves,terrorists,hackersorotherpossibleperpetrators.
Thismeansthatwhenanorganizationaimstomitigateagainstasecuritythreat,itwillactuallyhavetotakeintoaccountthattheseperpetratorsareabletosearchdeliberateforthebestwaytoexecutetheirplans,aimingtocauseasmuchdamageaspossible.
Forexample,aninsiderwillknowhowtocauseasmuchdamageaspossibleandcoulddeliberatelyplanfortheworstthinkingcascadingeffects.
Consequently,certainscenariosthatwouldbelabelledasextremelyunlikelyinthecaseofsafetymightactuallyberelevantinthecaseofsecurity(ReniersandAudenaert2014).
Additional,somesecurityriskssuchasterrorismhaveasymbolicandpoliticaldimension.
Thisimpliesthatalthoughanorganizationmightbethesceneofanattack,thegoaloftheperpetratorisnotnecessarilytoharmthecompany'sproductionbuttodrawattentiontoapoliticalcauseorgainransom.
Thesymbolicaspectsofsecurityriskssuchasterrorismalsoinuencewhichcounterterrorismmeasuresareseenasrelevantandwhichassetsshouldbeprotected.
Whileightsafetyisorganizedtodealwithexperiencesandfearsrelatedtotechnicalreliability,humanperformance,andtheorganizationalrobustnessoftheaviationsector,aviationsecurityiscontingentuponbeingorganizedtoprotectagainstmaliciousperpetratorsaswellasthepublic'sfearoftheirexistence(PettersenandBjrnskau2015).
Thismakesthegoalsandtheinstitutionallogicsofprotectionbetweensecurityandsafetyverydifferent.
Thedemandforsecuritymeasuresismoreoftenrelatedtopublicdiscoursesonwhatmightbelegitimateterroristtargetsthantheactualrisk-reducingeffectofsuchmeasures(Jore2012;PacheandSantos2010).
164S.
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Jore123Somesecurityeventssuchasterrorismaredramaticandcausemajorpublicfearanddebatesconcerningappropriaterisk-reducingmeasures,whileothersecurityrisksarerisksthatorganizationsstrivetoprotectthemselvesfromalmosteveryday,suchashackersorinsiders.
Theriskofhackers,insidersleakinginformationorespionagearelessvisiblebothpriortoandafteranincident.
Sincetheperpetratorsarestrategic,theyhavenointerestinrevealingtheirplotbeforeanattack,whichmeansthat,unlikemanysafetyrisks,earlywarningsignalswillnotbeaseasytodetect.
Evenduringorafteranattackorcrisis,theincidentmaynotinsomeinstancesbevisibletotheorganization.
Iftheperpetratorisaspyorahacker,asuccessfulattackcouldimplythattheorganizationwillnotbeawarethatithasbeenthetargetofanattack.
Thismeansthatwhilesafetyrulesexisttoprotecttheindividualworkerorothersfromavoidingharm,securityfollowsanotherlogic:Perpetratorswhofallunderthecategoryofsecurityactuallyhavesomethingtogainfrombreakingtherules.
Thecombinationoftheperpetrators'gainandoftenlackofsignalstowarnaboutanupcomingincidentmakesecurityrisksdifculttodetect.
Consequently,mitigationofsecurityrisksoftenimplies''toseewhatnobodyelsesees'',andthatstaticsecuritymeasuresandrulesarenotsufcientforbuildingarobustsecurityregime.
Thus,anorganizationaimingforachievingsecurityshouldalsofocusonperceptionofthreatsandsecurityawarenessratherthanprobabilityassessments.
Subsequently,strivingforresilienceisamorepromisingtrajectoryforbuildingorganizationalsecurity.
Aresilienceapproachtosecurityfocusesonhowasystemcanadapt,handleandrecoverfromchangingconditionsandvariousthreatsinsteadofexclusivelyfocusingonestimationofplausiblescenarios,probabilitiesandtargethardening(Linkovetal.
2016)(Table2).
6AretheDifferencesBetweenSecurityandSafetyAddressedintheAcademicFieldThedifferencesbetweensecurityandsafetyarereectedbydifferencesinthetools,standards,andriskmanagementinthetwodomains(JoreandEgeli2015).
Inmanyrespects,assessingasecuritythreatisdifferentfromassessingasafetyrisk.
InTable2Non-exhaustivelistofdifferencesbetweensecurityandsafety(basedonJore2017)ThenatureoftheriskSafetySecurityRiskrelatedtoproductionandprot,oftenwell-knownrisksStrategichumans,dynamicthreat,oftenrootedincausesoutsidetheorganizationTypeofintentNon-maliciousintentIntentional,maliciousHistoricaldataHistoricaldataoftenexistthatareapplicableforpredictionoffuturetrendsDatasourcesproblematic,historictrendsnotalwaysgoodpredictorsofthefutureTypesofriskassessmentQuantitativeprobabilitiesandfrequenciesofsafety-relatedrisksareoftenutilizedQualitative(expert-opinionbased)likelihoodofsecurity-relatedrisksPossibilityformitigationOrganizationhasknowledgeaboutpossibleriskscenariosandmeasuresThreatsandmeasuresmaybesymbolic,organizationsoftenlackmeansTheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurity……165123security,thesourcesofthethreatstobeassessedareusuallynotwell-knowntotheanalystandcoveranextremelybroadrangeofpossiblescenarios.
Insafety,thecharacteristicsofthehazardsaremoreaccessibleandthenumberofscenariostobeconsideredmayalsoberestricted,butthehazardisstillregardedassignicant(Kriaaetal.
2015).
Althoughthereareseveralinternationalandnationalstandards,guidelinesandrecommendationsintextbooksandthescienticliteratureonhowtoconductsecurityriskassessmentaliteraturereviewconcludedthattheredoesnotexistaconsensusonwhatisthebestpracticeofconductionsecurityriskanalysisanddifferentsecurityriskconceptsandmanagementtoolsvaryacrosscountriesandsectors(Maaletal.
2017).
Furthermore,insafetysciencetherearecurrentlyongoingdebatesinbothacademiaandinthepracticalcommunityaboutwhetherthereisaneedforaspecicriskconceptforsecuritythatcancapturethespecialfeaturesofsecurityrisk,orwhetherperspectivesdominatingthesafetyeldareadaptabletothesecurityeld(Amundrudetal.
2017;JoreandEgeli2015).
Thereareseveralacademicsandpractitionerswhoclaimthatsecurityandsafetyaredistinctissuesandshouldnotbemerged.
However,thetwodisciplinesarealsocloselyrelatedandsharemanycommonalties;andthetoolsfromonedomainhaveoftenbeenadaptedtotheother(Pie`-Cambacede`sandBouissou2013).
However,thetheoreticalstatusesofthetwoeldsareverydifferent.
Whileriskmanagement,resilienceandculture-buildinghavebeenimportantelementsinsafetyresearchforseveraldecades,onlyinrecenttimeshavesecurityscholarsfocusedonthesetopics.
Theliteraturedealingwithsafetyperspectivesisextensiveandispartofalongresearchtradition.
Severalleadingperspectivesexist,butsomeofthemostwidelyreferencedtheoriesintheeldareNormalAccidentTheory,theTheoryofHighReliabilityOrganizations,andResilienceEngineering(Hopkins2014).
Allthesetheorieswereoriginallydevelopedwithinthesafetyeld,andalthoughsomescholarsutilizedthesetheoreticalperspectivesinthesecurityeld(Auerswaldetal.
2006;Perrow2011a;PettersenandBjrnskau2015:Thomaetal.
2016),thereisapaucityofliteraturethatactuallydiscusseswhetherthesetheoreticalperspectivesaretransferable.
Hardlyanystudiesexistthattesttheeffectivenessofthesetheoriesinasecuritycontextorthatapplythemtoasecuritycaseforthepurposeoftheorytestingordevelopment.
Hence,ithasnotbeenclearlyestablishedwhetherthesetheoriesandtheirconceptscanbetransferredtoasecuritycontext.
Mostoftheliteraturewithintheeldofsecurityeitherborrowsperspectivesfromsafetysciencethatutilizesnormativetheoriesdescribinghowtoachievesecuritywithoutbuildingonresearchorstudiesthathavetestedthesetheories.
Therearemultiplecausesforthis;rst,securityhistoricallyhasnotbeenanareaoforganizationalresponsibility.
Second,organizationsthathaveatraditionfordealingwithsecurityriskshavebeenmainlythemilitaryandthepolice—organizationsthathaveatraditionforclassicationand,ingeneral,havenotbeenopentoresearchorcriticalperspectives.
Third,whilesafetysciencehasbeenabroadresearcheldcoveringmultipledisciplinesandlevels,thishasnotuntilrecentlybeenthecaseforthesecurityeld,whichhasbeenmainlyasubjectincriminologyorinternationalrelations,andthesedisciplineshavethusfocusedmoreonthestateperspectivethantheorganizationalperspective.
However,securitysciencealsoborrowstheories,conceptsandperspectivesfromthedisciplineofcriminology.
Theseperspectives166S.
H.
Jore123takeintoaccountcrimepreventionandthestrategicrationalactorsbehindthethreats.
However,giventhatthescopeofsecuritynowadayscoverscooperatesecurityandanincreasedamountofsectorsinsocietythanpreviously,theseperspectivesarenotnecessarilyadjustedtottheorganizationalsecurityperspectives(PeaseandFarrell2014).
7SimilaritiesBetweenSecurityandSafetyAlthoughthereareseveraldifferencesbetweensecurityandsafety,thetwoeldssharemanycharacteristics.
Inbothelds,theconceptofriskisnowusedextensivelyinassessingandmanagingthreats.
Althoughtherearedebatesastowhethersecurityriskmanagementshouldadoptadifferentmethodologythaninsafetyriskmanagement(JoreandEgeli2015),riskanalysismethodologyinbotheldsisoftenbasedonsimilarphasesinvolvinganalyzingthreats,vulnerabilities,potentialconsequences,thelikelihoodofoccurrence,andrankingrisks(Pie`-Cambacede`sandBouissou2013;YoungandLeveson2014).
Theoreticalperspectivesandriskanalysismethodologydevelopedwithintheareaofsafetyarealsousedwithintheareaofsecurity(Kriaaetal.
2015).
Althoughithasbeenmuchmorecommontotransfersafetyperspectivestosecuritythanviceversa,therearealsotoolsandperspectivesdevelopedwithintheeldofsecuritythathavebeentransferredtosafetysuchasthedefense-in-depthapproach,initiallydeployedinmilitarycirclesandtheninnuclearsafety(Pie`-Cambacede`sandBouissou2013).
Severalrecentarticlesaddressriskanalysisfromacross-fertilizationperspective,lookingatsimilarities,differences,andinterdependenciesbetweentheriskconceptandtheriskanalysismethodologyemployedinsecurityandsafetyriskmanagement.
Thismeansthatdespitethedifferencesbetweensecurityandsafety,someauthorsclaimthattheperspectivesdevelopedineacheldcanbeapplicabletotheother(Amundrudetal.
2017;Kriaaetal.
2015;Pie`-Cambacede`sandBouissou2013).
Allmajororganizationalaccidentsinbothsecurityandsafetycontextsinvolvetechnical,organizational,andoperational(human)elements.
Thismeansthatbothwithintheareasofsecurityandsafety,humansplayanimportantroleindetection,mitigation,andemergencymanagement.
Despitethedifferencesinthenatureofthethreatsinsecurityandsafety,theconsequencescanoftenbesimilar(e.
g.
,asinare).
Consequently,formanyemergenciesthesamesecuritymeasurescanreducebothsecurityandsafetythreats(e.
g.
,areextinguisher),althoughthisisnotalwaysthecase.
Somemeasureshavedifferenteffectsonsecurityandsafety.
Forexample,labelingchemicalsubstancesisabenecialsecuritymeasure,butcanbecomeathreatinitselfinthehandsofasecurityperpetrator(Reniersetal.
2011).
Thismeansthatfromanorganizationalperspective,itisnecessarytoseesecurityandsafetyinrelationtoeachother,sothatsecuritymeasuresdonotthreatensafetyorviceversa.
TheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurity……1671238TheNeedforaNewDenitionofSecurityAsdescribedsofarinthisarticle,securityhasdevelopedasadisciplineoverlappingwith,butindependent,fromsafety.
Giventhespecialcharacteristicsofsecurity,inadditiontoalackoftheoreticalperspectives,thereisaneedtodenethescopeofsecurityresearch.
Differencesbetweensecurityandsafetyextendbeyondonlytheintentionalaspectoftheelds.
Allthedenitionsofsecuritymentionedsofarinthisarticlehaveexclusivelydenedsecurityincontrasttosafety—meaningthatnoneofthosedenitionsfocusonwhatsecurityis,onlywhatitisnot.
Consequently,noneofthedenitionsexplicitlyattempttoestablishwhatsecurityis.
Forabodyofknowledgeaspiringtobecomeanindependentscience,adenitionentirelybasedonhowsecuritydiffersfromsafetyisinsufcient.
Thereisaneedtodenethecontentofsecurityinitself,andalthoughtheconceptofsecurityisadiverseandmultidimensionalconceptintheacademiceld,thoseinfavorofasecurityscienceclaimthatitispossibletodenesecurityaslongasitisconsideredfromacontextualperspective(SmithandBrooks2012).
Thismeansthatitispossibletoproposeadenitionofsecuritythatcoversthecurrentcomprehensionofsecurity.
Denitionsofsecurityexiststhatfocusonotheraspectsthanexclusivelydeningsecurityincontrasttosafety.
Thesedenitionsfocusmoreonthecontentofwhatsecurityis,examiningcertainaspectsofwhatisincludedinthegeneralcurrentnotionofsecurity.
Securityisnowunderstoodasbothastateandaprocess,whichoftencanreduceriskandprotectorbuildresilienceagainstpossiblethreatscenarios.
InPresidentialPolicyDirective21(PPD-21),forexample,securityisunderstoodassomethingcreatedactivelytoreducerisk.
Securityisdenedas''Reducingtherisktocriticalinfrastructurebyphysicalmeansordefensecybermeasurestointrusions,attacks,ortheeffectsofnaturalormanmadedisasters''(DepartmentofHomelandSecurity,2016).
Thisdenitionproposesthatsecurityisarisk-reducingprocessconductedbymeansofphysicalprotection.
Theacademicliteraturethatdealswithhoworganizationscancreatesecurityoftenbuildsonperspectivesfromsafetyscience,andthisliteratureincorporatesriskmanagementandresilienceasimportantfactorsintheresponsibilitiesoforganizationsandauthoritiesresponsibleforsecurity(SmithandBrooks2012;Shef2005;TalbotandJakeman2011).
Thisimpliesthatsecurityissomethingdoneactivelyinallphasesofacrisis,andaccordingly,securityalsomeanstopreparefor,adaptto,withstand,andrecoverfromdangersandcrises.
Securityriskmanagementincludesassessingandreducingthelikelihoodandconsequencesofpossibleattacksbyapplyingvarioustypesofrisk-reducingmeasures.
Suchmeasuresincludecriticalinfrastructureprotectionandbuildingorganizationalandsocietalresilience(BrooksandCorkill2014;TalbotandJakeman2011).
TheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity(2016)delineateswhatconstitutessecuritybygivingalistofmeasuresforhowtocreatesecurity:BadgeentrytodoorsUseantivirussoftwareErectfencingaroundbuildingsLockcomputerscreens168S.
H.
Jore123Allthesemeasuresserveassomeformofphysicalprotection.
Whatthesemeasureshaveincommonisthattheyarestatic,anddonottakeintoaccountthestrategicandcalculatednatureofsecuritythreatswhentheperpetratorcanadjustplanstoavoidsecuritymeasures.
Thecurrentliteraturedescribessecuritymeasuresasmuchmorethanphysicalprotectionortargethardening(Reniersetal.
2011;TalbotandJakeman2011)deningsecurityasamyriadofpossiblemeasuresrangingfromsecurityawarenessprogramsandbuildingasecurityculturetosurveillanceandscreeningemployees.
Thismeansrecentperspectivesonsecurityalsoincludemultipletypesofmeasuressuchasbuildingsecurityriskmanagement,resilience,securityawareness,andasecurity-orientedculture.
Giventheweaknessesinthecurrentdenitionsofsecurity,Jore(2017)hasproposedanewdenitionthatalsoincorporatessecurityasameasuretobuildresiliencetomaliciousattacks.
Wewillfurtherdevelopthisdenitionsothatitalsoincorporatesthatsecurityisaperceivedstaterelatedtofearanddangers:Securitycanbedenedastheperceivedoractualabilitytopreparefor,adaptto,withstand,andrecoverfromdangersandcrisescausedbypeople'sdeliberate,intentional,maliciousacts,suchasterrorism,sabotage,organizedcrime,orhacking.
Securityriskmanagementincludesassessingandreducingthelikelihoodandconsequencesofpossibleattacksbyapplyingvarioustypesofrisk-reducingmeasures.
Forexample,byestablishingcriticalinfrastructureprotectionandbybuildingorganizationalandsocietalresilience.
Giventheproposeddenitionofsecurity,whichinmanyrespectsoverlapswiththecurrentdenitionofriskmanagementandresilienceperspectives,shouldsecuritybeconsideredascienceinitself,orasasub-disciplineofsafetyscience9IsSecurityanIndependentScienceNumerousterroristattacksworldwide,organizedcrime,espionageandcyberthreatstointerconnectedfacetsofinfrastructurehavebecomechallengesthatstatesandorganizationsarefacing.
Asubsequentfocusonprotectionfromsuchthreatshaveledtoademandforbetterprotectivemeasures.
Thecorollaryofthisfocusofattentioncanbeseeninnewsecurityregulationsandnewsecurityrisk-managementstandardsthatpointoutdifferentactors'responsibilitytoconductsecurityriskassessmentsandimplementappropriatemeasures.
Thismassiveattentiononsecurityhasledtotherequestforsecurityknowledgefrommultipleactorsinsociety.
Securityhasbecomeatopicofmanyuniversitycourses,textbooks,academicjournals,andresearchprograms.
However,regardlessofthemanyscholarsinterestedinthetopic,fewofthemwouldprobablycallthemselvessecurityscholars.
Thisisnotbecausetherearenoexcellentresearchersinterestedinthetopic,butbecausemostofthemwritewithintheirowndisciplinesandpublishinjournalsotherthanthefewexclusivelyconcernedwithsecurity.
Withinuniversities,thesametendenciesarepresent;severaluniversitiesoffercoursesinsecurityandTheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurity……169123relatedtopics,buttherearestilllimitedstudyprogramsthataimtoteachstudentsthemaintopicofsecurity(SmithandBrooks2012).
Althoughsecurityscienceisnotyetestablishedasanindependentscience,researchers,educators,industries,andgovernmentshaveformanyyearsworkedondeningthebodyofknowledgeuponwhichsecurityscienceshouldbebased(ASISInternational2017;Brooks2010;SmithandBrooks2012;HesseandSmith2001;KooiandHinduja2008;Smith2001).
Althoughsecurityisanimportanttopicacrossmanydisciplines,thestatusofthesecurityeldhasnotreachedalevelwhereitcanbedenedasasciencefromatraditionalparadigmperspective;theredoesnotexistacleardenitionandscopeofitsbodyofknowledge,orleadingtheoreticalperspectivesandagreed-uponconceptsandmodelsconcerningsecurity.
Securityscienceisdiverse,multi-dimensional,andcross-disciplinary,withoutadenedspeciedknowledgebaseorskillstructure(Brooks2010).
Nevertheless,securitycanbedenedwithinitsgivencontext,andsocanalsothescienceofsecurity.
Infact,textbooksin''securityscience''claimthatalthough''securityscience''currentlycannotberegardedasanacademicdiscipline,securityisanemergingscienceonitswaytodevelopingintoanindependentscience,assecurityisanin-demandeldofresearchandapplication(SmithandBrooks2012).
Whencomparingsecuritysciencetosafetyscienceitisimportanttobearinmindthatthesamecriticismthathasbeenmadeofsecurityasasciencecanalsobemadeofsafetyasascience.
Althoughsafetysciencehasalongerhistory,withmanymoreresearchersandpractitionersdedicatedtotheeld,scienticdiversityisacomplicatedissueforsafetyscienceaswell.
Amongthemanydifferentscienticcommunitiesinterestedinthetopicofsafety,thereseemstobelittlecentralcoordinationofwhatisaveryheterogeneousintellectualproduction.
Thehegemonyofanencompassingparadigmofsafetysciencewouldbeunlikelytocoverthemultifacetednatureofthetopic(LeCozeetal.
2014).
Thisheterogeneityisalsonecessaryforunderstandingaphenomenonascomplexandmultidimensionalassecurity,whichshouldnotbeunderstoodfromonlyoneperspectiveortheoreticalapproach.
Suchaphenomenonshould,therefore,embracemultidisciplinaryresearch.
Theobjectofsecuritycanberesearchedfromapositivistaswellasconstructivistapproach,andthestudyofsecurityshouldthusincludetheobjective,subjective,andsymbolicnatureofsecurityacrossmultipledimensionsandlevelsofsociety(Manunta1999;SmithandBrooks2012).
Thisresearchshouldalsoincluderiskperceptionandtheparadoxicalelementsofsecurity.
Theheterogeneityofsecuritythreatsalsoneedstobeexplored.
Itisnotobviousthatthesameriskmanagementmethodologiesandtheoreticalperspectivesareapplicabletodifferentsecuritythreatssuchasterrorism,espionage,theinsiderthreatandhacking.
Thesethreatsaredifferentinnature,andthisdiversitymandatesavarietyoftheoreticalperspectives.
Thescholarsarguingforanindependentsecurityscienceadvocateaninterdis-ciplinaryapproachcoveringdifferentdimensionsandaspectsofsecurity.
Theyclaimthattounderstandacomplexphenomenonsuchassecurity,buildingblocksfromothersciencesshouldbecriticallyexamined.
Itisintheintersectionofotherdisciplinesthatsecuritysciencedivergesfromsafetyscience.
Criminologyandinternationalrelationswillbenaturalcrossingpointsforthestudyofsecurity,which170S.
H.
Jore123isnotnecessarilythecaseforsafetyscience.
Afterall,thestudyofsecuritydealswithhowtomitigateandprotectsocietyfromcriminalacts,sotheoreticalperspectivesfromsafetysciencewillnotbesufcientforaholisticsecuritymanagement.
However,thisdoesnotmeanthattherearenointerestingtheoreticalperspectivesthatcanbetransferredfromsafetytothesecurityeld,butitisimportantthatsuchtheoriesarenotjustuncriticallyimportedortransferred.
Securityscienceneedstobeacknowledgedforitsowncharacteristicandchallengers.
Cross-fertilizationsbetweensecurityandotherdisciplinesarethuscrucial,butgiventheimmaturestatusofsecuritysciencestoday,thescienceofsecurityshouldbedevelopedasadistinctdisciplinerecognizedforitsdistinctcharacteristics.
10ConclusionsThisarticlehasdiscussedtheconceptualandscienticdemarcationofsecurityincontrasttosafety.
Securityisamultifacetedconceptwhosemeaninghaschangedinaccordancewithdiscoursesofthreatsanddangers.
Scholarsinriskandsafetysciencehaveproposedthatitismeaningfultodistinguishbetweensecurityandsafetyintermsofintentionalitytoseparatetheeldsofhandlingrisksandcrises.
However,sinceintentionalityalsoplaysapartinsafetyresearch,thisisnotagoodparameterforseparatingtheelds.
Thedemarcationbetweensecurityandsafetyshouldbebasedonthemaliciousintentoftheperpetrator,sincethisindicatoraimstohighlightthespeciccharacteristicsoftheeldofsecurity,inadditiontospecifyingpossiblethreatstosecurity.
Giventheshortcomingsofthecurrentdenitions,wehaveproposedanewdenitionofsecuritythatincorporateselementsassociatedwithsecurityasaresearcheldtoday:Securitycanbedenedastheperceivedoractualabilitytopreparefor,adaptto,withstand,andrecoverfromdangersandcrisescausedbypeople'sdeliberate,intentional,andmaliciousactssuchasterrorism,sabotage,organizedcrime,orhacking.
Securityriskmanagementincludesassessingandreducingthelikelihoodandconsequencesofpossibleattackswithvarioustypesofrisk-reducingmeasures,forexample,throughcriticalinfrastructureprotectionandbybuildingorgani-zationalandsocietalresilience.
Althoughtheyaredistinctscienticelds,safetyandsecuritysharemanycommonalities,andthereisapracticalneedforanintegratedapproachbetweensecurityandsafetythatcannotbeoverlooked.
Inpracticalsecurityriskmanage-ment,thesameperspectivesandriskanalysismethodologiesseemtobesharedacrossthesecurityandsafetyelds.
Additionally,researchfunderssuchastheEuropeanUnionarerequestingmulti-hazardmanagementandscience.
Neverthe-less,therearecertaincharacteristicsofthesecurityeldthataredifferentfromthesafetyeldandneedtobefurtherexplored.
Furthermore,thetheoreticalperspectivesandriskanalysistoolsavailabletoorganizationsarenotbasedonTheConceptualandScienticDemarcationofSecurity……171123thesameresearchtraditionsinthetwodisciplines.
Securityandsafetyhavedevelopedastwodistinctdisciplinesformanyyears,ledbypartitionedcommu-nitiesdevelopingtheirowntoolsandmethodologies,buttherearealsomanytheoriesandperspectivesbothdisciplinesshare.
Atthemoment,thebesttrajectorymightbetocontinuetolookforcross-fertilizationbetweensecurityandsafetyandtofurtherdevelopbothdisciplines.
Extendingthedevelopmentofbotheldsmighteventuallyleadtoamoreintegratedapproachinthefuture.
However,thedistinctcharacteristicsofsecuritycurrentlyarenotfullyaddressedinthetheoriesandmethodologiesavailable,andthereisaneedforcriticalexaminationoftheoriesandrisk-analysistoolsthataretransferredfromonedisciplinetotheother.
Theeldofsecurityischaracterizedbyattributesthathavenotbeenfullyresearchedandthatneedtobeexaminedinmoredetail.
Thecurrentbodyofknowledgeinthesecurityeldistoalargeextentveryfragmentedandsegmented.
Withonlyafewexceptions,fewattemptshavebeenmadetodescribethefoundationofsecurityscience.
Toestablishsecurityasanindependentdiscipline,itisnecessarytodeterminewhatconceptsandtheoriesarerelatedtotheeld.
Whatlevelsofandobjectsinsocietyshouldsuchaeldinclude,andwhataretheinterrelationshipsandinterdependencieswithotherdisciplinesUltimately,astructureofsecurityknowledgemaybeformedthatsupportssecurityasanindependentscience.
OpenAccessThisarticleisdistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution4.
0InternationalLicense(http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.
0/),whichpermitsunrestricteduse,dis-tribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedyougiveappropriatecredittotheoriginalauthor(s)andthesource,providealinktotheCreativeCommonslicense,andindicateifchangesweremade.
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