cateredsaintpaulon

DepartmentofClassicsPublications10-1-2015'AsTrainersfortheHealthy':PhysicalTherapists,Anointers,andHealingintheLateLatinWestSarahEBondUniversityofIowaDOI:https://doi.
org/10.
1353/jla.
2015.
0034Copyright2015JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.
Postedbypermission"AsTrainersfortheHealthy':PhysicalTherapists,Anointers,andHealingintheLateLatinWest,"JournalofLateAntiquity8.
2(Fall,2015),386-404.
DOI:10.
1353/jla.
2015.
0034HostedbyIowaResearchOnline.
Formoreinformationpleasecontact:lib-ir@uiowa.
edu.
$V7UDLQHUVIRUWKH+HDOWK\0DVVDJH7KHUDSLVWV$QRLQWHUVDQG+HDOLQJLQWKH/DWH/DWLQ:HVW6DUDK(%RQGJournalofLateAntiquity,Volume8,Number2,Fall2015,pp.
386-404(Article)3XEOLVKHGE\-RKQV+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVForadditionalinformationaboutthisarticleAccessprovidedbyTheUniversityofIowaLibraries(24Dec201508:52GMT)http://muse.
jhu.
edu/journals/jla/summary/v008/8.
2.
bond.
html386JournalofLateAntiquity8.
2(Fall):386–4042015JohnsHopkinsUniversityPressSarahE.
Bond"AsTrainersfortheHealthy":MassageTherapists,Anointers,andHealingintheLateLatinWestThisarticleassertsthatculturaldistinctionsintheuseofoilandtheesteemofathleticsinitiallyallowedforahigherstatusformassagethera-pists,athletictrainers,andanointersinGreekasopposedtoRomanculture.
OverthecourseoftheEmpire,however,thesedissimilaritieswanedduetocultural,medical,and—ultimately—religiousshifts.
Theseprofessionalsare,inasense,traceelementsthatallowustotracktrans-formationinattitudestowardsthebodyandthepoweroftouchtohealfromthehighEmpireintoLateAntiquity.
TheyalsoallowustodiscerntheimplicationsoftheChurch'sclaimtoarbitratehealingofboththesoulandthebody.
PopeFelixIV(526–530)hadthebasilicaofSS.
CosmasandDamianbuiltinRomeinaratherintimatespacethatoriginallyservedasoneofthehallsconnectedtoVespasian'sTempleofPeace.
1TheconvertedtemplewastherstknownbasilicawithintheForumRomanum.
Itsconversionwasanemblem-aticpapalmovethatcommunicatedthefusionofRomanitaswithChristiani-tasspatially.
Felixdedicatedthenewbasilicatothepopulartwinphysicians,whowereCilicianhealersmartyredunderDiocletianandmembersofthegroupofsaintsknownasνργυροι—physiciansthatrefusedtotakefeesfortheirservices.
2AnumberofchurchesdedicatedtothesebrothershadbeguntoproliferateintheEastparticularlyfromthefthandsixthcenturies,drawingThanksaregivenforthesuperbsuggestionsmadebythisvolume'seditors,aswellastheremarksofJinyuLiu.
1"SS.
CosmasetDamianus,basilica,"inLTURI,324–25.
TheTempleofRomulusbecametheentrancetothebasilicafromtheForum.
Originally,thishallmayhavehousedoneoftheTempleofPeace'slibraries,whichpreservedanumberofmedicaltextsandliteraryworks.
2ThetitledistinguishedtheChristianhealer-saintsfromthenon-Christianphysicianswhoreceivedpaymentfortheirservices.
Therearemultipleaccountsofthebrothers'martyrdom,butGregoryofTours(Glor.
mart.
97)notablyremarksontheirabilitytohealthroughinnatepowerandprayer.
BOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"387pilgrimsseekingrehabilitationinmuchthesamemannerthatAsklepieiadid.
3AnapsemosaicwithChristatthecenterwithPopeFelix,SaintCosmas,andSaintPaulontheleft,andSaintPeter,SaintDamian,andSaintTheodoreonhisright,welcomedgueststothebasilica,asdidaninscriptionunderneaththemosaic,whichproclaimedthatthephysicianmartyrsbestowedthespescertasalutis(certainhopeofhealth)uponthem.
Amillenniumafterthebasilica'sconsecration,theItalianhumanistAldusManutius(1547–1597)recordedasecondcenturyceinscriptionondisplayinthechurch.
TheinscriptionveneratedafreedmaniatraliptaofthefamiliaCaesarisnamedPubliusAeliusEpaphroditus:Tothedepartedspirits.
ForPubliusAeliusEpaphroditus,freedmanofAugus-tus,headiatraliptaoftheslavesoftheimperialhousehold,whodiedattheageof30,ahusband.
Nicopolis,oftheimperialhousehold,andSoter,hisson,madethisforhiswelldeservingfatherandforthemselvesandfortheirfreedmen,freedwomen,anddescendants.
4Primafacie,itmightseemoddforabasilicatoexhibittheepitaphofanon-Christianwithinit,buttheremembranceoftheiatralipta(medicalmassagetherapist)makessenseifthespace'sconnectionwithmedicineandhealingareconsidered.
5Asaniatralipta,Epaphroditus'epitaphcomplementedthebasilica'scontinuousassociationwithmedicine.
ItsdisplaymayalsospeaktoadevelopmentintermsoftheprestigeofthemassagetherapistfromtheearlyimperialperiodintoLateAntiquity.
WhilesometimesdemeanedassensualorluxuriousbyRomanelitesintheRepublicandearlyEmpire,theiatralipta'spracticeofusingtouchandoiltohealpatientswasincreasinglyassociatedwithhealing—physical,aswellasspiritual—inthelaterempire.
ThisarticlearguesthattheearlyChristianbeliefinthepotencyoftouchandtheapplica-tionofoilmayhaveallowedtheconventionalRomanaristocraticdisdainforanointersandmassagetherapiststowanefurther,infavorofamoreelevatedviewofsuchtherapists.
3SeevanEsbroeck1981;Wittmann1967;Crislip2005a,123.
4CIL6:8981:D(is)M(anibus)/P(ublio)AelioAug(usti)lib(erto)Epaphrodito/magistroiatralip[t]aepuerorum/eminentiumCaesarisn(ostri)/quivix(it)annisXXXconiugi/NicopolisCaesarisn(ostri)et/Soterliuspatribenemerenti/feceruntetsibietsuislib(ertis)/libertabusposterisqueeorum=Henzen1856,6326.
Althoughapparentlynowmissing,theinscriptionwasoriginallyrecordedinthechurchinthesixteenthcenturybyManutius(ManutiusVatic.
5241f.
244,5253f.
366)andsubsequentlytransmittedbyGiovanniBattistaDoni(1731,279,no.
1).
ThemanuscriptswerethenconsultedbytheeditorsoftheCIL6,whonoted:tabulahumiaffixaaedeDivorumCosmaeetDamiani,Manut.
5253.
ElizabethRobinsonandIundertooknumeroustripstothechurchinordertondtheinscription,buttonoavail.
5Schulze2005,42remarksthattheinscriptionwasreusedwithinthechurchofCosmasandDamianforunknownreasons.
388JournalofLateAntiquityAmyriadofspecialistsofferedanointingandmassageservicesduringthelateRepublicandearlyRomanEmpire,eachwithastatusthatreectedRomansocio-culturalattitudestowardstouch,pollution,andpleasure.
Occu-pyingtheloweststratumwerethepollinctores,whorubbedandanointedcorpsesinpreparationforburial.
Dueinparttofrequentphysicalcontactwithcorpses,theybecamepollutedpersonsandwerekeptseparatefromthegeneralpopulaceinsomeItaliancommunities.
6Fulgentiuswentsofarastodenethepollinctorasbeinganunctorpollutorum(anointerofthepolluted).
7Abovemortuaryprofessionalsweremassagetherapistsandanointerscalledbyanumberoftitles.
IntheLatinWest,lowerlevelmalemassagetherapistsweregenerallyreferredtoasanunctor,tractor,oralipta,whilefemalemas-sagetherapistsweresometimesreferredtoasanunctrixortractatrix.
8IntheGreekEast,massagetherapistscouldbereferredtoasaτριβε(literallya"rubber"),whereasanλεπτηreferredtoananointeroranathletictrainer.
9IntheWest,manyofthesemassagetherapistscamefromaservileback-groundandattendedtotheirindividualdominiinthehouseholdoratthebathsbyapplyingoilsandunguents,andthenusinginstrumentssuchasthestrigiltoscrapethemclean.
Bathingestablishmentsalsoemployedsuchprofessionalstoprovidetheseservices.
Furtherupthesocialladderweretheπαιδοτρβαι(athletictrainers)whooftenusedmassageandoilstomaintainthephysicalprowessoftheirclients:gladiators,charioteers,wrestlers,athletes,and—increasingly—Romanelites.
Atthetopofthishierarchyofoccupationaltouchwereiatraliptae.
ThiswasthespecialtyoftheaforementionedlibertusEpaphroditus,who,asamagister,mayhaveinstructedonthebenetsofmas-sageandtheapplicationofoilsasmedicinaltreatments.
10Asmanymedicalpractitionersandmassagetherapistsofthetimewere,hisnamesuggests(butdoesnotguarantee)thathewasGreek.
11Culturaldistinctionsintheuseofoil6SeeLindsay2000,152–72.
ArstcenturyceinscriptionfromPuteoliindicatesthatcorpse-carrierswererelegatedtolivingquartersoutsidethecitywallsandonlyallowedentranceintothecityatnight(AE1971,88,II.
3–4),andinEgypt,mortuaryworkerswerelargelyrelegatedtoliveinnecropoleisoutsidethecitygates.
TheparallelbetweentheapplicationofunguentsonlivingbodiesanddeadonesispointedoutbyMartial(3.
12.
4–5),whonotesthatwhenyougiveahouseguestunguentsbutnotfood,itisakintoembalmingalivingperson.
7Fulgent.
Serm.
3:pollinctoresdictisuntquasipollutorumunctores.
.
.
;Cf.
Mart.
Ep.
10.
97.
2.
8Unctrix:CIL6:4045,9096,9097;CIL14:3035.
Tractatrix:CIL6:37823;Mart.
Ep.
56.
13.
9τριβε:P.
Cair.
Zen.
4:59675(257–256bce).
10InhistranslationofGalen'sOnPrognosis,Nutton(1979,212)proposedthatamagisteriatraliptespuerorumeminentiumCaesarisnostriwasanathletictrainerthatconditionedtheimperialfamilymembersandtheirfriends;however,ampleepigraphicevidencepointstovernaewithinthefamiliaCaesarisbeingreferredtoaspueri.
SeeCIL6:1052;Rawson2003,190–91.
11ThenameappearsoftenconnectedtoGreekslavesandlibertiintheWest.
Asmanyhavepointedto(Solin1971,146–58;Bruun2013,22),anamealonedoesnotcertifyanindividualasGreek.
ThevocabularyforsuchmassagetherapistsalsohadGreekroots.
TheLatintitleofBOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"389andtheesteemofathleticsallowedforahigherstatusformassagetherapists,athletictrainers,andanointersinGreekasopposedtoRomancultureduringtheRepublicandEarlyEmpire.
Theseprofessionalsare,inasense,traceele-mentsthatallowustotrackthevariationinattitudestowardsthebodyandthepoweroftouchfromtheEmpireintoLateAntiquity.
TheyalsoallowustodiscerntheimplicationsoftheChurch'sclaimtoarbitratehealingofboththesoulandthebody.
Beforeprogressingtoananalysisoftheseshifts,afewnotesaboutmyapproachandmethodology.
Thisstudyservesasasupplementtootheranaly-sesonthestatusofphysiciansinRomansociety,suchasKudlein'sseminalwork.
12Moreover,Ihaveherechosentofocusonthestatusofprofessionalsthatutilizedoils,perfumes,andunguents,ratherthananalyzingthesubstancesthemselves.
GroundbreakingworkbyscholarssuchasHarveypavedthewayfortheemergingeldofsensorystudiesinantiquityandlookedatboththeoilsandsmellsthatplayedanimportantrolebothinRomancultureandearlyChristianworship.
13Ifocusratheronthefactthatmodicationstothesenso-riumandtohealingapproacheshadbroader,socio-economicimplicationsforcertainprofessionals.
InadditiontoHarvey'swork,thisstudyisindebtedtothatofSamellas,whocoinedtheterm"tactilerevolution"toarticulatethedis-sipationofnotionsofdeathpollutionwithinearlyChristianity.
14Isuggestthatthisrevolutionoccurredonmultiplefronts:asnewattitudestowardscontactwithcorpsesproliferatedwithinearlyChristianwriting,sotoodidnewatti-tudestowardsthehealingofthesickthroughtouchandunction.
Inwhatfol-lows,ItracethistrajectorybydescribingingreaterdetailmasseusesemployedbyhouseholdsorthebathstothosewhosetasksalignwithathletictrainersandmedicalprofessionalsasapreludetomyanalysisofthesignicanceoftouchandoilinearlyChristianity.
Throughtheseindividuals,wecanperhapsviewthepersonnellinkedtothesuccessofoil,unguents,andtouchforhealinginmanyearlychurches.
Furthermore,wecandistinguishhowlow-statusormar-ginalizedprofessionalsoftenreecteliteapprehensions.
Oil,Touch,andtheDomesticMasseurInthewakeofRome'sconquestofGreeceinthesecondcenturybce,therewasagrowingpresenceofGreeksemployedandenslavedinRomanItaly,includinganointersandmassagetherapists.
EvenaslateastherstorearlyiatraliptaisatransliterationoftheGreek,ατραλεπτη,whichcombinedthecommontermforaphysician(ατρ)withthetermforananointer.
12Kudlien1986,10,181,however,didnotregardtheiatraliptaetobephysicians.
13Harvey2006.
14Samellas2002,3,148–62.
390JournalofLateAntiquitysecondcenturyce,JuvenalcouldindictimmigrantGreeksforstealingjobsfromRomansandsatirizedthetransformationofRomeintoaGreekcityemployinggrammarians,orators,geometricians,painters,aliptai,augurs,tightropewalkers,doctors,andastrologers.
15InadditiontothestigmaofbeingGreek,otherRomanprejudicesinuencedthestatusofmassagether-apistsandanointersinRomansociety,rstamongthembeingattitudestowardgainandmanuallabor.
Underscoringthequaestus(prot)associatedwithmedicinegenerally,PlinytheEldersnidelyremarkedthataphysiciananddiscipleofHippocratesnamedProdicus(likelyhemeansheretheearlyfthcenturybceHerodicus)foundedthebranchofmedicinecallediatra-liptice(Gr.
ατραλειπτικ),aeldthatinPliny'sviewfunctionedto"pro-videavectigal(revenue)forunctores"andthe"medicorumacmediastinis"(menialslavesofphysicians).
"16Similarly,Martialcaststheunctorasaprof-iteer,claiming:"thesordidunctorsnatchestheirmoneyundeservedly.
"17Tomanyelitewriters,thosethatperformedanymanualworkforthesakeofprotwereunseemly,aviewwhichwouldaccordinglyincludemasseursandanointers.
18Suchtradesmendependedonothersfortheirlivelihood,ratherthanderivingincomefromtheRomanideal:property.
InhisDeOffi-ciis,Ciceroprovidedevidenceforanadditionalsourceofignominysur-roundingmasseursandanointers:sensualityandluxury.
Theoratornotedthattradesthatcateredtovoluptas(pleasure)wereinfactthemostbase—namelyshmongers,butchers,cooks,poultrysalesmen,shermen,dancers,andunguentarii.
19AlthoughmasseursarenotmentioneddirectlybyCicerointhispassage,theybearcloseresemblancetotheunguentarii,sellersofunguentsorperfumesingeneral.
Infact,thoseassociatedwiththeseoils,unguents,andperfumesbecamevulnerabletoaccusationsofluxuryandmoraldeprivationinRomanliterature.
20Theassociationofmassageandanointingwithpleasureeasilyturnedintoanassociationwithsexualdevi-ance.
Juvenalnotedanaliptesbroughttothebathswasalsopracticedatmassagingtheclitorisofhisdomina.
2115Juv.
Sat.
3.
60–1,74–8.
SeeSherwin-White1967,71–72.
16Plin.
NH29.
2.
TheSelymbrianHerodicusismentionednumeroustimesinPlato(Prt.
316e;Phdr.
227d;Resp.
3.
406a).
Hewasthefounderofdieteticsandanathletictrainerwhoimposedanotoriouslystrictregimeonhispatients.
SeeNails2002,164Her.
17Mart.
7.
32.
4–6.
18Cic.
DeOff.
1.
150.
19Cic.
DeOff.
1.
150.
Whilestillunseemlyoccupations,Cicerodidgrantdoctorsandarchitectsahigherdegreeofstatusduetotheirskill.
20Cf.
MarcusAntonius'saccusationthatOctavian'sgreatgrandfatherwasofAfricandescentandhadoncerunaperfumeshopand,later,abakery(Suet.
Aug.
4.
2).
21Juv.
6.
422–23.
Notethatfemurmayherebeusedasasynonymforhergenitalia(WatsonandWatson2014,215).
BOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"391Evenstill,thewealthyoftenhiredotherstoperformtheapplicationofoil,becauseitwasamarkofstatustohaveanattendantperformsuchmenialtasksforyou.
Moreover,atrainedmassagetherapistcoulddoamoreprofessionaljobofapplyingtherapeuticoilsthananunaidedindividualhimself.
MassagetherapistsappeartohavebecomeatrendyadditiontotheRomanfamiliafromthesecondcenturybce,thenfurtherpromotedandtakentonewskilllevelsbytheimperialhouseintheearlyEmpire.
Likeluxuryitems,masseurscouldalsoserveashumanaccessories.
InPlautus'sTrinummus,writtenatthebegin-ningofthesecondcenturybce,thecharacterLysiteles,consideringthebattlebetweenloveandprot,describesthewayinwhichwomenuseandabusetheirlovers:askingformoney,requiringpresents,andmovingintotheirhouseswithalargeandexpensiveentourageofslaves:"thewholehouseholdistakenalong:thewardrobeattendant,unctor,overseerofgold,fan-bearers,sandal-carriers,singers,treasurers,messagecarriers,andmessagereceivers.
"22Theplaywrightpointstothefactthatbythebeginningofthesecondcenturybce,Romanmenandwomenregularlyhadotherslathertheirbodieswithperfumedunguentsandoils,andlegalevidencealsopointstothetrend.
23WhilePlautusexempliesthefactthatmanyofourtextualreferencestodomesticmassagetherapistsaremanipulatedinliteratureasameanstoamoralizingend,wemustturninsteadtotheirinscriptionsforbetterinsightintothepersonalidentities,opportunities,andassociationsformedbytheseprofessionals.
Inscriptionalevidencesuggeststhatbytherstcenturyce,unctoreswerebeingtoutedasmedicalattendantswithinthehousehold.
AcolumbariumstelefoundontheViaLatinainRome(datingtothemiddleoftherstcenturyce)commemoratestheslavesofGaiusSulpiciusGalba,amemberoftheRomanelitewhowaslikelyrelatedtotheemperorGalba.
Thestelecontainsfourinscriptionsdetailingthenancing,patron,andinhabit-antsofthecolumbarium:AnunctorofGaiusSulpiciusGalbanamedArpho-cras,whonancedtheburialplotandossuaryforhimselfandhiscomrade,andCorinthus,likelyalsoaslavewithinGalba'sdomesticretinue.
24OnthearchitraveatthefrontofthenicheArphocrasproudlyannounceshimselfasanunctorwithinGalba'shouse,betrayingnoindicationthathewasashamedofajobothersmighthaveconsideredmenial;moreover,theinscriptionservestosupportthelegalevidenceforthebourgeoningpopularityofhousehold22Pl.
Trin.
250–52.
23WeseeevidenceofmassagetherapistsasservilecommonplaceinJustinian'sDigest,whichpreservesarulingfromtherst-centurybcejuristAlfenusVarus(Dig.
50.
16.
203).
Init,henotesthatthelawconcerningtheharbortaxinSicilydidnotapplytodomesticslavesthatlookedafterthebodyofthedominus:suchasmasseurs,cooks,bedroomattendants,andpersonalattendants.
Itshouldlikelybeunctoresforiunctores,asWatson1985,465.
24AE1980,150.
SeePensabene1978–1979.
392JournalofLateAntiquitymasseursinRomanItaly.
Thisiscertainlythecasewiththedomesticstaffofthesecond-centuryceconsulMarcusServiliusFabianusMaximus.
25ThreeinscriptionspointtoFabianus'semploymentofamedicalstaffthatconsistedofanunctornamedNaicus,amedicusnamedPhoebianus,alibertusnamedTrophimus,andanατρnamedSergio.
26Theirpopularityalsoextendedtotheimperialhousehold.
27Betweentherstandsecondcenturiesce,aspecialtrainingschoolformaleslavesoftheimperialhousecalledthepaedagogiumCaesariswasevensetupinRomeontheCaelianHill.
28WhilemanywereschooledinthecityofRome,itappearsthatsometraveledwiththeimperialretinueorlivedelsewherewhilestillemployedbytheimperialhouse,practicingasunctoresafternishingtheirextensivetraining.
29AformertractoroftheimperialhousenamedJuliusXan-thusservedbothTiberiusandClaudius,andbecameasubpraefectusoftheAlexandrineeet.
30Heisnodoubtananomalyratherthanthestandard,buthissituationdoesshowthemoreregularizedemploymentofsuchprofession-alsamongtheservicaesaris.
MassageTherapistsandAnointersintheBathsOnerst-centuryRomanepitaphbroadcasttheroleofthebathsindailylifequiteeloquently:"Baths,wine,andwomencorruptourbodies,butbaths,wine,andsexmakeuplife.
"31Incontrasttothissensualproclamation,thestoicSeneca,disgruntledatlivingovertopabathhouse,remarkedthatheavoidedmasseurs,thebath,oranyothermedicinetorelievehisweariness—heinsteadderivedpleasurefromwaitingoutthepain.
32Itiswithinthiscontext25PIR1S415.
Cervetti2008.
Cf.
CIL6:1517=ILS1080.
26CIL5:868=Inscr.
Aq.
489:Naico/ser(vo)/unctori/Fabianus/co(n)s(ularis);CILV,869=InscrAq.
490:Ph[o]ebiano/ser(vo)/medico/Fabianus/co(n)s(ularis);CILV,870=Inscr.
Aq.
492:'Trophimo,/lib(erto),/Fabianus/co(n)sul(aris)';CIG6752=IG14:2343=Inscr.
Aq.
491=Lettich2003,no.
289:Θ(εο)Κ(αταχθονοι)/Σεργ/στια/Σερουιλου/Φαβιανο/πατικο/φλκαατρ/Οιψανα/στιλα/ποησεν.
27Afuneraryaltarfromthethirdcenturyceindicatesthat,atleastwithregardtotheimperialhousehold,unctoresreceivedrigoroustraining:CIL5:1039=ILS1826=Inscr.
Aq.
473.
SeeLet-tich2003,no.
79;Maurice2013,123.
28CIL6:1052,8982–7.
Cf.
Rawson2003,190–1.
29SeeCIL6:32775=CIL6:33131=ILS2816.
Heliodorus,anunctorwhohadgraduatedfromtheschool,setupthisepitaphforafellowalumnusoftheacademy,Philagrypnus,aslavewhohimselfhadbeenbornintheimperialhouse,butwhoseoccupationisunknown.
FortheextensiveevidenceforimperialslavesandfreedmeninAquileia,seeInscrAq.
463–475,2301.
AlsonoteanunctorinInscrAq.
731.
30CIL6:32775=CIL6:33131=ILS2816.
31CIL6:15258=CLE1499.
Cf.
CIL14:914.
32Sen.
Ep.
123.
4.
Imustherenotethatlivingdirectlyovertopabathmightsourusallontheinstitution.
BOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"393ofperceivedsensualityandpleasurethatwemustattempttounderstandthestatusofthemassagetherapistsandanointerswhoworkedwithinthebaths.
33Muchlikethesexualpollutionthattaintedtheprostitutesthatworkedinbrothels,thisstigmawassometimesattachedtobathemployeesaswell.
Theassociationofsomebathworkerswithsocialdeviancecanhelpustounder-standbetterthereasonsforthelowerstatusofbathmasseurs,andalsothesocialpositionoftheuppermanagementofthebathswho,underRomanlaw,couldhavebeenprosecutedaspimps.
Bothprostitutesandpimpsincurredthestigmaofinfamiafortheirconsistenttransgressionofsexualboundaries,andmassagetherapistsandanointersthatengagedinsimilarfavorswouldhavebeenlikewisesusceptibletosuchastatus.
Romanbaths,whichoftenhadpalaestraeattached,wereakintotheGreekgymnasiuminthatmosthadworkoutfacilities.
Furthermore,Romanbathsemployedtheirownstaffs,whichweremostlyservile,andaroomespeciallyforanointmentcalledthealipteriumorunctorium.
34Masseursandanointerswereperhapsnotalwayscalledbyspecictermssuchasaliptesorunctor,butwereattimesreferredtogenericallyasabaliscus,lotor,orbalneator.
IntheSatyricon,Seleucuswarnsthathedoesnotgotothebathdailyduetotherigorofthemassagesgivenbyabaliscus.
35Whenbathersenteredthebath,bathattendantsimmediatelyanointedthemwithoilbeforeusheringthemontoactivitiesthatworkedupasweat.
Attendantslaterusedstrigilestoremovetheoil,sweat,andimpurities,andmasseursandperfumerswereonhandifapatronwishedamassageordousingwithperfumes.
Asweknowfromsatiricalportrayal,attendantssometimescrossedoverthelineofproprietyandprovidedsexualfavorstoguests.
AsClarkehasindicated,inbathhousedecorations,bathattendantswereoftenportrayedsexually,withtheirphalliintheseimagesevenbeingusedtodirectpeoplehowtoproceedcorrectlythroughthebaths.
AmosaicfromtheentrancetothecaldariumintheHouseofMenanderatPompeiiportraysanunctorwhoislikelyaslavegiventhatheiscarryingoiljugs,withhiserectpenishangingoutfromunderhistowel.
36VoluntaryassociationshelpedtostaffmanyRomanbaths,butpatronscouldalsobringtheirdomesticunctorestothethermae.
Ontheonehandthey33Forthesocialexperienceofbathing:Fagan1999,especially10–39.
34Manyinscriptionssimplyandambiguouslynoteanunctor,withoutmakingitclearwheretheypracticedtheirtrade.
SeeBruun1993.
35Petr.
Sat.
42:baliscusenimfulloest.
Thebathattendantiscomparedtoatextilefullerwhobeatandsoftenedwool.
AsPetroniusexemplies,anyinvestigationintothesebathingattendantsmusttakeintoaccountthattermsforbathworkersareoftengeneral,andmaynotfullyillustratetheirexpecteddutieswithinthebaths.
36Clarke1979,25–26,g.
13.
ComparewiththebathattendantButicosusinRoomBintheBathsofButicosusatOstia,agurewhoseerectpenisdirectspatronsintoRoomC(g.
30).
AlsoseeClarke1998,212–42.
394JournalofLateAntiquityservedautilitarianfunctioninanointingandmassagingtheirmaster,andontheotherhand,theyservedtoadvertisethewealthoftheirdominustotherestofthebathers.
Juvenalroundlymockedtheslaveentouragesemployedbysomebathers—hechidesawomanwhobathsatnightandisaccompaniedbyheraliptes.
37Massagetherapistsmightnotonlyhavebeentoolstopublicizeone'swealth,butwerealsoseenasessentialtoone'smedicaltreatment.
AsGarrettFaganhasshown,thegrowthinthepopularityofthebathsstronglyparallelsthegrowthinpopularityofthemedicalschoolofAsclepiadesofBithynia,aphysicianwhotoutedtheusefulnessofbaths,massage,andoilsovermoreinvasivetechniques.
38AsceneinPetronius'Satyricondescribeshow,aftersweatinginthecaldarium,thenouveau-richefreedmanTrimalchioandhisentouragepassedintothecoldroom,thefrigidarium,wherehewasanointedwithointmentwhilethreeiatraliptaesatdrinkingwine.
39Whentheyspilledit,Trimalchioremarkedtheyweretoastingtohishealth.
Petroniusisindu-bitablysatirizingtheelitepenchantforbringingattendantstothebaths,butTrimalchio'schoiceofiatraliptaeratherthanunctoresmaysignalatrendofemployingmoremedicallyeducatedmassagetherapists.
Certainlybythelaterstcentury,itappearsthatsuchprofessionalshadbecomemorecommonintheWest.
Moreover,thesocialstatusandregardgrantedtothemassagethera-pistsvariedintheEmpire—somewereregardedasprofessionalswithskillsakintothoseofdoctors;otherswerethoughtofinsexualizedanddemeaningterms.
Ratherthanamoremonolithicportrayal,sourcestookamorevar-iedone.
Althoughtheprofessionasawholehadnotbeenelevated,massagetherapydidnowoffersomeanavenuetosocialprestige.
AthleticTrainersinRomanSocietyOilwasessentialinthegymnasiuminordertokeeptheskinsupple,reducefriction,andtoclosetheporestopreventexcessivesweat.
Withinthecom-plex,threetypesofskilledattendantscateredtoGreekathletes:aπαιδοτρβη(literallya'boy-rubber,')whowasanathleticcoachortrainer);anλεπτηandtheγυμναστwhobothrubbeddownathletesandtrainedthemforcom-petition(althoughbothwererespectedemployeeswithinthegymnasium,theformerappearstohavebeenoflowerstatusthanthelatter).
40Allthreetypes37Juv.
6.
418–47.
Fortheuseofslaveentouragestoaccompanyandservepatronsatthebaths,seeFagan1999,199–200.
38Fagan1999,93–103.
39Petr.
Sat.
28.
40Aristotlenotesthatnewcitizensweresenttoaπαιδοτρβη(Const.
Ath.
42.
3).
WeknowfromPausaniasthattheγυμναστwasmaleandthattrainershadtheirownenclosurewithinwhichBOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"395oftrainerswerecloselyalliedwiththeirathletesandusedmassageandoilonthemfromearlyintheHellenisticworld.
41InhisNemeanOdes,PindarevenreferredtotheγυμναστMelesiasasa"charioteerofhandsandstrength.
"42Theesteemofathleticmasseur-trainersandtheinstitutionofathleticsitselfintheGreekworldlikelydrawsinpartfromthefactthatfewslaveswereemployedbygymnasiaorevenpermittedtoexerciseinathleticsites,andtheservilewerelargely(thoughnotcompletely)absentfromsportscompetition.
AlthoughGreeksmayhaveembracedathletictrainers,PlutarchreportsthattheRomanswereinitially"verysuspiciousoftheofrubbingdownwithoil,andeventodaytheybelievethatnothinghasbeensomuchtoblamefortheenslavementandeffeminacyoftheGreeksastheirgymnasiaandwrestling-schools.
"43Inadditiontoconnectingoil,effeminacy,andthegymnasiumwithGreeknessandforeignimmorality,RomanmoralistssuchasSenecaalsocomplainedthattheproblemwithathletictraininglayinhavingtotakeordersfromvileslaveswhoalternatedbetweentheoilaskandthewineagon.
44BeyondtheobjectionstotheuseofeffeminateoilsandGreekslavestoapplythem,criticsofthegymnasiumadditionallyobjectedtotheinstitutionaspull-ingRomanyouthfrompursuitsmoreworthymilitaryactivities.
45However,despiteeliteproteststotheinstitution,athleticsbecameprogressivelypopularwithintheLatinWestintheearlyEmpire,andinfactpromotedaGreekwayofthinkingaboutathletictraining,namelythatitservedamedicalpurpose.
46IntheletterofMarkAntonyabouthis"friendandλεπτη"MarcusAntoniusArtemidorus,wecanbesttrackthetransferenceofathletictrainingfromtheGreektotheRomanworld.
Around41bce,MarcusAntoniuswrotealettertotheAssemblyofGreeksinAsia(interestinglypreservedontheversoofamedicalpapyrus)askingforprivilegesfortheguildofhisλεπτηandfreedmanArtemidorus.
47Specically,AntoniusaskedthemtograntArtemi-dorus'sguildofathletesfreedomfrommilitaryservice,immunityfrompublictowatchathleticcompetitionsinOlympia(5.
6.
7–8).
RespectintheGreekEastextendedintotheimperialperiod,asseenintwodecreesfromDelphigivingtrainersanhonoraryplaceintheboulēandDelphiccitizenship:F.
Delphes3.
1:200,220.
41AlsoseePaus.
6.
2.
9regardingaπαιδοτρβηnamedMycon.
42Pin.
Nem.
6.
66:'χειρντεκασχονοχον'.
43Plut.
Quaes.
Rom.
40D(transBabbitt):'τγρξηραλοιφενφεωρντοωμαοισφδρα,κατολλησινοονταιμηδνοτωατιονδουλεαγεγονναικαμαλακα,τγυμνσιακατπαλαστρα.
.
.
'44Sen.
Ep.
15.
3:'hominesinteroleumetvinumoccupati'.
45SeeLuc.
7.
270–72,inwhichtheloveofthewrestlingoorisblamedforthedifficultyyoungRomanshavewithweapons.
46FortheearlyimperialgrowthofGreekathleticsinRomansociety,seeNewby2005,45.
47SB1:4224.
l.
3–4=P.
Lond.
1:137:τικοινιτνπτσαλλνων'.
SeeKenyon1893;Brandis1897;EhrenbergandJones1955,132,no.
300;Johnson1961,109,no.
125;Sherk1969,290–93,no.
57.
396JournalofLateAntiquityduties,exemptionfromquarteringtroops,atruceduringthedurationofthefestival,andtheabilitytowearpurple.
48AsAugustusalleged,thetriumvirhadgoneovertotheGreekside,andinhisphilhellenismabandonedaRomanidentity.
49Withthevalueofhindsight,wecanlookbackandseethatAntonywasontoatrendinRome:theGreekpersonaltrainer.
AthletesweregivengreatregardintheGreekworld,and,inturn,theirtrainers—whohadbothamedi-calandtechnicalskill—sharedintheirvictories.
TheuseofathletictrainersinRomansocietycontinuedtosomedegreeinboththeimperialretinuesoftheearlyEmpireandamongthepopulace.
WeknowofanimperialλεπτηnamedTiberiusClaudiusNikophon,throughadedicationheerectedtoApolloDidymeusandtheSebastoi(32/100ce).
50Moreover,afragmentofaletterfromMarcusAureliustoFrontoreferencesanaliptagrippingtheemperorbyhisjaws.
51EveninthePriceEdictofDiocle-tian(301ce),theemperorfeltcompelledtosettherateforaso-calledcero-matita(alsoknownasaceromaticusor,intheGreekworld,κηρωματικ)at50denarii.
52Theseprofessionalsappliedawax-basedκρωμαorκηρωτsalve,placingitonbrokenlimbs,andalsousedmassagetoheal.
Thegymna-siumoftenemployedtheseprofessionals,andthetermcametobeconsideredasequivalenttoπαιδοτρβη.
53Whatmayhelptoexplainthegrowingpopu-larityofsuchtrainersistheemergentacceptancethatsuchtrainershelpedtomaintainphysicalstrength,butalsoservedamedicalpurpose.
Sometimesassociationsofathleticsandmedicinemerged.
Thebestevi-denceoftheperceptionoftrainersasmedicalworkersofthebestevidencefortheperceptionoftrainersasmedicalworkersintheRomanEmpirecomesfromPubliusAeliusAristides,who,althoughaGreekfromMysiainAsiaMinor,travelledextensivelytoRome,Athens,Pergamum,andotherpartsoftheEmpire.
Thesecondcenturyoratorwasconstantlysickandspentanextensiveamountoftimeseekingoutcuresforhischronicail-ments,evenspendingtwoyearsasanincubantintheAsklepieionofPer-gamum.
Hisremarksonhisbattleswithdiseaseindicatethathetrustednot48SeePotter2012,165,whonotestherighttowearpurplewasa"striking"requestbecauseofitsassociationwithroyalty.
49Plutarch,amongmanyothers,harpsonAntony'sHellenistictendencies.
Cf.
Plut.
Ant.
23.
OnhisEasterntendencies—bothrealandimagined—seeespeciallyChamoux1986.
50IDid108=Didyma135.
51MarcusAureliustoFronto,Ep.
2.
16:'etmeusmealiptafaucibusurgebat'(143/144ce,ed.
VandenHout).
SeeKnig2005,308.
52Thiswasthesameamountallottedtopedagoguesandmagistri.
SeeLauffer1971,7.
64:paedagogus(7.
65),magister(7.
66),calculator(7.
67),notarius(7.
68),grammaticus(7.
70).
53Sch.
Ar.
Eq.
492:παιδοτρβαιγρκαλονταιοαλεπταικακηρωμαρτιστα;Cf.
SEG38:176;Pl.
Prot.
312b.
BOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"397onlyphysiciansandtempleattendantstohelphimincombatthem,butalsogymnastictrainers.
54Aristidesrevealsthelargenumberofmedicalprovidersonecouldconsult,andthephysicianGalenoffersfurtherproofthatathletictrainershadbecomerealcompetitionforphysicians.
Herailsagainstboor-ishathletictrainersinhisThrasyboulosinpartbecausetheyarestealingpatientsawayfromphysicians.
55TowardaMedicalUseofOilandMassageintheLatinWestWhenaskedhowtoliveasalubriouslife,thepre-SocraticphilosopherDem-ocritusreportedlyresponded,"Ifone'sbodyismoistenedinsidewithhoneyandoutsidewithoil.
"56Thatthisviewonasalubriouslifewaslong-livedisevidentinPlinytheElder'sreportthatwhentheemperorAugustusaskedthestill-vigorouscentenarianhowhehadkeptsohealthful,hereplied,'Intusmulso,forisoleo'—'Byhoneyedwineontheinside,byoilontheoutside.
'57Elsewhere,Plinynotedthat,aftertheformationoftheHippocraticschool,thenascenteldofmedicinequicklybecamehighlyprotable,particularlyintheareaofiatraliptics.
58WhilePlinytheElderdocumentedthegrowthofthissubeld,itwashisnephew,PlinytheYounger,whoenjoyeditsbenetsrst-hand.
Between98and99ce,whileservingonthenorthernfrontier,PlinysentthreeletterstotheemperorTrajanaskingforcitizenshipforhisiatralipta,Harpocras,forcuringhimofaseriousaffliction.
59Herewendaclearexampleofaniatraliptawhofunctionsinamedicalcapacityandwhoisesteemedforthissortofwork.
AsPliny'sunclehadalreadynotedwithmorethanalittleinvective,therewerenumerousEgyptiandoctorsinRomeinthelateRepublicandearlyEmpire,andthecityofAlexandriainparticularwasrenownedforitseduca-tionofmedicalprofessionals.
60HarpocraslikelycamefromamedicalschoolinEgyptthattaughthimiatralipticswhilehewasstillaslave,beforetravelingtoRomewithhispatroness.
61HispassagetoRomewaspossiblyinthewake54Aristid.
Or.
24.
306(ed.
Dindorf)notestheconsultingof'οτεατροκαγυμναστα.
'SeeIsraelowich2012,88–91.
55Knig2005,254–73.
56Ath.
Deipn.
2.
46F:ετμνντμλιτιβρχοι,τδκτλα.
57Plin.
NH.
22.
53.
58Plin.
NH.
29.
2.
Cf.
NH.
1.
69.
59Plin.
Ep.
10.
5,6,7,and10.
Trajan'sresponse:Ep.
10.
7.
60Plin.
NH26.
3.
SeeNoy2004,49.
61HarpocraswasafreedmanofaperegrinanamedThermuthis,thewifeofTheon,herselfanEgyptian—thoughwithoutRomancitizenship.
HarpocraswasitselfacommonEgyptiannamethatlikelyderivedfromtheGreco-RomannamefortheEgyptiangodHorus.
398JournalofLateAntiquityofanoutbreakofmentagra,askindiseasethat,accordingtotheelderPliny,originatedinEgypt,butwasbroughtfromAsiaduringthemiddleofthereignofTiberius,andsubsequentlyravagingthenobilityofRome.
62Theoutbreakcompelledmanymembersoftheelitetohirepersonalphysicianstoattempttocuretheskindiseasesandtoapplyunguentsandhealingbalmstotheopensores,perhapshasteningatrendalreadytakingrootintheWest.
Withthisinmind,itseemslikelythatsomedeprecationofathletictrainersbyphysicianswereinpartbornfromprofessionalcompetitionwithinthemedicalmarketplace.
Forinstance,Galenmayhavepurposefullydistinguishedmedicalmassagesfrommorelasciviouskinds,inordertodredgeupthesexualstigmaattachedtotheeldofmassageand,byextension,delegitimizeunctores.
63Thephysician,whoearlierinhiscareerhadtrainedgladiatorsthatbelongedtoPer-gamon'shighpriestanddependedontheuseofmassageandoilstoattendtothem,differentiatedbetweenthesexualandmedicalusesofmassageinordertochampion—andsell—hisownuseofthetherapy.
Throughouthiscareer,Galencontinuedtousemassagetherapyonhispatients,includinghisfamedtreatmentofthewifeoftheformerconsulFlaviusBoethuswhohetreatedwithamixtureofmassage,diuretics,purges,andhoneyointments.
64Othermedicalwritersappeartocritiquethefashionableemploymentofsuchspecialistsbyhealthymen.
TherstcenturyphysicianAulusCorneliusCelsus,forinstance,beganhistreatiseonmedicinebywarningreadersagainsttheunnecessaryuseofmedicalprofessionals:"Ahealthyman,whoisbothvigorousandfunctioningonhisownvolition,shouldbeundernoobligatoryrules,andhavenoneed,eitherforamedicusorforaniatrolipta.
"65Notably,themedicusandtheiatroliptaarecastasmoreorlessequivalent.
Theepigraphicandtextualevidencesuggeststhattheuseofspeciallyedu-catedtrainersandmassagetherapistshadbecomemoreregularizedinbothpublicandprivatespheresintheearlyimperialWest,despitecontinuedcriti-cismsfromRomanmoralistsdecryingthemassensualluxuriesandfromtheircompetitorsinthemedicaleld.
66Evenastheirpopularityandlegitimacyincreased,theprofessionalsthatpracticedmassageandtheuseofoilforheal-ingstilloccupiedalowerstatuswithintheLatinWestthanintheGreekEast.
62Plin.
NH.
26.
1–3.
Plinydatestheoutbreak:primumTi.
ClaudiCaesarisprincipatumedio(26.
3).
AlthoughmanyeditorshaveassumedthisimpliedthereignofClaudius,RonaldSymeargues—successfullyinmyopinion—foradatinginthereignofTiberius.
ItisinthiscontextthatTiberius'sedictonkissingmakessense.
SeeSyme1981,126;1982,75,n.
55.
63Gal.
,San.
Tu.
3.
13(trans.
Green1951,137).
64Gal.
,Praen.
8(Kuhn14.
641–647).
65Cel.
DeMed.
1.
1.
66SeealsoCIL6:9476a–b:M(arci)IuniM(arci)f(ilii)Cor(nelia)Zenodori/iatraliptes////C(ai)RubriSeleucei.
Cf.
Giest1969,145,no.
387.
Giestnotesthatheisa"Salbenarzt",i.
e.
,anointment-doctor.
Solin2003,69,"Zenodorus,"no.
1.
BOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"399ItiswithinthiscontextthatweshouldsituatethesuccessoftheuseofoilandtouchbyChristianpresbyters,bishops,monastichealers,andphysiciansfromthethirdcenturyceonward.
Christianityvalorizedoilandconferredaddi-tionallegitimacyonitstactilehealersasmediatorsbetweenthedivineandthepeople.
TheChurchofferednotonlyphysicalbutalsospiritualunguentstocleansethebody,andinsodoing,furtherbroadenedtheacceptanceoftouchandoilsforhealingwithinRomansociety.
The"TactileRevolution"inEarlyChristianityTheimportofoilintheEastandparticularlywithinthecontextofJudaismisimportanttodecodingattitudestowardstheuseofoilandtouchinearlyChristiancommunities.
NearEasternideasofsacredanointmentandtheritualuseofoiltosealkings,prophets,andreligiousleadersbecameembed-dedintheverynomenclatureofearlyChristians,andhavetheirantecedentsinJewishbeliefandritual.
Theword"Messiah"derivesfromtheHebrewword"mashah"(anoint),atermtranslatedintoGreekusingtheadjective"χρστο"(smearedoranointed),whichservedasthebasisfortheepithet"Christ.
"Thistitlespecicallyhadroyalconnotations,andreferredtotheanointmentthatoccurredduringtheinaugurationceremonyforthekingsofIsrael.
TheHebrewBiblealsoindicatesthesignicantroleplayedbyanoint-ing.
InExodus,GodorderedMosestocreateananointingoilmadefromoliveoil,myrrh,cinnamon,calamus,andcassia,withwhichhecouldthenanointandconsecratetheTabernacle.
67Thenotionthatoilwas"sacramental"—i.
e.
thatithadareligiousorsacredfunctionaboveandbeyonditstherapeuticfunction—inuencedChristianity;however,justasinGreco-Romanculture,therewereanumberofsecularusesforoilaswell.
Forexample,theMishnahYomaforbadeindulginginpleasuressuchassex,bathing,sandals,andtheapplicationofoilduringthefastYomKippur.
68Inadditiontoitsreligiousandpleasurableapplications,oilcouldalsobeusedforhealing.
ItishereinterestingtonotethatextantJewishliteratureindicateslittleassociationbetweenpriestsandhealing,althoughtherewasaclosercorrelationbetweenJewishprophetsandthehealingofthesick.
69InLeviticus,itiscommandedthatapriestuseoiltopurifyandmakeatonementforaleperpatient,butitisnotapartofthehealingoftheafflictedindividual.
7067Exod30.
22–25,40.
9;Lev8.
10.
68M.
Yoma8.
1.
69Bauckham2010,411–12.
Eve2002,253–55notesthatwhileprophetssuchasMoses,Elijah,Elisha,andIsaiahperformsomehealingmiracles,onlyasmallamountofSecondTempleLitera-turediscussesmiraculoushealing.
70Lev14.
12,15–18,21,24,26–29.
400JournalofLateAntiquityThusthefocusonthemanualapplicationofoilbyearlyChristianclericsasameansofaffectinghealingisacomplexlateantiquedevelopmentthatrevealstheinuenceofanumberofculturalattitudestowardsoilandtouch.
InordertotrackthemedicaluseofoilinearlyChristianity,then,wemustrstturntotheNewTestament.
ThebookofJamesnotes,"IsanyoneamongyousickLethimcallforththeeldersofthechurchandletthemprayoverhim,λεψαντε(anointing)himwithoilinthenameoftheLord.
"71Despiteitsapparentdirectness,thepurposesoftheoilcitedinJamesarestilldebated:wasitforametaphoric,spiritual,orphysicalhealingRecentworkonthepassagearguesconvinc-inglythatanointingintheNewTestamentepistlesarelargelymetaphoric,andthattherstreferenceofChristianunctionexplicitlyforhealingpur-posesdoesnotappearuntiltheearlythirdcentury.
72ItisthenthatTertullianreportsaboutaChristiannamedProculusTorpacionwhohealedtheemperorSeptimiusSeverususingoil.
73Atrst,theχρισμα(divinefavor)ofhealingcouldbevisitedonlaypersons;theApostolicTraditionofHippolytusallowsforanyonetoclaimreceptionofsuchadivinegift.
74Intothethirdandpar-ticularlyfourthcenturies,therewasanincreasedfocusontheclericalandthenmonasticuseofoilandtouchinparticularinordertoeffecthealinginmanyChristiancommunities,withtheJamespassageregularlyinvoked.
Additionally,OrigenandJohnChrysostomconnectoilandtheimpositionofhandswiththeforgivenessofsins.
75ToearlyChristians,theuseofoilandtouchwentbeyondsolelycleansingthebodyofimpurityorphysicalailments;theycouldalsocleansethespiritualbody.
Inthethirdcentury,bishopsandpresbytersincreasinglyministeredtothesickthroughoilandtouchalongsidemanyothercharismatichealers.
76EarlyChristiansascribedsicknesstobothnaturalanddemonicorigins,withcler-icsbecomingcrucialinattendingtoboth.
77Thisampliedapplicationofoilandtouchforspiritualcleansingalsoextendedtoritual.
TheApostolicTradi-tioncitestheuseoftheoleumexorcismi(oilofexorcism)andtheimposingof71Jas5.
14.
AlsonoteMark6.
13.
72Ferngren2009,67.
73Tert.
AdScap.
4.
5:quieumperoleumaliquandocuraverat.
PIRP747.
Lampe2003,337–38.
TertulliannotesthatTorpacionwasaprocuratortoawealthywomannamedEuhodia.
HemayormaynotbetheMontanistProculus.
Itisprobablethoughnotcertainhewasfromservileorigins,asprocuratoresinthelaterEmpirefrequentlywere.
SeeHarper2011,121.
74Hippol.
ApTrad.
15.
75Or.
Hom.
inLev.
2.
4(PG12:419).
Origenaddsimponanteimanus;JohnChrysostom,OnthePriesthood,3.
6(PG48:643).
76Barrett-Lennard1994,251.
77SeeFerngren2009,42–62,whorejectsearlyChristianbeliefindemonsasthesourceofalldisease.
BOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"401clericalhandsuponacatechumentocleansethemofdemonsduringbaptism.
78BythetimeofthelatefourthcenturyApostolicConstitutions,therewasanexplicitfocusonclericsreceivinghealingpowersintheirordination.
79Simulta-neously,monasticsalsobegantogainrenownfortheirhealingtouchandtheiruseofbothoilandwater.
80Inthefthcentury,CyrilofAlexandriaquotedthedirectiveinJamestoinstructlaypeoplewithabodilyailmenttocallontheirpresbytersratherthanseekingout"magical"remedies.
81Similarly,CaesariusofArlesalsoencouragedtheuseofconsecratedoiloftheChurch,ratherthan"magical"oils.
82Assuch,CyrilandCaesariuspositionandemphasizeclericsasthelegitimatemediatorsoftheLord,empoweredtobrokerhealingthroughtheuseofoil—inoppositiontotheremediespeddledbymagiciansandcharla-tans.
83ThisrhetoricrecallsGalen'sdismissalofrivalmassagetherapistsAsaconsequenceofthesenewattitudestowardsdiseaseandhealing,theChurchandmonasticestablishmentsbecamecentralplacestogoifonewassufferingfromillness.
Althoughphysicians,magicians,andotherheal-ersstillexistedasviablehealthcareoptions,churchescouldalsosupplyofficialmediators—e.
g.
bishops,presbyters,andexorcists—inordertohealthesick,particularlyofspiritualafflictionssuchasdemons.
Inmuchthesamemanneraspatientshadpreviouslyhirediatraliptaetoprovidephysicaltherapies,Christianscouldnowappealtotheirecclesiasticalintermediariesforsimilartreatment,thoughwithakeydifference:alicensefromGod.
AsWendyMayerhasnoted,therewasatthistimeawidespread"commonsen-sicalview"oftheinterconnectednatureofthebody,thesoul,andhealth.
84TheexamplesprovidedbyCaesariusofArlesareparticularlyillustrativeofthispoint.
Heencouragedhiscongregationto"runtochurchandreceivethebodyandbloodofChrist,andbeanointedwithHolyOilbythepriestsandaskthepriestsanddeaconstoprayovertheminChrist'sname.
"85WecanperhapsviewthisaspartoftheChurch'sattempttoclaim,inHar-vey'swords,"thephysicalworldasarealmofpositivespiritualencounterthroughtheengagementofphysicalexperience.
"86InunderscoringtheemphasisplacedbytheChurchonadministeringhealingthroughtouchandoil,Idonotmeantosuggestthatothertypesof78Hippol.
ApTrad.
21.
Sorensen2002,13.
79Apos.
Con.
8.
3.
80Crislip2005,23–24.
81Cyr.
ador.
6.
211=PG68.
471–72.
Gowler2014,300;Johnson2004,75n.
62.
82Serm.
265.
Gowler2014,300.
83Adamson1976,204.
84Mayer2015b,14.
85Serm.
19.
5(trans.
Klingshirn),emphasismine.
86Harvey2006,58.
402JournalofLateAntiquitymassagetherapistsoranointersdiedoutorthattheoldanxietiesregard-ingthesemethodsdisappearedcompletely.
Forinstance,inthethirdcen-tury,Tertulliancertainlystillviewedfemalefrictrices(rubbers)assexualdeviants:"Lookatthewhores,themarket-placesofpopularlusts,thosefricticestoo,andevenifyouhadbetterturnyoureyesawayfromsuchinfamiesofpubliclyslaughteredchastity,neverthelesslookfromaboveandyouwillseetheyarematrons!
"87Similarly,thewell-readClementofAlex-andriainterwovetheoldtropesofGreco-RomancomicssuchasAntiphanesandMenanderwithChristianattitudestowardmodesty;decryingmakeup,perfumedoils,sensualbaths,andwomenreceivingmassagesfromslaves.
88Ratherthansuggestcompleteabandonmentofeliteculturalattitudes,ImeanonlytosuggestthattherewasincreasedacceptanceofthesetherapiesasvalidmedicalandspiritualtreatmentsinthelaterEmpire,particularlyamongChristians.
Yetahierarchyofanointmentandtouchremained,withfamiliarinvectiveinvokedinordertodifferentiateclericalfromnon-clericalhealing.
Notalltouchwasequal,andtheChurchcertainlyleveragedtheaddedspiritualpotencyoftheirmedicalservices.
Consequently,Christian-ityassimilatedandpromotedmanyattitudesandtrendsthatalreadyexistedineasternmedicineandperhapsmadethemevenmorepalatabletoawest-ernaudience,butadditionallycastthemselvesastheultimatepurveyorsofhealingthatcateredtothesoulandthebody.
Whiletheuseofanointmentandtactiletherapiesbyclericsandmonas-ticsmayhavepromotedsuchapproaches,non-clerical(butstillChristian)massagetherapistsalsocontinuedtopracticeindependentlyandprovidetheirservicestoclients.
OneexamplecomesfromAphrodisias,whereaplainwhitepillarwaserectedbetweenthefourthandsixthcenturycetocommemorateaκηροματτηnamedTheodore.
νθακατ-κιτεΘεδον-ροκηροματ-τηΖωητο-δελφ.
89HereliesTheodore,ceromatites,brotherofZoetus87Tert.
Depall.
4.
9.
5.
ForthestrongsexuallanguagehereusedbyTertullian,andthepossiblerelationshipsbetweenfellatrix(awomanwhogivesfellatio),frico(masturbation),andtheoddwordfrictrices,seeAdams1982,184.
88Clem.
Paed.
3.
2;3.
5(PG8:564,602).
89MAMA8:605=ReynoldsandRoueché1989,213–14,no.
169.
Cf.
BE1966,415;Robert1965,167–70.
Forhisbrother,seeReynoldsandRoueché1989,no.
243.
BOND^"AsTrainersfortheHealthy"403Whileexpertsintheuseofhealingsalves,theseprofessionalswerealsohighlytrainedinmassageandphysicaltherapyforinjuries.
AsReynoldsandRoue-chépointout,itisforthisreasonthatthetermisoftentranslatedsimplyas"surgeon.
"90Ithasbeenarguedconvincinglythatlatereferencesindicatethatskilloftheceromatiticontinuedevenaftertheuseofgymnasiastopped—inotherwords,theirusewasnotpurelyathletic.
Indeed,themedicalwriterCassiusFelixwroteinhismid-fthcenturyDeMedicina,abouttheesteemedmedicaluseofceromatiti.
91OtherstoriesofphysicalhealingalsoindicateamoreprominentperceptionofmassagetherapyinthelaterEmpire.
InApol-loniusofTyre,ApolloniusgoesintothecityofPentapolisandimpressesKingArchistrateswithhisathleticskillandhismassagetechnique.
92EventheiatraliptaearestillreferredtointheseventhcenturyworkoftheByzantinephysicianPaulofAegina.
93Clearly,therewasroomforanumberofprofes-sionals—clericalandnon-clerical—thatengagedinanointingandmassagetherapytoheal.
ConclusionIn376,inthemidstofthestruggletocombatArianismintheEastandjustafewyearsafterheopenedhishospitalintheCaesareasuburbs(theso-calledBasileias),Basilwrotealettertowesternbishopsaskingforaid.
Heconcludeditbybeseechingthebishopstobe"thephysiciansofourwoundedmembersandthetrainersofourhealthy(ones)"(τραυματινατροτνδγιαινντωνπαιδοτρβαι).
94HisletterexempliesthemedicallexiconthatwasbythenregularlyusedbyearlyChristiantheologiansinordertoconceptualize"Christ'ssalvicactivity.
"95Basilreferredtoactingasατροtothosespiritu-allywoundedandbecomingπαιδοτρβαιtothosealreadyspirituallyhealthy.
Inhiswritings,thebishopspokefromtheperspectiveofaninhabitantofaGreekcityoftheeasternEmpire,where,asIhaveargued,παιδοτρβαιhadlongbeenacceptedandoftenreveredfortheirservices.
Bythefourthcentury,itappearsthattheWesthadalsolargelyshifteditsattitudestowardstheuseofmassagetherapy,althoughaprofessionalhierarchystillremained.
Christian-ityinfacthelpedtodisseminate,regularize,andimbedmanyeasternculturalpracticesandinstitutionsintheWest,includingthehospital,whichwasto90ReynoldsandRoueché1989,214.
91DeMed.
55:etiametdefricationibusceromaticisetdeambulationibusetlavacris.
.
.
PLRE,"CassiusFelix"13,461.
92Hist.
Apoll.
13.
15(ed.
Archibald1991,124).
93Paul.
Aeg.
DeReMed.
3.
47.
94Basil,Ep.
242.
3(PG32:372C).
95Crislip2013,50.
404JournalofLateAntiquityarriveinRomec.
390,almosttwodecadesafterBasil'sCaesareanparadigm.
WhileChristianitydidnotopenthewayfortheacceptanceofmassageoroilsintothesphereoftheacceptable,earlyChristianwritingsgaveanotherreasonforitsacceptancebyvalorizingtheuseofoilandmassageastherapeuticmethodswithpsycho-spiritualpotency.
Thisbeliefshapedtheroleofclerics,monastics,andholymen,butithadsocio-economicrepercussionsforsecularprofessionalsthatcontinuedtoprovidetheseservicesaswell.
UniversityofIowasarah-bond@uiowa.
edu