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ComputationalMicroelectronicsEditedbyS.
SelberherrPeterPichlerIntrinsicPointDefects,Impurities,andTheirDiffusioninSiliconSpringer-VerlagWienGmbHDr.
techn.
PeterPichlerFraunhofcrInstitutfiirIntegriertcSystemeundBauelememetechnologie(lISB)Erlangen.
GermanyThisworkissubject10copyright.
AIIrightsarereserved,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconccmcd.
specificallythoseoftranslation,rcprinting.
rc-useofillustrations,broadcasting,rcproductionbyphotocopyingmachinesorsimilarmeans.
andstorageindatabanks.
CI2004Springer-VerlagWienOriginall~publishedb~Springer-VerlagWienNewYork2004Softoo\'crreprintofthehardoo\er1stedition2~ProductLiability:Thepublishercangivenoguaranteefortheinfonnationcontaincdinthisbook.
Thcuseofrcgistcrcdnames,tradcmarks.
etc.
.
inthispublicationdocsnotimply.
cveninthcabsenceofaspecificstatemcnt.
lhalsuchnamesareexemptfromthcrelevantprolcclivelawsandregulationsandthereforefrecforgencraluse.
Typcsctting:Camcra-rcadybytheauthorPrintcdonacid-freeandchlorine-freebleachcdpaperSPIN:10975954With127FiguresCIPdataappliedforISBN978-3-7091-7204-9ISBN978-3-7091-0597-9(eBook)DOI10.
1007/978-3-7091-0597-9'Thetimehascome,'thewalrussaid,'Totalkofmanythings'LewisCarroll,ThroughtheLookingGlassContentsPrefacexiiiFrequentlyUsedSymbolsxvExplanationofFrequentlyUsedAbbreviationsxix1FundamentalConcepts11.
1SiliconandItsImperfections21.
1.
1OrientationsinCrystals:MillerIndices21.
1.
2TheSiliconLattice.
.
41.
1.
3CrystalDefects51.
1.
4SymmetriesofDefects81.
1.
5SelectedHigh-SymmetryConfigurationsofPointDefectsinSilicon101.
2TheElectronSystem131.
2.
1ChargeCarriersinSolids.
131.
2.
2Dopants.
.
.
.
.
.
.
141.
2.
3FermiStatistics151.
2.
4BoltzmannStatistics.
.
.
171.
2.
5High-ConcentrationEffects191.
2.
6ElectricFieldsandtheElectrostaticPotential201.
2.
7PhysicalParameters221.
3PhenomenologicalandAtomisticApproachestoDiffusion251.
3.
1Fick'sLaws261.
3.
2RandomWalkandtheAtomisticViewofDiffusion.
311.
3.
3DrivingForcesfortheRedistributionofAtoms361.
3.
4AthermalDiffusion381.
4Thermodynamics391.
4.
1EquilibriumThermodynamics391.
4.
2ThermodynamicsofIrreversibleProcesses421.
4.
3StressEffects.
.
441.
4.
4Thermodiffusion461.
5ReactionKinetics471.
5.
1TheReactionVariable1;andEquilibriumThermodynamics.
481.
5.
2DynamicTheoriesofReactions521.
5.
3EstimationofRateConstantsfortheKineticLawofMassAction551.
5.
4Diffusion-ReactionEquations581.
6ExchangeofMatterBetweenPhases62Bibliography66VBviiiCONTENTS2IntrinsicPointDefects772.
1ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium792.
2DiffusionofIntrinsicPointDefects.
872.
3Self-DiffusionandTracerDiffusion.
902.
4Vacancies1032.
4.
1ExperimentalEvidenceandSuggestedAtomicConfigurations1032.
4.
2ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium.
1072.
4.
3Diffusion1142.
4.
4Divacancies.
1202.
4.
5SmallVacancyClusters.
1272.
5Self-Interstitials.
1312.
5.
1ExperimentalEvidenceandSuggestedAtomicConfigurations1322.
5.
2ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium.
1362.
5.
3Diffusion1412.
5.
4Di-Interstitials1482.
5.
5SmallClustersofSelf-Interstitials1512.
6FrenkelPairs1582.
7BulkRecombinationandBulkProcesses.
1612.
7.
1BulkRecombination1612.
7.
2IndirectBulkRecombinationviaImpurities1672.
7.
3ReactionsofIntrinsicPointDefectswithExtendedDefects.
1682.
7.
4InteractionswithTraps1712.
7.
5InfluenceofBulkRecombinationandTrapsonthePoint-DefectDiffu-sivitiesObservedExperimentally1742.
7.
6GenerationofPointDefectsbyChemicalProcessesintheBulk1762.
8SurfaceRecombinationandSurfaceProcesses1762.
8.
1PhenomenologicalInterfaceandBoundaryConditions1772.
8.
2SurfaceReconstruction1792.
8.
3SegregationofSelf-InterstitialsintoOxideLayers.
.
.
1852.
8.
4GenerationofIntrinsicPointDefectsbyChemicalReactionsatInterfaces1862.
9InitialConditions188Bibliography1903ImpurityDiffusioninSilicon2293.
1BasicMechanisms2293.
1.
1InterstitialDiffusion2293.
1.
2Direct-ExchangeMechanismforSubstitutionalImpurities2303.
1.
3DiffusionofSubstitutionalAtomsviaVacancies.
.
.
.
.
2313.
1.
4DiffusionofSubstitutionalImpuritiesasInterstitialsorImpurity-Self-InterstitialPairs.
.
.
.
2333.
2Impurity-Point-DefectPairs2343.
2.
1ClassificationofPairs2343.
2.
2ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium.
2363.
3DiffusionofSubstitutionalImpuritiesviaMobileComplexeswithIntrinsicPointDefects2423.
3.
1FormationandDiffusionofMobileComplexes.
.
.
.
2433.
3.
2BoundaryConditionsforMobileImpurityComplexes2473.
3.
3Simplifications2473.
3.
4IndirectRecombinationofIntrinsicPointDefectsinSteadyState251CONTENTS3.
4Pair-DiffusionModels.
3.
4.
1DerivationoftheDiffusionEquations3.
4.
2TheIntrinsicDiffusionCoefficient.
3.
4.
3Estimatesof11fromExperiments3.
4.
4TheFieldEffect.
3.
4.
5Boltzrnann-MatanoAnalysis.
3.
4.
6IsoconcentrationExperiments.
.
3.
4.
7InfluenceofDopantDiffusionontheIntrinsicPointDefects3.
5Frank-TurnbullMechanism.
3.
5.
1DerivationoftheDiffusion-ReactionEquations3.
5.
2DiscussionofSpecialCases.
3.
6Kick-OutMechanism.
3.
6.
1DerivationoftheDiffusion-ReactionEquations3.
6.
2DiscussionofSpecialCasesBibliography.
4IsovalentImpurities4.
1Carbon.
4.
1.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4.
1.
2Solubility4.
1.
3Diffusion4.
1.
4Carbon-SiliconComplexes.
4.
1.
5ComplexeswithOxygen.
.
4.
1.
6ComplexeswithDopants.
.
4.
1.
7InfluenceontheConcentrationsofIntrinsicPointDefects4.
2Germanium.
4.
2.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4.
2.
2Solubility.
4.
2.
3Diffusion.
4.
2.
4Complexes4.
3Tin.
4.
3.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4.
3.
2Solubility.
4.
3.
3Diffusion.
4.
3.
4ComplexesBibliography.
5Dopants5.
1DopantClusters5.
2IonPairing.
.
5.
3Boron5.
3.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
5.
3.
2Solubility.
5.
3.
3Diffusion.
5.
3.
4Complexes5.
4Aluminum.
.
.
.
.
5.
4.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
5.
4.
2Solubility5.
4.
3Diffusion.
ix251251253255260261262263267267268272272273275281281282284285289292297300300301301302305306306308309311311331332334337337341342350359360361361xCONTENTS5.
4.
4Complexes3655.
5Gallium3665.
5.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3665.
5.
2Solubility.
3665.
5.
3Diffusion3675.
5.
4Complexes3695.
6Indium3705.
6.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3705.
6.
2Solubility.
3725.
6.
3Diffusion3755.
6.
4Complexes3775.
7Nitrogen3785.
7.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3805.
7.
2Solubility.
3835.
7.
3Diffusion3835.
7.
4Complexes3855.
8Phosphorus.
.
.
.
3905.
8.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3905.
8.
2Solubility.
3935.
8.
3Diffusion3955.
8.
4Complexes4035.
9Arsenic4045.
9.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4045.
9.
2Solubility.
4075.
9.
3Diffusion4085.
9.
4Complexes4135.
10Antimony.
.
.
.
.
4165.
10.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4175.
10.
2Solubility.
4185.
10.
3Diffusion4205.
10.
4Complexes424Bibliography4256Chalcogens4696.
1Oxygen4696.
1.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4706.
1.
2Solubility4716.
1.
3NormalDiffusion4726.
1.
4EnhancedDiffusion4746.
1.
5ComplexeswithIntrinsicPointDefects4756.
1.
6OxygenDimersandTrimers.
4836.
2Sulfur4846.
2.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4846.
2.
2Solubility.
4866.
2.
3Diffusion4866.
2.
4Complexes4876.
3Selenium.
.
.
.
.
4886.
3.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4886.
3.
2Solubility489CONTENTS6.
3.
3Diffusion.
6.
3.
4Complexes6.
4Tellurium6.
4.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
6.
4.
2Solubility.
6.
4.
3Diffusion.
6.
4.
4ComplexesBibliography.
7Halogens7.
1Auorine7.
1.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
7.
1.
2Diffusion7.
1.
3Complexes.
7.
1.
4InfluenceonTransientDiffusionandDopantActivation7.
1.
5FluorineandSiliconOxidation.
7.
2Chlorine.
7.
2.
1ChlorineinSilicon7.
2.
2AdditionofChlorineCompoundsduringOxidation.
7.
3Bromine.
BibliographyListofTablesListofFiguresIndexxi489490492492493494495495513513514515517518521522522522525526537539543PrefaceWhenIworkedonmydiplomainelectricalengineeringandlateronmydoctoralthesisattheTechnicalUniversityofVienna,IhadthepleasureofaclosecontacttoProf.
H.
W.
Potzl,Insomeprivatehoursheusedtotellthestoryofthebook!
heoncewrote.
Afterquitesometime,whenthepublisherhadbecomeveryimpatient,Prof.
Heywangwasaskedtojoinhim.
Butinsteadofspeedingtheprocedureup,itsloweditdown.
Theyneededevenmoretimetogetherfortheirdiscussions.
Whilesuchtaleswerenotreallyencouragingforwritingbooks,IalsohadthepleasureofworkingunderdirectguidanceofProf.
S.
Selberherronmydoctoralthesiswhenhewrotehisrenownedbookonsimulationofsemiconductordevices.
fThewritingofthisbookwent,inmyestimation,quitesmoothlyandrapidly.
So,itwaswithmuchhopethatitwouldbepossibletocompletemyownbookondiffusioninsiliconina"short"timewhenProf.
SelberherrcontactedmeaboutitcenturiesagoinhiscapacityaseditoroftheSpringerSeriesinComputationalMicroelectronics.
Inretrospect,itseemsIratherfollowedthepathofProf.
Potzlinstead.
Irecognizedsoonthatmyknowledgeatthattime,andmaybeevennow,wassomewhatlimited,thatthedevelopentintheareaIwaswritingonwentfasterthanIcouldwriteitdown,andthatthesubjecthadmorefacetsIhadimagined.
However,Ialsonoticedthat-mostlikelyunknowntotheauthors-conceptsweresometimesreinventedordevelopedagainstabackgroundofbetterexperimentalevidence.
AfterIgothookedonalifeasscientifichunter-gatherer,itwasmyintentiontocollectasmuchoftherelevantinformationonpointdefectsanddiffusionphenomenainsiliconaspossibletocreateasoundbasisofknowledgeforfuturescientificgenerations.
Inthistask,andinmydesiretounderstandthings,IprofitedmuchfromworkingtogetherwithsomeofthemajorEuropeanscientists,especiallyinafruitfulcoopera-tionwithMEMCItalyandintheprojectsRAPIDandFRENDTECHfundedbytheEuropeanCommunity,andfromparticipatingintheworkshopsoftheENDEASDnetworkfundedlike-wisebytheEuropeanCommunity.
Thebookisstructuredasfollows:Inthefirstchapter,somefundamentalconceptsaredis-cussedwhichformthescientificbasisfortheremainderofthebook.
Inthesecondchapter,vacanciesandself-interstitialsareintroducedandtheirknownpropertiesarediscussedinde-tail.
Thediffusionofimpuritiesisdealtwithinthirdchapter,andtheremainingchaptersfourtosevensummarizethepropertiesofisovalentimpurities,dopants,chalcogens,andhalogens.
Unfortunately,itisnotpossibletopresentaunifiedpictureofthesubject.
Toomanyaspectsarenotaccessibledirectlytocharacterizationsothatamplelatitudeisavailableforspeculations.
Whencontradictoryconceptsexistintheliterature,exceptwhentheyareatoddswithindepen-dentexperimentalevidence,allofthemarediscussedimpartiallyandfutureworkmaydecideaboutrightorwrong.
Itismyhopethatmybookisusefultobeginnersuptoexpertsoutside(andmaybesometimesevenwithin)theirownfieldofexpertise.
IW.
HeywangandH.
W.
Potzl,BiinderstrukturundStromtransport,Halbleiter-Elektronik,vol.
3.
Berlin:Springer(1976).
2S.
Selberherr,AnalysisandSimulationofSemiconductorDevices.
Vienna:Springer(1984).
xiiixivPREFACEDuetolimitationsinspaceaswellasintime,itwasnotpossibletoaddressallaspectsofdiffusioninsilicon.
Especiallydiffusioninmulti-layersystems,macroscopicextendedintrinsicandextrinsicdefects,metals,hydrogen,andimportantphenomenaliketransienteffectsondif-fusionandactivationofdopantshadtobeneglected.
Itismydeclaredintentiontocoverthesesubjectsinafollow-upbook.
However,havinglearnedfrommyexperienceswiththisbook,onecouldnotexpectittobereadywithintooshortaperiod.
Thisbookwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportbynumerouslibrarianswhodidnothesitatetoprovidemeevenwiththerarestreferencesfromthedeepestvaults.
Mrs.
KarinBohmer,Mrs.
HeidrunEscherich,Mrs.
MonikaForstel,Mrs.
EdeltraudHaagen,andMrs.
ElisabethPlankofthelibraryoftheUniversityErlangen-NurnbergandMrs.
AnetteDaurerofthelibraryoftheFraunhoferInstituteofIntegratedSystemsandDeviceTechnologyinErlangenweremorevisibleandofdirecthelptome.
However,IamwellawarethattheyarejustthetipoftheicebergandIhavetoapologizetotheothersfornotmentioning.
DuringtheyearsIworkedonthisbook,myunderstandingwascontinuouslyextendedbydiscussionswithcolleagueswithwhomIhadthepleasuretocooperateatourinstitute.
Inparticular,IwouldliketoacknowledgeMr.
HaraldBauer,Dr.
AlexanderBurenkov,Dr.
RainerDtirr,Dr.
MichaelJacob,Dr.
OliverKrause,Dr.
SteffenList,Dr.
ChristopheOrtiz,Dr.
FabianQuast,Dr.
RainerSchork,Dr.
DorotheeStiebel,andProf.
HorstZimmermann.
Unfortunately,neithermycommemorationsnorthespaceavailablewouldsufficetogiveproperreferencetoallcolleagueswhoenlightenedmebydiscussionsatconferencesandmeetings,orperemail.
OfparticularinspirationwerethecontactstoDr.
AlainClaverieofCEMES/CNRSandDr.
FiladelfoCristianoofLAAS/CNRSinToulouse,Prof.
NickCowemoftheUniversityofSurrey,andDr.
RobertFalsterandProf.
VladimirV.
VoronkovofMEMC.
IamalsoverygratefultoProf.
SiegfriedSelberherrandProf.
UlrichGoselefortheircontinuedinterestinthisbook.
ThisbookwouldalsonothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportofProf.
HeinerRysselandDr.
JurgenLorenzattheFraunhoferInstituteofIntegratedSystemsandDeviceTechnologyinErlangen.
Finally,IhavetoapologizetomywifeJuliana,thechildrenCarstenandFriederike,tomymotherTheresia,andtomyparentsinlawDr.
h.
c.
GerhardandGudrunSeydel,sincethisbooksimplystoletoomuchtimeIcouldhavespentmorehappilywiththem.
PeterPichlerFrequentlyUsedSymbolsWhendenotingmorethanoneobject,theprimarymeaningiscitedfirst.
Therespectiveunitsarenotedinparentheses.
aRCaptureradius(m)asiLengthoftheunitcellofsilicon(5.
43072A)CConcentration(m-3)~Numberperunitarea(m-2)CPrefactorinthespecificationofatemperature-dependentconcentrationintheformC·exp(-EA/kT)(m-3)C/Concentrationofself-interstitials(m>')CSiConcentrationofsiliconatoms,(5·\022cm-3)CvConcentrationofvacancies(m-3)CxconcentrationofdefectsX(m-3)c;qEquilibriumconcentrationofdefectsX(m-3)CXISolubilityconcentrationofimpurityX(m-3)Cx,ConcentrationofdefectXonsubstitutionalsites(m-3)CxsConcentrationofsitesfordefectX(m-3)DDiffusioncoefficient(m2/s)DoPrefactorinthespecificationofatemperature-dependentdiffusioncoefficientintheformDo'exp(-EA/kT)orDo'exp(0)orelectrons(forjx,numberofatomspassingaunitareaperunittime(m-2s-l)Boltzmannconstant(1.
3806(58).
10-23JIK)Surfacerecombinationvelocityofself-interstitials(l)orvacancies(V)(m/s)ForwardreactionconstantofreactionrBackwardreactionconstantofreactionrPhenomenologicalcoefficientwithinthetheoryofthethermodynamicsofirreversibleprocessesMass(kg)Electronmass(9.
1093897(54).
10-31kg)Effectivemassofelectrons(kg)Effectivemassofholes(kg)MassofasiliconatomeSSi:4.
64951256.
10-26kg,29Si:4.
81556658.
10-26kg,30Si:4.
9816206.
10-26kg)Electronconcentration(rn");numberofmolesofasubstance(I)Intrinsicelectronconcentration(m-3)Effectiveintrinsicelectronconcentration(m-3)Numberofatoms,molecules,ordefects(1)Avogadroconstant,numberofatomsormoleculesinonemole(6.
02213(58).
1023mor')NumberofdefectsXinchargestatej(1)NumberofsitesfordefectX(1)Holeconcentration(m-3)Hydrostaticpressure(Pa)Heatoftransfer(J)xviisMechanicalstrain,correspondingtoalengthchangerelativetothetotallength(I)SEntropy(J/K)SfEntropyofformation(J/K)S'"Entropyofmigration(J)Time(s)TAbsolutetemperature(K)UTThermalvoltagek-Tjq(V)VVolume(m-3)ifPartialatomicvolume(m-3)VSiAtomicvolumeassociatedwithonesiliconatom,(20A3=2.
10-29m-3)xSpacecoordinate(m)x"Molefractionoratomicfraction(I)x'Sitefraction(I)XXisusedingeneralrelationshipstorepresentself-interstitialsIorvacanciesVySpacecoordinate(m)YYisintroducedingeneralrelationshipsinassociationwithXandstandsforself-interstitialsIwhenXstandsforvacanciesV,andviceversazChargestatecorrespondingtothenumberofelectronsassociated(e.
g.
2fordoublynegativelychargeddefects,0forneutralones,and-Iforpositivelychargeddefectslikeionizeddonors);Spacecoordinate(m)aMXPartitionconstantforthedirectformationofaspecificimpurity-point-defectcomplexMX(I)yActivitycoefficient(I)rJumpfrequency(lis)roAttemptoroscillationfrequency(lis)bXiRelativeconcentrationofdefectXinchargestatejunderintrinsicconditionswithrespecttoacertainreferencechargestateofthedefect(1)tlGChangeintheGibbsfreeenergy(J)EPermittivityconstant(::r,)EOPermittivityconstantinvacuum(8.
8542.
10-12::r,)1;Reactionvariableintermsofconcentrationsofreactantsandproducts(cm-3)eNumberofdifferentconfigurationsforacertaindefect(I)egNumberofgeometricallyequivalentanddistinguishableconfigurationsofacertaindefectataspecificsite(I)eiNumberofinternaldegreesoffreedomforacertaingeometricalconfigurationofadefect(1)A.
Meanpathlengthadefectdiffusesbeforeitbecomesimmobile(m);LagrangemultiplierxviiiFREQUENTLYUSEDSYMBOLSJ1Gibbsfreeenergyperatomormolecule,chemicalpotential(J)J1*Standardvalueofthechemicalpotentialatthereferencestate(J)1;Reactionvariableintermsofamountsofreactantsandproducts(mol)n:Ratioofacircle'scircumferencetoitsdiameter(3.
141592653.
.
.
)aStandarddeviationofdistributionfunctions(m);mechanicalstress(Pa)"tTimeconstant(s)'Ij1Electrostaticpotential(V)ProbabilityamplitudeintheSchrodingerequation(m-3/2)QComplexionnumber(1)ExplanationofFrequentlyUsedAbbreviationsalcf3-NMRCMOSCZDLTSENDOREPRESREXAFSFTIRFZlEDRelatestoaninterfacebetween~morphousandrystallineregions~uclearmagneticresonancedetectedinf3decay:Characterizationtechniqueforthestructuralpropertiesofmagnetic,radioactivenucleihavingshorthalf-lifes,basedontheasymmetriesintheirf3decayrelativetothedirectionofthenuclearpolarization.
~omplementarymetalQxide§.
emiconductorDenotesCzochralski-grownsilicon.
!
2eeplevel!
ransient§.
pectroscopy,alsocalledgeeplevel!
emperature§.
can:Methodbasedonthemeasurementofcapacitytransientsassociatedwithcaptureandemissionofchargecarriersatandfromdeeplevelsasafunctionoftemperature.
Pl.
Isefultocharacterizepointdefectswithrespecttothepositionoftheirelectroniclevelsintheforbiddenbandgapandtherespectivecapturecrosssections,aswellastheconcentrationofthedefects~Iectronnucleardoubleresonance:Spectroscopicmethodusingcombinedelectron-spinandnuclearmagneticresonances~Iectronaramagneticresonance,alsocalledelectronspmresonance(ESR):Spectroscopicmethodbasedontheabsorptionofmicrowave-frequencyelectromagneticradiationbyunpairedelectronsintheatomicstructuresubjectedtoanappropriatelystrongstationarymagneticfield.
Anoverviewofthemethodandofthecentersfounduntil1983canbefoundinthereviewarticleofSieverts.
"~Iectron§.
pinresonance:seeEPR~xtendedX-RayAbsorptionfine~tructure:Themethodprobesaparticularspeciesofimpurityatomsandisabletogiveinformationonthenumber,distance,andchemicalidentityoftheatomsaroundthem.
fouriertransforminfraredspectroscopy:VariantoftheIRspectroscopyDenotes[loat-gone-grownsiliconImplantation~nhancedgiffusion:Enhanceddiffusionofimpuritiesduringpost-implantationannealing3D.
V.
Lang,"Deep-LevelTransientSpectroscopy:ANewMethodtoCharacterizeTrapsinSemiconductors,"J.
Appl.
Phys.
,vol.
45,no.
7,3023-3032(1974);G.
L.
Miller,D.
V.
Lang,andL.
C.
Kimerling,"CapacitanceTransientSpectroscopy,"Ann.
Rev.
Mater.
Sci.
,vol.
7,377-448(1977).
4E.
G.
Sieverts,"ClassificationofDefectsinSiliconafterTheirg-Values,"phys.
stat.
sol.
(b),vol.
120,11-29(1983).
xixxxIRMBEMOSMOSFETODMROEDORDOSFPLRBSRTRTARTPSANSSIMNISIMOXSIMSSNMSSOlTEMULSIEXPLANATIONOFFREQUENTLYUSEDABBREVIATIONSInfrared:SpectroscopicmethodbasedontheabsorptionofelectromagneticradiationinthefrequencyrangeofinfraredlightMolecular!
:!
earn~itaxyMetalQxide§.
emiconductorMetalQxide§.
emiconductorfield~ffect!
ransistorQptically.
QetectedMagneticResonance:SpectroscopicmethodbasedonthedetectionofmagneticresonancesinthefrequencyrangeoflightandnotattheoriginalresonancefrequencyQxidationenhancedgiffusion:EnhanceddiffusionofimpuritiesduringannealsunderoxidizingconditionsQxidationretardedgiffusion:RetardeddiffusionofimpuritiesduringannealsunderoxidizingconditionsOxidationstackingfault:Extendedself-interstitialaggregate,introducingastackingfaultona{III}planePhotoluminescence:Spectroscopicmethodbasedontheemissionoflightinducedbytheabsoprtionofelectromagneticradiation.
AnextensivereviewonPLinsiliconwasauthoredbyDavies.
"RutherfordQack§.
cattering:Characterizationtechniquebasedonthenuclearscatteringofhigh-energetichydrogenorheliumatomsattargetatomswhich,viatheelectronicenergyloss,allowsdepthprofilingofthetargetcomposition.
InchannelingRBSmeasurements,theincidentbeamisdirectedalongmajorcrystallographicdirectionssothatbackscatteringfromatomsonregularlatticeatomsisavoidedtoalargeextent.
Roomtemperature,correspondingtoabout300KRapidjhcrmal~nncalingRapid[hermal~rocessing~mallangleneutron§.
cattering,methodtomeasurethesizesofdefects~eparationbyimplantatednitrogen,methodtoseparateathincrystallinesiliconlayerfrombulksiliconbyimplantationofnitrogeninhighdoses.
Separationbyimplantated~gen,methodtoseparateathincrystallinesiliconlayerfrombulksiliconbyimplantationofoxygeninhighdoses.
~econdaryionmass§.
pectrometry:Measurementmethodbasedonthemass-resolvedanalysisofthenumberofchargedionssputteredofffromatargetbyaprimaryionbeam,usuallyusedtocharacterizedepthprofilesofimpurities.
~econdaryneutralmass§.
pectrometry:MeasurementmethodsimilartoSIMS.
Butinsteadofanalyzingthechargedionssputteredofftheneutralionssputteredoffareionizedandanalyzed.
Thus,matrixeffectsaregreatlyreduced.
~iliconQninsulatorIransmissionelectronmicroscopy:Microscopymethodbasedontheinteractionofmatterwithapenetratingfocussedelectronbeam.
Generallyusedtostudycrystaldefects.
!
!
ltralarge§.
caleintegration5G.
Davies,"TheOpticalPropertiesofLuminescenceCentresinSilicon".
PhysicsReports,vol.
176.
no.
3/4,83-188(1989).
VLSIXPSxxiYerylargescaleintegrationX-rayhotoemision~pectroscopy:SpectroscopicmethodreflectingthebindingenergyofelectronsemittedfrominnershellsofatomsduetotheirinteractionwithanX-raybeam
SelberherrPeterPichlerIntrinsicPointDefects,Impurities,andTheirDiffusioninSiliconSpringer-VerlagWienGmbHDr.
techn.
PeterPichlerFraunhofcrInstitutfiirIntegriertcSystemeundBauelememetechnologie(lISB)Erlangen.
GermanyThisworkissubject10copyright.
AIIrightsarereserved,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconccmcd.
specificallythoseoftranslation,rcprinting.
rc-useofillustrations,broadcasting,rcproductionbyphotocopyingmachinesorsimilarmeans.
andstorageindatabanks.
CI2004Springer-VerlagWienOriginall~publishedb~Springer-VerlagWienNewYork2004Softoo\'crreprintofthehardoo\er1stedition2~ProductLiability:Thepublishercangivenoguaranteefortheinfonnationcontaincdinthisbook.
Thcuseofrcgistcrcdnames,tradcmarks.
etc.
.
inthispublicationdocsnotimply.
cveninthcabsenceofaspecificstatemcnt.
lhalsuchnamesareexemptfromthcrelevantprolcclivelawsandregulationsandthereforefrecforgencraluse.
Typcsctting:Camcra-rcadybytheauthorPrintcdonacid-freeandchlorine-freebleachcdpaperSPIN:10975954With127FiguresCIPdataappliedforISBN978-3-7091-7204-9ISBN978-3-7091-0597-9(eBook)DOI10.
1007/978-3-7091-0597-9'Thetimehascome,'thewalrussaid,'Totalkofmanythings'LewisCarroll,ThroughtheLookingGlassContentsPrefacexiiiFrequentlyUsedSymbolsxvExplanationofFrequentlyUsedAbbreviationsxix1FundamentalConcepts11.
1SiliconandItsImperfections21.
1.
1OrientationsinCrystals:MillerIndices21.
1.
2TheSiliconLattice.
.
41.
1.
3CrystalDefects51.
1.
4SymmetriesofDefects81.
1.
5SelectedHigh-SymmetryConfigurationsofPointDefectsinSilicon101.
2TheElectronSystem131.
2.
1ChargeCarriersinSolids.
131.
2.
2Dopants.
.
.
.
.
.
.
141.
2.
3FermiStatistics151.
2.
4BoltzmannStatistics.
.
.
171.
2.
5High-ConcentrationEffects191.
2.
6ElectricFieldsandtheElectrostaticPotential201.
2.
7PhysicalParameters221.
3PhenomenologicalandAtomisticApproachestoDiffusion251.
3.
1Fick'sLaws261.
3.
2RandomWalkandtheAtomisticViewofDiffusion.
311.
3.
3DrivingForcesfortheRedistributionofAtoms361.
3.
4AthermalDiffusion381.
4Thermodynamics391.
4.
1EquilibriumThermodynamics391.
4.
2ThermodynamicsofIrreversibleProcesses421.
4.
3StressEffects.
.
441.
4.
4Thermodiffusion461.
5ReactionKinetics471.
5.
1TheReactionVariable1;andEquilibriumThermodynamics.
481.
5.
2DynamicTheoriesofReactions521.
5.
3EstimationofRateConstantsfortheKineticLawofMassAction551.
5.
4Diffusion-ReactionEquations581.
6ExchangeofMatterBetweenPhases62Bibliography66VBviiiCONTENTS2IntrinsicPointDefects772.
1ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium792.
2DiffusionofIntrinsicPointDefects.
872.
3Self-DiffusionandTracerDiffusion.
902.
4Vacancies1032.
4.
1ExperimentalEvidenceandSuggestedAtomicConfigurations1032.
4.
2ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium.
1072.
4.
3Diffusion1142.
4.
4Divacancies.
1202.
4.
5SmallVacancyClusters.
1272.
5Self-Interstitials.
1312.
5.
1ExperimentalEvidenceandSuggestedAtomicConfigurations1322.
5.
2ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium.
1362.
5.
3Diffusion1412.
5.
4Di-Interstitials1482.
5.
5SmallClustersofSelf-Interstitials1512.
6FrenkelPairs1582.
7BulkRecombinationandBulkProcesses.
1612.
7.
1BulkRecombination1612.
7.
2IndirectBulkRecombinationviaImpurities1672.
7.
3ReactionsofIntrinsicPointDefectswithExtendedDefects.
1682.
7.
4InteractionswithTraps1712.
7.
5InfluenceofBulkRecombinationandTrapsonthePoint-DefectDiffu-sivitiesObservedExperimentally1742.
7.
6GenerationofPointDefectsbyChemicalProcessesintheBulk1762.
8SurfaceRecombinationandSurfaceProcesses1762.
8.
1PhenomenologicalInterfaceandBoundaryConditions1772.
8.
2SurfaceReconstruction1792.
8.
3SegregationofSelf-InterstitialsintoOxideLayers.
.
.
1852.
8.
4GenerationofIntrinsicPointDefectsbyChemicalReactionsatInterfaces1862.
9InitialConditions188Bibliography1903ImpurityDiffusioninSilicon2293.
1BasicMechanisms2293.
1.
1InterstitialDiffusion2293.
1.
2Direct-ExchangeMechanismforSubstitutionalImpurities2303.
1.
3DiffusionofSubstitutionalAtomsviaVacancies.
.
.
.
.
2313.
1.
4DiffusionofSubstitutionalImpuritiesasInterstitialsorImpurity-Self-InterstitialPairs.
.
.
.
2333.
2Impurity-Point-DefectPairs2343.
2.
1ClassificationofPairs2343.
2.
2ConcentrationinThermalEquilibrium.
2363.
3DiffusionofSubstitutionalImpuritiesviaMobileComplexeswithIntrinsicPointDefects2423.
3.
1FormationandDiffusionofMobileComplexes.
.
.
.
2433.
3.
2BoundaryConditionsforMobileImpurityComplexes2473.
3.
3Simplifications2473.
3.
4IndirectRecombinationofIntrinsicPointDefectsinSteadyState251CONTENTS3.
4Pair-DiffusionModels.
3.
4.
1DerivationoftheDiffusionEquations3.
4.
2TheIntrinsicDiffusionCoefficient.
3.
4.
3Estimatesof11fromExperiments3.
4.
4TheFieldEffect.
3.
4.
5Boltzrnann-MatanoAnalysis.
3.
4.
6IsoconcentrationExperiments.
.
3.
4.
7InfluenceofDopantDiffusionontheIntrinsicPointDefects3.
5Frank-TurnbullMechanism.
3.
5.
1DerivationoftheDiffusion-ReactionEquations3.
5.
2DiscussionofSpecialCases.
3.
6Kick-OutMechanism.
3.
6.
1DerivationoftheDiffusion-ReactionEquations3.
6.
2DiscussionofSpecialCasesBibliography.
4IsovalentImpurities4.
1Carbon.
4.
1.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4.
1.
2Solubility4.
1.
3Diffusion4.
1.
4Carbon-SiliconComplexes.
4.
1.
5ComplexeswithOxygen.
.
4.
1.
6ComplexeswithDopants.
.
4.
1.
7InfluenceontheConcentrationsofIntrinsicPointDefects4.
2Germanium.
4.
2.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4.
2.
2Solubility.
4.
2.
3Diffusion.
4.
2.
4Complexes4.
3Tin.
4.
3.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4.
3.
2Solubility.
4.
3.
3Diffusion.
4.
3.
4ComplexesBibliography.
5Dopants5.
1DopantClusters5.
2IonPairing.
.
5.
3Boron5.
3.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
5.
3.
2Solubility.
5.
3.
3Diffusion.
5.
3.
4Complexes5.
4Aluminum.
.
.
.
.
5.
4.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
5.
4.
2Solubility5.
4.
3Diffusion.
ix251251253255260261262263267267268272272273275281281282284285289292297300300301301302305306306308309311311331332334337337341342350359360361361xCONTENTS5.
4.
4Complexes3655.
5Gallium3665.
5.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3665.
5.
2Solubility.
3665.
5.
3Diffusion3675.
5.
4Complexes3695.
6Indium3705.
6.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3705.
6.
2Solubility.
3725.
6.
3Diffusion3755.
6.
4Complexes3775.
7Nitrogen3785.
7.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3805.
7.
2Solubility.
3835.
7.
3Diffusion3835.
7.
4Complexes3855.
8Phosphorus.
.
.
.
3905.
8.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
3905.
8.
2Solubility.
3935.
8.
3Diffusion3955.
8.
4Complexes4035.
9Arsenic4045.
9.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4045.
9.
2Solubility.
4075.
9.
3Diffusion4085.
9.
4Complexes4135.
10Antimony.
.
.
.
.
4165.
10.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4175.
10.
2Solubility.
4185.
10.
3Diffusion4205.
10.
4Complexes424Bibliography4256Chalcogens4696.
1Oxygen4696.
1.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4706.
1.
2Solubility4716.
1.
3NormalDiffusion4726.
1.
4EnhancedDiffusion4746.
1.
5ComplexeswithIntrinsicPointDefects4756.
1.
6OxygenDimersandTrimers.
4836.
2Sulfur4846.
2.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4846.
2.
2Solubility.
4866.
2.
3Diffusion4866.
2.
4Complexes4876.
3Selenium.
.
.
.
.
4886.
3.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
4886.
3.
2Solubility489CONTENTS6.
3.
3Diffusion.
6.
3.
4Complexes6.
4Tellurium6.
4.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
6.
4.
2Solubility.
6.
4.
3Diffusion.
6.
4.
4ComplexesBibliography.
7Halogens7.
1Auorine7.
1.
1BasicAtomicConfigurations.
7.
1.
2Diffusion7.
1.
3Complexes.
7.
1.
4InfluenceonTransientDiffusionandDopantActivation7.
1.
5FluorineandSiliconOxidation.
7.
2Chlorine.
7.
2.
1ChlorineinSilicon7.
2.
2AdditionofChlorineCompoundsduringOxidation.
7.
3Bromine.
BibliographyListofTablesListofFiguresIndexxi489490492492493494495495513513514515517518521522522522525526537539543PrefaceWhenIworkedonmydiplomainelectricalengineeringandlateronmydoctoralthesisattheTechnicalUniversityofVienna,IhadthepleasureofaclosecontacttoProf.
H.
W.
Potzl,Insomeprivatehoursheusedtotellthestoryofthebook!
heoncewrote.
Afterquitesometime,whenthepublisherhadbecomeveryimpatient,Prof.
Heywangwasaskedtojoinhim.
Butinsteadofspeedingtheprocedureup,itsloweditdown.
Theyneededevenmoretimetogetherfortheirdiscussions.
Whilesuchtaleswerenotreallyencouragingforwritingbooks,IalsohadthepleasureofworkingunderdirectguidanceofProf.
S.
Selberherronmydoctoralthesiswhenhewrotehisrenownedbookonsimulationofsemiconductordevices.
fThewritingofthisbookwent,inmyestimation,quitesmoothlyandrapidly.
So,itwaswithmuchhopethatitwouldbepossibletocompletemyownbookondiffusioninsiliconina"short"timewhenProf.
SelberherrcontactedmeaboutitcenturiesagoinhiscapacityaseditoroftheSpringerSeriesinComputationalMicroelectronics.
Inretrospect,itseemsIratherfollowedthepathofProf.
Potzlinstead.
Irecognizedsoonthatmyknowledgeatthattime,andmaybeevennow,wassomewhatlimited,thatthedevelopentintheareaIwaswritingonwentfasterthanIcouldwriteitdown,andthatthesubjecthadmorefacetsIhadimagined.
However,Ialsonoticedthat-mostlikelyunknowntotheauthors-conceptsweresometimesreinventedordevelopedagainstabackgroundofbetterexperimentalevidence.
AfterIgothookedonalifeasscientifichunter-gatherer,itwasmyintentiontocollectasmuchoftherelevantinformationonpointdefectsanddiffusionphenomenainsiliconaspossibletocreateasoundbasisofknowledgeforfuturescientificgenerations.
Inthistask,andinmydesiretounderstandthings,IprofitedmuchfromworkingtogetherwithsomeofthemajorEuropeanscientists,especiallyinafruitfulcoopera-tionwithMEMCItalyandintheprojectsRAPIDandFRENDTECHfundedbytheEuropeanCommunity,andfromparticipatingintheworkshopsoftheENDEASDnetworkfundedlike-wisebytheEuropeanCommunity.
Thebookisstructuredasfollows:Inthefirstchapter,somefundamentalconceptsaredis-cussedwhichformthescientificbasisfortheremainderofthebook.
Inthesecondchapter,vacanciesandself-interstitialsareintroducedandtheirknownpropertiesarediscussedinde-tail.
Thediffusionofimpuritiesisdealtwithinthirdchapter,andtheremainingchaptersfourtosevensummarizethepropertiesofisovalentimpurities,dopants,chalcogens,andhalogens.
Unfortunately,itisnotpossibletopresentaunifiedpictureofthesubject.
Toomanyaspectsarenotaccessibledirectlytocharacterizationsothatamplelatitudeisavailableforspeculations.
Whencontradictoryconceptsexistintheliterature,exceptwhentheyareatoddswithindepen-dentexperimentalevidence,allofthemarediscussedimpartiallyandfutureworkmaydecideaboutrightorwrong.
Itismyhopethatmybookisusefultobeginnersuptoexpertsoutside(andmaybesometimesevenwithin)theirownfieldofexpertise.
IW.
HeywangandH.
W.
Potzl,BiinderstrukturundStromtransport,Halbleiter-Elektronik,vol.
3.
Berlin:Springer(1976).
2S.
Selberherr,AnalysisandSimulationofSemiconductorDevices.
Vienna:Springer(1984).
xiiixivPREFACEDuetolimitationsinspaceaswellasintime,itwasnotpossibletoaddressallaspectsofdiffusioninsilicon.
Especiallydiffusioninmulti-layersystems,macroscopicextendedintrinsicandextrinsicdefects,metals,hydrogen,andimportantphenomenaliketransienteffectsondif-fusionandactivationofdopantshadtobeneglected.
Itismydeclaredintentiontocoverthesesubjectsinafollow-upbook.
However,havinglearnedfrommyexperienceswiththisbook,onecouldnotexpectittobereadywithintooshortaperiod.
Thisbookwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportbynumerouslibrarianswhodidnothesitatetoprovidemeevenwiththerarestreferencesfromthedeepestvaults.
Mrs.
KarinBohmer,Mrs.
HeidrunEscherich,Mrs.
MonikaForstel,Mrs.
EdeltraudHaagen,andMrs.
ElisabethPlankofthelibraryoftheUniversityErlangen-NurnbergandMrs.
AnetteDaurerofthelibraryoftheFraunhoferInstituteofIntegratedSystemsandDeviceTechnologyinErlangenweremorevisibleandofdirecthelptome.
However,IamwellawarethattheyarejustthetipoftheicebergandIhavetoapologizetotheothersfornotmentioning.
DuringtheyearsIworkedonthisbook,myunderstandingwascontinuouslyextendedbydiscussionswithcolleagueswithwhomIhadthepleasuretocooperateatourinstitute.
Inparticular,IwouldliketoacknowledgeMr.
HaraldBauer,Dr.
AlexanderBurenkov,Dr.
RainerDtirr,Dr.
MichaelJacob,Dr.
OliverKrause,Dr.
SteffenList,Dr.
ChristopheOrtiz,Dr.
FabianQuast,Dr.
RainerSchork,Dr.
DorotheeStiebel,andProf.
HorstZimmermann.
Unfortunately,neithermycommemorationsnorthespaceavailablewouldsufficetogiveproperreferencetoallcolleagueswhoenlightenedmebydiscussionsatconferencesandmeetings,orperemail.
OfparticularinspirationwerethecontactstoDr.
AlainClaverieofCEMES/CNRSandDr.
FiladelfoCristianoofLAAS/CNRSinToulouse,Prof.
NickCowemoftheUniversityofSurrey,andDr.
RobertFalsterandProf.
VladimirV.
VoronkovofMEMC.
IamalsoverygratefultoProf.
SiegfriedSelberherrandProf.
UlrichGoselefortheircontinuedinterestinthisbook.
ThisbookwouldalsonothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportofProf.
HeinerRysselandDr.
JurgenLorenzattheFraunhoferInstituteofIntegratedSystemsandDeviceTechnologyinErlangen.
Finally,IhavetoapologizetomywifeJuliana,thechildrenCarstenandFriederike,tomymotherTheresia,andtomyparentsinlawDr.
h.
c.
GerhardandGudrunSeydel,sincethisbooksimplystoletoomuchtimeIcouldhavespentmorehappilywiththem.
PeterPichlerFrequentlyUsedSymbolsWhendenotingmorethanoneobject,theprimarymeaningiscitedfirst.
Therespectiveunitsarenotedinparentheses.
aRCaptureradius(m)asiLengthoftheunitcellofsilicon(5.
43072A)CConcentration(m-3)~Numberperunitarea(m-2)CPrefactorinthespecificationofatemperature-dependentconcentrationintheformC·exp(-EA/kT)(m-3)C/Concentrationofself-interstitials(m>')CSiConcentrationofsiliconatoms,(5·\022cm-3)CvConcentrationofvacancies(m-3)CxconcentrationofdefectsX(m-3)c;qEquilibriumconcentrationofdefectsX(m-3)CXISolubilityconcentrationofimpurityX(m-3)Cx,ConcentrationofdefectXonsubstitutionalsites(m-3)CxsConcentrationofsitesfordefectX(m-3)DDiffusioncoefficient(m2/s)DoPrefactorinthespecificationofatemperature-dependentdiffusioncoefficientintheformDo'exp(-EA/kT)orDo'exp(0)orelectrons(forjx,numberofatomspassingaunitareaperunittime(m-2s-l)Boltzmannconstant(1.
3806(58).
10-23JIK)Surfacerecombinationvelocityofself-interstitials(l)orvacancies(V)(m/s)ForwardreactionconstantofreactionrBackwardreactionconstantofreactionrPhenomenologicalcoefficientwithinthetheoryofthethermodynamicsofirreversibleprocessesMass(kg)Electronmass(9.
1093897(54).
10-31kg)Effectivemassofelectrons(kg)Effectivemassofholes(kg)MassofasiliconatomeSSi:4.
64951256.
10-26kg,29Si:4.
81556658.
10-26kg,30Si:4.
9816206.
10-26kg)Electronconcentration(rn");numberofmolesofasubstance(I)Intrinsicelectronconcentration(m-3)Effectiveintrinsicelectronconcentration(m-3)Numberofatoms,molecules,ordefects(1)Avogadroconstant,numberofatomsormoleculesinonemole(6.
02213(58).
1023mor')NumberofdefectsXinchargestatej(1)NumberofsitesfordefectX(1)Holeconcentration(m-3)Hydrostaticpressure(Pa)Heatoftransfer(J)xviisMechanicalstrain,correspondingtoalengthchangerelativetothetotallength(I)SEntropy(J/K)SfEntropyofformation(J/K)S'"Entropyofmigration(J)Time(s)TAbsolutetemperature(K)UTThermalvoltagek-Tjq(V)VVolume(m-3)ifPartialatomicvolume(m-3)VSiAtomicvolumeassociatedwithonesiliconatom,(20A3=2.
10-29m-3)xSpacecoordinate(m)x"Molefractionoratomicfraction(I)x'Sitefraction(I)XXisusedingeneralrelationshipstorepresentself-interstitialsIorvacanciesVySpacecoordinate(m)YYisintroducedingeneralrelationshipsinassociationwithXandstandsforself-interstitialsIwhenXstandsforvacanciesV,andviceversazChargestatecorrespondingtothenumberofelectronsassociated(e.
g.
2fordoublynegativelychargeddefects,0forneutralones,and-Iforpositivelychargeddefectslikeionizeddonors);Spacecoordinate(m)aMXPartitionconstantforthedirectformationofaspecificimpurity-point-defectcomplexMX(I)yActivitycoefficient(I)rJumpfrequency(lis)roAttemptoroscillationfrequency(lis)bXiRelativeconcentrationofdefectXinchargestatejunderintrinsicconditionswithrespecttoacertainreferencechargestateofthedefect(1)tlGChangeintheGibbsfreeenergy(J)EPermittivityconstant(::r,)EOPermittivityconstantinvacuum(8.
8542.
10-12::r,)1;Reactionvariableintermsofconcentrationsofreactantsandproducts(cm-3)eNumberofdifferentconfigurationsforacertaindefect(I)egNumberofgeometricallyequivalentanddistinguishableconfigurationsofacertaindefectataspecificsite(I)eiNumberofinternaldegreesoffreedomforacertaingeometricalconfigurationofadefect(1)A.
Meanpathlengthadefectdiffusesbeforeitbecomesimmobile(m);LagrangemultiplierxviiiFREQUENTLYUSEDSYMBOLSJ1Gibbsfreeenergyperatomormolecule,chemicalpotential(J)J1*Standardvalueofthechemicalpotentialatthereferencestate(J)1;Reactionvariableintermsofamountsofreactantsandproducts(mol)n:Ratioofacircle'scircumferencetoitsdiameter(3.
141592653.
.
.
)aStandarddeviationofdistributionfunctions(m);mechanicalstress(Pa)"tTimeconstant(s)'Ij1Electrostaticpotential(V)ProbabilityamplitudeintheSchrodingerequation(m-3/2)QComplexionnumber(1)ExplanationofFrequentlyUsedAbbreviationsalcf3-NMRCMOSCZDLTSENDOREPRESREXAFSFTIRFZlEDRelatestoaninterfacebetween~morphousandrystallineregions~uclearmagneticresonancedetectedinf3decay:Characterizationtechniqueforthestructuralpropertiesofmagnetic,radioactivenucleihavingshorthalf-lifes,basedontheasymmetriesintheirf3decayrelativetothedirectionofthenuclearpolarization.
~omplementarymetalQxide§.
emiconductorDenotesCzochralski-grownsilicon.
!
2eeplevel!
ransient§.
pectroscopy,alsocalledgeeplevel!
emperature§.
can:Methodbasedonthemeasurementofcapacitytransientsassociatedwithcaptureandemissionofchargecarriersatandfromdeeplevelsasafunctionoftemperature.
Pl.
Isefultocharacterizepointdefectswithrespecttothepositionoftheirelectroniclevelsintheforbiddenbandgapandtherespectivecapturecrosssections,aswellastheconcentrationofthedefects~Iectronnucleardoubleresonance:Spectroscopicmethodusingcombinedelectron-spinandnuclearmagneticresonances~Iectronaramagneticresonance,alsocalledelectronspmresonance(ESR):Spectroscopicmethodbasedontheabsorptionofmicrowave-frequencyelectromagneticradiationbyunpairedelectronsintheatomicstructuresubjectedtoanappropriatelystrongstationarymagneticfield.
Anoverviewofthemethodandofthecentersfounduntil1983canbefoundinthereviewarticleofSieverts.
"~Iectron§.
pinresonance:seeEPR~xtendedX-RayAbsorptionfine~tructure:Themethodprobesaparticularspeciesofimpurityatomsandisabletogiveinformationonthenumber,distance,andchemicalidentityoftheatomsaroundthem.
fouriertransforminfraredspectroscopy:VariantoftheIRspectroscopyDenotes[loat-gone-grownsiliconImplantation~nhancedgiffusion:Enhanceddiffusionofimpuritiesduringpost-implantationannealing3D.
V.
Lang,"Deep-LevelTransientSpectroscopy:ANewMethodtoCharacterizeTrapsinSemiconductors,"J.
Appl.
Phys.
,vol.
45,no.
7,3023-3032(1974);G.
L.
Miller,D.
V.
Lang,andL.
C.
Kimerling,"CapacitanceTransientSpectroscopy,"Ann.
Rev.
Mater.
Sci.
,vol.
7,377-448(1977).
4E.
G.
Sieverts,"ClassificationofDefectsinSiliconafterTheirg-Values,"phys.
stat.
sol.
(b),vol.
120,11-29(1983).
xixxxIRMBEMOSMOSFETODMROEDORDOSFPLRBSRTRTARTPSANSSIMNISIMOXSIMSSNMSSOlTEMULSIEXPLANATIONOFFREQUENTLYUSEDABBREVIATIONSInfrared:SpectroscopicmethodbasedontheabsorptionofelectromagneticradiationinthefrequencyrangeofinfraredlightMolecular!
:!
earn~itaxyMetalQxide§.
emiconductorMetalQxide§.
emiconductorfield~ffect!
ransistorQptically.
QetectedMagneticResonance:SpectroscopicmethodbasedonthedetectionofmagneticresonancesinthefrequencyrangeoflightandnotattheoriginalresonancefrequencyQxidationenhancedgiffusion:EnhanceddiffusionofimpuritiesduringannealsunderoxidizingconditionsQxidationretardedgiffusion:RetardeddiffusionofimpuritiesduringannealsunderoxidizingconditionsOxidationstackingfault:Extendedself-interstitialaggregate,introducingastackingfaultona{III}planePhotoluminescence:Spectroscopicmethodbasedontheemissionoflightinducedbytheabsoprtionofelectromagneticradiation.
AnextensivereviewonPLinsiliconwasauthoredbyDavies.
"RutherfordQack§.
cattering:Characterizationtechniquebasedonthenuclearscatteringofhigh-energetichydrogenorheliumatomsattargetatomswhich,viatheelectronicenergyloss,allowsdepthprofilingofthetargetcomposition.
InchannelingRBSmeasurements,theincidentbeamisdirectedalongmajorcrystallographicdirectionssothatbackscatteringfromatomsonregularlatticeatomsisavoidedtoalargeextent.
Roomtemperature,correspondingtoabout300KRapidjhcrmal~nncalingRapid[hermal~rocessing~mallangleneutron§.
cattering,methodtomeasurethesizesofdefects~eparationbyimplantatednitrogen,methodtoseparateathincrystallinesiliconlayerfrombulksiliconbyimplantationofnitrogeninhighdoses.
Separationbyimplantated~gen,methodtoseparateathincrystallinesiliconlayerfrombulksiliconbyimplantationofoxygeninhighdoses.
~econdaryionmass§.
pectrometry:Measurementmethodbasedonthemass-resolvedanalysisofthenumberofchargedionssputteredofffromatargetbyaprimaryionbeam,usuallyusedtocharacterizedepthprofilesofimpurities.
~econdaryneutralmass§.
pectrometry:MeasurementmethodsimilartoSIMS.
Butinsteadofanalyzingthechargedionssputteredofftheneutralionssputteredoffareionizedandanalyzed.
Thus,matrixeffectsaregreatlyreduced.
~iliconQninsulatorIransmissionelectronmicroscopy:Microscopymethodbasedontheinteractionofmatterwithapenetratingfocussedelectronbeam.
Generallyusedtostudycrystaldefects.
!
!
ltralarge§.
caleintegration5G.
Davies,"TheOpticalPropertiesofLuminescenceCentresinSilicon".
PhysicsReports,vol.
176.
no.
3/4,83-188(1989).
VLSIXPSxxiYerylargescaleintegrationX-rayhotoemision~pectroscopy:SpectroscopicmethodreflectingthebindingenergyofelectronsemittedfrominnershellsofatomsduetotheirinteractionwithanX-raybeam
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