Rockthinkstations20

JAPANESEANIMATIONINSINGAPORE:AHISTORICALANDCOMPARATIVESTUDYbyWai-mingNgLikeCandyCandyandAstroboyinthe1960sand1970s,PrettySoldierSailormoon,DragonballandPokemonhaveswepttheworldinthe1990sand2000.
Japaneseanimation(animeinJapanese)isonethefewformsofJapanesepopularculturewhichhastrulybeenglobalized.
1OnlyitcancounterbalancethehegemonyofAmericananimationinAsiaandtheworld,showingthatglobalizationofpopularculturedoesnotnecessarilyimplyhomogenizationorAmericanization.
2EvenintheUnitedStatesandEurope,wheretheculturalandlanguagebarriersarethickforJapanesepopularculture,increasingnumbersofyoungpeoplehavebecomecrazyaboutJapaneseanimation.
WesternscholarsandjournalistsarealsointerestedinJapaneseanimation.
3JapaneseanimationenjoystremendouspopularityinAsiawhereithasbecomeamainstreamyouthcultureduetoculturalandgeographicalproximity.
EastAsianationssuchasTaiwanandHongKongarethecentersofthisglobalJapaneseanimationboom,andSoutheastAsiahasbeenstronglyinfluencedbyit.
4JapanesetelevisioncartoonshavebecomeverypopularinSingapore,Malaysia,Indonesia,ThailandandthePhilippines,screeneddailyonlocaltelevisionstationsindifferentAsianlanguages.
ThisarticleexaminesthebirthofaJapaneseanimationcultureinSingaporefromhistorical,culturalandcomparativeperspectives.
IttracesthehistoricaldevelopmentofJapanesetelevisionanimationinSingaporefromthelate1970stothepresent,providesananalysisofthecharacteristicsofJapaneseanimationinSingaporefromacomparativeperspective,anddiscussestheimpactofJapaneseanimationin2Singapore'ssocietyandculture.
ThroughanhistoricaloverviewofJapaneseanimationinSingapore,thisarticleaimstodeepenourunderstandingoftheongoingpopularizationandlocalizationofJapanesepopularcultureinAsia.
PastandPresentJapaneseanimationcametoSingaporemorethantwodecadesagoanditspopularityhasbeengrowingsteadily.
Inthelate1970sandearly1980s,thenumberofJapanesetelevisionanimatedseriesscreenedinSingaporewasrelativelysmall.
Inthelate1970s,SingaporeBroadcastingCorporation(SBC,renamedTelevisionCorporationofSingaporeorTCSin1996)begantoshowJapanesecartoons.
5Duringthistime,censorshipwasveryrigid,andthusSBCwasverycautiousinchoosingJapanesecartoons,makingsurethecontentswereproblem-free.
Japanesecartoonswhichcontainedelementsofsex,violence,badtasteandscatologywerenotconsideredappropriatetoshowtothepublic.
EarlyJapanesecartoonsscreenedbySBCcontainedhumanisticthemes,moralmessagesandeducationalvalues.
6Mostofthesewereclassicsmadeinthelate1960sandearly1970s,suchasHeidi'sSong(1973)andCandyCandy(1975).
TheywerepopularinEurope,theUnitedStatesandsomeAsiannationsbeforetheywereintroducedtoSingapore.
7InSingapore,Japaneseanimationstartedasafemales'subculture,asmajorityofearlytelevisedcartoonswerebasedongirls'comics.
ThefirstJapanesecartoonshownonSingaporetelevisionwasCandyCandy,anall-timeclassicbyIgarashiYumikoabouttheadventureofagood-naturedgirlintheUnitedStates.
ThisanimatedserieswasextremelypopularinEurope,TaiwanandHongKong.
Firstintroducedin1977andscreenedagainin1984,CandyCandycreatedacommotionamonggirlsandyoungwomeninSingaporeinthelate1970sandearly1980s.
Itscomicbooksandmerchandise,suchasbags,T-shirts,stickersandstationery,werehotitemsandtheseriesjump-startedaJapaneseanimationcultureinSingapore.
FollowingthesuccessofCandyCandy,inthelate1970sSBCintroducedmoreJapanesecartoonswithsimilarthemes,includingHeidi'sSong,TheDogofFlanders3andTheAdventuresofPinnochio.
ThoughnotassuccessfulasCandyCandy,theywerewellreceived.
JapanesecartoonsbasedonWesternstories,suchasGulliver'sTravels,HuckleberryFinnandWorldFamousFairyTales,alsowereintroducedinthelate1970s.
Theyappealedtosmallchildren,bothboysandgirls.
SingaporeaudienceswerenotyetexposedtoothergenresofJapaneseanimation,suchassci-fi,fighting,sports,comedyandromance.
Inthelate1970sandearly1980s,SBCshowed1-4Japaneseanimatedseriesayear.
Bythemid-1980s,thenumberincreasedto5-10seriesayear.
Atthistime,mostJapanesecartoonswerescreenedbetween4-7p.
m.
,andthusattractedmanypeople,inparticularafter-schoolstudents,towatch.
Themajorityoftheseriesbelongedtothegirlandanimalgenre,suchasTheSquirrel,TheAdventuresofGamba,Kimba:TheWhiteLion,andJollie.
CartoonsbasedonWesternstoriescontinuedtobepopularaswell,includingtwoworksbyTetsukaOsamu—TreasureIslandandTheAdventuresofTomSawyer—whoalsodirectedtheKimbaseries.
8Duringthe1980s,Singaporeaudiencesalsowereexposedtosci-fi,themostcreativeandinternationalizedgenreofJapaneseanimation.
Intheearly1980s,SBCintroducedseveralsci-fiseries,includingGrayzer-X,Thunderbird2076andCaptainFuture.
Theywereeye-openerstoSingaporeaudiencesandchangedthemisconceptionthatJapanesecartoonswereallaboutlittlegirlsorcuteanimals.
ShownonSBC8inMandarinfrom5to6p.
m.
,Thunderbird2076wasparticularlypopular.
Duringthisperiod,SingaporeaudiencescouldwatchmoreJapanesesci-ficartoonsontheMalaysianchannel(whichbelongedtoMalaysia),includingAstroboy(anotherseriesbyTetsukaOsamu),BattleStarGalactica,andCaptainSkeleton,dubbedintoMalayorEnglish.
Shownbetween4-5p.
m.
inEnglish,AstroboywasparticularlypopularinSingaporeandMalaysia.
TheMalaysianchannelalsoairedThunderbird2076inEnglishforayear,in1985.
Theheydayofsci-ficartoonsonSingaporetelevisionwasduringlate1980s.
ThefirsttocreateacommotionamongyoungmalesinSingaporewasMacross,whichwasscreenedinAugust1986onSBC8,andtheninthesameyearontheMalaysian4channelinEnglish.
Itwasextremelypopularamongprimaryandsecondaryschoolstudents,whorushedhometowatchthisanimationandboughtMacrossmerchandise,suchasstickersandstationery.
ComicbooksbasedonMacrossbecamebest-sellers.
In1987,SBC8showedtwoMacrosssequelsandAstroboy.
Thankstothepopularityofsci-fi,thenumberofmaleviewersincreasedtremendously.
AlthoughJapaneseanimationbecameayouthsubcultureinthelate1980s,theywereonlysecondbesttomostSingaporeans.
Westernanimatedseries,suchasGarfield,SnoopyandFriends,TinTinAdventure,G.
I.
Joe,MarvelHeroes,PopeyeandBugsBunny,weremorepopularandaccessible,showndailyonSBC5,andtheywereavailableinvideorentalshops.
Incontrast,thenumberofJapaneseseriesontelevisionwaslimitedandtherewerenovideorentalshopswhichcarriedthem.
TheonlywayforJapaneseanimationfanstofurthertheirinterestwastoreadChineseeditionsofJapanesecomics.
Fromthe1990stothepresent,JapanesetelevisioncartoonshavebecomeincreasinglypopularamongchildrenandteenagersinSingapore.
TheBoardofFilmCensorsundertheSingaporegovernmentalsoseemstohaveadoptedamoreliberalattitude.
Asaresult,moreJapaneseanimatedtitleshavebeenapproved,andJapaneseanimationonSingaporetelevisionhasbecomemorediversified.
Nowadays,JapanesecartoonsarescreeneddailyonTCS8.
Asamatteroffact,exceptafewChineseandKoreancartoons,almostallcartoonsonTCS8areJapanesecartoons.
Inthe1990s,SBC/TCShasbecomemoreopenandaggressiveinbuyingdifferentkindsofJapaneseanimatedtelevisionseriesdubbedinMandarin.
DoraemonwasintroducedtoSingaporetelevisioninDecember1992andbecameagreatsuccess.
Thishumorous,wholesomeandimaginativeworkhelpsSingaporeansunderstandmoreaboutcontemporaryJapanesesocietyandculture.
ShownonandoffonSingaporetelevisioninthe1990s,itisoneofthemostbelovedtelevisioncartoonsinSingaporeandhascreatedmorespin-offsthananyotherJapaneseanimationseries.
5DoraemoncomicbookshavebeentranslatedintodifferentAsianlanguagesandmerchandisefromtheseries,authenticornot,isalwayspopular.
9Aminorbreakthroughcamein1994whenSBCshowedRecordoftheLodossWarandTenchiMuyoaftermidnight.
Theformerisamedievalfantasywithsomeviolenceandthelatterisasci-fiforgirlswhichsometimesusessexforhumorouseffects.
Duetotheirpopularity,SBCdecidedtobuymoreJapanesecartoonsandtogivedifferentgenresatry.
Onemightdividethepopulartelevisionanimatedseriesshowninthe1990sandearly2000sintosuchgenresascomedy(e.
g.
,DoraemonandBowWow),actionseriescenteredonfemalecharacters(e.
g.
,Ranma1/2andPrettySoldierSailormoon),actionseriescenteredonmalecharacters(e.
g.
,Dragonball),sci-fi(e.
g.
,PatlaborandMajinHeroWataru)andromance(e.
g.
,MaisonIkkokuandKimagureOrangeRoad).
WhatkindsofJapaneseanimationarepopularinSingaporeFirst,televisioncartoonswhichhavebeenscreenedonTCS.
e.
g.
,DragonballandPrettySoldierSailormoon.
InSingapore,televisionhasjump-startedmanyformsofJapanesepopularculture,suchasanimation,comics,televisiondramaserials,J-popsandfashion.
MostSingaporeanscometoknowJapaneseanimationmainlythroughtelevision.
AccordingtoTCSsourceinterviewedin1999,themostpopularJapanesecartoononSingaporetelevisionwasDragonball.
Atthepeakofitspopularity,7percentoftheentirepopulationor225,610personswatcheditonTCS8.
InsecondplacewerePrettySoldierSailormoonandRanma1/2;bothhad5percentofthepopulation,or161,150persons,asviewers.
10Second,animatedversionsofpopularcomics.
e.
g.
,SlamDunkandCityHunter.
AlthoughtheyhaveneverbeenscreenedonTCS,theirpopularityisamongthetop.
Theyarethehottestitemsforrentalandcollection.
Theexcitingandhumorousnatureoftheseworksisthemajorfactorfortheirsuccess.
Third,worksthatarepopularinHongKongandTaiwan.
e.
g.
,CrayonShinchanandChibimaruko.
SingaporehasbeenindirectlyinfluencedbytheboomofJapaneseanimationinEastAsia.
SomeSingaporeansreceivevideotapesorVCDsofpopularJapanesecartoonsfromtheirfriendsandrelativesinHongKongand6Taiwan.
HongKongandTaiwan-madevideos,videocompactdiscs(VCDs),andcomicbooksfilltheSingaporemarket.
Fourth,cartoonswhichhavebeenadaptedfrompopularvideogames.
e.
g.
,StreetFighters,FatalFury,RockMan,B-Damen,DigimonandPokemon.
Smallchildrenliketowatchanimationderivedfromtheirfavoritevideogames.
Inparticular,PokemonhascreatedaglobalcrazeandisextremelypopularamongsmallchildreninSingapore.
11Televisionanimatedseriesaremuchmoreinfluentialthananimatedfilms.
TelevisioncontinuestobethemostimportantagentinpopularizingJapaneseanimation.
ThemajorityofyoungpeopleinSingaporeonlywatchanimationontelevisionandseldomincinemas.
Sofar,morethan150JapanesetelevisionanimatedserieshavebeenscreenedonTCS,butthereareonlyafewanimatedfilms,suchasMyNeighborTotoro,GhostintheShellandPerfectBlue,whichhavebeenshownontelevisionorincinemainSingapore.
JapaneseanimatedfilmsarealsofeaturedininternationalfilmfestivalsoranimationfestivalsinSingapore.
12OnTCS8,occasionally,Japaneseanimatedfilmsarescreenedinthefilmhours.
MyNeighborTotoroisthemostwell-knownJapaneseanimatedfilminSingapore,screenedseveraltimesbyTCSandSCVinthe1990s.
ExceptMiyazakiHayao'sworksandsomesci-ficlassics,suchasAkira,JapaneseanimatedfilmsarerelativelyunknowninSingapore.
FactorsAffectingthePopularityofJapaneseAnimationAmongthefactorsaffectingthepopularityofJapaneseanimationinSingaporeareprogrammingslots,therangeofgenresaired,censorshipissuesandthesuccessofaseriesinothernations.
Anothersignificantfactoristheavailabilityofancillaryitems,suchasvideosandVCDsthatviewerscanuseathome.
AirtimeforJapaneseanimationonnon-cabletelevisionchannels(SBC/TCS)availableinSingaporeincreasedgraduallythroughoutthe1990s.
Fromabout2-4hoursaweekintheearly1990s,itgrewtoabout4-8hoursinthemid-1990s,8-127hoursinthelate1990s,and12-15hoursin2000.
ThefollowinggraphshowsthehoursperweekallocatedforJapanesecartoonsonTCS(SBC)inthe1990s.
Graph1:JapaneseCartoonsonTCS(SBC)inthe1990sJapaneseCartoonsonTCS(SBC)inthe1990s0246810121490919293949596979899YearsHours/WeekAsofFebruary2001,Singaporenon-cabletelevisionwasshowing25Japanesecartoonsaweek(21onTCS8and5onChannelCentral),whichtookup15hoursofprogrammingtime.
13Eachcartoonprogramruns30minutesandusuallycontainsoneortwoepisodes.
Whiletherehasbeenadefiniteincreaseintheamountoffprogramming,theserieshavebeenscheduledattimesthatarenotveryconvenientforviewing.
NoJapaneseseriesappearduringprimetime.
OnweekdaysandSundays,Japanesecartoonsareshownintheweehoursofthemorning,between1:00a.
m.
to5:30a.
m.
ExceptSaturday,whenseriesarescreenedbetween7:00a.
m.
to2:00p.
m.
,thehoursarenotgood.
Onlyafewdie-hardJapanesecartoonfansgotobedlateorgetupearlytowatchtheirfavoritecartoons.
Predictably,theweakprogrammingslotssometimeshavehadanegativeimpactonthepopularityofJapanesecartoons.
Forinstance,8Ranma1/2wasfirstairedinearly1997,twiceaweekat1:30a.
m.
However,itdidnotbecomeasmashhituntillate1997,whenTCS8addedanothertimeslotonSaturdayat10:30a.
m.
OtherprogrammingissuesalsocomplicatethesuccessofJapaneseanimation.
TCSsometimesstopsthescreeningofaJapaneseanimatedseriesafterafewepisodeswithoutanywarning.
Inrecentyears,HelloKitty,DirtyPair,Georgie,Dr.
Slump,andTheRoseofVersaillesmetwiththisfate.
ItalsochangesthetimeshotsforJapanesecartoonstoofrequently,soviewersdonotalwaysknowwhenaserieswillbeairing.
AnotherproblemisthatTCSrepeatsJapanesecartoonsregularlyandmostofthemhavebeenscreenedmorethanonce.
TCSchoosesJapanesecartoonsbasedontwocriteria:popularityandcontent.
ArelativelywholesomecartoonthathasprovenpopularinJapan,HongKong,Taiwan,China,ortheUnitedStateswillbeitstopchoice.
14Becauseofthiscautiousattitude,Singaporeaudiencesarenotabletowatchthemostrecentworks.
Popularbutcontroversialtitles,suchasCrayonShinchanandDr.
Slump,werenotintroducedforfearthattheBoardofFilmCensorswoulddisapproveandparents,teachersandsocialcriticswouldcomplain.
15LanguageissuesalsoimpactthesuccessofJapaneseanimationtosomeextent.
TCSpurchasesJapanesetelevisionanimatedseriesfromJapanesedistributorswhohavedubbedthemintodifferentforeignlanguagesbeforedistribution.
TCSbuysmostlytheMandarinversion.
ChannelCentralshowsseveralJapanesecartoonsonSaturdayinEnglishandPokemon,asmashhitinJapanandtheUnitedStates,isthemostpopularchildrenprogramonChannelCentral.
CabletelevisionbecameavailableinSingaporeinJune1995andsubscribershaveincreaseddramaticallyinrecentmonths.
AllhouseholdsinSingaporearecable-readyand,currently,abouttwentypercentaresubscribers.
16ItseemslikelythatcabletelevisionwillplayanimportantroleinpopularizingJapaneseanimationinSingapore.
Outofthe35channelsofferedinthebasicpackagebySCV,twochannels—PhoenixfromHongKongandAXNfromJapan—featureJapanese9cartoonsonadailybasis.
PhoenixusuallyshowstwoJapanesecartoonsadayinMandarin.
AXNshowsJapanesecartoonsinEnglishorinJapanesewithEnglishsubtitles.
ItalsofeaturesaJapaneseanimatedfilmabouteverytwoweeks.
Onpublicholidays,AXNshowsmoreJapanesecartoons.
Itlaunchesa12-hourJapaneseanimationmarathononceayeartocelebratetheSingaporeNationalDay.
SomeotherchannelsinthebasicpackagealsoshowJapanesecartoonseverynowandthen.
TherearemoreoptionsforJapaneseanimationfansiftheysubscribetothepremiumpackageorinternationalpluspackageforcabletelevision.
TheVarietyChannelfeaturesoneJapanesecartoonthreetimesaday(WednesdaytoFriday)inMandarin.
BeforeitendeditsoperationinSingaporeinJuly1999,JETTVscreenedmanyclassics,suchasTheAdventuresofTomSawyerandKimba:TheWhiteLioninJapanese.
ItintroducedNICAMinFebruary1999sothatSingaporeviewerscouldchoosebetweenJapaneseandMandarininwatchingJapaneseprograms.
Besidestelevision,comicsarepowerfulinboostingthepopularityofJapaneseanimationinSingapore.
TherearehundredsofJapanesecomicbooksavailableinSingaporeandmorethantwohundredandfiftytitleshavebeenpublishedwithinthecountry.
ComicbooksusuallycometoSingaporebeforetheirassociatedtelevisionanimatedseries,althoughmostbecomepopularonlyaftertheseriesisbroadcast.
DoraemonandRanma1/2aresuchexamples.
Inthe1990s,videotapes,VCDsandlaserdiscs(LDs)alsohelpedtopopularizeJapanesecartoons,becauselocalfanscouldrentorbuythematveryaffordableprices.
VeryfewvideorentalshopsinSingaporecarriedJapaneseanimationinthe1980s,butintheearly1990s,afewcomicbookshopsbegantorentoutpiratedanduncensoredJapaneseanimationvideotapesimportedsecretlyfromHongKong.
Oneshop,KaraComicsattheParkLaneShoppingCenter,purchasedJapaneseanimationvideotapesthroughHongKongpublishers.
MostwerepopulartitlesinHongKongandweredubbedinCantonesewithoutsubtitles.
Becauseofitssuccess,someshopsinthedowntownareabegantoofferasimilarrentalservice.
Bythemid-1990s,mostvideo10shopsinSingaporecarriednumerousJapaneseanimationtilesinvideo,LDorVCDform.
PopulartitlesforrentalincludeSlamDunk,Dragonball,Macross,Gundam,LupenIII,Nausicca:TheValleyofWind,andMyNeighborTotoro.
VCDisaphenomenalproductinthelate1990sandearly2000sinSingapore.
HundredofshopsarenowsellingVCDs.
Makeshiftvendorsareeverywhere.
ManyelectricapplianceshopsandvideorentalshopsalsosellVCDs.
AlargenumberofVCDsarepiratedcopiesmadeinMalaysia,HongKong,Thailand,ChinaorTaiwan.
HongKongandTaiwanalsomakeauthorizedVCDswithlicensefromJapanesecompanies,buttheyarerarelyproducedinSingapore,authorizedorpirated.
HongKongpiratededitions,thoughmostlyinCantonese,areverypopular,becausetheyincludesmashhits,suchasCrayonShinchan,Chibimaruko,Dr.
SlumpandPokemon.
VCDsmadeinMalaysia,ChinaandTaiwanareinMandarin.
Becausemostofthesearepiratededitions,theyarecheap($5-10)[Allmoneymatters,unlessstatedotherwise,areinSingaporedollars.
1USD=1.
74SD1GBP=2.
55SD].
HoweverapiratedVCDcanbeexpensiveinsomecases,inparticularwhenthelicensedsoftwareisnotyetavailable.
ForauthorizedVCDs,thepriceisabout$10-20.
Sometitles,suchasDoraemon,HelloKittyandIkkysan,canbeascheapasthreefor$10.
IfSingaporeansdrive30minutestoJohorBahruinMalaysia,theycanbuyaJapanesecartoonVCDforaboutSD$2.
JohorBahruhassometitleswhicharebannedinSingapore.
Duetothefallingpricesandanincreaseintitles,Singaporeansthushavebeguntobuyandbuildtheirowncollections.
VCDsetshaveemergedinthemarketforcollectors,includingSlamSunk($60for50episodes),Dragonball($40for20episodes),PrettySoldierSailormoon($40for20episodes),GTO($50for25episodes)andacollectionofMiyazakiHayao'sanimatedfilms($71for8films).
Someshops(suchasVisionAnimateatAdelphiShoppingCenter)sellandrentauthorizedVCDsmadebyHongKongorTaiwanesecompanieswhichhaveacquiredalicensefromJapan.
TheseauthorizedVCDsareusuallyinJapanesewithChinesesubtitles.
JapaneseshopssuchasKinokuniyaandvideorentalshopsinTakashimayaand11DaimarusellandrentoriginalJapanesevideosinJapanesewithoutsubtitles.
TheyareexpensiveandmostlyforJapaneseexpatriatesandtheirfamilies.
Onlyabout10percentofthecustomersareSingaporeans.
17IntheUnitedStates,hundredsofJapaneseanimationseries,mostlysci-fi,aredubbedinEnglish.
FewvideorentalshopsinSingaporebuythesevideotapesduetohighprices.
WithoutEnglishdubbingorsubtitles,individualswhodonotunderstandChineseorJapaneseareunlikelytobuyorrentJapaneseanimation.
Inthe1990s,someJapanesecomicsrentalshopswereturnedintovideo(andVCD)rentalshops.
AgoodexampleisVisionAnimate,whichrentsoutauthorizedvideosandVCDsofJapaneseanimationmadeinHongKongandTaiwan.
TheyareinJapanesewithChinesesubtitles.
18Ithasmorethan200titlesanditscollectionofsci-fiisexcellent.
Newtitlescomeeverytwoweeks.
ThehottestrentalitemsincludeGundam,NeonGenesisEvangelion,MobileSuitGundam,andSuperDimensionFortressMacross.
Itswebsite,whichinformscustomersaboutthelatestandforthcomingtitles,hasaround1,200members;mostofthemareChinese,betweentheagesof16and33.
About78percentaremalesand22percentarefemales.
Malesprefersci-fi(suchasAkira,Blue6,MacrossDynamic7,andGreen7),whilefemalesprefercomedyandromance(suchasYuyuhakusho,Fushigiyugi,andRayEarth).
Characteristics,ComparisonandImpactThecharacteristicsoftheJapaneseanimationcultureinSingaporecanbesummarizedfromacomparativeperspectiveasfollows:ThepopularityofJapaneseanimationinSingaporeisbooming,butitstillhasalongwaytogo.
ItlagsbehindmaturemarketslikeTaiwanandHongKong.
TheairtimeinHongKongisaboutthreetimesmorethanthatinSingapore.
Singaporenon-cabletelevisiononlyshows15hoursJapaneseanimationaweek.
InHongKong,non-cableregularchannels(ChannelJadeandChannelAsia)showJapanesecartoonsabout45hoursaweek:ChannelJadeshowssevenJapanesecartoonsdaily12andChannelAsiashowsfive.
InHongKong,animationisscreenedbetweenthehoursof9:00a.
m.
to10:30p.
m.
,notintheearlymorninghoursasisdoneinSingapore(inJapan,televisioncartoonsareusuallyscreenedbetween4:00and7:00p.
m.
).
ThecableandsatellitetelevisioninHongKongoffermoreoptionsforJapaneseanimationthanthecabletelevisioninSingapore.
Likewise,thereisalsoalargenumberofJapanesecartoonsontelevisioninTaiwan.
ViewingstatisticsunderscorethatSingaporeisalesser-developedmarketinwhichJapaneseanimationhasneverreachedthetop10onTCS'srankings.
OnTCS,topprogramsusuallyhaveaviewershipofmorethan20percent.
InSingapore,themostpopularJapaneseanimationprogramsonlyreach5-7percent.
InJapan,topanimatedprogramshaveaviewershipofmorethan20percent.
InSingapore,televisionseldomintroducesrecentworksandgenresformatureaudiences.
InJapan,morethanahundredanimatedseriesarescreenedontelevisionayear.
MostofSingapore'scurrenttelevisioncartoonsonTCShavebeenmadeafewyearsagoandhavebeenscreenedinTaiwanandHongKong.
TCSwantstointroducethoseJapanesecartoonswhichhavehadagoodviewingrecordsinJapan,TaiwanorHongKong,anditisnotadventurousenoughtobuymorerecenttitles.
Eveninvideoshops,thenumberofJapaneseanimationitemsisrelativelysmallandfewarerecentworks.
Incontrast,HongKongandTaiwanareveryfastinintroducingnewandhotJapaneseanimatedseriesontelevision.
ThecontentsofJapaneseanimatedseriesarerelativelycleanduetorigidcensorship.
TheBoardofFilmCensorsscreeneveryJapaneseanimation.
Ittakesabout1-2monthstoscreenatitleinJapaneseanimation.
Anapprovedtitlewillgetaapprovalstickeroneachofitscopiessoldinthemarket.
Thiscensorshipcostsabout$1foreachcopyinthemarket.
Censorshippaysattentiontosex,violence,drugabuse,denigrationofreligionorrace.
19BecauseofTCS'sconservativepolicyandcensorship,manyanimationtitleswhichcontainsomedegreeofsex,violence,scatology,andbadlanguage,arenoteasilyaccessibleinSingapore.
20ByJanuary1999,theBoardofFilmCensorsapproved128titlesinJapaneseanimation.
Of13course,thereisalargernumberofJapaneseanimationsoftwaresoldillegallyinSingapore.
Singapore,likemanyAsiannations,canunderstandandappreciatesomelevelofJapaneseness.
IntermsofthereceptionofJapaneseanimation(andotheraspectsofpopularcultureaswell),morematurethemarketsare,moretheyaskforJapaneseflavor.
AlthoughSingaporeisnotasmatureasTaiwanandHongKonginthisrespect,Singaporeans(especiallyethnicChinese)canenjoymanyothergenresinJapanesecartoonsaslongastheycangothroughthestatecensorship.
SingaporehasnoJapaneseanimationmagazinesofitsown.
MostJapaneseanimationfansdonotreadanimationmagazines,andthereforetheirknowledgeofJapaneseanimationisnotup-to-dateorcomprehensive.
Forinstance,manyhavenotwatchedclassics,likeBlackJack,YamatoWarship,andAngelQueenandmodernhits,likeCryingFreeman,SectionChiefKsakuandDetectiveConan.
ThereareonlyafewforeignJapaneseanimationmagazinesavailableinSingapore.
ThemostpopularisA-Club,abi-weeklymadeinHongKong.
However,onlyoldissuesofA-Clubareimported.
AfewAmerican(suchasAnimerica)andJapanesemagazines(suchasAnimage)canalsobefoundinSingapore.
ThereareJapaneseanimationclubsandwebsitessetupbySingaporeans.
21WatchingJapaneseanimationischieflyayoungmales'culture.
Animationfansaremostlyboysandyoungmenintheirteensandearlytwenties.
Aconsiderablenumberofadultsandevenmiddle-agepeoplewatchanimationinJapanandHongKong,butinSingapore,theabsolutemajorityofanimationloversareyoungpeople.
Adultsandmiddle-agepeopleinSingaporeseldomwatchJapanesecartoons.
SingaporesocietyisrelativelyconservativeandolderpeopletendtoseeJapanesecartoonsaschildishandtime-wasting.
Thegovernmentandschoolsseldomuseanimation.
ParentsusuallydiscouragetheirchildrenfromwatchingJapanesecartoons.
Inaddition,Singapore'scensorshipalsoscreensoutmostanimatedworkswhichtargetmorematureviewers.
14Therelationshipbetweengenderandgenreisnotveryclear.
Ingeneral,malesprefersci-fi,fightingandsportsgenres,whereasfemalespreferromance,animalandhumorouspieces.
However,thecrossoveriscommon,particularlyamongfemales.
Manyadults,menandwomen,loveDoraemonwhichisaworkforsmallchildren.
ManyyoungmenwatchRanma1/2whichisaworkforfemales.
ManyyoungfemalesarecrazyaboutSlamDunkandDragonball,whicharebothmadeforyoungmen.
JapaneseanimationislargelyasubcultureamongChineseSingaporeans,becauseveryfewJapaneseanimatedseries(suchasNeonGenesisEvangelionandBlueSeed)havebeendubbedinEnglishorcarryEnglishsubtitles.
TCSseemstohaveestablishedthisformula:TCS8showsmostlyJapanesecartoons,TCS5showsexclusivelyWesterncartoons.
ThismakesJapaneseanimationonlypopularamongChineseSingaporeanswhichconstitute77percentoftheSingaporepopulation.
Non-ChineseandEnglish-speakingChinesepopulationsturntoAmericananimation.
ThingshaveimprovedlatelywhenChannelCentraladdedtheSaturdaymorningtimeslotsforJapanesecartoonsinEnglish.
ThesimilarsituationalsooccursincomicsbecausemostJapanesecomicbooksareonlytranslatedintoChinese.
OnlyChineseSingaporeanscanreinforcetheirinterestinJapaneseanimationbyreadingtheirassociatedcomics.
Culturally,theMuslimcultureembracedbymostMalaySingaporeans(about20percentofthepopulation)islesscongenialtotheJapaneseanimationwhichcontainsexcessivesex,violenceandscatology.
Duetoculturaldifferences,itismoredifficultfortheMalaysandIndianstoenjoyandunderstandJapaneseanimationthantheChinese.
Inmanyways,Japaneseanimationrepresentsapopularformofentertainment,consumercultureandyouthculture,anditsimpactonSingaporesocietyandcultureisnotyetverystrong.
Toacertainextent,Japaneseanimation,togetherwithotherformsofJapanesepopularculture,helpstostimulatetheconsumptionofJapaneseproductsandtheinterestinJapanamongyoungSingaporeans.
ThroughJapaneseanimation,SingaporeviewerscometoknowmoreaboutcontemporaryJapan,15althoughtheirunderstandingisusuallysuperficialandstereotyped.
Moreimportantly,unlikeold-generationSingaporeanswhohaveanti-Japanesesentimentsduetotheirwarexperiences,youngSingaporeansingeneralarepositiveaboutJapanoutoftheirpassionforJapanesepopularculture.
I,however,donotagreewithsomepoliticians,educatorsandsocialcriticsinSoutheastAsiawhocondemnJapanesecartoonsasaformofculturalimperialismtopromoteJapanesemerchandiseandvalues.
22IthinkJapaneseanimationismainlyaformofentertainmentandcommercialisminSingaporeanditsroleinindoctrinatingJapanesevaluesandintroducingJapanesesocietyandcultureislimited.
ItisnotapartofJapan'sculturaldiplomacy.
NeithertheJapaneseEmbassynorbigJapanesecorporationsisinterestedinpromotingJapaneseanimationinSingapore.
EvenJapaneseculturalindustriespaylessattentiontotheSingaporemarket.
23SingaporeansthemselvespromoteandmakeuseofJapaneseanimation.
Forinstance,McDonald's,SingaporeAirlinesandSingtelusedHelloKittyandKFCusedPokemontopromotetheirproductsorservicesinSingaporein2000.
TheimpactofJapaneseanimationonSingaporeentertainingindustryisnotyetverystrong.
ToeiAnimation,thelargestanimationproductioncompanyinJapan,setupsubsidiariesinSouthKorea,TaiwanandeventhePhilippinestocutproductioncostbyassigningjobstoartistsofthesenations.
24However,SingaporehasnoJapaneseanimationsubsidiariesforitshighcosts.
UnlikeTaiwanorHongKong,SingaporehasnotproducedlocalmoviesortelevisiondramasbasedonJapaneseanimation.
FollowingtheglobalpopularizationofJapaneseanimation,itseemsthatthepopularityofJapanesecartoonswillcontinuetogrow.
Howfarcanitgodependsonanumberoffactors,suchasthenumberofshowingsandtimeslotsontelevision,theimportationoftelevisioncartoonsandvideosdubbedinEnglishorwithEnglishsubtitles,andtheattitudeofthegovernment,thepublicandthecensorshipauthorities.
Duetodifferencesinracialcomposition,religion,languages'policy,geographicallocationandpoliticalandculturalclimate,itisunlikelythatthepopularityofJapanese16animationinSingaporecanmatchthatofHongKongorTaiwanintheforeseeablefuture.
*TheauthorisassistantprofessorofJapanesestudiesattheNationalUniversityofSingapore.
HeisaculturalandhistorianworkingonabookprojectonJapanesepopularcultureinSingapore.
NOTES1BecauseofthepopularityofJapaneseanimation(mostlysci-fi)intheUnitedStates,theAmericansusuallyrefertoJapaneseanimationas"anime"andtoAmericananimationas"animation.
"KoichiIwabuchihasidentifiedcomics,cartoons,consumertechnologiesandcomputergamesasthemostglobalizedculturalexportsofJapan,explainingthattheyare'culturallyodorless'andhavestronguniversalappeal.
SeeKoichiIwabuchi,"ReturntoAsiaJapaninAsianAudiovisualMarket,"inKosakuYoshino,ed.
,ConsumingEthnicityandNationalism:AsianExperiences(Honolulu:UniversityofHawai'iPress,1999),p.
179,183.
2SeeArjunAppadurai,ModernityatLarge:CulturalDimensionsofGlobalization(Minneapolis:MinnesotaPress,1996),p.
17,32.
3RepresentativeworksincludeAntoniaLevi,SamuraifromOuterSpace:UnderstandingJapaneseAnimation(Chicago:OpenCourt,1996),HelenMcCarthy,HayaoMiyazaki:MasterofJapaneseAnimation(Berkeley:StoneBridgePress,1999),TrishLedoux,ed.
,AnimeInterviews(SanFrancisco:CadenceBooks,1997),andJohnP.
Jackson,BuyingandSellingtheSoulsofOurChildren:ACloseLookatPokemon(FortWorth:StreamsPublications,2000).
Americanjournals,suchasJournalof17PopularCulture,AnimationJournal,Animerica,andMangajinhavepublishedarticlesonJapaneseanimation.
4Forageneraloverview,seeJohnLent,"MangaandAnimeinAsia,"AnimeUK(May1995):8-10.
SeealsoWai-mingNg,"AComparisonofJapaneseComicsinSoutheastAsiaandEastAsia,"InternationalJournalofComicsArts,Vol.
2,No.
1(Summer2000):44-56and"JapaneseComicsinSingapore,"AsianCulture,Vol.
24,(June2000):1-14.
ForthereceptionofJapaneseanimationandcomicsinIndonesia,seeKurasawaAiko,"AijiahaWakonnojuyodekiruka,"(CanAsiabeJapanized)inAokiTamotsuandSaekiKeishi,eds.
,Ajiatekikachitowanannika(WhatisAsianValue)(Tokyo:TBSBuritanka,1998),pp.
180-181.
5Singaporetelevisionconsistsoftwosystems:non-cableandcable.
Therearetwocompaniesinthenon-cabletelevisionbusiness:TelevisionCorporationofSingapore(TCS)andSingaporeTelevisionTwelve.
TheformeristhelargestandthemostpopulartelevisionnetworkinSingaporewhichownsaMandarinchannel(TCS8)andanEnglishchannel(TCS5),whereasthelatterrunsaMalayandIndianchannel(Suria)andamilti-culturalchannel(Central).
Non-cabletelevisionismanagedbySingaporeCableVision(SCV).
TelevisionCorporationofSingapore,SingaporeTelevisionTwelveandSingaporeCableVisionareallsemi-governmentorganizationsandalltelevisionprogramsaresubjecttostrictgovernment'scensorship.
6Inearlyyears,theSingaporegovernmentusedtelevisiontobuildnationalidentityandpublicmorals.
Cartoonswereunderthecategoryofchildren'sprogram.
SeeErhardU.
Heidt,MassMedia,CulturalTradition,andNationalIdentity:TheCaseofSingaporeandItsTelevisionProgrammes(Saarbrücken:VerlagBreitenbachPublishers,1987),pp.
160-163,170-172,196-197.
7ForadiscussionofJapaneseanimationclassicsintheUnitedStatesandEuropeinthe1970s,seeLucaRaffaelli,"Disney,WarnerBros.
andJapaneseAnimation,"inJaynePilling,ed.
,AReaderinAnimationStudies(London:JohnLibbey,1997),pp.
124-131.
188ForabriefdiscussionofJapanesecartoonsonSingaporetelevisioninthemid-1980s,seeErhardU.
Heidt,MassMedia,CulturalTradition,andNationalIdentity:TheCaseofSingaporeandItsTelevisionProgrammes,pp.
197-200.
9ForanaccountofthepopularityofDoraemoninIndonesiaandtheworld,seeSayaShiraishi,"Japan'sSoftPower:DoraemonGoesOverseas,"inPeterKatzensteinandTakashiShiraishi,eds.
,NetworkPower:JapanandAsia(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1997),pp.
234-273.
DoraemonisalsoextremelypopularinMalaysiawhereitsanimatedseriesisshownatprimetime.
SeeWendySmith,"JapaneseCulturalImageinMalaysia,"inK.
S.
Jomo,ed.
,JapanandMalaysianDevelopment:IntheShadowoftheRisingSun(London:Routledge,1994),p.
349.
10DataprovidedbyMsIvyTeo,CorporateCommunicationsandRelationsExecutiveofTCS,duringaninterviewon18January1999.
Recently,JapanesetelevisiondramaserialshavebecomemorepopularthanJapanesecartoonsonSingaporetelevision.
MostJapanesedramaserialsscreenedin2000and2001havedouble-digitalratings.
11PokemonhasbeenthemostpopulartitleforvideorentalinJapaninrecentyears.
In1998,nineoutoftoptenvideorentalarePokemonvideos.
SeeAnimage,February1999(Tokyo:Tokumashoten),p.
98.
PokemonhasbecomeoneofthemostpopulartelevisioncartoonsintheUnitedStatesin1999.
ForitsimpactintheUnitedStates,seeJohnP.
Jackson,BuyingandSellingtheSoulsofOurChildren:ACloseLookatPokemon.
12Forinstance,JapaneseanimatedfilmsarefeaturedinJapaneseFilmFestivalorganizedbytheJapaneseEmbassyinSingaporeinSeptemberannually.
In1997,TombstoneforFireflies,andin1998,GalaxyExpress999,BarefootGen,BarefootGen2,andSpaceFirebird,wereshowntoSingaporeansforfree.
In1999,tomoKatsuhiro'sSprigganwasfeaturedinSingapore'sInternationalFilmFestivalandreceivedoverwhelmingresponse.
TemasekPolytechnicalsoorganizesanimationfestivalonceayear.
InJune2000,itheldalarge-scale'SingaporeAnimationFiesta192000'(sponsoredbyorganizationsincludingToeiAnimationPhilippinesandAnimationKobe)inwhichanimatedfilmswerefeaturedandforumsandworkshopswereorganized.
13ChannelCentralshowsculturalprograms,Malay/Indianprogramsandchildren'sprograms.
14ThisinformationaboutTCS'scriteriainpurchasingJapanesecartoonprogramswasacquiredthroughaninterviewwithMsLeeSooHwee,theprogramexecutiveofTCS,on5March1998.
15Dr.
SlumpwasshownonTCS8butwasdiscontinuedafterafewepisodesbecauseofcomplaintsfromparents.
16Itwas18.
7percentinearly1999.
See"ForaNewConcept,Cabletelevisionhasdonewell,"StraitsTimes,February1999,p.
26.
InHongKong,24percentofhouseholdsarecableTVsubscribers.
17WeconductedaninterviewwiththemanageroftheConstantVideoPteLtd.
attheTakashimayaShoppingCenteron4January1999.
Accordingtothemanager,theshophasnearly30,000registeredmembersandabout10percentareSingaporeans(mostlyChinese).
AllvideotapesaredirectlyimportedfromJapanandtakeapproximatelytwomonthstogothroughtheBoardofFilmCensors.
Theshopattemptedtoluremorelocalcustomersbyreducingtherentalfeeby20percentin1997.
18ThesedatawereprovidedbyMr.
MarkJ.
Y.
Leong,MarketingExecutiveofVisionAnimate,on11January1999.
VisionAnimateopenedanothershopinJune2000andhasbeguntosellanimated-relatedproducts,suchasmodelsandposters.
19Singapore2000(Singapore:MinistryofInformationandtheArts,2000),pp.
309-310.
20In1997,theBroadofFilmCensorsbanned387videosand19films.
SeeSingapore1998(Singapore:MinistryofInformationandtheArts,1998),p.
271.
FewtitlesareJapaneseanimation,becauselocaltelevisionstations,videorentalshops20andtheatersexerciseself-censorshipbeforetheyimportJapaneseanimatedtelevisionseriesorfilms.
SomeproblematictitlesareavailableintheSingaporemarket,becausetheyarepiratedcopieswhichhavenotgonethroughtheBoardofFilmCensors.
ThesaleandpossessionofJapaneseeroticanimationsoftwarearesubjecttoprosecution.
21NanyangTechnologicalUniversityandSingaporePolytechnichaveaJapaneseanimeclub.
TheFengShanCommunityCenterhasananimefanclub.
TherearewebsitessetupbySingaporeansonSlamDunk,Ranma1/2,PrettySoldierSailormoon,Dragonball,BooWow,PokemonandDoraemon.
ThemostcomprehensivewebsiteonJapaneseanimationinSingaporeissetupbyAnimeInnSingapore(AIS),aninformalJapaneseanimationclub.
Italsorunsamonthlynewsletteronthewebwhichhas215subscribers.
500-700Singaporeansvisitthiswebsitedaily.
DataareacquiredfrominterviewswithMr.
TeoWeeKian,theeditorofAIS,on22-23September1999.
However,unlikeTaiwan,HongKong,TaiwanorChina,therearenofanclubsforJapanesecartoonists.
22FriedemannBartu,TheUglyJapanese:Nippon'sEconomicEmpireinAsia(Singapore:LongmanSingaporePublishers:1992),p.
185.
23Thiscanbeseenfromtwothings.
First,JapaneseanimationproductioncompaniesdonotmakelicensedVCDsespeciallyforSingaporeandSoutheastAsiaandarenotkeentocrackdownpiratedsoftwareintheregion.
Second,JapaneseanimationproductioncompaniesdonotsetupbranchesorsubsidiariesinSingapore.
24SeeGiannalbertoBendazzi,Cartoons:OneHundredYearsofCinemaAnimation(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1996),p.
413.