rentm.yushuwu.org

Notes1"BecomingGlobal":YantianVillageinContext1.
TonySaich.
ThiswasasastudentonaBritishCouncilReciprocalScholarshipwithChina.
2.
Thefocusisprimarilyoneconomicorganizationinthereformeraanddoesnotattempttoportrayananthropologicalorasociologicalpictureordescribeinanysystematicfashionthehistoryofthevillage.
ForamasterfulaccountusingsuchapproachesinanearbyvillageseeChan,Madsen,andUnger(2009).
3.
ForaninsightfulstudyofhowChinahasintegratedintotheglobaleconomyandtheinstitutionalchangesthatthishaswrought,seeSteinfeld,(2010).
Steinfeldhassuggestedthatakeypartofthisintegra-tionisachievedthrough"institutionaloutsourcing,"aprocessofadap-tationtoglobalnormsandpractices.
Thisstudycorroboratesthistoacertainextentbutshowshowinformalinstitutionswithinthevillagehaveshapedtheoutcomesandhaveplayedamajorroleinthepoliticsofdistribution.
4.
ThefiguresforDongguanandFenggangarefromhttp://www.
dongguantoday.
com.
ThefigureforYantianisfrominterviewswithvillageofficials.
Atthepeak(1999–2000),therewereestimatedtobe150,000migrantsinYantian.
Theofficialwebsiteclaimsthatthereare700,000peoplewhooriginatefromDongguanandarelivinginHongKong,Macau,andTaiwan,withanother200,000livingfurtherafield.
ForafascinatingaccountofthelivesoffemalemigrantsinDongguan,seeChang(2009).
Shenotesthat70percentoftheworkersontheassemblylinesarefemale(2009,125).
5.
Ofthe3,489officialresidents,501didnotenjoytherighttosharetheyear-enddividendspaidoutbythevillageeconomiccooperative.
6.
InJuly2008,oursurveyrevealedthatofthe41,409employeeswork-inginthethen202foreignenterprises,95percentcamefromoutsideofYantian.
7.
The"ThreeSupply"enterprises(sanlaiyibuqiye)accountedfor105,whollyforeign-ownedenterprises66withjustninejointventures.
Notes1928.
Chan,Madsen,andUnger(2009,274,and331–32)notethesamephe-nomenonbuttheprocessseemstohavebeenslowerwithagriculturallandonlydisappearingbythemid-nineties.
9.
Attheendof2009,therewere40,858townshipsinChina(1,584inGuangdong)and599,127administrativevillages,bothofwhichhadwitnessedasignificantdeclineinnumbersoverthepreviousdecadebecauseofadministrativerestructuring.
10.
Thefigurefor2009isfromhttp://www.
stats.
gov.
cn/tjs/ndj/2010/indexeh.
htm.
ThisfigurehasbeenrisinginrecentyearsdespiteHuJintao'sandWenJiabao'sincreaseingovernmentsupportforwelfareandeducationinthecountrysideasmuchoftheobligationfallsonlocalgov-ernments.
Thispercentageishigherthanthatinothercountriesintheregion:forexample,inVietnamitis48percent,Indonesia32percent,andThailand10percent(MountfieldandWong,2005,86).
11.
Onthisissue,seetheinsightfularticlebyGraemeSmith(2010).
ThereasonsforthefiscalproblemsatthetownshiplevelaredescribedwellinOiandZhao(2007).
12.
OnatriptoavillageinYunnanontheBurmeseborder,Saichremem-bersvividlywatchingthevillageheadgettingreadytogooutearlyonemorning.
SeeinghimstrappingonacoupleofshotgunsIaskedwhetherhewasgoinghuntinginthehillstowhichhereplied"No,taxcollecting!
"13.
Foranimportantsetofessaysonvillagegovernanceandpoliticsmoregenerally,seeZhao,2011.
14.
Foranexcellentsetofessaysthattakethisapproach,seeJeanC.
OiandAndrewG.
Walder,PropertyRightsandEconomicReforminChina(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1999).
15.
ForhermainstatementseeOi(1999)andforearlieriterationsseeOi(1992and1998).
ForotherswhohaveusedasimilarapproachseeKung'sstudyofWuxi(1998)andtheworkbyNanLinandChen(1998).
16.
WalderadoptsasimilarviewwithhisanalysisofZoupingCounty(ShandongProvince).
Heviewsthelocalgovernmentasresemblinganindustrialcorporationwhererevenuegenerationisparamountandtheentirelocalgovernmentoperatesasafirminacompetitiveenvironment(Walder,1998,16–23).
17.
Forexamplesofan"entrepreneurial"localstate,seeBlecher'sstudy(1991)ofGuanghanCountyinSichuanandDuckett'sstudy(1998)ofrealestateandcommerceagenciesinTianjin.
Forastudyofalocaldevel-opmentalstate,seeBlecher'sstudywithShueonXinjiMunicipality,HebeiProvince(1996).
18.
Underthe"clientalist"model,officialsandentrepreneursexhibitapatron–clientrelationshipthatpushesforwardeconomicdevelopmentwithofficialsmakingfulluseoftheirpoliticalcapital.
NanLin(1995,301–54)hasnotedavariantonlocalstatecorporatismthatisbasedonthestrongclientalisttiesthatexistedinhisstudyarea.
GregoryRuf(1998)inhisstudyofMeishanCountyinSichuannotedstrongNotes193clientalistpressuresthatreducedsocietalinfluenceonlocalgovernment.
DavidWank(1999)usestheterm"symbioticclientalism"todescribetherelationshipbetweenofficialsandentrepreneursintheXiamenSEZ.
19.
ThezonewasactuallyestablishedonAugust26,1980.
ThemovehadbeenpreparedinNovember1979bymakingShenzhen(formerlyBaoanCounty)aprefectural-leveladministrativedivisiondirectlygovernedbyGuangdongProvince.
Itwasgrantedtherighttoprovincial-leveleco-nomicadministrationinNovember1988.
20.
ForthedevelopmentofHongKonganditsimportanceforthePRDintheearlyyearsofreform,seeVogel,1989,43–75.
21.
Nearly17percentoftheenterprisespurchasedlanduserightsratherthanjustpayrental.
Mostofthesecontractswerefor50years.
22.
PrasenjitDuara,1988,120–132.
ThisbroadlycorrespondstoLilyTsai'suseof"encompassing"thatisdiscussedbelow.
23.
Ontheimportanceoforganizingaroundclaimsofcommondescent,seeMauriceFriedman,1971.
24.
InherstudyofTaHsuen,RubieWatson(1982,75–75and85)notesthattheDengstheretracedtheirancestrytoDengFuxiewhohadcomeoriginallyfromJiangxiandhadsettledinSouthernGuangdonginthetwelfthcentury.
Inturn,hisfamilyhadalsooriginatedinDengZhouaswiththeDengsinYantian.
AnumberoftheDenglineagemembershadmigratedthroughJiangxi.
25.
TheXiaDynasty(twenty-firsttosixteenthcenturyBCE)isconsideredthefirstChinesedynasty,theShangDynastywasestablishedin1675BCandlastedforover600years,andtheZhouDynastyranfrom1046to221BCE26.
JianshengarestudentsselectedtostudyinGuozijian(thehighestschoolintheancientChineseeducationalsystem).
Thestudentsmainlycamefromthreesources—studentswhohadoutstandingacademicachieve-ments,foreignstudentsfromKorea,Russia,andelsewhere,andsomewhohadboughtthetitle.
Thegongshengweretheoutstandingstudentsselectedfromdifferentprovinces,prefectures,andcountiesalloverthecountrytostudyinGuozijian.
Jurenarethosewhopassedtheexamina-tionattheprovinciallevel(xiangshi),whereasjinshiarethosewhopassedthehighestexamination(Dianshi)intheForbiddenCity.
ThefirstplaceintheexamiswhatpeoplecalledZhuangyuaninancientChina.
27.
Alsoreferredtoas"tombsweepingday.
"ItisthetimeinearlyAprilwhenpeoplevisitthetombsorburialgroundsoftheirancestors.
In2008,theChineseCommunistPartyinstateditasanationalholiday.
28.
Hu(2007)showstheimportanceof"villagetrust"insettingupRotatingSavingsandCreditAssociationsinXiangdongVillage,ZhejiangProvince.
29.
Thismodelcanbefoundinanumberofplaces,forexample,inthevillageofZhenggezhuanginChangpingCountyontheoutskirtsofBeijing.
AninterviewwithaformerPartySecretaryofChangping.
30.
OnfinancingseeKelleeS.
Tsai(2002).
OnthedebateaboutWenzhou,seeNolanandDongFuren(1989).
Notes1942"CleaningTheirFeet":TheDeclineofanAgriculturalVillage1.
NowHe'aoVillage,HenggangTown,LonggangDistrict,ShenzhenCity,GuangdongProvince.
2.
InmuchofthesouthofChina,thefirstmanifestationofcommunistpowerwasthearmyandnottheparty.
Inaddition,thecollapseofthenationalistsinthesouthcamemuchearlierthananticipatedbyanyoneintheCCPleadership.
Thismeantthatanumberofcompromiseshadtobemadewithservingadministratorsbeforethenewgovernmentcouldputinplacemoreloyalservants.
ThishasledShambaugh(1997,127)toobserve"itisessentialtoviewtheCCP'svictoryasanarmedseizureofpowerfollowingprotractedmilitarycampaigns.
"3.
ForanexcellentaccountoftheCCPtakeoverofGuangzhou,seeVogel(1969).
4.
Accordingtotheadministrativedivisionatthetime,theareaofYantianwasslightlydifferentfromthepresent.
5.
ThefirstwavewasbetweenJuneandSeptember1957(theaccelera-tionofcollectivization);thesecondwavecameinthedifficultyearsof1961–1962followingtheGreatLeapForward;andthethirdwasin1972(mostbeingurban"educatedyouth"whohadbeensentdowntothevillage).
3"BuildingNeststoAttractPhoenixes":Lineage,Market,andtheRiseofaGlobalManufacturingBase1.
ThisformofbusinessfirststartedinDongguanasearlyas1978andcomprisedmainlylabor-intensiveindustriessuchasgarments,metalproducts,andplastics.
Foreigninvestorsprovidedtheequipmentandoperatingcapitalfortheenterprisesandtheyexercisedoverallman-agementoverproductionandmarketing.
TheYantianvillagecollec-tiveofferedphysicalplantandotherpropertytoforeigninvestors,andchargedthemaccordingly.
Theseenterprisesweremostlycatego-rizedasYantiancollectiveenterprises,havingtheirlegalrepresenta-tivechosenfromamongthevillagers.
However,Yantianhadlimitedcontroloverthem.
Theforeigninvestorsoftenmadethemajordeci-sionssuchasprofitdistribution.
Withthe"ThreeSupplies"asthemaincharacteristic,theseenterprisesobtainedallproductionmateri-alsfromabroadandcouldonlyselltheirproductsinforeignmarkets.
Productsfromtheseenterprisescouldbesuppliedtoother"ThreeSupplies"enterprisesorjointventuresinsideChinabutapprovalfromcustomswasaprecondition(seeWang,Zhang,andYao,1996,128and139).
Notes1952.
AccordingtoDengYaohui(2003,229),thetotalofforeign-investedenterprisesattheendof1998was391.
3.
"Zhonghuarenmingongheguolaodonghetongfa.
"ThelawisoverseenbytheMinistryofHumanResourcesandSocialSecurity.
Mostimpor-tantly,thelawprotectedemployeeswithtenyearsofemploymentfromdismissalwithoutcauseandrequiredemployerstocontributetoemploy-ees'socialsecurityaccountsandsetwagestandardsforemployees,includingregulationsonovertime.
4.
Thisinformationisbasedonfieldworkconductedin2008ofthethen202foreignenterprisesoperatinginYantian.
5.
TheserefertoenterprisesjointlyestablishedbytheYantianvillagecol-lectiveandforeigninvestors.
Generallyspeaking,partiesofthejointventuresharedecisionmakingandmanagementrights,aswellasthebusinessprofitinaccordancewiththerespectiveproportionofinvest-ment.
Majordecisionspertainingtobusinessdevelopmentmustbemadejointlybythetwopartiesinsteadofbyjustoneparty.
Intheir1995investigation,HuBiliang,WangXiaoyi,ZhangJun,andYaoMeidiscoveredthatYantianhad30jointventures,19withHongKong,7withTaiwan,and4withJapan.
Allthesejointventureshadalargeinvestment,advancedequipment,andtechnologicalintensiveproducts(Wang,Zhang,andYao,1996,125).
Yet,by2010,therewereonlyninejointventuresoutof202foreignenterprises,indicatingthatmostjointventureshadtransformedtheirownershipstructure,relocatedtootherareas,orwereshutdown.
6.
Thisincluded10,000peopleandlaborersinaYantianindustrialzoneunderthejurisdictionofapropertymanagementofficeofthePeople'sLiberationArmy,and2,000peopleandlaborersinareservoirindustrialzonemanagedbytheGuangdongYuehaiGroup.
7.
Thefirst"migrantworkertide"appearedinthespringof1989astheChinesegovernmentstartedtorelaxitscontroloverpeople'smobility.
8.
ThestudybyWang,Zhang,andYaorevealsthatpeoplefromGuangxiwerepioneersinmigratingtoworkinYantian.
IntheirbooktheyrecountthestoryofanarmymanwhoservedinthemilitaryinYantianandmar-riedalocalwomanondemobilization.
HeobservedthehugedemandforlaborbyforeignenterprisesinYantianandthatlocallaborwasinsuf-ficient.
HestartedtointroducehisfellowvillagersfromGuangxitoworkinYantian.
Thisprobablyoccurredin1985(Wang,Zhang,andYao,1996,194).
9.
CCPCentralCommittee"DirectiveonTighteningControlOvertheMarketandTransformingPrivateCommerce.
"10.
Thequotaamountsuppliedwasdeterminedbytheintensityofthelaboradultswereengagedinandrangedfrom13.
5kgto16kgpermonth.
Deliverymenandblacksmithsreceived23.
5kgpermonth.
Theywereallowed0.
2kgpeanutoilpercapitapermonth.
Notes1964"NewWine,NewBottles":TheEmergenceofaNew-StyleVillageCollective1.
Infact,beforethetaxreformsof1994,theChinesegovernmentofferedveryfavorablepoliciestoattractforeigninvestment,includ-ingincometaxexemptionforthreeyears,andmaintainingacertainleveloftaxreductionforaperiodoftimeafterthefirstthreeyears.
Accordingtooursurveyinthenineties,thesefavorablepoliciessavedover4.
9millionyuanforthe30companieswereviewed,anaverageof160,000yuan,providingapositiveincentiveforstart-ups(Wang,Zhang,andYao,1996,148).
2.
Forsometimeinthepast,whensettingupjointventureswithforeigninvestors,theYantianvillagecollectivereceivedsomecompanysharesbyprovidingfactorybuildings.
Insuchcases,thecompanyhadtopayvillagecollectivedividendsinlinewiththesharestructureattheendofeachyear.
Thereturnwasveryhigh,generallyaround25percentoftheinvestmentatthetime.
3.
Foreigncompaniespaidahigherfactorybuildingrenttothevillagecol-lectiveintheeightieswhentheyfirstsetup,anaverageof13yuanpersquaremeterpermonth.
4.
Onecouldarguethatthiswastoprovideasinecuretotheoldpartyhead.
Whilethismaybetrue,itisalsothecasethathewouldhavethenecessaryconnectionsandprestigetosmoothoveranypotentialprob-lemsormisunderstandings.
5.
ThisagreementwasreachedwithallforeigncompanieslookingtoinvestinYantian.
Mostprobably,thisservedtwopurposes.
First,itwouldallowthevillagecollectivetogettimelyinformationontheneedsofthecompanysothatthenecessaryhelpcouldbeprovidedand,second,itwouldallowthevillagetocontrolcompanyfinancesthusavoidinganytaxorfeeevasion.
Itwouldensurethatthevillagecollectivewasontopofalltheactivitiesofthecompany.
6.
ThesamepracticewasnotedinChenvillagewheretheyhavethetitleof"Chinese-sidefactoryhead"(Zhongfangchangzhang).
Chanetal.
describethisasa"disguisedfee"eventhoughthemaindutyisdescribedasservingasaliaisonbetweenthevillageauthoritiesandthefactory.
Chan,Madsen,andUnger,2009,337–338.
7.
ThesearethetheYi'anIndustrialZone,theFirstSecond,Third,andFourthIndustrialZones,theSouthwestIndustrialZone,theBeipuIndustrialZone,ShuibeiIndustrialZone,ShijieIndustrialZone,andChangbiaoIndustrialZone.
8.
Thetownandhigherlevelsofgovernmenthavenoresponsinilitytocon-structroadswithinthevillage.
9.
UndertheProcessingOfficearethegeneraloffice,theverificationdivision,exchangesettlementdivision,customsdeclarationdivision,Notes197statisticsdivision,disputesettlementdivision,transportationdivision,andthefirefightingdivision.
10.
Otherinvestmentprojectsincludedaparkinglotandabondedware-houseneartheYantianCustoms.
Asof2010,thecollectivehadmadea30millionyuanprofitfromtheparkinglotbutreturnsontheware-housewereshakierbecauseofthedeclineinimportsandexports.
11.
Forbetterillustration,wedidnotusethegeneralclassificationofopera-tionalincome,propertyincome,andtransferincome;ratherweusetwocategoriesofincomeclassification,namelyincomefromexternalsourcesandself-generatedincome.
12.
Therewere100shareholderrepresentativesinthesecondShareholdingEconomicCooperative,whowereelectedbyallshareholdersinApril2008,andthesameforthethirdinMarch2011.
13.
Duringour2006fieldsurvey,weconcentratedontheeconomyatthegrouplevel;whilein2008,wefocusedmainlyoneconomicactivitiesatthefamilyhouseholdlevel;andin2009,moreattentionwaspaidtovil-lagepoliticalgovernance.
Therefore,allthedataaboutvillagers'groupsaredatafrom2005andprioryears.
5"FromTractorstoAutomobiles":HouseholdEconomicManagement1.
ParticipantsinthefieldsurveyincludedHuBiliang,WangXiaoyi,ZhangJun,YaoMei,TangShengguo,andLiJie.
FindingsofthesurveywerepublishedinMarch1996(Wang,Zhang,andYao,1996).
2.
ParticipantsinthefieldsurveyincludedHuBiliang,ZhangBin,LiuJie,HuDi,WangJie,ChenFang,andLiJinping.
3.
Therewere44validresponses,accountingfor6.
5percentofregisteredhouseholds(682)inYantian.
Thesampledpopulationwas224,8per-centofthepopulationinthevillage(2,786)atthetime,withanaverageof5.
1memberspersampledhousehold.
The2008samplesurveycov-ered39households,5.
1percentofthe761registeredhouseholds.
Thesampledpopulationwas184,6.
2percentoftheregisteredpopulation(2,988),withanaverageof4.
7memberspersampledhousehold.
4.
Unfortunately,astherawdataforthe1995surveyhavebeenlost,itisnotpossibletoconfirmthatallthesampledhouseholdsareidenticalinthetwosurveys.
5.
Tenhouseholdsreturnedtheirlandin1992,sevenin1988and1990,sixin1991,andtwoin1989.
Theremainingeighthouseholdscouldnotremembertheexacttimingofthereturnofthelandbutwerefairlysurethatitwasbetween1988and1992.
6.
However,itshouldbenotedthatthe2007and1994dataarenotentirelycomparable.
Therearemoreitemsunderfamilyhouseholdincomein2007,suchastransferincomeandthedividendincomefromthecollec-tives,whicharenotincludedinthe1994data.
In1994,incomefromNotes198thesesourceswasminimalandtheiromissiondoesnotaffecttheassess-mentoffamilyhouseholdincome.
Yetifsuchitemswereoverlookedfor2007,thiswoulddistorttheanalysis.
In2007,weexcludednegligibleitemssuchasreturnsonstockinvestments.
IIManagingtheProvisionofPublicGoods1.
TheothertwomodelsareinZhejiangandShanghai.
TheZhejiangmodelcopiestheurbanbasicpensionplanbuthaslowerpremiumsandlowercriteriaforenrollment.
However,thepaymentsareonlyslightlylower,whichmaycreatedifficultiesinthefutureintermsofcoveringpayout.
TheShanghaiplanisacomprehensiveonespecificallydesignedformigrantswitharelativelylowpremium.
Thebenefitsareonthelowsideanditwillbemoredifficulttocentralizepooling.
SeeChinaDevelopmentResearchFoundation,2012,60–61.
2.
FourofthecitiesareinGuangdongandrelevanttothisstudy:Shenzhen,Guangzhou,Zhuhai,andDongguan.
TheremainderareShanghai,Cixi,andJiaxinginZhejiangProvince;TaiyuaninShanxi;DalianinLiaoning;andChangchuninJilin.
SeeSouthChinaMorningPost,June2,2010.
6"FromPublicProvisiontoaDiversifiedNetwork":EducationServices1.
Sishuwasatypeofold-fashionedprivateschool,distinctfromgovernment-runorpublicschools.
AsanongovernmentschoolitwasuniquetotheChinesecontextandboastedalongtradition.
Itappearedinthespringandautumnperiod(722–481BC).
ItwasaformofprivateteachingandsomerefertotheprivatelecturesgivenbyConfuciusinhishometownofQufuasSishu,whichmadeConfuciusthefirstrenownedprivateteacher.
Asaformofprivateeducation,Sishuwascontinuedasasupplementtopubliceduca-tionbutitwasabolishedin1905,althoughitcontinuedtoexertaninfluenceforsometimesubsequently.
Itplayedanimportantroleindisseminatingtraditionalcultureandadvancingeducationaldevelopment.
Bythesourceoffunding,Sishucanbedividedintothreetypes:ZuoguanorJiashuwhereaffluentfamilieshiredteacherstoteachattheirownhome;CunshuorZushu(Zongshu)wherethevillagesorlineagesprovidedfinancialandprop-ertyresources,recruitingteacherstoteachchildrenofpoorfamilies;andSishuorMenguan(Jiaoguan,Xueguan,orShuwu)whereteacherstaughtintheirownhousesandchargedstudentsforeducation.
Sishuisoftensmallscale,with20orlessattending.
Moredetailscanbefoundathttp://baike.
baidu.
com/view/42498.
htmfr=ala0.
OnthephasingoutofSishuseeDeng(1997).
Notes1992.
TheseweretheFourBooksofthe"FourBooksandFiveClassics"(sishuwujing).
TheFourBooksareconsideredtobetheauthoritativeworksofConfucianismwrittenbefore300BC.
ThefirsttwoarechaptersfromtheClassicofRites(Liji),thethirdisacompilationofConfucius'speechesandthefourthisacollectionofconversationsofthescholarMencius.
3.
WhilethePRCwasproclaimedinBeijingonOctober1,1949,thePLAdidnotoccupyGuangzhouuntilacoupleofweekslater.
SeeVogel,1980,41.
4.
The"GangofFour"werearrestedonOctober6,1976,andwerecriticizedforpushingtheradicaleducationpoliciesoftheCulturalRevolution.
5.
LiuShaoqiputthisforwardin1958andhereiteratedtheideaagainin1964.
Thetwoeducationsystemsreferredtoafull-timesystemandasystemintegratingclassroomeducationwithlabororfarming;thetwolaborsystemsreferredtofull-timelaborandasystemcombininglaborwithclassroomeducation.
Schoolssubjecttothelattersystemwerecalled"farmingandteachingschools.
"Thehalf-timeworkinproduc-tionalsoincludedworkinfactories.
By1965,acrossChinatherewere7,294half-timesecondaryvocationalschoolswith1.
27millionstudents.
SeeTsang,1991,70.
6.
ZhentianSchoolhasamiddleschoolbutnohighschool.
MiddleschoolgraduatesmaygotohighschoolinFenggangTownortheHuaqiaoHighSchoolaccordingtotheirschoolperformance.
SomealsochoosetheNewCenturyTalentsSchoolinYantian.
7.
Thisdoesnotincludethecostoflandortheannualincrementalinvest-mentsofover2millionyuanonceconstructionwascompleted.
Thevillagecollectivehadmadeadditionalinvestmentsofnearly10millionyuanbetween2003and2008.
8.
Theschoolisapublicschoolinname,butactuallyrunbytheYantianvillagecollective.
9.
Therearetwosemestersforeachschoolyear—springandautumnsemesters.
10.
Theaverageannualcompensationfortheteacherswasnearly50,000yuan.
11.
Thenumberoffacultywas85inthatyear,including65teachers(33government-paidteachers).
12.
ThestandardlengthformiddleschoolinChinaisthreeyears.
However,theschoolwasnotqualifiedtoissueamiddleschooldiploma(itsappli-cationwasnotapprovedbytherelevantauthorities)andthuscouldnotrunninth-gradeclasses.
Studentshadtofindtheirownwayaftereighthgrade.
Studentsfrombetter-offfamilieswouldnormallyenrollintheprivateNewCenturyTalentsSchoolforninthgrade;somewentbacktotheirhometownforninthgrade;andsomejustgaveupinninthgradeandsoughtworkintheYantianfactories.
Themiddleschoolwasmostlyfilledwithgraduatesoftheelementaryschoolbranch.
SomeNotes200studentswithanoutstandingperformance(aroundtwodozen)chosetostudyintheHuaqiaoMiddleSchoolinFenggangTownortheNewCenturyTalentsSchoolafterelementaryschool.
However,moststu-dentsremainedinYantianSchoolfortheirmiddleschooleducation.
AstheYantianSchoolisauniqueschool,itcoulddecideontheproportionofpupilswhocouldbeadmittedtothemiddleschool.
Withconstraintsonthenumberofteachers,classrooms,andvenues,theschoolnormallyallowedonly50percentofpupilstobeadmittedtothemiddleschool.
13.
Atitspeak,thenumberofstudentsreached2,400butdeclinedin2009.
Therewereonly1,792studentsinthespringsemester,60percentofwhomcamefromGuangdongProvince,mostlyfromShantouandChaozhou.
OnlytenstudentswerefromDongguanCity.
14.
Contractteachersusuallysignedone-yearcontractswiththeschool.
15.
StudentsfromHongKong,Macao,andTaiwanpaidtuitionatthesamerateasdomesticstudents,whileKoreanstudentspaidatahigherrate.
16.
TheseweretheCaihuaElementarySchool,theYinxingElementarySchool,theDeliElementarySchool,andtheKanglongElementarySchool.
Thekindergartenswere:theNewCentury,Tongyu,Tongxin,Yinxing,Kanglong,Jinxing,andJinyaolan.
17.
ParticipantsofthesurveyconductedaboutYantianeducationman-agementin2006includeHuBiliang,LiGuoxiang,LiYuxiang,LiuHongyu,WeiPeili,JinWenli,andHuDi,andthematerialsusedhereweremostlypreparedbyJinWenli.
7"OneVillage,DifferentWorlds":HealthcareProvisioninYantian1.
In1995itwasaccreditedasa"Baby-FriendlyHospital"bytheChineseMinistryofHealth(MOH),UNICEF,andWHO,in1996itwasaccreditedasaSecondClassAHospitalbytheMOH,andin2006wasnominatedasateachinghospitalforhighermedicaleducationinstitu-tionsinGuangdongProvince.
2.
"Guowuyuanguanyufazhanchengshishequweishengfuwudezhidaoyijian"[StateCouncilGuidelinesonDevelopingUrbanCommunityHealthcareServices(Guofa[2006]10)].
3.
Thiswasanobjectiveoftheattempttosetup"ruralcommunities"(non-gcunshequ)toimprovetheprovisionofpublicgoodsinthecountryside.
Experimentsbeganin2006andtheprogramwastobeimplementednationallyfrom2009butmanylocalcommunitieshavedeflectedtheirestablishment.
Theirestablishmentispartofthebroaderpolicyinitiativetobuilda"newsocialistcountryside"(shehuizhuyixinnongcun).
4.
Diseaseprevention,basicmedicalservices,nursing,rehabilitation,healtheducation,andconsultationonfamilyplanningtechniques.
5.
WhenwevisitedYantianonJuly9,2008,theHospitalhadnotyetbeenaccreditedasatertiaryhospital.
AccordingtoHuangJunhe,vicedirectorNotes201ofthehospital,theypositioneditbetweenasecondaryandtertiaryhos-pitalforservicedelivery.
6.
Employeesfromwithintheprovinceonlyaccountfor30–40percent,withtherestdrawnfromoutsideoftheprovince.
Sixty-nineofthemed-icalstaffhadaseniorprofessionaltitle,upfrom39initially.
7.
Yantianlaunchedtworoundsofhealthcaresystemreformcenteredonthecontractingarrangementsin1981and1986,respectively;however,contractorswerethenrequiredtopaysomefeetothevillagecollective.
8.
YangkangandYantianareprivatelyowned,whileFengtianandZhentianarestateowned.
9.
From1991,theNanfangProductionTeamintroducedamedicalallow-ancetosubsidize30percentofthemedicalexpensesofitsmemberswhospentover5,000yuaninhospitalizationfees.
10.
See"Dongguanshizhigongjibenyiliaobaoxianzanxingguiding"[ProvisionalRegulationsofDongguanCityonBasicMedicalInsuranceforFormalEmployees(DongguanCityGovernment,November8,1999).
11.
ThedeductiblefromthesocialpoolvariedacrossdifferenthospitalsinDongguanCity—600yuanfortertiaryandhigher-levelhospitals,500yuanforsecondaryhospitals,and400yuanforprimaryandotherhospitals.
12.
Ceilingsweresetforparticipantsinaccordancewiththetimeofenroll-mentintheinsuranceprogramandtheinsurancepackagetheyhadbeenenrolledin(comprehensiveorinpatient).
Therewerethreelevels:participantswithtwotosixmonthsofmembership(10,000yuaninthecomprehensivepackageand5,000yuanintheinpatientpackage),thoseenrolledforsixmonthstooneyear(20,000yuaninthecompre-hensivepackageand10,000yuanintheinpatientpackage),andthoseenrolledforoveroneyear(75,000yuaninthecomprehensivepackageand35,000yuanintheinpatientpackage).
13.
Theprogramwasintendedprimarilytoenrollfarmers,buturbanresi-dentscouldparticipateonavoluntarybasis.
14.
Itwasalsopossibletoregisterthrougharesidents'committee.
15.
Aswiththeemployees'basicmedicalinsurance,basicexpensesrefertotheexpensesupondeductionofout-of-pocketpayments.
Participantswerereimbursedfortheirmedicalexpensesupondeductionofout-of-pocketpaymentsandthedeductible.
Theyhadtocoverthewholebillbythem-selvesifmedicalexpensesupondeductionofout-of-pocketpaymentsdidnotmeetthedeductible.
16.
Themainreasonisthatthepercentageofretireesinthefarmers'basicmedicalinsurancewasmultipletimeshigher.
8"Dengs'Village":Governance1.
See,forexample,Kelliher,1997,PastorandTan,2000,andHe,2003.
Fortheunsuccessfulattemptstoraisethelevelofdirectelectionstothetownship,seeSaichandYang,2003.
Notes2022.
See"Zhonghuarenmingongheguocunminweiyuanhuizuzhifa"athttp://gov.
cn.
flfg/2010–10/28/content_1732986.
htm.
3.
AVillagers'RepresentativeMeeting(cunmindaibiaohuiyi)issetupinvillagesthataredenselypopulatedorwherevillagersarewidelyscattered.
Themeetingisattendedbyvillagerepresentativeswhoaccountforatleastfour-fifthsofparticipants,withwomenaccountingforatleastone-third.
Every5to15householdscanrecommendonevillagerepresentativeortheycanberecommendedbyeachvillagers'smallgroup(cunminxiaozu).
4.
Thelawstatesthatfamilybackgroundandreligiousbeliefshouldnotbecriteriaforeliminatingacandidatebutitdoesrequirethatcandidatesconsidertheinterestsofthevillageasawholeandbejustandingoodstandingwithacertainculturalandeducationallevel.
5.
DelegatesoftheVillagers'RepresentativeMeetingaredeterminedaccordingtothepopulationofthevariousvillagers'groups,thusgroupswithalargerpopulationrecommendmorecandidates.
Inthe2008election,thenumberofdelegatesfromdifferentvillagers'groupswasasfollows:14fromDongyi,19fromDonger,10fromNanfang,14fromBeifang,9fromXifang,7fromBuxin,7fromShuibei,6fromChangbiao,and4fromShijie,makingatotalof90.
6.
Theelectioncommitteeforthefifthvillagers'committeeincludedDengZerong,whowasjustelectedaspartybranchsecretaryasdirectorandDengGantianasdeputydirectorandtheheadsoftheninevillagers'groups,onlytwoofwhomwerenotfromtheDengfamily(fromShuibeiandBuxin).
7.
"ElectionMethodfortheDirectNominationofMembersoftheYantianVillagers'Committee"(Yantiancuncunminweiyuanhuichengyuanzhi-jietimingxuanjubanfa)8.
"SuggestedOpinionsforCandidatesforMembershipofYantian'sFifthVillagersCommittee"(guanyuYantiancundiwujiecunminweiyuanhuichengyuanhouxuanrenjianyiyijian).
Thiswasanofficialdocumentcirculatedundertheheadingofandsealedwith"FenggangTownCCPCommittee.
"Thesuggestionsreadasfollows:"TotheElectionCommitteeofYantianVillage,Accordingtothe"OrganicLawofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaonVillagers'Committees,"the"ElectoralMethodforVillagers'CommitteesofGuangdongProvince"(Guangdongshengcunminweiyuanhuixuanjubanfa),andthe"MethodofImplementationforVillagers'CommitteesofGuangdongProvince"(Guangdongshengcunminweiyuanhuixuanjubanfashishixize),andconsideringthefindingsoftheperformancereviewofcurrentmembersofthevil-lagers'committeeandpartybranchofYantianVillageandtheopinionpolltargetingcandidatesforthevillagers'committee,thefollowinglistofcandidatesfortheupcomingvillagers'committeeisproposedfollowingdiscussionbythetownpartycommittee:DengManchangcandidateforheadofthevillagers'committee;DengShunyicandidatefordeputyheadofthevillagers'committee;Notes203DengHuixincandidateformemberofthevillagers'committee;ChenLimeicandidateformemberofthevillagers'committee;DengJinhaocandidateformemberofthevillagers'committee.
Itisadvisedthattheelectioncommitteepublicizethesesuggestions,explainthemtothevillagers,andorganizethedirectnominationofcandidatesuponfullconsiderationofthevotersofthesesuggestions,toensureasuccessfulelectionforthefifthvillagers'committee.
"Atthebottomoftheofficialdocument,"NotethatDengZerongwillnotparticipateinthevoting,"iswrittenbyhand.
9.
"ReportofYantianvillageontheDirectlyElectedMembersoftheFifthVillagers'CommitteethroughtheNominationConference"(Yantiancundiwujiecunweihuitiminghouxuanrendahuizhijiedan-gxuanrenbaogaodan)submittedtoFenggangTownGovernmentandreleasedtothevillagers.
Itreadasfollows:"TotheFenggangTownWorkGuidanceGroupfortheTurnoverofVillage-levelOrganizations(cunjizuzhihuanjiexuanjugongzuozhidaoxiaozu):YantianVillageheldthenominationconferenceonApril4,2011,strictlyinlinewiththerelevantprocedures.
2,606villagersoutof2,608qualifiedvotersparticipated.
2,606nominationballotswereissuedand2,604werereturned,2,604werevalidandthereweretwoabstentionvotes.
Afterreviewbythevillagers'electioncommittee,andinlinewiththe"twoover-half"(lianggeguoban)criteria,thefollowingpersonsweredirectlyelected:Ballotexaminer:DengGuoziBallotcounter:DengRujiaoBallotreader:DengTengfangDirectorofelectioncommittee(withsignature):DengZerongDateofReporting:April4,2011.
"10.
Fivepartymemberscouldnotrememberexactlywhentheyhadjoined.
11.
TheothercandidateswereDengGantian,DengShunyi,DengSenyang,ChenLimei,DengHuixin,andDengYongchang.
See"RequesttoProposedPositionPersonNominatedNo.
ofVotesGenderAgeEducationPoliticalAffiliationCurrentPositionDirectorDengManchang2,162Male42CollegeCCPmemberViceDirectorViceDirectorDengShunyi2,145Male36JuniorcollegeCCPmemberMemberMemberDengHuixin2,010Male39JuniorcollegeCCPmemberMemberMemberDengJinhao1,791Male32MiddleschoolCCPmemberSecurityHeadMemberChenLimei2,345Female38JuniorcollegeCCPmemberMemberNotes204ConvenethePartyElectoralMeetingtoElectCCPMembersoftheYantianVillagePartyGeneralBranchCommittee"(GuanyuzhaokaiZhonggongYantiancunzongzhibuweiyuanhuihuanjiexuanjudan-gyuandahuideqingshi).
12.
See"ApprovalonAgreementtoConvenethePartyElectoralMeetingtoElectCCPCommitteeMembersoftheYantianVillageGenralPartyBranch"(GuanyutongyizhaokaiZhonggongYantiancunzongzhibuwei-yuanhuidangyuandahuijinxinghuanjiexuanjudepifu).
13.
Ofthe165members,160attended;ofwhom,151werefullmemberswithvotingrightsand9probationarymembers.
Thevoteswereasfol-lows:ChenLimei142votes,DengShunyi135,DengZerong120,DengManchang119,DengHuixin114,DengGantian90,andDengYongchang82.
Allofthesewereelected.
14.
"Zhonghuarenmingongheguogaojinongyeshengchanhezuosheshi-fanzhangcheng"athttp://wenku.
baidu.
com/view/f1a05fd8d15abe23482f4d25.
html.
15.
"Nongcunrenmingongshegongzuotiaoli(caoan)"athttp://www.
lawyee.
net/OT_Data/legislation_Display.
aspRID=7505.
16.
ThiswasthecaseinChenvillageinthesameregion,Chan,Madsen,andUnger,2009,340.
17.
Forexample,withrespecttothereviewandapprovalofcollectiveinvest-mentprojects,thoseprojectswithaninvestmentoflessthan15millionyuancanbeapprovedbytheboardofdirectorsbutprojectswithaninvestmentof15–30millionyuanmustbeapprovedbytherepresenta-tiveshareholders'meeting.
18.
Candidateshadtobeshareholdersandover18yearsofageandeligibleforelection.
Inprinciple,candidateswerealsoexpectedtohaveatamin-imumofamiddleschooleducationandbeunder60years.
Itwasalsonotedthattheyshouldbeboth"red"and"expert"possessing"politicalintegrity"and"managementskills.
"19.
Thenumberofrepresentativeshareholdersineachvillagers'groupdependsonitspopulation.
Thedistributionwasasfollows:16fromDongyi,21fromDonger,11fromNanfang,16fromBeifang,10fromXifang,7fromBuxin,7fromShuibei,7fromChangbiao,and5fromShijie.
20.
TheotherswereDongyiandBeifangwith16;Nanfang11;Xifang10;Buxin,Shuibei,andChangbiao7each.
21.
Thememberswerethenewpartysecretary(DengZerong),thebranchmemberinchargeoforganizationalwork(DengGantian)andtheheadsoftheninevillagers'groups.
22.
Theothercandidateswere:DengShunyi,DengHuixin,LiHuibang,DengSenyang,DengYuehui,andDengGuangnan.
23.
MethodfortheElectionoftheBoardofTrusteesandtheBoardofSupervisorsoftheYantianShareholdingEconomicCooperative(Yantiangufenjingjilianheshelishihuihejianshihuichengyuanxuanjubanfa).
Notes20524.
Theothervoteswere:DengHuixin89,LiHuibang85,DengGuangnan76,andDengYuehui74.
25.
"GuangdongProvince2003QuantifiedScaleofMeasurementofVillageAffairsTransparency"covered14items,suchasthesocialandeconomicplansforthevillage;annualfinancialplans;collectiveassets;revenueanduseofcollectivelyownedland;anyfundsreceivedfordisasterreliefandtheiruse;anyearmarkedfundsandgovernmentsubsidies;leviesandfeesonthefarmers;useofcontributionstotheruralmedicalcooperativescheme;salary,bonuses,andallowancesforvillageofficials;residencyapprovals;familyplanninginformation;andassistancetothetownshipgovernment.
26.
Thecompetitionwasorganizedjointlybythegeneralofficeofthepartycommittee,thegeneralofficeofthegovernmentandtheBureauofStatisticsofDongguanCity.
Themaineconomicindicatorsincluded:(1)grossindustrialoutputvalue;(2)grossagriculturaloutputvalue;(3)totalinvestmentinfixedassets;(4)totalinvestmentinfixedassetsbytheprivatesector;and(5)totalinvestmentinfixedassetsbydomesticcapitalfromoutsideofDongguan(actualinvestmentinprojectsofover500,000yuanbycapitalfromotherprovincesandcities).
9Yantian:AModelinTransition1.
InterviewwithHuangFushui,villagepartysecretaryandchairmanoftheHongfuGroup,Beijing,August6,2011.
2.
"Zhonghuarenmingongheguolaodonghetongfa.
"Thelawwasmainlydirectedatdomesticfirmsthatwereoftennotcompliantwithregulations.
3.
Zhangalsonotedthatmostoftheprofitsweretakenoutofthecountrybythemultinationalsthatownedthebrands.
"ChineseManufacturersIncreaseTradeFigures,butMultinationalsEnjoyMostMargins,"ChinaDaily,January3,2011.
4.
"China:theendofthecheapNotsofast.
.
.
"athttp://blogs.
ft.
com/beyond-brics/2011/05/17/china-the-end-of-cheap-not-so-fast/.
5.
January1,2009athttp://www.
hktdc.
com/info/mi/a/bacn/en/1X000E06/1/Business-Alert–-China/five-Measures-by-Guangdong-to-Help-Enterprises-Expand-Domestic-Sales.
htm.
6.
"GuangdongGovernmentEfforttoHelpForeignTradeEnterprises,"athttp://dollaritem.
wordpress.
com/2011/07/25/guangdong-government-to-help-foreign-trade-enterprises.
htm.
7.
Thiswasalsonotedbyvillagehead,DengManchang,inaninterviewonAugust4,2011.
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AgriculturalBankofChina,63agriculturalpolicycollectivization,33–34,36landreform,32–33,63barefootdoctors,130Beifang,5,88,110Buxin,5,82–83,88,110,142Changbiao,5,83,88,91,110,113,142ChenGuangsheng,73,164–66ChenLimei,153,155–56,158,173,203,204Chenvillage,18,19–20,191,192,196ChinaConstructionBank,63ChineseCommunistParty(CCP)Dengfamilymembership,66ThirdPlenumoftheEighthCentralCommittee(1957),36ThirdPlenumoftheEleventhCentralCommittee(1978),29–30,39–40,50YantianPartyGeneralBranch,81,157–62,172,177CuihuLuxuryGarden,75,77CulturalRevolution,179andeducation,112–14democraticsupervision(ofvillageaffairs),174–75Dengfamily(lineage),14,25,42,65–67,68,105,176CCPmembership,66enterprisemanagement,17,18–19,50–53executionsduringlandreform,33HongKongbusinessconnections,50–53,55,68–69originsof,4–5,6,21–22villageleadership,15–16,20–24,182–83DengJiuquan,18,66,71,157DengManchang,150,154–56,158,159,162,164,165–67,173,176,202,204,205DengYaohui,22,52,66,72,115,121,149–50,153,154,157,158,162,164,172,176DengZerong,153,154,158,159,162,165–66,172–73,202,204DengZhentian,21,22Donger,5,82–83,88,154–55,166Dongfang,110DongguanCity,1–2,4,16–17,70,77,78,118,119,121,122,123,125,131,135,175–76,185–86andhealthcareinsurance,143–46andmigration,6DongshenWaterSupplyProjectManagementBureau,61,107,115Dongyi,5,82,83,88,91,132FenggangHuaqiaoHospital,129–30,131–33,136,139–40,147–48FengtianNewVillage,74–75IndexIndex214FenggangTown,1,6,68,70,77,118,119,120,125,131,145,153,154,158,174,175–76,185–87foreign-investedenterprises,2,6–7,55–58,181–82,183–87foreignprocessingandassemblyofce,72–73"fourdemocracies,"151GreatLeapForward,8,10,30,36–39GuangjiHospital,76,130,132–33,136–39,147GuangxiProvince,60Guangzhou,1,4Hakkacommunity,68HongfuCorporation,182Hongqi(RedFlag)MiddleSchool,114householdresponsibilitysystem,7,11,40–41,50HubeiProvince,60HunanProvince,60IndustrialandCommercialBank,63jointventures,56landreform1950LandLaw,31–32inYantian,32–33MaohuaCompany,121migrants,6–7,58–60,104,106,177,181,188–89,191educationof,109,119–20MinRiver,17MingDynasty,4,8,21,110Nanfang,5,34,83,88,110,143NewCenturyTalents(Elite)School,76,115–16,121–24,125,126–27,199,200Oi,Jean,15,24,27,192OrganicLawofVillagers'Committee(1999),10,12–13,149,167–68,172draft(1984),12–13revisedlaw(2010),150,151–52,168–69,172,174PearlRiverDelta,1–2,16–17,24,125,130InnerPearlRiverDeltaEconomicDevelopmentZone,17,30,54,180,185Pengtian(originalnameofYantian),4people'scommunes,8–10privateclinics,130,139–43QingDynasty,8,21,110ShenzhenSpecialEconomicZone,1–2,5–6,16–17,30,180,193Shijie,5,82–83,88,113,142,144,166Shuibei,5,83,88,110,142SichuanProvince,60sishu(privateteaching),110,198SouthKorea,179Taiwan,179tangkou(familymanor),67threesuppliesforprocessingandonecompensationcompanies,6–7,51–52,57–58,62,69,70,191,194Tsai,Lily,23villageelectionsinGuozuoVillage,11–12PengZhenon,12villagers'assembly,152,174villagers'electioncommittee,152villagers'groupmeeting,152Index215villagers'representativemeeting,152–53,174,202Xifang,5,34,82–83,88,144XinGuaner(NewDongguanPeople),6,106,117–18,119,146,175,189XiqiaoTownship,17–18YangZhimao,115,121,123,125YangziRiver,17Yantian,1–7administrativeorganization,9–10agriculturepre-1949,30–31collective-runschools,113–19collectivizationin,34–36communityhealthcare,133–36developmentstrategyof,18–19economicorganization,24–25enterprisedevelopmentcompany,19foreignenterprisesin,53–54,55–56,69–73GreatLeapForwardin,37–39householdeconomy,92–102householdresponsibilitysystem,40–41industrialdevelopmentof(pre-1949),48–49infrastructure,106landreformin,32–33medicalinsurancein,143–47migrantlaborin,58–60populationof,65–66privateeducationin,124–27publichospitalsin,131–33recollectivization,43–45state-ownedindustryin,60–63villagecollective,69–73,78–82villageleadership,15–16villagepartybranch,157–62,177villagers'committee,13–14,81,151–57,169,172,174,177electionof,151–57YantianAgriculturalMiddleSchool,114YantianCollectiveEnterpriseDevelopmentCompany,73–77,89–90YantianCommunityHealthcareServiceStation,133–36,147YantianElementarySchool,111–13,118,119YantianGrainStation,61–62YantianMiddleSchool,115,121YantianPartyGeneralBranch,81,157–62,172YantianSchool,119–20,126–27YantianShareholdingEconomicCooperative,19–20,73–74,81,169,170–71,172,177,182electionof,163–67YantianVillagegroupeconomy,82–89YuanDynasty,4,21ZhenggezhuangVillage(ChangpingCounty),182ZhengxinWoolMill,51–52ZhentianSchool,111–13,116,117,118,119,126–27,199Zutian(family-ownedpublicland),67–68