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GraduateThesesandDissertationsIowaStateUniversityCapstones,ThesesandDissertations2014Cross-culturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinesecollegestudentsonself-disclosureonsocialmediaShanLuoIowaStateUniversityFollowthisandadditionalworksat:https://lib.
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RecommendedCitationLuo,Shan,"Cross-culturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinesecollegestudentsonself-disclosureonsocialmedia"(2014).
GraduateThesesandDissertations.
13968.
https://lib.
dr.
iastate.
edu/etd/13968Cross-culturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinesecollegestudentsonself-disclosureonsocialmediabyShanLuoAthesissubmittedtothegraduatefacultyinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMASTEROFSCIENCEMajor:Journalism&MassCommunicationProgramofStudyCommittee:RalucaCozma,MajorProfessorMichaelDahlstromZhengyuanZhuIowaStateUniversityAmes,Iowa2014CopyrightShanLuo,2014.
Allrightsreserved.
iiTABLEOFCONTENTSLISTOFTABLES.
ivACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
vABSTRACT.
viCHAPTER1INTRODUCTION1CHAPTER2LITERATUREREVIEW52.
1BriefdescriptionofculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinese…52.
2Hofstede'sculturaldimensions.
62.
3Self-disclosure.
92.
4Self-disclosureonsocialmedia112.
5Genderdifferencesinself-disclosure.
13CHAPTER3METHODOLOGY163.
1ResearchDesign.
163.
2Participantsandprocedures163.
3Measures163.
4IndependentandDependentvariables183.
5Measuringinstruments.
19CHAPTER4RESULTS204.
1Participants.
204.
2Respondentdemographics214.
3SocialMediaUse.
224.
4Self-disclosureTopicsMeasures24(1)NationalitydifferenceonSelf-disclosure.
24A.
Self-disclosureWidth.
24B.
Self-disclosureDepth.
26(2)GenderdifferenceonSelf-disclosure.
28A.
Self-disclosureWidth.
28B.
Self-disclosureDepth.
31CHAPTER5SUMMARYANDCONCLUSIONS355.
1Discussion.
355.
2ImplicationsandLimitations405.
3Conclusion42iiiREFERENCES43APPENDIXA:INVITATIONLETTER.
49APPENDIXB:QUESTIONNAIRE(AMERICANVERSION)50APPENDIXC:QUESTIONNAIRE(CHINESEVERSION)58ivLISTOFTABLESTable1DemographicInformation21Table2Facebook/RenrenUseBackground22Table3DifferencesbetweenU.
SandChinesestudentsinattitudesaboutFacebook/Renrenuse(Independentsamplest-test)24Table4NationalDifferencesinSelf-disclosureonDifferentConversationalTopics(Crosstabs)25Table5DifferencesinSelf-DisclosureWidthandDepthbetweenU.
SandChinesecollegestudents(Independentsamplest-test)26Table6DifferencesinSelf-disclosureDepthindifferenttopicsbetweenU.
SandChinesestudents(Independent-samplest-test)27Table7GenderDifferencesinSelf-disclosureonDifferentConversationalTopics(Crosstabs)29Table8GenderdifferencesinSelf-DisclosureWidthandDepth(Independent-samplest-test)30Table9NationalandGenderDifferencesinSelf-DisclosureTopicWidthandDepth(Independentsamplest-test)31Table10GenderDifferencesinSelf-disclosureDepthondifferenttopics(Independentsamplest-test)32Table11NationalandGenderDifferencesinSelf-disclosureDepthonDifferentConversationalTopics(Independent-samplest-test)33vACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThispaperwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportofmanypeople.
Iwouldliketoexpressmydeepgratitudetomymajorprofessor,Dr.
RalucaCozma,forhervaluableandconstructivesuggestionsduringtheplanninganddevelopmentofthisresearchwork.
Mostimportantly,shereadmynumerousrevisionsandhelpedmemakesenseoftheconclusion.
ThankstomycommitteememberfromStatisticsdepartment,Dr.
ZhengyuanZhu,whobroughtideasandofferedguidanceinthedataanalyses.
AlsothankstomycommitteememberDr.
MichaelDahlstrom,whoguidemeintherightdirectioninhowtoconductresearchanddealwithcoding.
Manythankstomyadviser,Dr.
DanielaV.
Dimitrova,forawardingmethescholarshipandassistantship,providingmewiththefinancialmeanstocompletethisproject.
Inaddition,Mrs.
KimCurell,thesecretaryofGreenleeSchoolofJournalismandCommunication,helpedmealotduringthesetwoyears.
Thankstomyclasspeergroup:MinsunKim,YinXia,DianyuZang,WeiweiMiao,ShuoLi,XiaotongZhang,ChunyuZhang,YangYang,RanBi,EveyZhou,SarahWiley,JovanJohnsonandLauraFunk.
Myroommate,JiaLi,andXiaoLiang,alsoprovidedmemoralsupportintwoyearsstudy.
Finally,Iwishtosaythankstomycaring,lovingandsupportivefamily,myparents,andgrandparents,whoencouragemydecisionallthewayandprovidedmewithloveandbetterlifewithoutworry.
ItistheirsupportthathelpedmetodevelopthedriveIneededtosucceedinlife.
viABSTRACTThepurposeofthisstudyistofigureoutthecross-culturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinesecollegestudentsinself-disclosureonsocialmediasites.
Inparticular,itwillexaminetheinfluenceofculture(especiallycollectivismandindividualismdimensions)inbothcontent(breath)anddepthofself-disclosureonFacebookandRenren.
Also,thisstudyaimstoascertaingenderdifferencesintheinfluenceofself-disclosure(breathanddepth).
Thisstudyappliedcollectivismversusindividualism,oneofHofstede'sculturaldimensions,andself-disclosurefromsocialpenetrationmodeltoexaminetheculturaldifferencesbetweenU.
S.
andChinesecollegestudentsinself-disclosureonsocialmediasites.
Theresultsshowedthatthereexitsthenationalitydifferenceinself-disclosure'swidthanddepth,implyingthatChinesestudentsself-disclosemoreinwidthanddepththanAmericancollegestudents.
Genderdifferencesinself-disclosure'swidthanddepthwerealsofoundandsupportedbypreviousstudy.
Femalesprefertoself-disclosemoreinwidthanddepththanmalesinSNSs.
Butthegenderdifferencesacrossnationalitywereonlypartiallysupportedbythestudy;onlyU.
S.
femalestendtoself-discloseinmorewidththanU.
S.
males.
1CHAPTER1INTRODUCTIONAscomputer-mediatedcommunication(CMC)hasdiffused,peopletendtousetheinternettobuildormaintaintheirinterpersonalcommunication.
Computer-mediatedcommunicationcanbesupplementaltooffline,face-to-facerelationships(McQuillen,2003).
Itisanunprecedentedhistoricaltrendthatsocialnetworksiteshavebecomepartsofourdailylife,andparticipantsmanagetheironlinepresentationofselfinordertoaccomplishthegoalofbuildingtheirownimagethroughvirtualinterpersonalnetworks.
WithfurtherdevelopmentofInternet-hostedtechnologies,peoplecangarnerinformationaboutoneanotherindirectonlinegive-and-take(Walther,Brandon,Kim,Westerman,&Tong,2008),specifically,"informationseekerscanminestaticrepositoriesofindividuals'priorinteractionsordeliberateprofilesinarchivesofdiscussionsorinpersonalandinstitutionalwebpage"(Ramirez,Walther,Burgoon,&Sunnafrank,2002).
Inaddition,manyindividualsarenow"googleable.
""Therelativevalueofvariouskindsofonlineinformationmaydependontheextentthatanyitemappearstobeinvoluntarilyassociatedwiththepersontowhomitrefers"(Walther&Parks,2002).
Socialnetworkingsites,definedbyBoydandEllison(2007)asweb-basedapplicationshavethreefunctions:"1)usersconstructapublicorsemi-publicprofile;2)presentalistofuserstowhomanindividualisconnected;3)viewandfollowthatlistandthelistsofotherswithinthesystem"(p.
211).
Themainpurposeofsocialnetworksistomakenewfriendshipsortomaintainthosethatalreadyexist(Sheldon,2008).
2SocialnetworkssuchastheFacebook(http://www.
facebook.
com)orRenren(http://www.
renren.
com),whicharemost-traffickedsocialmediasitesrespectivelyinU.
SandChina,offerablendofinteractiveandstaticfeaturesinanyindividual'sonlineprofile,consistingoftheimagetheyuploaded,thediscussiontheywereinvolvedin,orthepersonorinstitutiontheyfollowed(Walther,VanDerHeide,Kim,Westerman,&Tong,2008).
ThemostactivemembersofFacebookorRenrenarecollegestudents,whoarebornbetweenroughly1980and1994.
Theyhavebeencharacterizedasthe"DigitalNatives"(Prensky,2001)orthe"NetGeneration"(Tapscott,1998).
PrenskydescribedtheDigitalNativeas"surroundedbyandusingcomputers,videogames,digitalmusicplayers,videocameras,cellphones,andalltheothertoolsofthedigitalage"(Prensky,2001,p.
1).
Inthisstudy,thetargetsarethecollegestudentswhousesocialmediasites(Facebook,Renren)toestablishintimacyandconnectwithfriends.
SNS(socialnetworkingsite)usersconnectwitheachotherviasocialnetworks'platformbasedonsharedinterestsandvalues,whichareonoppositefromotherusers'self-disclosedpersonalinformation(Elmi,Iahad,&Ahmed,2012).
Self-disclosureistheactofcommunicatingpersonalinformationaboutoneselftoanotherperson.
Thatinformationcancontainfacts,opinions,orfeelings(Carolyn,2010).
AdlerandProctor(2007)pointedoutthecharacteristicsofself-disclosureinformationwereintentionallyshared,meaningful,andnotknownbymanyotherpeople.
"SNSself-disclosureisanymessageorinformationabouttheselfthatapersoncommunicateswithinthesites"(Boyd&Ellison,2007),suchasSNSusers'name,photo,phonenumber,location,affiliation,job,interestsandsoon.
Studiesfoundthatself-disclosureplayedanimportantroleinconstructingwhatkindofrelationshipsindividualshavewitheachother(Harvey&Omarzu,1997;Prager,1995;Reis&3Shaver,1988),andinvalidatingself-worthandpersonalidentity(Greene,Derlega,Yep,&Petronio,2003).
Todate,priorliteraturehasexploredself-disclosureinonlinesocialnetworksalongthelinesofprivacyconcernsandrisks(Krasnovaetal.
,2009),likingandself-disclosure(Shaw,2004),andsocialvaluesandself-disclosure(Jackietal.
,2006).
Elmi,Iahad,andAhmed(2012)investigatedthefactorsthatinfluenceusers'self-disclosureonSNSplatforms,suchastheperceptionofeaseofuse,perceivedtrust,aswellasperceivedenjoyment.
Otherresearcherscontributedtotheself-disclosureliteraturebycomparingface-to-faceinteractionsandonlinecommunication.
OnecluemightcomefromTidwellandWalther(2002),whofoundthatpeopleself-disclosemoreonlinethantheydoface-to-face.
AnothercamefromresearchbyPavicaSheldon(2010),whoinvestigatedthesimilaritiesanddifferencesinself-disclosureandfriendshipdevelopmentbetweenface-to-facecommunicationandFacebook.
Yet,therehasbeenrelativelylittleemphasisuponculturaldifferencesinself-disclosure.
YumandHara(2006)pointedoutthatalotofempiricalstudiesonself-disclosurefocusedonasinglecountry,especiallyinwesterncontexts,meaningthat"theymaybevalidandusefulinWesternsocioculturalcontextsbutfailtoworkoutsidenon-Westerncontexts"(p.
133),whichlimitstheapplicabilityoftheirfindingsincross-culturalcontexts.
Thecomparativestudyofself-disclosureamongdifferentcultureshasgraduallygainedpopularityinrecentyears.
Nakanishi(1987)pointedoutthatcultureandcommunicationmayleadtodifferentpatternsofself-disclosure.
Chen(1997)conductedastudycomparingtheeffectsofdifferentculturesinAmericaandChinaonthedegreeofself-disclosureinthefieldofinterculturalcommunication.
Thefindingsofthestudysuggestedthatthereexistsaculturaldifferenceinself-disclosure,andheassumedthatthetwonations'culturalvalues,especially4individualismandcollectivism,contributedtothedifferentdegreeofself-disclosureondifferentconversationaltopicsandselectedtargetpersons.
Toinvestigatethedifferencesinself-disclosurepatternsbetweenAmericansandtheChinese,itisnecessarytocomparetheAmericanandChineseculture.
GeertHofstedeinitiallydevelopedthedimensionsofculturaldiversity,andotherresearchindicatesthatthemostimportantofHofstede'sdimensionsfordistinguishingamongnationalculturesiscollectivismversusindividualism(Durand,2010;Kimetal.
,2011).
Therefore,thepurposeofthisstudyistofigureoutthecross-culturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinesecollegestudentsinself-disclosureonsocialmediasites.
Inparticular,itwillexaminetheinfluenceofculture(especiallycollectivismandindividualismdimensions)inbothcontent(breath)anddepthofself-disclosureonFacebookandRenren.
Besides,sexdifferencesalsoinfluenceself-disclosureinbothface-to-faceandcomputermediatedcommunication.
Sheldon(2010)reviewedpreviousstudiesandfoundthatcollegewomendiscussedintimatetopicswithfriendsmorefrequentlyandingreaterdepththancollegemendo.
WomendisclosedmorethanmenontheInternet(Peter,Valkeburg,&Schouten,2005).
Thisstudyaimstoascertaingenderdifferencesintheinfluenceofself-disclosure(breathanddepth)onsocialmediasitesbetweenU.
S.
andChinesecollegestudents.
Thiscross-culturalstudyaimstoenhancethecurrenttheoryonself-disclosure,switchingfromofflineinterpersonalcommunicationforcomputer-mediated-communication.
Onapracticallevel,itofferssuggestionsforonlineorganizationstobetterunderstandhowculturaldifferencesinfluencetheirproducts,anddeveloponlineapplicationscateredtotheirlocalaudiences.
5CHAPTER2LITERATUREREVIEW2.
1BriefdescriptionofculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChineseCross-culturalresearchisamethodologymostcommonlyusedinthesocialandpsychologicalsciences.
HantraisandMangen(1996)defineditas"anapproachwhereoneormoreunitsintwoormoresocieties,culturesorcountriesarecomparedinrespectofthesameconceptsandconcerningthesystematicanalysisofphenomena,usuallywiththeintentionofexplainingthemandgeneralizingfromthem.
"Thetwocountriesexaminedinthisstudy,AmericaandChina,arediametricallydifferentintermsofculture.
TheChinesetraditionalsocialvaluesystemisbasedonConfucianism,TaoismandBuddhism,whichsocializedthemtobemorerestrained,humbleandmorelikelytofrownuponverbalexpression(Henriksen,2009;Chen,1995).
Besides,Maketal.
(2009)pointedoutthatconcernsabout"savingface"maybeparticularlysalientinunderstandingculturaldifference.
Facereferstosocialimageandsocialworththataregarneredbasedonone'sperformanceinaninterpersonalcontext(Choi&Lee,2002).
JacksonandWang(2013)statedthat"Chinesevaluefamily,friends,andtheirgroupsoverself,andaremorelikelytoengageinself-effacementandself-promotion"(p.
910).
MembersofEasternculturestendtohavefewer,closerandmoreenduringfriendships(Wang&Leichtmann,2000).
Incontrast,Westerncultures,suchastheU.
S.
,emphasizeindividualismasavalue,whichteachesthemtovaluetheselfmorethanfamily,friends,andothergroups,andwereengagedinself-promotionandself-effacement(Jackson&Wang,2012).
MembersofWestern6culturestendtohavemorefriendsbutlooserconnectionsandfriendshipsarelessenduring(Wang&Leichtmann,2000).
Overthelasttwodecades,ChinahasbeenrapidlyadoptingWesterntechnologyandcultureineverydaylife.
ThiscanbeseenintheirwideacceptanceofeverythingfromcellphonestoAmericanTVshowsandfastfood.
ModernChinaisinaperiodoftransition,andunderthemodernWesternacculturation,itssocialorientationisderivedfromtraditionalconceptualizationoftheselfandnowexposedtotheindividualorientation(Feldmanetal,1992).
Nowadays,manyurbanChinesehaveanoverseasexperience,whetherinstudies,workorjustvacations,whichnodoubtbroadentheirhorizonsandhaveaprofoundinfluenceonlifestyle,valuesorattitudes(Lu,2008).
PierreXiaoLu(2008)calledthecurrentChinesevaluesystema"melting-pot,"shapedbythevaluesoftraditionalChineseculture,religionsandphilosophiesandtheinfluenceofWesterncultures,religionsandstandardsofliving.
Morespecifically,collegestudentsinChinamaybeinfluencedbywesternvaluesandbehaviors,thusarousingtheneedofindividualismandpersonalfreedom(Tsaietal.
,2000).
2.
2Hofstede'sculturaldimensionsThewayindividualsthinkissomewhatshapedbytheenvironmentandtheculture.
GeertHofstede(1994)believesthateachindividual'thinkingandbehaviorpatternsareinfluencedbythetheirearlychildhoodenvironment,bitofbackgroundaboutHofstedeandhisresearchthataimstoenhanceinternationalcommunicationandunderstanding.
Itissafetopointoutthatthebehaviorofeachpersonisdeterminedbypatternsprogrammedintheirsubconsciousness,mainlybytheculturewhichtheyaredescendedfrom(Krawczyk,2012).
7GeertHofstedeinitiallydevelopedfourcentraldimensionsofculturaldiversity:powerdistance(PDI);collectivismversusindividualism;femininityversusmasculinity,anduncertaintyavoidance(Hofstede,1983).
Later,HofstedeandBond(1984)addedafifthdimension,long-termversusshort-termorientation.
In2013,Hofstedereplacedthelong-termandshort-termorientationwithtwonewdimensions,pragmatismandIndulgence.
GallagherandSavage(2012)statedthetheorydevelopedbyHofstededominatescross-culturalanalysisinonlinecommunityresearch.
Powerdistance(PDI)expressesthedegreetowhichthelesspowerfulmembersofasocietyacceptandexpectthatpowerisdistributedunequally(HofstedeCenter,2014).
Forthelargepowerdistance,ithascentralizedauthorityandpaternalisticmanagementstyle,andpeopleacceptthatpowerinequalityandprivileges;whileforsmallpowerdistance,ithasdecentralizedauthorityandtendstobeconsultativeorparticipativemanagementstyle,andpeopledisplayrightsconsciousness.
China(80)sitsinthehigherrankingofPDIcomparedwithUnitedStates(40),whichmeansindividualsinChinaaremoreinfluencedbyformalauthorityandsanctions.
Collectivismversusindividualismreferstothestrengthofthetiespeoplehavetootherswithinthecommunity.
Collectivismshowsastronggroupcohesion,andtherewouldbealargeamountofloyaltyandrespectformembersofthegroup.
Individualismindicatesalooseconnectionwithpeople,andthereisalackofinterpersonalconnectionandlittlesharingofresponsibility,beyondfamilyandperhapsafewclosefriends(HofstedeCenter,2014).
Atascoreof20,Chinaisahighlycollectivistculturewherecitizensbelongto"ingroup"thatconsidertheirmembersinsteadofthemselves.
WhereasUnitedStated(91)isahighlyindividualisticsociety,inwhichpeoplearesupposedtolookafterthemselvesandtheirdirectfamilyonly.
8Femininityversusmasculinityreferstohowmuchasocietystickswith,andvalues,traditionalmaleandfemaleroles(HofstedeCenter,2014).
Highlymasculinesocietiesaremorecompetitive,caringforsuccess.
Itsopposite,femininity,standsforapreferenceforcooperation,modesty,caringfortheweakandqualityoflife.
China(66)andAmerican(62)gotthesimilarscoreonFemininityversusmasculinity,indicatingthesetwocountriesaremasculinesociety-successorientedanddriven.
Uncertaintyavoidance(UAI)concernsthelevelofacceptanceforuncertaintyandambiguitywithinasociety.
HighUAI-scoringnationstrytoavoidambiguoussituationswheneverpossible.
LowUAIscoresindicatethesocietyenjoysnoveleventsandvaluesdifferences(HofstedeCenter,2014).
Chinahadalowscoreat30onuncertaintyavoidance,howeverUnitedStatesgot46,whichshowsChinesepeoplearemorecomfortablewithambiguitythanAmericans.
Pragmatismreferstohowpeopleinthepastaswellastodayrelatedtothefactthatsomuchthathappensarounduscannotbeexplained.
HighPragmatismscoremeansmostpeopledon'thaveaneedtoexplaineverything,astheybelievethatitisimpossibletounderstandfullythecomplexityoflife.
LowPragmatismscoremeanspeopleinthenormativesocietyhadastrongdesiretoexplaineverything.
China(87)gotahigherscorethanAmerica(26),indicatingChinaisapragmaticsociety.
Indulgenceisdefinedastheextenttowhichpeopletrytocontroltheirdesiresandimpulses,basedonthewaytheywereraised.
LowIndulgencescoremeansstrongcontrol,called"restraint",whilehighIndulgencescoremeansweakcontrol,called"indulgence".
IncontrasttoindulgentsocietysuchasU.
S.
(68),China(24)isarestrainedsociety,andpeoplewiththisorientationhavetheperceptionthattheiractionsarerestrictedbysocialnorms.
9OtherresearchindicatesthatthemostimportantofHofstede'sdimensionsfordistinguishingamongnationalculturesiscollectivismversusindividualism(Durand,2010;Kimetal.
,2011).
AsianculturessuchasChinaexhibithigherlevelsofcollectivism,whileindividualismismoreprevalentinWesternculturessuchasU.
S.
(Choetal.
,1999).
Triandis(1995)statesthatcollectivisticculturescareaboutfamilyintegrityandin-groupmembership,thereforepeopletendtoattachvaluetogroupidentity,expectingtobuildlong-termrelationships(Parks&Floyd,1996);whileindividualistsaremoreself-reliant,independent,resultinginfragmentedandshort-termrelationships(Hall,1976).
AccordingtoYum&Hara(2006)theculturaldifferencesareevidentinself-disclosureintermsoftopicvariety(breath)andintimacy(depth).
Ting-Toomey(1991)pointedoutindividualiststendtoself-disclosuremorethancollectivistsdo.
2.
3Self-disclosureSelf-disclosurewasoriginallyintroducedbySidneyJourardin1958,anddefinedas"theprocessofmakingtheselfknowntootherperson"(p.
91-98).
RossiterandPearce(1975)describedself-disclosureasintentionallysharingpersonalinformationwithcertainpeoplewhiletheotherswouldnotnormallyknow.
LustigandKoester(2006)emphasizedthe"personalinformationaboutoneselfandtoexplainone'sinnerexperiencesandprivatethoughts"(p.
280).
Amongpreviousscholars,thedefinitionofself-disclosurewasslightlydifferent,thusinthisstudy,itwillblendthepreviousdefinitionintoit:self-disclosureistheprocessofcommunicatingpersonalinformationaboutoneself,explainingone'sinnerexperiencesandprivatethoughtstoothers,andintentionallysharinginformationconsistingoffacts,opinions,orfeelings,whichisnotknownbytheothers.
10Self-disclosurediffersamongculturesintermsof"breadth,depth,valence,timingandtargetsofself-disclosingevents"(Lustig&Koester,2006,p.
280).
Fromthesocialpenetrationmodel,itexhibitstwoelementaldimensionsofself-disclosure,breathdimensionanddepthdimension.
AltmanandTaylordevelopedthesocialpenetrationmodelin1973andusedthemetaphorofamultilayeredoniontodescribeself-disclosureasthegradualsharingofinformationaboutoneself.
AltmanandTaylor(1973)pointedoutthatwhenpeopletendtoknoweachother,thelayerswould"shedaway"torevealthecoreoftheperson.
Thebreathofself-disclosurereferstotherangeofthetopicspeoplediscloseaboutthemselves.
Topicscanincludepersonalexperiences,feelings,studies,religion,hobbies,body,andsoon.
Itcanbeeverydayorevensuperficialinformationaboutoneself,denotedas"lessseriousinformation"or"highlysensitiveinformation,"suchaspersonalfears(Kathryn,Valerian,&Alicia,2006,p.
411)AccordingtoJourard'sSixty-ItemSelf-disclosureQuestionnaire,whichwaswidelyusedinself-disclosuredifferencemeasurement,thetopicsinvolvedsixdimensions:AttitudesandOpinions,TastesandInterests,WorkorStudies,Money,andPersonality.
Thedepthofself-disclosurerefersto"thedegreeofintimacythatguidestopicdiscussions"(Sheldon,2010,p.
16).
Inthedepthdimension,itincludesverystrongfeelings,beliefs,andconcernsandalsoincludessecrets,regretsorhurtfulexperiences,andpainfulmemories.
Informationatthedepthlevelismoresignificantandmorecentraltoindividuals(Doyle,2003).
Self-disclosureisadynamicprocess.
AltmanandTaylor(1987)statedthatintheinitialstages,relationshipshavenarrowbreadthandshallowdepth,andasthedegreeofintimacyincreases,awiderrangeoftopicswouldbediscussed(breath),asdidthedepth.
11Apreviousstudyhastestedtherelationshipbetweentopicsofconversationandthedepthofself-disclosure.
Adler&Prodctor(2007)proposedthatlightertopics,suchashobbiesandinterests,areeasierforself-disclosurethanserioustopics,suchasfeelings.
2.
4Self-disclosureonsocialmediaComputer-mediatedcommunication(CMC)opensupnewpossibilitiesforself-disclosure.
Withoutdoubt,socialnetworkingsites(SNSs)areoneofthemostpopularonlineactivitiesworldwide.
BothUnitedStatesandChinahavewidespreadadoptionofInternetandSNSs.
AccordingtotheeBusinessknowledgebase'sreport(March2013)titled"Top15mostpopularsocialnetworkingsites,"FacebookisthemostpopularSNSintheUSandworldwide,with750millionusers,followedbyTwitter(250million),andLinkedIn(110million).
In2012,TheChinaInternetNetworkInformationCenter(CNNIC)releasedits"ChineseNetizenSNSUsageResearchReport.
"Accordingtothereport,thedomesticInternetusersreached564million,withthetotalnumberofSNSusersexpectedtoreach215millionbytheendof2012.
AccordingtoNielsen(2012)reportonChinasocialmediausers,SNSs'penetrationisabout70%,andstudentsareveryactiveonSNSs,andtheytendtousetheirrealname.
Ina2011reporttitled"China'stop15socialnetworks"(Lukoff,2011),thetopfivemostpopularChina-basedSNSsincludedQzone(190million),Renren(95million),andPengyou(80million)andsoon.
TherapidgrowthofSNSsonaglobalscalepromotesthedevelopmentofSNSsfocusingonlocalaudiences.
Forexample,RenrenisaChinese-basedSNSwitharound95millionactiveusers.
Duetoits"almostidenticaluserinterfaceandfunctionalityasFacebook",Renrenis12consideredasthe"FacebookofChina"(Marshall,2008).
ThisstudywilluseRenrenandFacebooktoexaminetheculturaldifferencebetweenChinaandU.
S.
inself-disclosure.
ForSNSusers,thesharingbehaviorscontaintwotypes.
Thefirsttypeisself-centeredandincludesindividualswhopoststatusupdates,pictures,videos,orcommentsaboutthemselvesforself-disclosure;thesecondtypeconsistsofusefulinformationtobenefitothers(Buffardi&Campbell,2008).
Priorresearchsupportstheconclusionthatonlineculturewouldbeaffectedbytheofflineculture(Abeele&Roe,2011).
Qiuetal.
(2012)foundculturaldifferencesinsharingbehaviors:thecultureofRenrenisperceivedasmorecollectivistic,thustheuserstendtobemorerestrained,especiallyfortheinformationaboutself;thecultureofFacebookisperceivedasmoreindividualistic,andusershaveagreaterinvestmentinself,moreself-talkandself-interestedbehavior.
OtherresearchersbasedonEasternculturealsosupporttheviewthatculturaldifferencesinfluencedself-disclosureonsocialnetworkingsites.
Cho(2010)showedusersofKorean-basedSNSs(e.
g.
,Cyworld)havefewerfriends,exhibitingloweramountofself-disclosure(lesswidth),butmorepersonalandintimateself-disclosure(highdepth),andusingmorenon-verbalcommunicationmeans(e.
g.
,graphicsoricons),whereasusersofAmerican-basedSNSs(e.
g.
,Facebook)havemorefriends,exhibitmorefrequentself-disclosure,andrelymoreondirecttext-basedcommunication.
ChapmanandLahav(2008)observedSNSs'usersfromdifferentcultures,andfoundthat"usersofAmericanSNSsliketobroadcastinformationaboutthemselvesbywritingblogsandsharingpersonalpictures;usersofKoreanSNSsliketosharepictureswithonlytheirclosefriends;andusersofChineseSNSsliketoplaygamesandshareresourceswithotherusers.
"13Previousstudiesonself-disclosuremainlyfocusonasinglecountry,particularlyinwesterncontexts.
Yet,therehasbeenrelativelylittleemphasisuponculturaldifferencesinself-disclosurebetweenAmericanandChinese.
BasedontheconclusionmadebyQiuetal.
(2012),whichis"Asian-basedSNSstendtohavetightersocialrelationships,withtheirpracticesreflectinganindirectcommunicationstyleandlessopenself-disclosure;American-basedSNSstendtohavewidersocialnetworks,withtheirpracticesreflectingamoredirectcommunicationstyleandbolderself-disclosure,"thefollowinghypothesesareproposed:H1:Culturaldifferences(nationalities)affectcollegestudents'self-disclosure(bothwidthanddepth)inSNSs.
H1a:OnSNSs,Americancollegestudentsself-discloseonawiderrangeoftopicsthanChinesecollegestudents.
H1b:OnSNSs,Chinesecollegestudentsself-discloseinmoredepththanAmericancollegestudents.
2.
5Genderdifferencesinself-disclosureGenderdifferencesinself-disclosurehavebeenexaminedinbothface-to-facecommunicationandcomputer-mediatedcommunication.
Althoughtheresultsofgenderdifferencesarenotconsistentwitheachother,moststudiesindicatewomenappearedtoself-disclosemorethanmendo(Papinietal.
,1990;Hargieetal.
,2001).
InthemotivationsforusingSNSs,JacksonandWang(2013)foundregardlessofculture,femalesconsideredSNSusetobemorepersonallyimportantthanmales,andweremorelikelytouseSNSstokeepintouchwithfriends.
Sheldon(2008)studiedFacebookandfoundwomenhavemoreFacebookfriendsthanmen,aswellasspendmoretimeonit.
Theexplanationforgenderdifferencesinself-disclosuremaybeduetoothervariationssuchastargetortrust.
DindiaandAllen(1992)foundthetargetaffectedmen'sandwomen's14disclosuredifferently.
Whenthetargethasarelationshipwiththediscloser,suchasfriends,parents,womendisclosemorethanmen.
Also,femalestendtodisclosemoretosamesextargetsthantooppositetargets.
Steel(1991)pointedouthavingtrustinindividualsincreasedthelikelihoodofself-disclosure.
Sincewomendisplaymoretrustthanmen,theyalsodisclosemore.
Peteretal.
(2005)foundthatontheInternet,womendisclosedmoreintimateinformationthanmen.
Overall,womendisclosedmorethanmen.
InJourard's(1971)earlydiscussionofgenderdifferences,heattributesthemtosex-roleexpectations.
Especiallyformen,hearguesthat"themalerolerequiresmentobetough,objective,striving,achieving,unsentimental,andemotionallyinexpressive…Themale'sself-structurewillnotallowmentoacknowledgeortodisclosuretheentirebreathandthedepthofhisinnerexperiencetohimselforothers(Jourard,1971,p.
35).
"RubinandShenker(1978)arguethatmenaretraditionallytaughttoberestrainedinsharingfeelings,whilewomenaresocializedtobemoreexpressiveandopenincommunication.
Asforgenderinteractwithculturalcontexts,severalscholarshaveexaminedChineseandU.
S.
collegestudentsincomputer-mediated-communication.
Durand(2010)discoveredthatChinesefemalesdisclosedmorethanChinesemalesinbothface-to-faceandemailcontexts,andasforAmericanparticipants,femalesdisclosedmorethanmalesinface-to-facecommunication,butlessthanmalesinemail.
Wang,Jacksonetal.
(inpress)foundChinesemaleusersreportedmoreSNSfriendsthanChinesefemaleusers.
Onthecontrary,femalesweremorelikelytouploadself-photosandupdatestatusesthanmaleusers.
However,someresearchersfoundcontroversialresults.
Forexample,Chen(1995)examinedthenationalandgenderdifferencesofself-disclosureonfivetopics(opinions,works,15finance,personalityandbody)fromAmericanandChinesestudents,andhefoundnosignificantdifferencesbetweenChinesefemalesandmalesonthesefivetopics.
Owingtothelimitedstudiesfocusingongenderdifferencesundertheculturalcontexts,andtheinconsistentresultsfrompreviousstudies,it'sessentialtoexaminethenationalityandculturalinteractiononself-disclosureonsocialnetworksites.
Basedontheliteraturereviewabove,thefollowinghypothesesareproposed:H2:Genderdifferencesaffectthecollegestudents'self-disclosure(bothwidthanddepth)onSNSs.
H2a.
OnSNSs,Americanfemalecollegestudentstendtoself-discloseonawiderrangeoftopicsthanAmericanmales.
H2b.
OnSNSs,Americanfemalecollegestudentstendtoself-discloseinmoredepththanAmericanmales.
ThesamegenderdifferencesareexpectedamongtheChinesestudents:H2c.
OnSNSs,Chinesefemalecollegestudentstendtoself-discloseonawiderrangeoftopicsthanChinesemales.
H2d.
InSNSs,Chinesefemalecollegestudentstendtoself-discloseinmoredepththanChinesemales.
16CHAPTER3METHODOLOGY3.
1ResearchDesignSeveralofthestudiesdiscussedinthisreviewofliteratureutilizedvariousquestionnairesandsurveystomeasuretheculturaldifferenceinself-disclosureintermsofbreadthanddepth(Jackson&Wang,2013;Cho,2010;Chen,1995),whichcouldbebeneficialtothisstudy.
AsKurtJohnson(2011)pointedout,"surveysareapopularandsystematicapproachtocollectingquantitativedatathatwillprovidestatisticalcollectingquantitativedatathatwillprovidestatisticalinformationaboutapopulation"(p.
2).
Thisquantitativestudyhencereliesonasurveytocollectthedata.
3.
2ParticipantsandproceduresThestudysampleconsistsofAmericanandChinesecollegestudentswhoareregisteredatlargeuniversitiesintheirrespectivecountries.
ThissurveyrequiredparticipantswhohaveactiveFacebookaccountsintheUnitedStatesandRenrenaccountsinChina.
Atotalof376collegestudentsintwodifferentnationalitygroupsrespondedtotheonlinesurveyonavoluntarybasis.
334respondscompletedtheonlinequestionnaire:225Americans(145femalesand80males),and109Chinese(64femalesand45males).
3.
3MeasuresTheself-administeredsurveywasoriginallycreatedinEnglish.
ItwastranslatedintoChineseandthenback-translatedintoEnglishtoassurecomparabilityasrecommendedby17professorsintheGreenleeSchoolfromIowaStateUniversity.
TheoriginalEnglishquestionnairewasusedfortheNorthAmericansample,whileatranslatedversionwasusedfortheChinesesample.
Thequestionnaireconsistedoffourprimarysections.
Inthefirstsection,theuseofSNS(FacebookandRenren)wasmeasured.
First,respondentswereaskedtoanswerquestionsonFacebook/Renrenusage(Sheldon,2010).
Thesequestionsincludedtheamountofuseperday,thedurationofuse(i.
e.
howlongtheyhavebeenusingFacebookandRenren),themotivationofusingSNS,andthenumberoffriendsonFacebook/Renren.
Second,itexaminedprivacyandtrustworthinessofFacebook/Renren.
(1)ThePrivacyvariablegaugeswhetherrespondentsusedtheprivacysettingintheproleofFacebook/Renren).
(2)TheTrustworthinessmeasure,usesafive-pointscaletoratethetrustworthinessofFacebook/Renren,where1meansnottrustatall,and5meanstrustitverymuch.
Third,respondentswererequiredtouseaLikert-typescalerangingfrom1-stronglydisagreeto5-stronglyagreetoreporttheirattitudesaboutFacebook/Renrenuse.
Twoitemswereusing,suchas"IfeelcomfortablesharingpersonalorintimatefeelingswithfriendsonFacebook/Renren,"and"IthinkSNScanhelpotherstoknowmebetter"asinspiredbyastudyaboutinternetusinghabitsofHongKongteenagers(2013).
Thesecondpartofthequestionnaireassessesindividualismandcollectivism.
ThescaleismodifiedfromSingelisandTriandis(1995).
Tenstatementsaboutparticipants'culturalvalueswerechosenfromtheoriginalscale(e.
g.
Ioftendo"myownthing",IfeelgoodwhenIcooperatewithothers.
).
Thescalemeasures10domains,wherefivedomainsrepresentindividualism,andfivedomainsrepresentcollectivism.
Then,participantsuseafive-pointLikertscale(1meansnotatall,2meansnotverywell,3meanssomewhat,4meanswell,and5means18verywell)tovalueeachitem.
AccordingtoTriandis(2001),peoplefromcollectivistcultureswouldemphasizevaluetopromotegroupgoals,andpeopleinindividualistculturestendtobeself-effacingandpursuepersonalinterests.
Inthethirdsection,arevisedversionofTheSelf-DisclosureScaledevelopedbySidneyM.
JourardandPaulLasakow(1958)wasusedinthisstudytogaugebreadthandwidthofself-disclosure.
TheoriginalSDQwascomposedof60itemscoveringself-disclosureonsixmaintopics(attitudesandopinions,tastesandinterests,workorstudy,money,personality,andbody).
Ashortenedversionwasutilizedinthecurrentstudy;fiveitemsfromfivedomains(without"money"topic)wereselected,creatingafinalscaleof25items.
Consideringthatalltheparticipantsarecollegestudents,themoneytopicwaslittlediscussedonSNSs,thuspromptingtheresearchertogetridofthemoneytopic.
Forexample,thecategoryofattitudesandopinionsincludedtopicsofpolitics,socialproblems,entertainment,andtechnology(e.
g.
,IhavediscussedmypersonalviewsonthepresentgovernmentonFacebook.
).
Participantswereaskedtocompletethequestionnairebyratingthedepthofself-disclosure,(0meanshaveneverdiscussedthisitem;1meanshavetalkedingeneraltermsaboutthisitem;2meanshavetalkedinfullandcompletedetailaboutthisitem).
Then,thenumericalentriesweresummed,yieldingtotalswhichconstitutedtheself-disclosurescores.
Inthelastsection,participantswereaskedtoanswerstandarddemographicquestions,suchasgender,age,schoolstatus,nationalityandtheareatheylivein.
3.
4IndependentandDependentvariablesNationality(theUnitedStatesandChina),culture(individualismandcollectivism),andgender(maleandfemale)weretheindependentvariablesusedinthisstudy.
Thetopicsofself-19disclosure(attitudesandopinions,tastesandinterests,workorstudy,personality,andbody)inbothwidthanddepthwerethetwodependentvariables.
Independent-samplest-testswillbeusedtomeasurethecultural(nationality)andgenderdifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinesecollegestudentsinself-disclosurewidthanddepth.
Inaddition,crosstabswillbeusedtocomparethemediausebackgroundbetweentwocountries.
3.
5MeasuringinstrumentsThesurveyquestionnaireisattached(AppendixA).
20CHAPTER4RESULTSTheresultspresentedinthischapterdescribethedifferencesbetweenU.
S.
andChinesecollegestudents'self-disclosureonsocialmedia.
ItstartswiththedescriptiveinformationonSNSusageamongsurveyrespondentsfromtheU.
S.
andChina,followedbytheresultsforeachresearchquestion.
4.
1ParticipantsAtotalof376collegestudentsintwodifferentnationalitygroupsrespondedtotheonlinesurveyonavoluntarybasis.
334respondscompletedtheonlinequestionnaire:225Americans(145femalesand80males),and109Chinese(64femalesand45males).
Thecompletionratewas88%,therespondentswhodonothaveasocialnetworksiteaccount(FacebookforU.
S.
participants,andRenrenforChinaparticipants)ordroppedinthemiddleofthequestionnairewereexcludedfromthesample.
TheparticipantsinU.
S.
wereenrolledintheclassJLMC101MassMedia&SocietyatIowaStateUniversity.
Instructorsannouncedthe10-minutessurveyinclassandbrieflydescribeditspurpose,andsentthesurveyinvitationletterwiththequestionnairelinktothestudents.
Extracreditwasofferedforparticipatinginthesurvey.
TheparticipantsinChinawerecollegestudentsatFujianNormalUniversity,inSouth–EastChina,andtheyreceivedtheChineseversiononlinequestionnaire.
FacultyatFNUhelpeddistributethelinktothesurvey.
Inbothcountries,thesurveywasadministeredduringthespringsemesterof2014.
214.
2RespondentdemographicsFortheparticipants(N=334)whocompletedtheonlinequestionnaire,thedemographicinformationwascollectedinthePartfour(Table1).
Table1.
DemographicInformationU.
S.
N=225ChinaN=109GenderFemale64.
4%58.
3%Male35.
6%41.
7%AverageAge19.
321.
4ClassstatusFreshman49.
6%15.
7%Sophomore33.
9%25.
9%Junior11.
6%23.
1%Senior4.
9%20.
4%Graduate0.
0%14.
8%LivingareasUrban20.
4%74.
1%Suburban55.
6%13.
0%Rural23.
6%11.
1%Other0.
4%1.
9%Accordingtothedemographicsinformation,morefemalestudents(64.
4%inU.
S.
and58.
3%inChina)thanmalestudents(35.
6%inU.
S.
and41.
7%inChina)participatedinthisresearch.
Participants'agerangedbetween18and25years,andthemeanfortheentiresamplewascloseto20years.
Agemeansfortheindividualcountrieswere:M=19.
3forAmericanparticipants,andM=21.
4forChineseparticipants.
IntheU.
S.
,thedominantundergraduatestudentswhocontributedtotheonlinequestionnairewereFreshmen(49.
6%)andSophomores(33.
9%).
WhileinChina,themainparticipantswereSophomores(25.
9%),Juniors(23.
1%),andSeniors(20.
4%).
Fortheliving22areas,55.
6%ofAmericancollegestudentscamefromsuburbanareas,while74.
1%ofChinesecollegestudentslivedinurbanareas.
4.
3SocialMediaUseTheFacebookandRenrenusebackgroundwascollectedinPart1ofthequestionnaire(Table2).
Table2.
Facebook/RenrenUseBackgroundU.
S.
N=226ChinaN=108AveragenumberofFriends783402HowmuchtimedoyouusuallyspendaveragedayLessthan1Hour47.
3%70.
4%1Hourto2Hours36.
3%18.
5%3Hoursto4Hours11.
5%5.
6%Morethan4Hours3.
1%1.
9%Idon'tknow.
1.
8%3.
7%AverageyearsofUse5.
64.
63WhocanseeyourprofileOnlyme1.
3%3.
7%Friends77.
9%51.
9%Public14.
2%38.
9%Idon'tknow.
6.
6%5.
6%WhatpercentagedoyoutrustwithpersonalinformationHardlyany0.
4%0.
9%Afew19.
9%11.
1%Lessthathalf11.
9%23.
1%Half15.
5%13.
0%Almostall43.
4%48.
1%Allofthem8.
8%3.
7%23TheaveragefriendsnumberonFacebookforAmericangroupisaround783,morethantheChinesegroup,whichreportedanaverageof402friendsonRenren.
MoreChineseparticipants(70.
4%)thanU.
S.
(47.
3%)reportedusingSNSlessthan1hourperday,followedby36.
2%ofU.
S.
participantsand18.
5%ofChinesewhospend1-2hoursonaverageaday.
AsforthedurationofFacebookandRenrenusage,AmericanrespondentshaveusedtheirFacebookforover5.
6years,whereasChinesereportedhavingusedFacebookforabout4.
63yearsonaverage.
Intheprofilesetting,moreAmericancollegestudents(77.
9%)thanChinese(51.
9%)onlyallowedtheirfriendstoseetheirprofile.
While38.
9%ofChineseparticipantspermittedpublictoseetheirprofile,whichisdifferentfromAmerican(14.
2%).
AmericanandChinesecollegestudentsshowedasimilarpatternoftrustinginonlinepersonalinformation:nearlyhalfofrespondentsinU.
S.
(43.
4%)reportedtheytrustalmostallpersonalinformationonFacebook,sameas48.
1%ofrespondentsinChinadidonRenren.
ToexaminetheattitudesabouttheSNSs,suchassharingintimatefeelingsandhelpingotherstoknowthembetter,anindependent-samplest-testwasusedtocompareU.
S.
andChinesestudents,andweusedanalphalevelof.
05forallstatisticaltest(Table3).
Resultsindicateasignificanteffectofnationalityonintimatefeelingssharing,t(332)=-8.
911,p=.
000,withChinesecollegestudentsfeelingmorecomfortableinsharingtheirdeeplythoughtswithRenrenfriendsthanU.
S.
collegestudents.
Therewasalsoasignificantdifferencebetweentwocountriesinunderstandingmebetter,t(332)=2.
458,p=.
014,demonstratedthatmoreAmericancollegestudentsagreedwithFacebookhelpotherstoknowmebetter.
24Table3.
DifferencesbetweenU.
SandChinesestudentsinattitudesaboutFacebook/Renrenuse(Independentsamplest-test)U.
S.
ChinaT-testN=226N=109IfeelcomfortablesharingpersonalorintimatefeelingswithfriendsonFacebook/Renren.
2.
15(.
961)3.
09(.
756)-8.
911**IthinkFacebook/canhelpotherstoknowmebetter.
3.
31(.
849)3.
06(.
857)2.
458*Note:Standarddeviationsareinparentheses.
1-5ratingscaleswereusedinwhich1=stronglydisagree,2=disagree3=neitheragreenordisagree,4=agree,5=stronglyagree.
*p<.
05,**p<.
0014.
4Self-disclosureTopicsMeasures(1)NationalitydifferenceH1predictedthatculturaldifferencesaffectcollegestudents'self-disclosuretopics'widthanddepthonSNSs.
Inthisstudy,novariancewasfoundbetweentheU.
S.
andChinesecollegestudentsintermsofcollectivismandindividualism,whichgoesagainstfindingsfromapreviousstudy(Choetal.
,1999),whichindicatedthatChinaexhibitshigherlevelsofcollectivism,whileindividualismprevailsinU.
S.
Hence,thisstudyswitchestoexaminewhethernationalityaffectstheself-disclosureonbothwidthanddepth.
A.
Self-disclosureWidthSelf-disclosurewidthconsistsofdifferentconversationaltopics.
Tomeasurethedifferencesonconversationaltopicsbetweentwonationalities,aChi-square(X2)testofindependencehasbeenused.
AscanbeseenbythefrequenciescrosstabulatedinTable4,thereisasignificantdifferencebetweenU.
S.
andChinesestudentsontheself-disclosureofvarious25conversationaltopics,X2(10,N=353)=25.
063,p=.
005.
Table4.
NationalDifferencesinSelf-disclosureonDifferentConversationalTopics(Crosstabs)WhatTopicsdidyouusuallydiscussonFacebook/RenrenU.
S.
N=226ChinaN=109AttitudesandOpinions19.
90%a29.
40%bTastesandInterests40.
30%a42.
20%aWorkorStudies12.
40%a17.
40%aPersonality13.
30%a3.
70%bBodyandHealth0%a9%aOther14.
20%a6.
40%bNote:Chi-square=25.
063,p=.
005<.
001Eachsubscriptletterdenotesadjustmentsformutiplecomparisons:Bonferroni.
BothChineseandU.
S.
respondentsprefertodiscusstastesandinterestsonSNSs,with42.
2%and40.
3%respectively.
Thelesspopularonlineself-disclosuretopicisattitudesandopinions,asaroundonethirdofChinesecollegestudentsusuallytalkedtheirviewsonRenren,whereas19.
9%ofAmericandidthesamething.
ForAmericanrespondents,theyseldompostedbodyandhealthtopicsonFacebook,andonly9%ofChinesespokeabouttheirappearancesonRenren.
Inordertoassesswhetherthesedifferenceswerestatisticallysignificant,theBonferronimethodwasusedtocompareeachpairoftopics.
PosthoccomparisonsusingtTestwithBonferroniindicatedthatthetopicssuchasattitudesandopinions,personalityandothersweresignificantlydifferentbetweenU.
S.
andChinesestudents.
ComparedtotheU.
S.
(13.
3%),Chinesestudents(3.
7%)talkedlessaboutpersonalityonline,butdiscussedmoreabouttheirworkorstudies.
14.
2%ofAmericangavespecificdescriptionontheothertopicstheyoftendiscussonFacebook,suchasreligion,coolthingstheydid,humorouspicturesorjustoccasional26thoughts.
Totesttheself-disclosurewidthfromtheindividual25itemsinfivegeneraltopics,thestudyfirstlycombinedtheratingscales(1=havetalkedingeneralterms,2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetails)recordedas1=havetalkedbefore,andremained0=nottalked.
Thensummedup25itemsresultsastheirself-disclosurewidthscore.
Anindependent-samplest-testwasusedtocompareU.
S.
andChinacollegestudents'self-disclosurewidthscore.
Chinesecollegestudents(M=13.
17,SD=5.
57)gotahigheroverallself-disclosurewidthscoresthanAmerican,(M=2.
22,SD=.
645),t(326)=-9.
683,p=.
000,indicatinginSNSs,Chinesecollegestudentsself-discloseonawiderrangeroftopicsthanAmericancollegestudents(Table5).
ThefindingsfailedtosupportH1a.
Table5.
DifferencesinSelf-DisclosureWidthandDepthbetweenU.
SandChinesecollegestudents(Independentsamplest-test)U.
S.
ChinaT-testN=224N=104TopicWidth9.
6813.
17-5.
816**(4.
62)(5.
57)TopicDepth0.
46550.
6298-4.
884**(.
258)(.
312)Note:Standarddeviationsareinparentheses.
TopicWidth:scoresrangefrom0to25,andthehigherscore,thebroadertopicsthey'vediscussed.
TopicDepth:0-2ratingscaleswereusedinwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail.
*p<.
05,**p<.
001B.
Self-disclosureDepthDepthofself-disclosureconsistsofthemeandepthoffivedifferentconversationaltopics,averageoveralldepthscore,andpersonalviewson25itemsclassifiedintofivegeneraltopics.
27Totestthemeandifferenceofself-disclosuredepthinfivetopics,anindependent-samplest-testwasusedtocomparethetwonationalities.
Themeanofself-disclosuredepthforeachtopicwascomputedbydividingtheaveragemeanof5itemsforeachtopicby5,suchasDepthofattitudesandopinion=(government+entertainment+technology+justicesystem+minority)/5;DepthofTastesandInterests=(sport+food+music+cloth+sparetimeuse)/5.
Fromtheresults,onlythetastesandintereststopicsdidnotdifferbynationality,t(319)=.
261,p=.
795.
FortheremainingfourtopicsitwasfoundthatthereexistssignificantvariancebetweenChineseandAmericanstudents.
Surprisingly,Chinesecollegestudentsgothigherscalesinthedepthonallthesefourtopics:attitudesandopinions,tastesandinterests,workorstudies,personalityandbodyandhealth(Table6).
Table6.
DifferencesinSelf-disclosureDepthindifferenttopicsbetweenU.
SandChinesestudents(Independent-samplest-test)U.
S.
ChinaT-testN=226N=109(1)AttitudesandOpinions0.
46820.
618-3.
374**(.
366)(.
372)(2)TastesandInterests0.
8820.
86870.
261(.
4223)(.
422)(3)Workorstudies0.
40540.
598-4.
375**(.
345)(.
413)(4)Personality0.
39730.
6154-5.
155**(.
322)(.
421)(5)BodyandHealth0.
18670.
4245-6.
305**(.
265)(.
413)Note:Standarddeviationsareinparentheses.
0-2ratingscaleswereusedinwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail.
*p<.
05,**p<.
00128Thescalesgofrom0-2,inwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,and2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail.
Chinesecollegestudents(M=.
618,SD=.
372)self-disclosedeeperthanAmerican(M=.
4682,SD=.
366)intheattitudesandopinionstopic,t(318)=-3.
374,p=.
001;workorstudies,t(322)=-4.
375,p=.
000;personality,t(327)=-5.
155,p=.
000;andbodyandhealth,t(329)=-6.
305,p=.
000.
TheSelf-disclosureoveralldepthscorewascomputedwiththeequation:total_depth=(depthofopinions+depthoftastes+depthofworkdiscussion+depthofpersonality+depthofbody)/5.
Besides,anindependent-samplest-testwasusedtocompareU.
S.
andChinacollegestudents'self-disclosuredepthscore.
Chinesecollegestudents(M=.
6298,SD=.
312)gothigheroverallself-disclosurescoresthanAmericans,(M=.
4655,SD=.
258),t(314)=-4.
884,p=.
000,supportingH1b,whichpredictedthatonSNSs,Chinesecollegestudentsself-discloseinmoredepththanAmericancollegestudents.
(2)GenderDifferenceonSelf-disclosureA.
Self-disclosureWidthH2predictedthatgenderdifferencesaffectcollegestudents'self-disclosuretopics'widthanddepthonSNSs.
Tomeasurethedifferencesonconversationaltopicsbetweenfemaleandmale,aChi-square(X2)testofindependencehasbeenused.
AscanbeseenbythefrequenciescrosstabulatedinTable8,thereisasignificantdifferencebetweenfemaleandmalestudentsontheself-disclosureconversationaltopics,X2(5,N=351)=17.
597,p=.
003.
Inordertoassesswhetherthesedifferenceswerestatisticallysignificant,theBonferronimethodwasusedtocompareeachpairoftopics.
PosthoccomparisonsusingtTestwith29Bonferroniindicatedthatthetopicssuchasattitudesandopinions,andtastesandinterestsweresignificantlydifferentbetweenfemaleandmalestudents.
AccordingtotheTable7,twiceasmanymendiscussattitudesandopinions(32.
8%)comparedtowomen(16.
8%).
However,nearlyhalfoffemalesprefertotalkabouttastesandinterestsonSNSs,whereasonly32%ofmendoso.
Table7.
GenderDifferencesinSelf-disclosureonDifferentConversationalTopics(Crosstabs)WhatTopicsdidyouusuallydiscussonFacebook/RenrenFemaleMaleN=220N=131AttitudesandOpinions16.
80%a32.
80%bTastesandInterests45.
00%a32.
10%bWorkorStudies13.
60%a15.
30%aPersonality11.
40%a8.
40%aBodyandHealth0%a1.
50%aOther13.
20%a9.
90%aNote:Chi-square=17.
597,p=.
003<.
001Whenanalyzinggenderdifferencesacrossnationalities,resultsfoundnosignificantdifferencebetweenU.
S.
femaleandmaleontheself-disclosureconversationaltopics,X2(4,N=225)=4.
712,p=.
318;neitherdoesChinesefemaleandmale,X2(5,N=108)=10.
147,p=.
071.
Anindependent-samplest-testwasusedtocomparefemaleandmalecollegestudents'self-disclosurewidthscore.
Females(M=11.
3,SD=5.
13)gotaslightlyhigherself-disclosurescoresontopicwidththanmales,(M=9.
91,SD=5.
26),t(343)=2.
364,p=.
019,indicatinginSNSs,femalecollegestudentsself-discloseonawiderrangeroftopicsthanmalecollegestudents(Table8).
ThefindingssupportH2.
30Table8.
GenderdifferencesinSelf-DisclosureWidthandDepth(Independent-samplest-test)FemaleMaleT-testN=214N=130TopicWidth11.
39.
912.
364*(5.
13)(5.
26)TopicDepth0.
54230.
47741.
997*(.
2877)(.
2832)Note:Standarddeviationsareinparentheses.
TopicWidth:scoresrangefrom0to25,andthehigherscore,thebroadertopicsthey'vediscussed.
TopicDepth:0-2ratingscaleswereusedinwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail.
*p<.
05,**p<.
001Also,resultsindicateasignificantlyhigherself-disclosurewidthscoreforAmericanfemales(M=10.
14,SD=4.
45),overAmericanmales(M=8.
82,SD=4.
85),t(223)=2.
022,p=.
044,supportingH2a,whichindicatedinSNSs,Americanfemalecollegestudentstendtoself-discloseonawiderrangeoftopicsthanAmericanmales.
ButfortheChinesegroup,genderhasnosignificanteffectonself-disclosurewidthscore,t(102)=1.
75,p=.
083.
ThefindingfailstosupportH2c,whichpredictedthatChinesefemalecollegestudentsself-discloseonawiderrangeoftopicsthanChinesemales(Table9).
31Table9.
NationalandGenderDifferencesinSelf-DisclosureTopicWidthandDepth(Independentsamplest-test)U.
S.
N=223ChinaN=104TopicsFemaleN=143MaleN=80T-testFemaleN=60MaleN=44T-testTopicsWidth10.
148.
822.
022*13.
98121.
75(4.
45)(4.
85)(5.
68)(5.
25)TopicDepth0.
4830.
43061.
4390.
6750.
5631.
776(.
254)(.
266)(.
321)(.
29)Note:Standarddeviationsareinparentheses.
TopicWidth:scoresrangefrom0to25,andthehigherscore,thebroadertopicsthey'vediscussed.
TopicDepth:0-2ratingscaleswereusedinwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail.
*p<.
05,**p<.
001B.
Self-disclosureDepthTotestthemeandifferenceofself-disclosuredepthinfivetopics,anindependent-samplest-testwasusedtocomparethetwogendergroups.
Accordingtotheresults,twotopics:AttitudesandOpinions,t(335)=.
532,p=.
532,aswellasPersonality,t(344)=1.
814,p=.
074,didnotshowsignificanceingenderdifferences,buttherestofthetopicsaresignificant:TastesandInterestst(336)=1.
966,p=.
05,WorkorStudiest(339)=2.
052,p=.
041,PersonalityandBodyandHealth,t(346)=2.
406,p=.
017(Table10).
32Table10.
GenderDifferencesinSelf-disclosureDepthondifferenttopics(Independentsamplest-test)FemaleMaleT-testN=218N=130(1)AttitudesandOpinions0.
50520.
5317-0.
625(.
348)(.
419)(2)TastesandInterests0.
91320.
82061.
966**(.
409)(.
432)(3)Workorstudies0.
49910.
41262.
052*(.
373)(.
381)(4)Personality0.
49440.
421.
814(.
373)(.
363)(5)BodyandHealth0.
30370.
21232.
406*(.
345)(.
338)Note:Standarddeviationsareinparentheses.
0-2ratingscaleswereusedinwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail.
*p<.
05,**p<.
001Specifically,femalecollegestudentsgothigherscalesinthedepthonallthesethreetopics.
Femalestudents(M=.
9132,SD=.
409)havetalkedTastesandInterestsingeneralterms,slightlyhigherthanmalestudents(M=.
8206,SD=.
432).
Also,females(M=.
4944,SD=.
373)discussdeeperthanmale(M=.
4126,SD=.
381)inthePersonalitytopic,sameasBodyandHealthtopic,inwhichfemalegotaveragemeanon.
3037(SD=.
345),butmalesgotthemean0.
2123(SD=.
338).
Whenexamininggenderdifferencesacrossnationalities(Table11),theAmericanfemaleandmalegroupspresentasignificantdifferenceinself-disclosuredepthonWorkorStudies,t(219)=.
318,p=.
27,withmoreU.
Sfemales(M=.
4434,SD=.
332)speakinginmoredepthaboutWorkorStudiesonFacebookthanU.
S.
males(M=.
3359,SD=.
362),whichindicated33AmericanfemalecollegestudentstendtotalkmoreaboutWorkorStudiesthanAmericanmale.
Thereisnosignificantdifferenceinanyoftheotherfourtopics.
Table11.
NationalandGenderDifferencesinSelf-disclosureDepthonDifferentConversationalTopics(Independent-samplest-test)U.
S.
N=224ChinaN=106TopicsFemaleN=144MaleN=80T-testFemaleN=62MaleN=44T-test(1)AttitudesandOpinions0.
43970.
5154-1.
4680.
65170.
57141.
063(.
327)(.
424)(.
346)(.
406)(2)TastesandInterests0.
90140.
84560.
940.
9310.
78051.
767(.
406)(.
452)(.
423)(.
409)(3)Workorstudies0.
44340.
33592.
224*0.
62710.
55810.
831(.
332)(.
362)(.
4401)(.
3743)(4)Personality0.
41810.
3551.
4060.
67330.
53641.
651(.
328)(.
308)(.
4132)(.
4243)(5)BodyandHealth0.
21110.
14251.
8610.
51290.
32.
687*(.
272)(.
248)(.
402)(.
401)Note:Standarddeviationsareinparentheses.
0-2ratingscaleswereusedinwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail.
*p<.
05,**p<.
001ForChinesecollegestudents,onlyBodyandHealthshowsasignificantdepthdifferenceamongfivedifferenttopics,t(104)=2.
687,p<.
05.
Chinesefemalecollegestudents(M=.
5129,SD=.
40265)talkedinmoredepththanChinesemalecollegestudents(M=.
3,SD=.
40116)ontheirappearanceandhealth.
Besides,anindependent-samplest-testwasusedtocomparegendergroupfromU.
S.
andChinacollegestudents'Self-disclosureaveragedepthscore.
Nosignificantdifferenceappearsintheresult,t(215)=1.
439,p=.
152forAmericangendergroup;andt(96)=1.
776,p=.
079for34Chinesegendergroup.
ThefindingfailstosupportH2b,whichpredictedU.
S.
femalestudentsself-discloseinmoredepththanU.
S.
malestudents.
Besides,H2disalsonotsupported,asChinesefemalecollegestudentsdonottendtoself-disclosureinmoredepththanChinesemales.
35CHAPTER5SummaryandConclusions5.
1DiscussionThepurposeofthisstudywastoexplorethedifferencesbetweentheU.
S.
andChinacollegestudentsonself-disclosureonsocialmedia(FacebookforAmericanrespondents,andRenrenforChinese).
Inthestudy,SNSusebackgroundswereprimarilyinvestigated.
Basedontheresults,Americancollegestudentsreportedmorevirtualfriends(average783friends)andlongerdurationtime(around5.
6years)onFacebookthanChinesestudentsdid(average402friends)onRenrenwith4.
63years.
InSNSuseattitude,studentsinChinafeelmorecomfortablesharingpersonalorintimatefeelingswithfriendsonRenrenthanAmericanstudents,howevermoreU.
S.
participantsthinkFacebookhelpsotherstoknowthembetter.
Althoughtheusehabitdifferedslightlybetweentwocountries,theoverallpatternappearedtobeverysimilar.
ThemajorityofAmerican(47.
3%)andChinese(70.
4%)collegestudentsusuallyspendlessthan1hourperdayinSNSs,setuptheirprofileas"Friendscanseeonly",andtrustalmostallwiththeirfriends'personalinformationonSNSs.
ThisstudydoesnotsupporttheassumptionfrompreviousresearchthatChinaexhibitshigherlevelsofcollectivism,whileindividualismprevailsinU.
S.
(Choetal.
,1999).
H1aimstoinvestigatetheculturaldifferencebetweentwocountries.
NovariancewasfoundbetweentheU.
S.
andChinesecollegestudentsintermsofcollectivismandindividualism,butaccordingtotheresultfromindependentsampleT-test,weweresurprisedtofindthatChinesestudentsgothigherscoresonbothcollectivismandindividualism,whichwasinconsistentwithpreviousresearch.
36Theseresultsmightreflecttheculturalintegrationinthecontextofglobalization.
Asassertedintheliterature(e.
g.
,Feldmanetal.
,1992;Lu,2008;Tsaietal.
,2000),China'srapideconomicgrowth,modernizationandglobalizationhaveledtoastoundingsocialchanges,whichincludestheideologiessuchasindividualism.
Underthewesternacculturation,youngpeoplemaybeshapedbywesterncultures,thusreportinghighscoreonindividualismorientation.
Also,capitalisminChina'scompetitivemarketfacilitateindividualism,Chinesepeoplearenotnecessarilycollectivisticintheirworkastheirancestorsdidinthefarmland.
Itseemsthatpursuingpersonalfreedomaswellasrespectingeachindividual'svalueaffectnewgenerations'socialvalue.
Thereexitsthegenerationgapinsocialvaluesbetweenoldergenerationandyoungergeneration,Ralston(1999)foundthatoldergenerationsprefertoholdcollectivevaluesandworkasgroups,whilenewgenerationsaremoreindependentandself-sufficient.
Inaddition,China'sadoptionoftheOne-ChildPolicyradicallyimpactedthetraditionalfamilystructureandresultedinagenerationthatgrewupinafamilyenvironmentofhighexpectations.
ThiscouldbeanotherexplainedreasonforindividualismgrowinginChina.
Chineseyoungadultsbecomemoreindividualisticandself-centeredwhentheyhavebeenraisedasthecenterofthewholefamily.
Deutsch(2006)foundthatChina'snextgenerationaremorelikelytoliveontheirown,andpursuetheirownambitionsratherthandependsontheirfamilies.
Anotherreasonmightbebecausethe10Individualism-CollectivismitemsselectedfromSingelisandTriandis(1995)wasnotthebestfitforthisstudy.
Intheoriginalstudy,theresearchersdivided32itemsintotheVerticalandHorizontalIndividualismandCollectivismItems,asHorizontalIndividualism(H-I),VerticalIndividualism(V-I),HorizontalCollectivism(H-C)andVerticalCollectivism(V-C).
WhileInthisstudy,the10itemswereonlyselectedfromH-IandH-C,ignoringtherestV-IandV-Citemsmightaffecttheresults.
Hence,thisstudyswitchestoexamine37whethernationality(asaproxyforculturaldifference)affectstheself-disclosureonbothwidthanddepth.
Overall,theresultsfullysupportacleardifferencebetweenself-disclosure'swidthanddepthbetweentwodifferentnationalities.
TheresultsfailtosupportH1a:Americanstudentsself-discloseonawiderrangeoftopicsthanChinesestudent,butsupportH1b:Chinesestudentsself-discloseinmoredepththanAmericanstudents.
Inconsistentwiththepreviousstudies(e.
g.
Cho,2010;Qiuetal.
2012),wefoundChineseparticipantsself-discloseinmorewidthanddepthonRenrenthanAmericanparticipantsdoonFacebook.
Intopic'swidthrange,comparedwithU.
S.
collegestudents,Chinesestudentsdiscussedlessaboutthepersonalityonline,buttalkedmoreaboutontherestfourtopics:attitudesandopinions,tastesandinterests,workorstudies,andBodyandHealth.
ThatcouldbeduetothegrowingtrendintheUnitedStatesoffocusingonrisksofself-disclosurerelatedtoprivacyandpersonalbrandmanagement.
ArecentstudyMadrigal(2013)shows71%ofAmericansdoself-censoronFacebook.
BeforepostingonFacebook,theywillthinkagain,andmakesuretheirpostingdoesnotseemboringorrepetitive,neitheroffendsorhurtssomeone.
ForFacebookusers,theycometorealizethattheirself-presentationonsocialmediawouldleavemainimpressionononlinevisitors.
Inthisstudy,AmericanparticipantsreportedtheyfeellesscomfortableinsharingtheirdeepthoughtswithFacebookfriends,andagreedwiththatFBhelpotherstoknowthembetter,whichcanbeexplainedasoneofthereasonsforself-censorship.
Ontheotherhand,onlinejobhuntingiswidespread,andconnectingprofessionalLinked-InaccountswithFacebookisalsopopularfordevelopingandmaintainingrelationships.
Itseemsriskytoself-disclosetoomuchpersonalinformationorpostnegativecommentsontheirprofilewalls,thusAmericansdecidetoholdbackonself-disclosureonsocialmedia.
38Onthecontrary,socialmediaonChinawasactive,especiallyforSinaweibo,RenrenorWeixin.
Accordingtothe2012ChinaInternetNetworkInformationCenter(CNNIC),SNSs'penetrationratewasaround70%,andstudentsareveryactiveonsocialmediatoshareinformationorself-disclose.
Inthestudy,Chinesepeopleviewedsocialmediaasawaytoescapeformtheirdailylife,whichmakethemfeellesslonely,thustheyaremorewillingtoshareopinionsonSNSs.
Intopicdepth,onlytheTastesandIntereststopicsdidnotdifferbynationality,morespecific,Chinesecollegestudentsself-disclosedeeperthanAmericanintheAttitudesandOpinions,WorkorStudies,Personality,andBodyandHealth.
Inconsistentwithpreviousstudy,Qiuetal.
(2012)concludedthatculturaldifferencewouldaffectsharingbehavioronline:Renrenisperceivedasmorecollectivistic,thereforetheuserstendtobemorerestrainedorcautious.
TheresultofthestudyindicatesthatChineseself-disclosewideranddeeperthanAmericans,whichcouldbeexplainedbyseveralreasons.
Firstofall,modernChinaisintheperiodoftransition,influencedbyWesternculturesandvalues,thusChinesecollegestudentsmayadoptsimilarideologiesandvaluesduringtheprocessofmodernization.
Second,traditionalmediainChinawasundersurveillance,makingitdifficultforChinesetoexpressorpublishtheiropinionsinnewspapers,televisionsorradios.
SocialmediawasverypopularinChina,especiallyforcollegestudents;moreover,itaffordsaplatformandaffordsthefreedomforself-expression.
DespitethefactthatstrongcensorshipstillexistsontheInternet,youngChinesepeoplefindawaytospeakouttheiropinionsandexpresstheirviewpoint.
Third,the74.
1%ofrespondentsinChinaliveinurbanareas,whereas55.
6%ofAmericanparticipantsliveinsuburbs.
BasedonLu(2008),manyurbanChinesehaveanoverseasexperience,whichnodoubtbroadentheirhorizonsandhaveaprofoundinfluenceontheirvaluesandattitudes.
Itisnosurprisethatinthisstudy,Chinesestudentsself-discloseinmoredepththanAmericans.
39Lastly,theself-disclosurewidthscorewascalculatedbytheaveragemeanforthefrequencyofdisclosureaboutthefivetopics(i.
e.
HowoftendoyoudiscussthistopiconFacebook/Renren).
Besides,thedepthscorewascomputedbythemeanofself-disclosuredepthforeachtopics(Scalesfrom0-2,inwhich0=haveneverdiscussed,1=havetalkedingeneralterms,and2=havetalkedinfullandcompletedetail).
Theaveragewidthanddepthscoresmaybeaffectedbyeachindividualtopic.
Forexample,ifU.
S.
studentsdidnotlikeBodyandHealthtopic,theymayhavemarkeda1indicatingthattheyneverself-disclosurethistopic,whichmaylowertheirtotalaveragewidthscore,nomatterhowhightheirothertopics'widthscoresare.
Further,theresultsforthesecondresearchquestionalsorevealedtherearesignificantdifferencebetweengenderintheself-disclosurewidthanddepth.
Mostpreviousscholarsagreethatwomenappearedtoself-disclosemorethanmendo(Papinietal.
,1990;Hargieetal.
,2001).
Inthestudy,itwasfoundthatfemalecollegestudentsself-discloseonawiderrangeroftopicsandinmoredepththanmalecollegestudents,whichsupportsRubinandShenker's(1978)statementthatmenaretraditionallytaughttoberestrainedinsharingtheirinnerfeelings,whereaswomenaresocializedtobemoreexpressiveandopenincommunication.
Asforthegenderdifferenceacrossthenationality,onlyH2awassupported,whichindicatedthatAmericanfemalestudentstendtoself-discloseonawiderrangeoftopicsthanAmericanmales,whereasthereisnosignificancedifferenceforU.
S.
femaleandmaleintopics'depth.
Yet,wefoundneitherself-disclosure'swidthnordepthwassignificantdifferenceinChinesegroup.
Thefindingwasinconsistentwithpreviousstudy(Durand,2010),whichreportedChinesefemalesdisclosemorethanChinesemalesinbothface-to-faceandemailcontexts.
Thereasoncanbeexplainedthatthesamplesselectedinthisstudywerenotrepresentativeforthewholecollegepopulation.
ThemainparticipantsinthisstudyarechosenfromtheJournalism40andMassCommunicationmajor,notthetypicalcollegestudents.
Besides,thesamplesizeforgendergroupisnotequal,asmorefemalesthanmalesparticipatedintheonlinesurvey.
Insum,theresultsimplythatthereexitsthenationalityandgenderdifferenceinself-disclosure'swidthanddepth.
5.
2ImplicationsandlimitationsThefindingsofthisstudyshedlightonhownationalityandgenderplayaroleininfluencingcollegestudents'SNSusehabitsandself-disclosures'widthanddepth.
Thisstudyexpandsself-disclosureresearchfromofflinecommunicationtothecomputer-mediatedcommunication,e.
g.
,SNSsinacross-culturalcontextbetweentheUnitedStatesandChina.
ThefindingssuggestedthatU.
S.
andChinesestudentsmightbesimilarinsocialvaluesandself-disclosurepatternsduetotheculturalintegrationinthecontextofglobalization.
Thisstudyalsohighlightedthenationalityandgenderdifferenceamongfivedifferenttopics.
Theresultsofthesestudiesmaybelimitedbytheselectionofsamples.
Inthisstudy,thesamplesizeforU.
S.
andChinagroupisquitesmallandunbalanced,Americangrouphas225participants,andChinesegrouphas109participants.
Itisbettertohavealargersamplesize,ideally300participantsforeachgroup.
Besides,theunequalsamplesizeschosenfromtwocountrieswillcausesconfounding,inordertosolvethisproblem,acommonlyappliedcorrectiontechniquenamedweightingadjustmentcouldbeused.
Futureresearchcouldexpandourknowledgeofnationalitydifferencesonself-disclosuretomorecountries.
Becauseofthelimitedresources,thisstudyonlycomparedU.
S.
andChina.
Tobetterunderstandtheculturaldifferencesonnationallevelcomparison,morecountriesrepresentWesternculture(e.
g.
British,Italy,France,orCanada)and41Easternculture(e.
g.
Japan,Korea),shouldbeinvolvedinthefuturestudy.
Also,futurestudiesshouldlookatotherdiversesamples,suchasteens,workingpeople,orolderadults.
Second,thecurrentfindingsmightbelimitedbythemeasurementscaleschosenfrompreviousstudies.
Asreferredinthediscussion,intheoriginalstudy,theresearchersused32itemstomeasureIndividualismandCollectivism(Singelis&Triandis,1995),whileinthisstudy,only10itemswasselectedtopreventparticipantsfromtediousness.
Futureresearchfurtherneedstoconsiderthecredibilitywithinthemeasurementscales.
Besides,inHofstede'sculturaldimensions(1994),hecameupwithotherfourdimensionsofculturaldiversity,suchaspowerdistance(PDI),femininityversusmasculinity,uncertaintyavoidance,pragmatismandindulgence.
Inthisstudy,thecollectivismversusindividualismscalesfailtoexaminetheculturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinese,perhapsotherdimensionssuchasPragmatismdimensioncouldexplaintheculturaldifferences.
AccordingtoHofstede's(2014)countrycomparison,ChinahasadistinguishdifferencewithAmericainPragmatismdimension,whichgotahigherscoreat87thanAmerica(26),indicatingChinaisapragmaticsociety.
Futureresearchshouldbedirectedtolookatotherfourdimensions,andcomeupwithacompletescalestomeasuretheculturaldifference.
Inaddition,theHofstede'sfiveculturedimensionswasdeveloped20yearsago,itmightbelesseffectiveinthenewera,henceitwouldbebettertoupdateHofstede'sculturedimensions,sothatitcouldworkbetterincomputer-mediatedcommunication.
Also,thenumericalscalesfrom0-2(0meanshaveneverdiscussedthisitem;1meanshavetalkedingeneraltermsabouttheitem;2meanshavetalkedinfullandcompletedetailabouttheitem)wereusedtomeasuretheirself-disclosuretopicdepth.
Open-endedquestionscouldbeadoptedinthefuturestudy,whichmayprovidemoredetailedinformationandavoidresponsebiasbypredefined.
42Third,thepresentstudyonlyfocusedonFacebookandRenrenastheplatformtoexaminingsocialpenetrationmodel,while,actually,thereareotheractiveandpopularSNSsinAmerica,suchasTwitter,Linkedin,Pinterest,TumblrorInstagram;andforChina,suchasSinaweibo,QQzone,orWeixin.
Individualsmayvaryinthespecificneedsandpurposewhenself-discloseindifferenttypesofSNSs.
FuturestudyshouldtakeotherSNSsintoconsideration.
Practically,thefindingsofthisresearchsuggestthatSNScompaniesshouldapplyculture-strategiestoattractmoreusers,andsatisfiedtheirneedsbyinvestigatingconsumers'SNSusebackground.
5.
3ConclusionThisstudyappliedcollectivismversusindividualism,oneofHofstede'sculturaldimensions,andself-disclosurefromsocialpenetrationmodeltoexaminetheculturaldifferencesbetweenU.
S.
andChinesecollegestudentsinself-disclosureonsocialmediasites.
Inparticular,itexaminedtheinfluenceofculture(especiallycollectivismandindividualismdimensions)inbothwidthanddepthofself-disclosureonFacebookandRenren.
Theresultsshowedthatthereexitsthenationalitydifferenceinself-disclosure'swidthanddepth,implyingthatChinesestudentsself-disclosemoreinwidthanddepththanAmericancollegestudents.
Genderdifferencesinself-disclosure'swidthanddepthwerealsofoundandsupportedbythisstudy.
Femalesprefertoself-discloseinmorewidthanddepththanmalesonSNSs.
Butthegenderdifferencesacrossnationalitywerepartiallysupportedbythisresearch,asonlyU.
S.
femalestendtoself-discloseinmorewidththanU.
S.
males.
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pdf49APPENDIXAInvitationLetterDearISUstudents:IamwritingonbehalfoftheGreenleeSchoolofMassCommunicationandJournalismtorequestyourhelpwithmyfinalthesis.
IamconductingasurveyaboutCross-culturaldifferencesbetweenAmericanandChinesecollege-studentsonself-disclosureonsocialmedia.
ThisstudywasapprovedbytheInstitutionalReviewBoardatIowaStateUniversity(IRBID:13-601).
YoucanparticipateinthisresearchonlyifyouareAmericancitizenorChinesecitizen.
ThissurveywillbeconductedamongparticipantswhohaveactiveFacebookaccountinUnitedStatesorRenrenaccountinChina.
Youwereselectedtobepartofthisproject,andIhopethatyoucouldtakearound10-15minutestoparticipateinthisonlinesurvey.
Tocompletethesurveyonline,pleasegotothelinkbelow,andthenfollowtheonlinesurveyinstructions:https://iastate.
qualtrics.
com/SE/SID=SV_agBscxOyjZj9IuVBeassured,youranswerswillbecompletelyconfidential,andyoursurveyresponseswillbeanonymousandyourcontactinformationwillNOTconnectedtotheprevioussurveyyoucompleted.
Yourparticipationisvoluntarily,andyoumaychoosetowithdrawatanytime.
Thankyouinadvanceforyourparticipationinthisonlinesurvey.
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsaboutthestudy,contactShanLuo(rosan@iastate.
edu)orDr.
Cozma(rcozma@iastate.
edu).
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsabouttheadministrationofthesurvey,pleasecontactRoxanneBappe(irb@iastate.
edu),IRBAdministratorfromOfficeforResponsibleResearchatIowaStateUniversity.
Sincerely,ShanLuoGreenleeSchoolofMassCommunicationandJournalismIowaStateUniversityEmail:rosan@iastate.
edu50APPENDIXBQuestionnaire(AmericanVersion)ThepurposeofthisresearchistobetterunderstandhowAmericanandChinesecollegestudentsself-discloseonsocialmediasites.
ThissurveyrequiresparticipantswhohaveactiveFacebookaccountinUnitedStatesandRenrenaccountinChina.
PartOne:1.
HowmanyFacebookfriendsdoyouhave___2.
HowmuchtimedoyouusuallyspendonFacebookonaveragedayA.
Lessthan1HourB.
1Hourto2HoursC.
3Hoursto4HoursD.
Morethan4HoursE.
Idon'tknow3.
HowmanyyearshaveyoubeenusingFacebook/____4.
WhocanseeyourFacebookproleA.
OnlymeB.
FriendsC.
PublicD.
Idon'tknow5.
WhydoyouuseFacebookChoosingthestatementsbestdescribeyou.
1)Keepintouchwithfriendsandfamily.
511-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree2)Tomeetnewpeople.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree3)It'sentertaining.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree4)Itrelaxesme.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree5)TogetinformationfromFacebook.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree6)ToshareinformationfromFacebook.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree7)Itmakesmeforgetmyproblemsandworries.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree8)Becauseeveryoneelseisdoingit.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree9)Becauseitiscool.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree10)Itisahabit,justsomethingIdo.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree11)Itmakesmefeellesslonely.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree12)Itgivesmesomethingtodotooccupymytime.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree526.
WhatpercentageofyourtotalfriendsdoyoutrustwithpersonalinformationA.
HardlyanyB.
AfewC.
LessthanhalfD.
HalfE.
AlmostallF.
Allofthem7.
IfeelcomfortablesharingmypersonalorintimatefeelingswithfriendsonFacebook1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgree8.
IthinkFacebookcanhelpotherstoknowmebetter.
1-Sronglydisagree2-Disagree3-Neutral4-Agree5-StronglyAgreePartTwo:Readeachofthestatementsinthisinstrumentandselecttheresponsethatyoubelievebestindicateshowwellthesestatementsdescribeyou.
1.
Ioftendo"myownthing".
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell2.
Oneshouldliveone'slifeindependentlyofothers.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell3.
Iprefertobedirectandforthrightwhendiscussingwithpeople.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell4.
Whathappenstomeismyowndoing.
531-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell5.
Ienjoybeinguniqueanddifferentfromothersinmanyways.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell6.
Tome,pleasureisspendingtimewithothers.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell7.
IfeelgoodwhenIcooperatewithothers.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell8.
Itisimportanttomaintainharmonywithinmygroup.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell9.
Ilikesharinglittlethingswithmyneighbors.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWell10.
Myhappinessdependsverymuchonthehappinessofthosearoundme.
1-Notatall2-Notverywell3-Somewhat4-Well5-VeryWellPartThree:1.
WhattopicsdidyouusuallydiscussonFacebook/wallposts.
A.
AttitudesandopinionB.
TastesandInterestsC.
WorkorstudiesD.
PersonalityE.
BodyandHealthF.
Other.
Specify_2.
HowoftendoyoudiscussattitudesandopiniononFacebook/541-Always2-Often3-Sometimes4-Never3.
Usingtheratingscaletodescribetheextentthatyouhavediscussedeachitem.
Theratingscaleforthequestionwasasfollows:0:haveneverdiscussedthisitemonFacebook.
1:havetalkedingeneraltermsaboutthisitemonFacebook.
2.
havetalkedinfullandcompletedetailaboutthisitemonFacebook.
1)Mypersonalviewsonthepresentgovernment-thepresident,governmentpolicies,etc.
_____2)Mypersonalviewsontheentertainment-fashion/style,automobile,travel,etc.
_____3)Mypersonalviewsonthetechnology-cellphone,computer,camera,videogames,etc.
_____4)Mypersonalviewsonthecriminalandthejusticesystem.
_____5)Mypersonalviewsonthegaymarriageorminoritygroups-racial,ethnic,gender,religion.
_____4.
HowoftendoyoudiscussTastesandInterestsonFacebook1-Always2-Often3-Sometimes4-Never5.
Usingtheratingscaletodescribetheextentthatyouhavediscussedeachitem.
Theratingscaleforthequestionwasasfollows:0:haveneverdiscussedthisitemonFacebook.
1:havetalkedingeneraltermsaboutthisitemonFacebook.
2.
havetalkedinfullandcompletedetailaboutthisitemonFacebook.
1)Myfavoritesports.
_____2)Mylikesanddislikesinfoods/beverages.
_____553)Thekindsofmusic/books/movies/TVshowsIlike.
_____4)Mytastesinclothing.
_____5)Myfavoritewaysofspendingsparetime.
_____6.
Howoftendoyoudiscusswork/studyonFacebook1-Always2-Often3-Sometimes4-Never7.
Usingtheratingscaletodescribetheextentthatyouhavediscussedeachitem.
Theratingscaleforthequestionwasasfollows:0:haveneverdiscussedthisitemonFacebook.
1:havetalkedingeneraltermsaboutthisitemonFacebook.
2.
havetalkedinfullandcompletedetailaboutthisitemonFacebook.
1)Theenjoymentandsatisfactionfromwork/study.
_____2)Thepressureandstrainsinthework/study.
_____3)Myambitionsandgoalsinmywork/study.
_____4)HowIreallyfeelaboutthepeoplethatIworkfor,orworkwith.
_____5)MyfeelingsaboutthesalaryorrewardsthatIgetfrommywork/study.
_____8.
HowoftendoyoudiscusspersonalityonFacebook1-Always2-Often3-Sometimes4-Never9.
Usingtheratingscaletodescribetheextentthatyouhavediscussedeachitem.
Theratingscaleforthequestionwasasfollows:0:haveneverdiscussedthisitemonFacebook.
1:havetalkedingeneraltermsaboutthisitemonFacebook.
2.
havetalkedinfullandcompletedetailaboutthisitemonFacebook.
1)Thekindsofthingsthatmakemehappy/crazy.
_____562)Whatittakestohurtmyfeelingsdeeply.
_____3)Whatittakestogetmerealworried,anxiousandafraid.
_____4)Thekindsofthingsthatmakemeespeciallyproudofmyself,self-esteemorself-respect.
_____5)ThingsinthepastorpresentthatIfeelashamedandguiltyabout.
_____10.
HowoftendoyoudiscussbodyonFacebook/Renren1-Always2-Often3-Sometimes4-Never11.
Usingtheratingscaletodescribetheextentthatyouhavediscussedeachitem.
_____Theratingscaleforthequestionwasasfollows:0:haveneverdiscussedthisitemonFacebook.
1:havetalkedingeneraltermsaboutthisitemonFacebook.
2.
havetalkedinfullandcompletedetailaboutthisitemonFacebook.
1)Myfeelingsabouttheappearanceofmybody-face,legs,hips,weight,bustchest.
_____2)Myidealsforoverallappearance.
_____3)AnyproblemsandworriesthatIhadwithmyappearanceinthepast.
_____4)WhetherornotIhaveanyhealthproblems-eg.
Troublewithsleep,digestion,femalecomplaints,heartcondition,allergies,headache.
_____5)WhetherornotInowmakespecialeffortstokeepfit,healthy,andattractive,eg.
Yoga,dance,sports,diet.
_____57PartFour:Demographicquestions1.
WhatisyourgenderA.
FemaleB.
Male2.
Whatisyourage______3.
WhatisyourclassstatusA.
FreshmanB.
SophomoreC.
JuniorD.
SeniorE.
GraduatestudentF.
Other4.
WhatisyournationalityA.
AmericanB.
ChineseC.
Other5.
WhichofthefollowingbestdescribestheareayouliveinA.
UrbanB.
SuburbanC.
RuralD.
Other58APPENDIXCQuestionnaire(ChineseVersion)调查问卷本问卷旨在了解中美大学生在社交媒体上自我披露的差异.
被调查者需要拥有人人网的使用帐号.
当您开始填写问卷前,请登录人人网帐号,帮助您回答以下问题.
完成问卷大约需要10-15分钟.
本问卷将严格按照相关规定,对填写内容和私人信息进行严格保密,并且此问卷的成果不会用于任何商业用途.
谢谢您的参与.
第一部分:1.
在人人网上,你拥有的好友数量2.
平均每天你在人人网上花多少时间A.
少于1个小时B.
1个小时—2个小时C.
3个小时—4个小时D.
多于4个小时E.
不知道3.
你注册并使用人人网的时间有几年4.
你的人人网的浏览权限A.
仅自己可见B.
好友可见C.
所有人可见D.
不知道5.
使用人人网出于以下哪些原因请根据符合程度选择相应选项(1)与朋友家人保持联系(2)结交新的朋友(3)使用人人网令我愉快.
(4)使用人人网令我放松.
(5)帮助我获得资讯与信息.
(6)帮助我分享有用的信息给他人.
(7)让我忘记烦恼.
(8)因为大家都在使用人人网.
(9)使用人人网很cool.
59(10)我习惯了使用人人网.
(11)使用人人网,让我觉得没有那么孤单.
(12)人人网帮助我消磨时间.
A.
非常不符合B.
比较不符合C.
介于两者之间D.
比较符合E.
非常符合6.
你在多大程度上相信人人网上发布的信息A.
几乎不相信B.
相信一些C.
少于一半D.
相信一半E.
相信绝大多数F.
相信所有信息7.
在人人网上和朋友们分享自己的内心感受,我感觉舒服.
A.
完全不同意B.
不同意C.
中立D.
同意E.
完全同意8.
我觉得人人网帮助别人更好地了解我.
A.
完全不同意B.
不同意C.
中立D.
同意E.
完全同意第二部分:仔细阅读以下信息,请根据符合程度选择相应选项.
1.
我常常一个人做事.
2.
人应该独立解决问题,尽可能不要靠别人.
3.
我偏好直接了当与他人沟通.
4.
发生在我身上的事,是我自己的事,与他人无关.
5.
我喜欢独特与众不同.
606.
快乐来源于大家在一起.
7.
合作让我觉得开心.
8.
小组之内维持和谐很重要.
9.
我喜欢与旁人分享信息.
10.
我的快乐跟周围的人快乐与否有关.
A.
非常不符合B.
比较不符合C.
介于两者之间D.
比较符合E.
非常符合第三部分:1.
在人人网个人主页里,你常常讨论哪个话题A.
态度与观点B.
品味与兴趣C.
学习与工作D.
个人特征E.
身体与健康F.
其他,请指出_2.
在人人网里,你的话题涉及态度与观点的频率是A.
没有涉及B.
几乎不涉及C.
偶尔涉及D.
经常涉及E.
总是涉及3.
根据你在人人网讨论以下信息的程度,将它们拖拽到数字0-2对应的描述框里.
0:从来没有在人人网讨论此类信息.
1:有时会在人人网大致讨论此类信息.
2:详尽地在人人网讨论此类信息的细节.
(1)对于政府、政治人物、政策法规的个人意见.
(2)对于娱乐、流行、生活方式、旅行的个人意见.
(3)对于电子产品:手机、电脑、相机、游戏的个人意见.
(4)对于犯罪与司法制度的个人意见.
(5)对于同性恋、种族、少数民族、性别、宗教的个人意见.
4.
在人人网里,你的话题涉及品味与兴趣的频率是A.
没有涉及61B.
几乎不涉及C.
偶尔涉及D.
经常涉及E.
总是涉及5.
根据你在人人网讨论以下信息的程度,将它们拖拽到数字0-2对应的描述框里.
0:从来没有在人人网讨论此类信息.
1:有时会在人人网大致讨论此类信息.
2:详尽地在人人网讨论此类信息的细节.
(1)我喜欢的运动.
(2)我对食物、饮料的喜好.
(3)我对音乐、图书、电影、电视的喜好.
(4)我对服装的喜好.
(5)我如何安排自己的闲暇时间.
6.
在人人网里,你的话题涉及学习与工作的频率是A.
没有涉及B.
几乎不涉及C.
偶尔涉及D.
经常涉及E.
总是涉及7.
根据你在人人网讨论以下信息的程度,将它们拖拽到数字0-2对应的描述框里.
0:从来没有在人人网讨论此类信息.
1:有时会在人人网大致讨论此类信息.
2:详尽地在人人网讨论此类信息的细节.
(1)学习工作中的满足与成就.
(2)学习工作中的压力与负担.
(3)学习工作中的目标与追求.
(4)与同学同事相处的感受.
(5)学习工作得到的报酬与奖励.
8.
在人人网里,你的话题涉及个人特征的频率是A.
没有涉及B.
几乎不涉及C.
偶尔涉及D.
经常涉及E.
总是涉及9.
根据你在人人网讨论以下信息的程度,将它们拖拽到数字0-2对应的描述框里.
0:从来没有在人人网讨论此类信息.
1:有时会在人人网大致讨论此类信息.
622:详尽地在人人网讨论此类信息的细节.
(1)让我开心疯狂的事.
(2)让我悲伤难过的事.
(3)让我担心焦虑害怕的事.
(4)让我自豪骄傲自信的事.
(5)让我自责内疚的事.
10.
在人人网里,你的话题涉及身体与健康的频率是A.
没有涉及B.
几乎不涉及C.
偶尔涉及D.
经常涉及E.
总是涉及11.
根据你在人人网讨论以下信息的程度,将它们拖拽到数字0-2对应的描述框里.
0:从来没有在人人网讨论此类信息.
1:有时会在人人网大致讨论此类信息.
2:详尽地在人人网讨论此类信息的细节.
(1)对于自己外貌和身体(脸、腿、体重、胸……)的感觉.
(2)理想的外貌与身体.
(3)有关外貌和身体的困扰.
(4)有关疾病与身体不适的话题:失眠、消化不良、妇科问题、心脏状况、过敏、头疼……(5)有关健康瘦身的话题:瑜伽、健身、营养、节食……第四部分:1.
请问你的性别是A.
女性B.
男性2.
请问你的年龄是_______3.
请问你在大学的就读年级是A.
一年级B.
二年级C.
三年级D.
四年级E.
研究生F.
其他634.
请问你的国籍是A.
美国B.
中国C.
其他5.
请问你的家庭居住地是A.
城市B.
城市郊区C.
农村D.
其他