建中nod

HALId:halshs-01069135https://halshs.
archives-ouvertes.
fr/halshs-01069135Submittedon28Sep2014HALisamulti-disciplinaryopenaccessarchiveforthedepositanddisseminationofsci-entificresearchdocuments,whethertheyarepub-lishedornot.
ThedocumentsmaycomefromteachingandresearchinstitutionsinFranceorabroad,orfrompublicorprivateresearchcenters.
L'archiveouvertepluridisciplinaireHAL,estdestinéeaudéptetàladiffusiondedocumentsscientifiquesdeniveaurecherche,publiésounon,émanantdesétablissementsd'enseignementetderecherchefranaisouétrangers,deslaboratoirespublicsouprivés.
TheInstitutionalTransmissionofChineseMedicineAtypologyoftheMainIssuesPierreHenrydeBruyn,EvelyneMicollierTocitethisversion:PierreHenrydeBruyn,EvelyneMicollier.
TheInstitutionalTransmissionofChineseMedicineAtypologyoftheMainIssues.
Chinaperspectives,HongKong:FrenchCentreforResearchonCon-temporaryChina,2011,pp.
23-32.
halshs-01069135TeachingChinesemedicinetoaWesternpublicthatknowsalmostnothingaboutthephilosophicalprinciplesofChinesecivilisationimpliesovercomingasetofconsiderableintellectual,pedagogical,andinstitutionaldifficulties.
(1)In2004,ProfessorricMarié,whoatthattimeheldapositionasresearchdirectorattheNanchangfacultyofChineseMedicineinJiangxiandalsotaughtthisdisciplineatLausanneUniversity,(2)wasinvitedtousehisexpertisetoestablishauniversitydegreethatmighthelpmeetthischallengeatFrance'sUniversityofLaRochelle.
Thisdegree,firstsupportedbyaletterwrittenbytheeduca-tionaladvisorattheChineseEmbassyinFrancetotheuniversitypresi-dent,andthenapprovedbytheboardofdirectors,receivednumerousregistrationapplicationsbutneversawthelightofday.
Theregistrationformswerereturnedtothestudents.
Noreasonwasevergiventoex-plainwhythiscourseofstudieswasnotultimatelylaunched.
Thisexpe-rienceoffailureledPierre-HenrydeBruyn,whoinitiatedtheproject,topondertheresistancethattraditionalChinesemedicineencounterswhenattemptingtopenetrateauniversityenvironmentincertainWesterncountries.
Thepresentarticleisthefruitofthisreflection,en-richedbythereflectionsthathaveledvelyneMicolliertotheChinesehealthsystemoverthecourseofsome20years.
Theworkbelowcon-sistsoftracingatypologyoftheideological,epistemological,political,economic,andeducationalissuesthatcometogetheraroundChinesemedicineinitstransmissionprocess,inordertoidentifysomeconside-rationsregardingitsfuture.
Inthelineofthinkingofthisparticulardo-cument,weconsiderChinesemedicineasaworldheritage,andnotasapurelyChineseorlocalphenomenon.
ThisallowsustoillustrateourthoughtsusingobservationsmadeinChina,aswellasinEastAsiaandtheWest.
Thefirstissue:AvoidingacaricaturedideologicalbipolarisationThefirstdifficultyweencounterwhendiscussingChinesemedicineinauniversitysettingcomesfromthewaydiscussionsonthissubjectquicklytakeonanideologicalflavour.
ThisproblemhasalsoexistedinChinaforaNo.
2011/3chinaperspectives23*Pierre-HenrydeBruynisaresearcheratCEFC(UMIFREno.
18/CNRS-USRno.
3331EastAsia)andchiefeditorofChinaPerspectives;velyneMicollierisaresearcheratIRD(FrenchInstituteforDevel-opmentResearch),UMI233(UnitéMixteInternationale–JointInternationalUnit),IRD-UniversityofMontpellierI.
ShestudiedChinesemedicineattheGuangzhouInstituteofChineseMedicineatthebe-ginningofthe1990sinthecontextofherPhDresearchon"AnAspectofMedicalPluralityinPRChina:ThePracticesofQigong,TherapeuticandSocialDimension,"PhDdissertationinanthropology,Univer-sityofProvence,1995.
1.
Giventhattheterm"TraditionalChineseMedicine"(TCM)chosenbythePRCsincethe1950sasatranslationfortheChinesetermzhongyi("ChineseMedicine"–CM)isincreasinglyacquiringalimitedmeaningthatisnotreallyasynonymfor"Chinesemedicine,"weprefertousealiteraltranslationofthetermhere,evenifwestillusetheacronym"TCM"forthesakeofconvenience.
Inregardstothissubjectitisimportanttorememberthat"(Elisabeth)Hsu,VolkerScheidandKimTaylorhaveexplainedthedifferencebetweenthetraditionalmedicinepromotedbythegovernment,namelyTCM,andChi-nesemedicineinitslargeracceptance.
Bypresentingthepluralityofmedicalpractices,ScheidandthenTaylortakeintoaccountthedevelopmentsofTCMsince1949:Chinesemedicinehasbeentrans-formedintoTCMbyaplannedstateintervention.
"(velyneMicollier,"Unsavoirthérapeutiquehybrideetmobile–clairagesurlarecherchemédicaleenmédecinechinoiseenChineaujourd'hui,"Revued'anthropologiedesconnaissances,vol.
5,no.
1,2011,pp.
41-70;p.
47).
Thisexcerptrefersbacktothefollowingstudies:ElisabethHsu,TheTransmissionofChineseMedicine,CambridgeUK,CambridgeUni-versityPress,1999;—-,ChineseMedicine:Innovation,ConventionandControversy,CambridgeUK,CambridgeUniversityPress,2001;VolkerScheid,ChineseMedicineinContemporaryChina–PluralityandSynthesis,Durham–London,DukeUniversityPress,2002,(p.
65);andKimTaylor,ChineseMedi-cineinEarlyCommunistChina,1945–1963:AMedicineinRevolution,London,Routledge,2005.
Itshouldalsobenoted(p.
48)that"inofficialtranslationstoday,Chineseauthors,liketheMinistryofHealth,confuseTCMwithZhongyi.
2.
In2003,ricMariéalsopresentedaPhDdissertationincomparativehistoryofmedicineatthecoledesHautestudesenSciencesSociales[GraduateSchoolofSocialSciences].
Thisworkwasthenpub-lishedunderthetitle:LediagnosticparlespoulsenChineetenEurope–Unehistoiredelasphyg-mologiedesoriginesauXVIIIesiècle(DiagnosisbypulseinChinaandinEurope–Ahistoryofsphyg-mologyfromthebeginningtotheeighteenthcentury),Paris-Berlin-NewYork,Springer,2011.
ChinaperspectivesSpecialfeatureTheInstitutionalTransmissionofChineseMedicineAtypologyoftheMainIssuesPIERRE-HENRYDEBRUYNANDVELYNEMICOLLIER*ABSTRACT:TheaimofthisarticleistoproposeatypologyofthedifferentissuesthatthetransmissionoftraditionalChinesemedicineencounterstodayintheworld,bysuccessivelyhighlightingideological,epistemological,political,andeducationaldifficulties.
AftershowinghowmuchthepolarisedaspectofthedebatesonChinesemedicineisalreadyentrenchedamongspecialistsinthisdiscipline,weexplorethequestionoftheepistemologicalstatusofthisChinesetraditionbyconfrontingitwiththedominantbiomedicineofWesternorigin.
TheoriginalityofChinesestructuresthatweresetuptoprotectandpromotethisnationaltraditionisthenhighlightedasapossiblesourceofinspirationattheinternationallevel,beforedescribingthedifferenteconomicfactorslikelytoplayapositiveornegativeroleinthedevelopmentofthismedicalandculturalheritageatthelocallevel.
Finally,thespecificdidacticquestionsthatthetransmissionofthisheritageandtheteachingofthisdisciplineraiseareanalysedbeforepresentingaconclusion.
KEYWORDS:Chinesemedicine,epistemology,healthpolicy,pedagogy,socialsciencesnumberofyears,ascouldbeobservedin2006withthemediateddebatecentringaroundanarticlebyZhangGongyao,professorofphilosophyofscienceatChangshaUniversity,whichconsideredtheissueofincludingTCMintheChinesepublichealthsystem.
(3)MeanwhileintheWest,thisideologicalaspectisevenmorepronouncedinthatitalsocrossesthenar-rowfieldofseveralspecialistsinthisdiscipline,asweshalldemonstrate.
The"nationalcharacter"of"Chinese"medicineinvoluntarilyrevealsthesedeepreflexesintheWesternworldthatdeterminepeople'sattitudesto-wardtheOther.
IntheprefaceofabookonthepracticeofacupunctureintheWestpublishedin1997,GiovanniMaciociathuspointedout:PracticallyeversinceOrientalmedicinewasintroducedtotheWesternworld,atleastinrecenttimes,therehasbeenadynamictensionbetweentheneedtoabsorb,understandandpreserveOri-entalmedicineandtheneedtoadaptittoWesternconditions.
Twoopposingviewscouldbepresented,thefirstadvocatingtheneedtoswiftlyadaptOrientalmedicinetoWesternconditions,thesecondadvocatingtheneedtofirstabsorb,understandandmasterOrientalmedicineasithasbeenhandeddowninAsia.
(4)WesterndiscussionsofChinesemedicinethuscrosslinesoftensionbe-tweenacentripetalandcentrifugalmotion.
Thecentripetalmotioncon-sistsoftryingtoabsorbthedifferencesoftheOtherbyfilteringthecon-tentofhisknowledgeandexperiencesintofamiliarcategoriesofthinking.
Thisisoftenfound,forexample,inWesternfacultiesofmedicine.
Inthiskindofenvironment,theonlyaspectsofChinesemedicinedeemedworthyofinterestarethosethatcanjoinyour"centre"inafractionalmanner,orexpresseddifferently,yourmodeofthinking:foreignmedicaltraditionstopsbeing"Chinese,"butcertainaspectsareconsideredpossiblytobeworth"medical"interestbecauseoftheirtherapeuticeffectiveness.
(5)Attheoppositeendofthespectrum,thecentrifugalapproachtriestostresstheexoticcharacteristicsofthediscipline:itiscultivatedbynumerouspri-vateschoolsofChinesemedicinebutalsoinuniversityenvironmentsinthefacultiesofChinesestudies,whereitisbroughtintothemedicaldi-mensionthroughits"Chinese"character:ChinesemedicinethusbecomesChinoiserie.
Itisimportanttostressthatnoenvironment,includingthatofspecialistsinChinesemedicine,escapesthistension.
Forexample,wecanobservethatWesternhistoriansofChinesemedicine,basedontheirintellectualorideologicalprejudices,oftenpresentdivergentpointsofviewintheirinter-pretationsofcontemporaryhistory.
ThustheanthropologistElisabethHsu,intheprefaceofhercollectiveworkInnovationinChineseMedicine,intro-ducedthearticlesofVolkerScheidandKimTaylor,specialistsinthehistoryofChinesemedicine,whilestressingthefollowingcontrast:WhenTaylorhighlightsunificationthroughpoliticalindoctrination,Scheidemphasizespluralismingovernmentinstitutions;whereTaylormentionsapplicationoftheSovietsciences,Scheidstressesadapta-tionofWesternmedicine;andwhereTaylorshowshowcanonicalknowledgewasdoneawaywith,Scheiddelvesintocrackingmedicallineagesandestablishesgenealogiesofdrugprescriptions.
(6)ThecontrastbetweenpositiveprejudicestowardChinesemedicine,suchasthoseofVolkerScheid,ornegative,aswithKimTaylor,ismoreovernotnew.
Theparallelswithtwootherspecialists,ManfredPorkertandPaulUn-schuld,confirmthis:theformerdefendstheprofoundlyscientificcharacterofChinesemedicine,whilethelatterconsiderstheuseofthisdisciplineintheWesttobemainlyaresponsetoanideologicalandspiritualvoid.
ManfredPorkertholds:AtpresentthreemajorfactorsworktogetherinthedebasementofChinesemedicine.
Thefirst,mostvisibleandmuchdreaded,istheapparentpower,inappearanceoverwhelminganduniversal,ofor-thodoxWesternmedicine.
Thesecond,widespreadandmuchpubli-cisedinallindustrialisedWesterncountries,istheacclaimandin-terestChinesemedicinegetsfrompractitionersofwhatiscalled"alternative"medicine.
(7)Andthethird,byfarthemostserious,menaceisthebunglinganddegradationChinesemedicinesuffersfromsomeofitsmostprominentspeakersinChinaproper.
(8)Andyet,accordingtoPorkert,Chinesemedicineis"ascienceinitsownright,"theexistenceofwhichoffersthemedicalprofessionauniqueop-portunityforpotentialdevelopment,aslittleasitmayberecognisedassuch.
(9)Itisinthissamelineofthoughtthatcertainauthorstodayarewritingveritablecomparativechronologicaltables,thusindirectlyattribu-tingtothehistoryofChinesemedicineanimportancecomparabletothatofWesternmedicine.
Oneofthemosteminentexamplesofthistypeofworkisthecollectioninauguratedin2004undertheverytellingtitleofBridgingHippocratesandHuangTi.
(10)Incontrasttothisviewpoint,PaulUnschuldconsidersinsteadthecurrentidolatryof"nature"intheWest,which.
.
.
…requiredatheology,andthiswascertainlynotofferedbytheuseofwater,warmth,heat,light,andair.
Thisistooprimitive.
So-calledChinesemedicinewasbetterequippedtoprovidetherequiredtheology.
Itsimultaneouslypresenteditselfasasecularizedreligion.
[.
.
.
]The"theology"ofChinesemedicinegivesanswersthatbelieversinthechurchesofconventionalreligionhavetolivewithout.
Ofcourse,this"theology"isnottheology,becauseithasnoTheos.
Theyin-yangandfiveagentsdoctrinesarethecosmologyofasecular24chinaperspectivesNo.
2011/33.
SeevelyneMicollier,"Unsavoirthérapeutiquehybrideetmobile–clairagesurlarecherchemédicaleenmédecinechinoiseenChineaujourd'hui,"Revued'anthropologiedesconnaissances,vol.
5,no.
1,2011,pp.
41-70,p.
49;—-,"ManagementoftheAIDSEpidemicandLocal/GlobalUseofChineseMed-icine,"invelyneMicollier(ed.
),ChineseSocietyconfrontedwithAIDS:SocialResponsesandCulturalPolitics,SpecialFeature,ChinaPerspectives,no.
77,2009,pp.
67-78,72-73.
4.
GiovanniMaciocia,"Foreword,"inHughMacPherson,TedJ.
Kaptchuk(eds.
),AcupunctureinPractice–CaseHistoryInsightsfromtheWest,London,ElsevierLimited,1997,p.
ix.
5.
ThearticlebyLuciaCandeliseinthisissueshowsthatinFrance,therewasastrongreactionamongacupuncturedoctorsagainstthiscentripetaltendency,whichcreatedacurrentamongthemthatshecalled"traditionalist.
"AlsoseeRonaldGuilloux,"volutiondela'tradition'danslaréceptiondel'acupuncturechinoiseenFrance(1860-1980),"Revued'anthropologiedesconnaissances,vol.
5,no.
1,2011,pp.
13-40.
6.
ElisabethHsu(ed.
),InnovationinChineseMedicine,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,2001,p.
8.
7.
ChinesemedicinewouldthusbereducedtonomorethanasomewhatetherealholistictherapeutictechniquemanipulatedbyNewAgeandnaturalmedicineadvocates.
8.
ManfredPorkert,ChineseMedicineDebased–EssaysonMethodology,Dinkelscherben(Germany),Phainon,1998,p.
2.
Inthisthirdpoint,ManfredPorkertdirectlytargetscurrentChinesestateinstitu-tionsthataredisseminatingtheteachingofChinesemedicineunderthepressureofpoliticalmotiva-tionsthatarebetterthoughtoutthanthoseunderaconcernforscientificfidelitytoatherapeutictra-dition.
Inthetwenty-firstcentury,inadditiontothepoliticalmotivationsdescribedbyPorkert,therearealsomotivationsforincreasingthescientificoutreachofChinaaswellaspowerfuleconomicmo-tives(velyneMicollier,art.
cit.
,2009,pp.
81-82).
9.
Ibid.
,pp.
13-35;p.
34.
10.
PaoloMarandolaetal.
(ed.
),AComparativeThesaurusofTraditionalChineseandWesternUrology,An-drologyandSexology,Amsterdam,Elsevier,col.
"BridgingHippocratesandHuangTi,"vol.
1,2003.
Specialfeaturereligion.
Itisareligion,becauseitmakestheindividuals'integrationinthegreaterwholeunderstandable.
Itissecular,becausethenu-minousdoesnotexistinthisreligion.
Nogodorgods.
Nodemonsorancestors.
(11)Herewefind,onthetopicofTCM,theoldWesterndebatebetweensci-enceandreligion.
Tornbetweenapossiblestatusof"science"(defendedbythosewhonotonlystudyit,butalsouseitaspractitioners,suchasVolkerScheidandManfredPorkert)andakindofreligiousdoctrinethatonemusteitherbelieveordoubt(asPaulUnschuldandKimTaylorbothsuggestintheirownmanner),Chinesemedicinestrugglestofindthisepistemologicalstatus,whichconsequentlyconstitutesthesecondfundamentalissueitencountersintheprocessoftransmission.
Thesecondissue:LeavingavagueepistemologicalstatusThequestionoftherelationshipbetweenscienceandreligionhasbeenaskedinamuchdifferentmannerinChinathanintheWest.
KnowledgeisnotconstructedinChinainoppositiontoareligiouspower.
Italsodidnotformitsstructureinadiscourseinvolvingapretensionofscientificuniver-sality.
Asa"medical"tradition,theprinciplemotivationbywhichtheChi-nesecultivatedandtransmittedtheirmedicaltraditionisessentiallyprac-tical:onlytherapeuticeffectivenesscounted.
Toarriveatconcretetherapeuticresults,theyhadtoconsiderhumanbe-ingswhowereillandhumanbeingswhowereingoodhealth.
Theyuncon-sciouslycreatedaculturallysituatedanthropologyandcosmology.
There-foreChinesemedicineis"Chinese"becauseitrestsonanapproachtothebodyandmindnourishedbyaspecificcivilisation:Chineseculture.
InaworldwhereWesternculturehasexercisedaninfluenceofalmosttidalwaveproportions,ChinesemedicineoffersawayofdiscoveringconcretelyhowatherapeuticactionispossiblefromthestartingpointofaperceptionofhumanbeingsotherthanwhataWesternperspectiveoffers.
ShigehisaKuriyamahasdemonstratedhowperceptionsofthebodyinGreekandChinesecivilisationareradicallydifferentinareasasfundamentalasthehistoryoftactileperception,therelationshipsbetweenthewayofhearingandseeing,andbleedings:Thetruestructureandworkingsofthehumanbodyare,wecasuallyassume,everywherethesame,auniversalreality.
Butwhenwelookintohistory,andoursenseofrealitywavers.
(.
.
.
)Accountsofthebodyindiversemedicaltraditionsfrequentlyappeartodescribemutuallyalien,almostunrelatedworlds.
(12)TheobservationofthisdifferencebetweentheperceptionsofthebodyconveyedbyTaoismandthatcirculatingintheWestisthebasisofarecentworkbyPierre-HenrydeBruyn,whichasanextensionofKristofferSchip-per'sground-breakingbookontheTaoistbody(13)aimstoaddressthecur-rentstateofthisquestioninWesternstudies.
(14)ThisworkpresentsTaoismasadoctrinethatisessentiallycentredonthebody.
However,toinsistex-cessivelyontheTaoistroots(ConfucianorBuddhist)ofChinesemedicinewouldalsoriskobscuringtheepistemologicalstatusofthelatterratherthanhelpingtodefineit.
Itisthereforebettertoconsidertheproblembygoingbacktowhatisessentialintheactofhealing:thisiswhattheChi-nesehavedoneoverthecenturiesintransmittingtheirmedicaltraditions.
Beforethenineteenthcentury,theonly"medicine"(醫學–yixue)thattheChineseknewwasChinese.
Overitslonghistory,ChinesemedicinenonethelesscrossedotherAsianmedicaltraditions,including,forexample,IndianandBuddhistmedicine,ashighlightedbyPaulUnschuld.
(15)Ontheotherhand,numerousverylocalChinesemedicaltraditionsormedicalknowledgecultivatedinethnicminoritygroupsexistinChinaandrefertomedicalknowledgebasedonwritten(Tibetan,Mongolian,Korean,andUyghurmedicine)ororalsources.
Theimportationofwhatisreferredtoas"Westernmedicine"(西醫–xiyi)upsetthisintellectuallandscape,andChinesemedicaltraditionfounditselfgraduallyplacedinapositionofrelativityinChinatothepointofsoonbecomingonlya"Chinese"medi-cine(zhongyi).
Verysoon,certainChinesemedicinestriedtoproposeasynthesisbyattemptingtointegrateelementsofWesternmedicineintotheirtraditionalmedicalsystem:theycametobeknownasthe"schoolofintegrationbetweenChineseandWesternmedicines"(中西會通牌–zhongxihuitongpai).
(16)Someyearslater,MaoZedongrenewedtheseeffortsbyadvocatingaunionofWesternandChinesedoctors.
Thedebatesonthekindofunionenvisionedwerenumerous,andrevolvedarounddifferentslogans.
Whatorderofpriorityshouldbeconsidered:"firstChinesemedicineandthenWesternmedicine"(先中後西–xianzhonghouxi),ortheinverse(17)Woulditbebettertothinkofmutual"integration"(結合–jiehe),"unifi-cation"(團結–tuanjie),"cooperation"(合作–hezuo),(18)oreven"synthe-sis"(綜合–zonghe)(19)However,certainresearchersorsocialactorsbelievethatChinawillbeabletofinditsmedicallegitimacythroughitsownspecificity,ratherthanbyseekingtojoinWesternmedicinewithChinesemedicine.
TheystressthatcontemporaryChinesemedicinehasanurgentneedfordevelopmentanddeeptransformation.
TheChineseanthropologistHorTingthusex-plainswhatmanyofhiscompatriotsarethinking:InChina,sincethetransformationoftraditionalsociety,Chinesemedicinehasbeenmodernizedfromitstraditionalaspects.
FormostcontemporaneousChinese,asfortheauthor,themoderniza-tionofChinesemedicineseemsquitenaturalanduncontested.
Infact,thisviewisformedapriorionthreeassumptions:Chinesemedicinehastochangefromitsancientformtoanewform;Chinesemedicinehastocompleteitsevolutionfromitspresentprimitiveleveltoahigherlevel;No.
2011/3chinaperspectives2511.
PaulU.
Unschuld,WhatIsMedicineWesternandEasternApproachestoHealing,Berkeley/LosAnge-les,UniversityofCaliforniapress,2009,p.
202.
12.
ShigehisaKuriyama,TheExpressivenessoftheBody–andtheDivergenceofGreekandChineseMed-icine,NewYork,ZoneBooks,1999,p.
8.
13.
KristoferSchipper,TheTaoistBody,translatedbyKarenC.
Duval,Berkeley/London,UniversityofCali-forniaPress,1993(Frenchversion:Lecorpstaoste,Paris,Fayard,1982).
14.
Pierre-HenrydeBruyn,Letaosme–Cheminsdedécouvertes,Paris,CNRS,2010.
15.
PaulUnschuld,MedicineinChina:AHistoryofIdeas,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley,1985.
16.
Amongotherthings,TangZonghai(1851-1908),ZhangShouyi(1873-1934),andZhangXichun(1860-1933)werefamoussupportersofthiscurrent.
17.
KimTaylor,op.
cit.
,p.
125.
18.
Ibid.
,p.
137.
19.
Inthetwenty-firstcentury,theuseoftermsreferringtotheconceptofsynthesisisspreadinginsym-posiums,andinofficial,academic,andpopularpublications;forexampleinthecontextoftheFirstWorldCongressofWHOontraditionalmedicine(chuantongyixue)(WHOCongressonTraditionalMedicinehostedbytheMinistryofHealthandSATCMC),7-9November2008,onthetopic"DevelopingTraditional,AlternativeandComplementaryMedicinesforToday'sSociety,"factsandob-servationscollectedbyvelyneMicollierandpresentedtothisCongress.
LetusaddthatVolkerScheid(2002)formalisedthisconcept.
Pierre-HenrydeBruynandvelyneMicollier–TheInstitutionalTransmissionofChineseMedicineChinesemedicinehastobetransformedfromanunscientificprac-ticetoascientificpractice.
(20)Then,inacriticalapproach,HorTinghimselfdemonstratestheassump-tionsthathehasjustdefined.
Accordingtohim,Chinesemedicineshouldnottrytofindanewformforitself,becauseoutsideofChinaitispreciselyas"traditional"medicinethatithasbeenadoptedbyWesternersasa"medicineofthefuture.
"(21)Inaddition,sinceChinesemedicineconsti-tutes"awell-establishedsystemofknowledgeandskills,"itrepresentsdefactoan"empirico-speculativemedicine,developedintoitsfullmaturity"andshouldnotaimforanewmetamorphosesinordertobeanaccom-plishedmedicaltradition.
(22)Finally,bynotingthattherapeuticefficiencyiswhatcountsinthemedicalactofhealingratherthanthescientificex-planationprovided,(23)HorTinggoessofarastoreverseperspectivesbydeclaring,fromthepointofviewofsciencehistory,thatitisinfactWest-ernmedicinethatshouldbeconsideredstrangeforclaimingtobaseallofitsprocessesona"reasonablescientificobjectivity"forwhichitcreatesitsownuniquecriteriaoftruth;thusitshouldbeWesternandnotChinesemedicinethatrepresents"anisolatedcaseinmedicalhistory.
"(24)Thisrea-soningshowshowthequestionoftheepistemologicalstatusofChinesemedicinecanindirectlyshakeupcertainscientificdogmasandcanwronglylead,byaninverseexcess,tocaricaturisingknowledgecalled"sci-entific"andengenderingareductivevisionofscience,neglectingthefactthatthemodelofthescientificparadigmconsistsofacontinualreconsid-erationofpreviousresultsthroughtheinsertionofnewresults,andthatassuch,thescientificprocessisonlyinterestedinwhatitcanknowinthestateoftheknowledgeofthemoment.
Furthermore,thisparadigmisbasedonatheoryofknowledgethatis"open"inperpetualconstructionandthusreconstruction.
Fromthispointofview,theepistemologicalre-sistancethatChinesemedicineencountersinitstransmissionprocessisdouble:ontheonehand,thesystematicquestioningofitspracticesandresultsrequiredofChinesemedicinebythedominantscientificparadigmproducesinternalresistancetoamodificationofitsmodesofoperation;ontheotherhand,compelledtoacknowledgeitsexperiencethroughex-perimentalresultsthatarequantitativelymeasurable,Chinesemedicineisfacinganexternalchallengeofakindthatistotallynewinitshistory.
Thethirdissue:EstablishingcompetentinstitutionsandefficientpublicpoliciesChinesemedicinewouldnothaveeventheepistemologicallyvagueandideologicallydebatedstatusithasinChinaandtheworldtodaywithoutthemajorpoliticalsupportthattheauthoritiesofthePRCstrategicallychosetogiveitattheendofthe1950s.
Itisindisputablethatstartinginthe1950s,Chinaestablishedpowerfulinstitutionalorganisationschargedwiththenationalandinternationaldis-seminationofChinesemedicine.
(25)Inaddition,forKimTaylor,"ItisalsonoteworthythatonlyafterHongKongwasreturnedtoChinain1997,weresimilarstepstakentoinstitutionalizeandstandardizethemedi-cine.
"(26)WecanatleaststatethatthisprocessintensifiedafterthehandoverofHongKong.
SuchstrongpoliticalsupportforChinesemedicinebyPRCau-thoritiesdoesnot,however,justifythereductionofChinesemedicinetoamerepoliticalmedicalsystem,ortodeducethattheinterestof"theWest"wasattractedmoretothe"traditional"aspectsofChinesemedicinethanits"scientificmerits.
"(27)Infact,ifthepoliticalcharac-terofTCMisoftendecried,thisdoesnotdetractfromitsscientificorabovealltherapeuticmerits.
TobeabletounderstandhowtheChinesegovern-mentstructuresthisdisci-pline,orwhatthepoliticallinesitdefinesmaybe,itisimportanttoknowtheprincipalinstitutionsmo-bilisedtopromoteandbringaboutitsinstitu-tionaldissemination.
Atpresent,thecentraladmin-istrativeorganisationinthedevelopmentofTCMinChinaandintheworldisthe"StateAdministrationofTraditionalChineseMedicineofthePeople'sRepublicofChina"(中華人民共和國國家中醫藥管理局–SATCM-PRC),(28)whichhasbeengiventwoessentialsmissions.
WiththehelpofmembersofthevastnetworkthatitdirectsinthevariousChi-neseinstitutionsinChinaandintheworld,thisinstitutionmust:1)Formulatestrategies,plans,andpoliciesforthedevelopmentofTCMandtheuseofethnicmedicines;2)SuperviseallconcreteapplicationsofTCM,bothpreventiveandclini-cal;3)CoordinatetheintegrationofTCMandWesternmedicine;4)Guidetheexploration,summarisation,andimprovementofthetheo-reticalcomponentsofTCM;5)Directtheprotection,exploration,andrationalusageattheindustrialscaleofChinesepharmacopoeia;6)Promoteeducationalactivityatalllevelsinordertoensurethere-newalofapoolofcompetenciesinTCM;7)DirectthescientificandtechnicalresearchlikelytoimprovethecreditgrantedtoTCM;8)EnsuretheprotectionoftheimmaterialheritagethatconstitutesTCMatthediagnosticandtherapeuticlevelaswellasattheliteralandcul-turallevel;26chinaperspectivesNo.
2011/320.
TingHor,"ModernizationofChineseMedicine:AnAnthropologist'sView,"inPing-ChungLeungetal.
,AcomprehensiveguidetoChinesemedicine,Singapore,WorldScientificPublishingCo,ch.
12,pp.
301-323.
21.
Ibid.
,p.
304.
22.
Ibid.
,p.
307.
23.
Ibid.
,p.
311.
24.
Ibid.
,p.
310.
25.
OnthisquestionseethedetailedstudyofWenXiang,Minguozhongyiyizheng(ThemedicalpolicyofChinesemedicineintheRepublicofChina),Beijing,ZhongguoZhongyiyaochubanshe,2007.
26.
KimTaylor,ChineseMedicineinEarlyCommunistChina,1945–1963:AMedicineofRevolution,op.
cit.
,p.
87.
27.
Ibid.
,p.
109.
28.
Wechoosetousetheacronym"SATCM-PRC"ratherthan"SATCMC,"whichiscurrentlyusedinofficialtranslations(cf.
note19above),inordertostressthepoliticalcharacteroftheterm:sinceChinaisnotonlyconstitutedbythePRC,thisnuancecouldbe,incertaincontexts,asill-suitedaszhongyias"TCM.
"SpecialfeatureWangGuoqiang,generalsecretaryoftheSATCM-PRCWangYiping,BUCM9)DevelopinternationalcollaborationsforbettertransmissionofTCMintheworld,especiallyinpartnershipwithHongKong,Macao,andTaiwan;10)Andfinally–lastbutnotleast!
–"ToperformothertasksgivenbytheStateCouncilandtheMinistryofHealth.
"(29)Asecretarygeneralandfivevice-commissionerspresideoverthisadmin-istration.
ThecareersofthesegreatpublicservantsofChinesemedicineshedlightonthepoliticalcharacterofthisinstitution,andthediversityoftheiroriginstestifytoitsnationaldimensionandthebalancebetweenre-gions.
(30)Itisalsoimportanttostressthatnoneoftheseofficialshastrain-inginbiomedicine,butallhavepost-graduatedegreesinChinesemedi-cine.
(31)ThesetwodetailsallowustostresshowmuchtheSATCM-PRCre-vealsaverymarkednationalcharacterandconstitutesanatypicalformoforganisationcomparedtoWesterninstitutions,wherepolicydecisionsonhealthissuesaretypicallyentrustedtoexpertstrainedinbiomedicine.
Alloftheseofficialsserveonecommonmission:promotingChinesemedicineinChinaandintheworldaccordingtothewishesandrespectingtheinstructionsofthePRCauthorities.
NumerousotherassociationsinChinaareworkinginthisdirection,butalwaysinrelationshipwiththiscentralauthority.
Amongthesewewillmentionthe"ConfederationfortheUniversalisationofChineseHerbalMedicine"(中藥全球化聯盟–Zhongyaoquanqiuhualianmeng),whichwasfoundedin2003andaimstobringto-getherthepoliticalauthoritiesoftheentireworld,universities,researchcentres,andthepharmaceuticalindustrytopromotethemodernisationofChinesemedicine,ensuretheprotectionofitsculturalcapital,improvethequalityofitsproducts,andbycreatingaplatformforexchange,toencour-agehospitalresearchandbringthetraditionofpharmacologyandChinesemedicineintothemainstreamofmedicalstudies.
Sinceitsfoundation,thisconfederationhasalreadyorganizednineacademicconferences,thelastofwhichwasheldinAugust2011inShanghai.
(32)TheproductivityofSATCM-PRCisnotlimitedtoChinaoreventoChi-nesemedicine.
Ithasalsocontributedtocreatingawarenessattheinter-nationalleveloftheneedtoestablishadequateinstitutionsfortheman-agementofalternativemedicinepoliciesthataredistinctfromthosedi-rectlyinvolvedintheareaofbiomedicine.
(33)Ontheotherhand,theseChi-neseorganisationslackasimilarstructureinmostothercountries.
Inthepursuitofinternationalrecognitionof"Chinese"medicineasbelongingtothe"world"heritageofhumanity,itwouldbewisetoreflectonthena-tionalorpossiblysupranationalSATCMs(forexampleaEurope-SATCM),whichwouldnotarisedirectlyfromSATCM-PRC,butthecreationofwhichcouldbemodelledonthisinstitution.
SouthKorea,forexample,movedinthisdirectionbycreatingaseriesofinstitutionsinthe1990sforpromot-ingitsownmedicaltradition.
(34)TheresponsethatthepublicauthoritiesofacountryoraplacecangivetothetherapeuticneedsofpractitionersusingChinesemedicineintheirmedicalpractices(aswellastothesickwhorequirethem)passesthroughestablishedpoliticalstructuresadaptedtothisspecificdisciplineandhealthcaresystem.
TheoriginalinstitutionalNo.
2011/3chinaperspectives2729.
TheEnglishversion:www.
satcm.
gov.
cn/English2010/structure/2010-10-06/150.
html(consultedon23November2011).
30.
Thesecretarygeneral,Mr.
WangGuoqiang王國強,wasbornin1955inShanghaiinafamilyoriginallyfromAnhui.
AfterworkinginInnerMongolia,heenteredtheCCPin1973,thenstudiedattheBeijingCollegeofTCM,wherehereceivedhisdegreein1978.
Beginningin1983,heworkedintheNationalCommissionresponsibleforfamilyplanning,whereheremainedactiveuntilJanuary2007,atwhichtimehebecamevice-ministerofhealthandthesecretaryresponsibleforSATCM-PRC.
31.
Thefivevice-commissionersare:1)WuGang(吳剛),bornin1953inShanxi,graduateoftheBeijingCollegeofTCMin1976;2)YuWenming(于文明),bornin1963inShandong,graduateoftheShandongInstituteofTCM;3)LiDaning(李大寧),bornin1953inJilinProvince,graduateinCMattheHei-longjiangInstituteofTCM;4)MaJianzhong(馬建中),borninZhengzhou,HenanProvince,in1957,graduateoftheHenanCollegeofTCMin1976;5)WangZhiyong(王志勇),bornin1966inShanxi,graduatein1989oftheBeijingCollegeofTCM.
32.
www.
zhong-yao.
net/new/zy/201109/249110.
html(consultedon23November2011).
33.
Thedefinitionof"traditionalmedicine"isverylargeandcoversaverydiverserangeoftherapies,prac-tices,andareasofknowledgeaccordingtocountryandlocality.
Theycanbelabelled"alternativemed-icines"or"complementarymedicines"(CAM–ComplementaryandAlternativeMedicine).
ThepublicpolicymeasurestakenbyChinaanditslong-termpoliticalwilltopromotetraditionalmedicineen-countertheconcernofstatesandcivilandeconomicactorsonaninternationalscaleaswellasrec-ommendationsofWHOaimingtointegratetraditionalmedicineintopublichealthsystems.
Thirtyyearsago,attheInternationalConferenceonPrimaryHealthCare–Alma-Ata(1978),theChinesesys-temappearedtobeamodelforotherstatestoimitate,inparticularthoseforwhommedicalresourceswereverylimited,withanobjectiveof"HealthforAllin2000.
"ThedeclarationofBeijingadoptedattheendoftheFirstWorldCongressoftheWHOontraditionalmedicine,whichwasheldfrom7to9November2008,subscribedtothiscontinuityandcalledforamoregeneralisedapplicationofbroadparametersofpublicpolicyandstrategiesofWHOfortraditionalmedicine(2002-2005),whichwereinitiatedasof1987:"Recognisingprogressachievedbynumerousgovernmentstodateinintegratingtraditionalmedicinesintotheirsystemsofnationalhealth,wecallonthosewhohavenotyetdonesototakemeasures"(paragraphborrowedfromvelyneMicollier,art.
cit.
,2009,p.
76).
34.
SeethearticlebyKangYeonSeokinthisissue.
Pierre-HenrydeBruynandvelyneMicollier–TheInstitutionalTransmissionofChineseMedicineTheSecondWorldEducationCongressofChineseMedicinewasheldon28-30October2011,attheBeijingInternationalConventionCentre.
LeadersfromtheMinistryofHealth,BeijinggovernmentandtheSATCM-PRCattendedtheConference.
Morethan100overseasdelegatesfrom31countriesorregionsand400delegatesfrom30provincesgatheredtogetherduringthisconference.
Pierre-HenrydeBruynChineseexperiencethatconstitutestheSATCM-PRCexperience,chargedwithkeepingaliveamedicalsystemthatiscomplementarytothedomi-nantsystemofbiomedicine,couldjustifiablyinspireotherstocarryoutsimilarinitiatives.
(35)DeterminingwhoinagivencountrycanspeakwithauthorityonChinesemedicine,coordinatetrainingineachdiscipline,ruleonthecompetenciesrequiredtoexerciseit,andorientresearchinthisarea,arevitalquestionsforthefutureofChinesemedicineintheworld.
Theyareneitherideologicalnorphilosophical;theyarepoliticalandeconomic.
Thefourthissue:FindingtheeconomicmeansfordevelopmentThefactthatChinesemedicinerepresentsapotentialsourceoffinancialbenefitresultsendowsitsorganisationwithaneconomicdimensionthatfurthercomplicatestheprocessofitstransmission.
Withouteventalkingaboutissuesoftraining(whichwewilladdressseparatelybelow),severalaspectsshouldbestressedinthisarea:themarketformedicinalproducts,professionalopportunities,reimbursementforhealthcare,andresearchfi-nancing.
WewillprincipallyaddressthesituationinChina.
ThemarketformedicinalproductsTheeconomicissueofthemarketforChinesemedicinerepresentsthemostobviousfinancialinterest.
ItinfluencesthecurrentdiscussionsonChinesemedicineinadecisivemannerbothinChinaandabroad.
Withsome6,000manufacturersofmedicineinChina,capableofproducingmorethan1,000chemicalmedicinesand8,000traditionalChinesemedi-cines,alargenumberofpeopleareinvolvedinmarketingtheseproducts:asearlyas1999,theJournalofChineseMedicinecountedsome1,000medicinefactories,ofwhich178wereaveragetolarge,withatotalpro-ductionvaluedatoverUS$23.
5billion(194.
6billionyuan).
(36)Thisturnoverhasincreasedconsiderablyinthelasttenyears.
In2007,esti-matedsalesintraditionalpharmaceuticalproductsinChinaincreasedtoUS$5.
5billionoutofatotalofUS$22.
6billionforallmedicinescom-bined.
(37)TheunderlyingeconomicdimensionofthecurrentdiscourseofChineseauthoritiespromotingthetransmissionofTCMisomnipresent.
AMarch2008reportbytheInstituteofChineseMedicine(ICM)oftheChi-neseUniversityofHongKongwrittenattherequestoftheHongKonggovernmentmentions,forexample,that:Chinesemedicinenaturallyenjoysprestigeinthefieldoftraditionalmedicine[.
.
.
]Oneevidenceoftherevivalisrisingexpenditureontra-ditionalandalternativemedicineinUnitedStatesandEurope.
TheeconomicpotentialofChineseMedicineisthereforeinternational.
[.
.
.
]Iftraditionalherbalproductscanbeclinicallyprovenefficacious,theeconomicpotentialwillincreaseconsiderably.
[.
.
.
]HongKongcancomfortablydevelopitshallmarkinChineseMedicineproductsandmakeuseofthisnewendeavourtofurthereconomicgrowth.
(38)ThissamereportneverthelessmentionsthatHongKong'sChinesemed-icineindustryalsoconfrontsnumerousdifficulties:first,thequalityoftheplantsisnotreliableenough;next,thelaboratoriesresponsibleforqualitycontrolaredeficient;andfinally,thenumberofcompetenttechniciansisinsufficient.
(39)FurtheronthereportalsomentionsthattheChinesemed-icineindustrylacksbothinvestmentandaninnovativespirit.
(40)Thisex-ampleofthequestionsaskedinHongKongwhileconsideringthetrans-missionofChinesemedicinedemonstratestheimportanceoftheeco-nomicaspectsinthisprocess.
TheproblemofprofessionalopportunitiesApartfrompurelyindustrialaspects,wemustaddthedimensionsrelatedtotheproblemofprofessionalopportunitiesforpeopletrainedinthismedicalsystem.
ThisproblemobviouslyexistseverywhereintheworldinadifferentmannerthaninmainlandChina.
IntheinquiryonthestateofChinesemedicineinthePRCledbyprofessorWangNingsheng(王寧生)oftheGuangzhouUniversityofChineseMedicine,itisstressedthat.
.
.
ThesituationofChinesemedicine(inthePRC),fromatherapeuticpointofview,isclearlydistinguishedbyanexceptionalsituationandcharacteristics.
Currentlyintheentirecountry,thereare3,072hospitalsofChinesemedicineatanurbanorhigherlevel,with332,000bedsand161differentspecialties.
In90percentofthehospitalsofWesternmedicinestherearedepartmentsofChinesemedicine.
524,000practitionershavediplomaqualificationsinChi-nesemedicine(中醫資格證書–zhongyizigezhengshu).
237,000areregisteredasmastersinChinesemedicine(註冊中醫師–zhucezhongyishi).
ThenumberofregisteredannualconsultationsinChi-nesemedicineis244million(2.
44億次–yici),comprising18.
49percentofthetotalnumberofmedicalconsultations.
(41)ThequestionofprofessionalopportunitiesforpersonstrainedinChinesemedicineconsequentlyseemslesssensitiveinChinathaninmostotherpartsoftheworld.
Nonetheless,here,too,aproblemremainsfortworea-sons:ontheonehand,ChinesemedicalcareislessexpensivethanthatofWesternmedicine,bringinginproportionallylessmoneytothosewhoprovideit;ontheotherhand,thesocialstatusofthosewhopracticethistypeofmedicinesuffersfromthe"non-scientific"reputationofthisdisci-pline,andtheirsocialrecognitiontendstoweaken.
ProfessorWangNing-shengthusnotesthatpopularsupportforChinesemedicinetendstowaneandweaken(中醫的民間基礎越來越鬆散薄弱–Zhongyideminjianjichuyuelaiyuesongsanboruo).
28chinaperspectivesNo.
2011/335.
Regardingthedefinitionofbiomedicine,seeAnneGuillouandvelyneMicollier,"AnthropologieetsantéenAsiedusud-est:dynamiquesetcourantsderecherche,"Moussons:Revuederechercheensci-enceshumainessurl'Asiedusud-est,no.
15,thematicissueSanté,2010,pp.
177-193;p.
187,note3.
36.
FiguresgivenbyP.
C.
Leung,"TheStateofChineseMedicineinChinaToday,"op.
cit.
,pp.
205-207.
37.
SeeCatherineLegrand,"Lesopportunitésd'unmarchécomplexe,"Connexions45,May-June2008,p.
51.
38.
Cf.
Ping-ChungLeung(principalinvestigator),DevelopingHongKongintoaChineseMedicineInterna-tionalPlatform–ACarefulStudy,HongKong,InstituteofChineseMedicine(CUHK),2008,p.
xx(citedbelowunderthecodeDHKCMIP-08).
Theinterestofthisdocumentisduetothefactthattheinfor-mationitcontainsisbasedonaseriesofinquiriescarriedoutnotonlyinHongKongbutalsoinChina.
ThevicepresidentoftheGuangzhouUniversityofChineseMedicine(廣州中醫藥大學),WangNing-sheng(王寧生),ledamassiveresearchprojectcoveringtheprovinceofGuangzhouaswellasNanjing,Shanghai,Beijing,andeventheprovinceofHeilongjiang(p.
17).
In2006,theCommitteeonChineseMedicineandPharmacyoftheDepartmentofHealthunderTaiwan'sExecutiveYuan(Taiwanxingzhengyuanweishengshuzhongyiweiyuanhui)wroteasimilardocumententitledVisionsofChi-neseMedicineinTaiwan.
39.
Ibid.
,p.
xxiv.
40.
Ibid.
,p.
xxxi.
41.
ThisreportdirectedbyWangNingshengispublishedinAnnex1oftheabove-mentioned2008report(DHKCMIP-08)underthetitle"Neidizhongyiyaofazhandiaoyanbaogao"(ResearchReportontheDe-velopmentofChineseMedicineinChina),p.
S6,3.
1.
SpecialfeatureHealthcarecoveragepoliciesThethirdeconomicfactorlikelytoinfluencethedevelopmentofChinesemedicineinamajorwayismedicalinsurancepolicies(onconsultations,prescriptions,services,products…).
InthePRC,thecostofconsultationsinChinesemedicineiscoveredinasimilarmannertothatofbiomedicine.
InSingapore,Chinesemedicineiscoveredbymedicalinsurance,eveninpri-vateclinics,whileinTaiwanthereimbursementratevariesamongdifferentinsuranceplans.
Thewell-knownargumentsinfavourofallowingpatientsthechoiceofChinesemedicineincludealesserprobabilityofsecondaryeffectsandalowercost,exceptforpatientswhoseekthehighest-qualityproductsandservices.
(42)Thismeanslowercostforhealthinsurers.
Comparingcostsconcretely,itsufficestoobservetheprescriptioncountersofatypicalhos-pitalinamajorChinesecitythatprovidebothtypesofmedicines;infact,allpatientswithaprescriptiongotothesecounters.
Traditionalandbio-medicalproductsareoften,butnotalways,suppliedseparatelyintwohos-pitalpharmacieslocatedsidebyside.
Thepersonnelgenerallyconsistofpharmacistsorspecialisedassistants.
Foracommonbenignpathology,lessthan10yuanisneededtoprocureordinarytraditionalpharmacopeiaproducts,whileapackageofParacetamol,forexample,costsaround20yuan,andapackageofantibioticscostsdoublethat.
(43)LetusclarifythatthehospitalsectoristhemainsupplierofmedicineinChina,coveringaround80percentofthetotalmarket.
Inthetwenty-firstcentury,phar-maciesfunctioningoutsidethehospitalsystemhavedevelopedalucrativemarketof"OTC"(overthecounter)products(44)toincreasetheirshareofthedomesticmarket;theythussellacertainnumberoftraditionalmedi-cinescarryingtheOTClabel.
Thatbeingsaid,itisnonethelessnecessary,asfarasChinaiscon-cerned,(45)tolimittheimpactthathealthcarecoveragehasontheuseofChinesemedicine,giventhatonlyasmallminority(20percent)oftheChinesepopulationwascoveredbyhealthinsuranceintheearly2000s,(46)andthatsourcesestimatedthat15to20percentofthepopu-lationreceives60to80percentofallpublicmedicalresources.
Thepriv-ilegedsocialcategoriesaremainlyemployeesofgovernmentorstateen-terprises.
Fiftypercentoftheurbanpopulationand80percentoftheruralpopulationhavenomedicalcoverage;50percentoftheinhabitantsofruralzonesdonothaveaccesstohealthcareduetoitscost(WHO,coun-tryfile,2000).
Deterioratinginfrastructure,lackofpersonnel,andevi-denceofanincreasedprevalenceofsomepathologieshavebeenac-knowledgedinmostruralzones.
(47)Overthepasttwodecades,thebasicChinesehealthcarethatWHOheldupasamodelfordevelopingcoun-trieshascompletelydisappearedinfavourofacommercialisedanddefactoprivatisedsystembasedonforcingpublichealthstructurestofundthemselves.
Thehealthcarereformofficiallylaunchedin2009(48)hasasitsmainobjectivereductionofinequalitiesinhealthcareandthuspoverty.
(49)Madepublicin2008and2009,theguidelinesenvisionthegeneralisationofahealthinsurancesystemwithbasiccoveragefor90percentofthepopulationin2011,improvedaccesstohealthcarecentredonhospitalreform,andfinally,consistentfinancingandmedicalsuppliestohospitalsinordertocurbtheabusesofexcessivecommercialisation.
Thisreformwillthushaveconsiderableinfluenceapriorionthedevelop-mentofChinesemedicine,becauseitwillfacilitate,inprinciple,accesstomedicalcareforamajorityofthepopulationandthereforeaccesstotreatmentwithChinesemedicine.
FundingresearchThelastdecisiveeconomicfactoristhatoffinancingresearchinChinesemedicine.
Therearetwodangershere,oneextrinsicandtheotherintrinsictothediscipline.
Ontheonehand,inpromotingresearch,forexampleaim-ingattheidentificationof"activeelements"inChinesepharmacopeia,thepressureofthelargepharmaceuticalgroups(foreignorChinese)maypro-gressivelycauseworkinthisareatodeveloptoounilaterallyinadirectionthatisforeignandevendestructivetodimensionsthatarefundamentaltothespecificculturalheritagethatconstitutesChinesemedicine.
(50)Ontheotherhand,Chinesemedicine,whichbuildsonthehistoricaccumulationofnumeroustherapeuticexperiences,stillstrugglestodevelopthespecificprocessesofexperimentationandtestingthatareuniversallyacknowl-edgedbythescientificcommunity.
InChina,researchinChinesemedicineisprincipallyfinancedwithintheframeworkoftheR&DprogramsofChinesepharmaceuticalgroups.
Cer-taingroupsexclusivelyproduceandmarketChinesemedicalproducts;otherbusinessesarenotspecialisedandalsofinanceresearchintobio-medicineandintegratedmedicine.
TheprotocolsofbiomedicalresearchcanalsointegrateelementsthatcomefromChinesemedicine,whilecon-verselythoseofChinesemedicinecandosowithelementsofbiomedicine.
StateorganssuchastheMinistryofHeath,theMinistryofScienceandTechnology,andtheMinistryofCultureandHeritagealsocontributetodevelopingresearchinChinesemedicine.
Thegovernmentsubstantiallyin-creaseditsfinancialsupportinthetwenty-firstcentury.
Intheframeworkofresearchinindustrial,university,orhospitalenvironments,asinglesci-entificmethodologytendstobeapplied.
Attheheartofcomplexeconomicissues,researchanddevelopmentinChinesemedicinehasenteredtheframeworkoftheworldhealthmarketbyvirtueofitspotentialforputtingproductsofpharmacotherapy(中醫No.
2011/3chinaperspectives2942.
Inthiscase,thecostoftreatmentcangreatlyexceedthatofgenericbiomedicalproductsmanufac-turedbyChinesebusinesses.
43.
ObservationsmadebyvelyneMicollierinBeijingandGuangzhouin2007-2008.
44.
Theinternationaltermappliedtoproductsthatcanbesoldwithoutprescriptionandaredesignedtotreatbenignpathologies.
Localand/ornationalregulationsapplytotheattributionofthislabel.
45.
TheparagraphthatfollowsisadaptedfromthearticlebyvelyneMicollier,"Whyisareformofthehealthsystemurgent"inFabriceDuléry(ed.
),Aujourd'huilaChine,CRDPacademyofMontpellierandCNDP(CentreNationaldeDocumentationPédagogique),Montpellier,2011,pp.
88-90.
46.
ThehealthcaresystempriortotheReformEra(1979-)wasnecessarilyveryrudimentarybuthadthemeritofbeingmoreegalitarian,withnearly90percentofthepopulationbenefitingfromcarethatwasessentiallyfreethroughthesupportofnational,provincial,orlocalhealthcaresystems.
AccordingtoanofficialreportoftheWorldBank(WorldBank,1997,China2020:FinancingHealthCare,WashingtonD.
C.
,WorldBank,p.
1),in1975,themainportionofhealthcarecostswasassumedbytheruralcoop-erativesystem,thegovernment,andSOEsandbenefitednearly90percentofthepopulation(almostalltheurbanitesand85percentoftheruralpopulation).
47.
SeeMarilynBeach,"China'sruralhealthcaregraduallyworsens,"TheLancet,2001,vol.
358,p.
567.
48.
ChenZhu,"TheLaunchofthehealth-carereformplaninChina,"TheLancet,2009,vol.
373,pp.
1322-1324.
49.
Ithasalreadybeentheobjectofnumerouspublicationsbecausethereweregreatexpectationsamongnationalandinternationalactorsindevelopment(seeOCDE2006report).
Amongthesepub-lications,seetheremarkablecollectionofarticlesonhealthingeneralandthereforminparticularpublishedon-lineintheprestigiousjournalTheLancet,2008and2009,www.
thelancet.
com;WHObulletinsincludingHuShanlian"UniversalCoverageandhealthfinancingfromChina'sperspective,"BulletinoftheWorldHealthOrganization,2008,vol.
86,no.
11,p.
819;J.
Parry,CuiWeiyuan,"MakinghealthcareaffordableinChina,"BulletinoftheWorldHealthOrganization,2008,vol.
86,no.
11,pp.
821-823;onthemultiplechallengesposedbythereformandtheinternaldebatethatitbringsabout,cf.
LuXiaoqing,CharlesW.
Freeman,China'sCapacitytoManageInfectiousDiseases:GlobalImplications,CenterforStrategicandInternationalStudies,March2009,chap.
5and6.
50.
Forexample:thefactthatthecategoriesusedindiagnosisarethesameasthoseusedtoclassifyplants;thoseofplantsarealmostalwayspartofaformula(whichisitselftheresultoflongexperi-ence),andthetherapeuticattributeoftheplantissometimesrelatedtotherhythmoftheseasons.
Pierre-HenrydeBruynandvelyneMicollier–TheInstitutionalTransmissionofChineseMedicine藥–zhongyiyao)andtraditionalpharmacology(中醫藥學–zhongyiyaoxue)onthemarket.
TheseproductsconstituteawelcomemarketnichefortheChinesepharmaceuticalindustry,comprisedlargelyofgovernment-runfirms.
FollowingtheconstraintsplacedonChinawithitsentryintotheWHO(2001),thesecompanieshadtoquicklychangestrategiesbecausetheycouldnolongersystematicallymanufacturegenericversionsofpatentedbiomedicalproductsfromdevelopedcoun-tries,whichatthattimeconstitutedalmosttheirtotalproduction.
Ne-gotiationsforthedevelopmentofinternationalresearchinChinesemedicineconfirmedthestrategyofChineseindustryandauthoritiesobtainingMA(MarketingAuthority)indevelopedcountriesbyregister-ingpharmacopoeiacompounds.
Theobjectivewastobeabletoenterthemarketbyregisteringinthecategoryofmedicineratherthaninthecategoryoffoodsupplements.
However,thelegalframeworkandstan-dardsofscientificevidencearemuchmorestringentformedicines;thesestandardsprescribeimplementationoftheEBMmodel(Evidence-BasedMedicine)andthecarryingoutofconclusiveclinicaltrials.
A"flexible"MAisenvisagedintheregulatoryframeworkoftheEuropeanMedicinesAgencyfornon-conventionalmedicines,whichcovers:(1)medicineswithwellestablishedmedicaluses,i.
e.
,forwhichbiblio-graphicorexperimentalevidenceofsafetyandefficacyhavebeenpro-vided;and(2)"traditional"medicinesforwhicha"long"traditionofuse(aminimumof30years,15ofwhichareintheEuropeancommunity)isacknowledged(Directive200424/EC).
NumerousscientificresearchprojectsaimedattestingChinesemedicalproductshavebeenlaunchedinthetwenty-firstcentury:forexample,theHerbalomeproject,ambi-tiousandlong-term(15years),waspresentedinthereviewScience.
Theyarebasedonmethodssuchashigh-levelscreening,toxicitytestsandclinicaltrials:theobjectiveistoidentifyactiveandtoxicsubstancesinTCMcompounds.
(51)AnotherexampleinvolvesacallforprojectsbytheFrenchANR(FrenchNationalResearchAgency),launchedin2008intheframeworkoftheprogramofbiotechnologiesforhealth,whichex-plicitlymentionedChinesemedicine.
Thecallissignificantintermsofanincreasingnumberofscientificpoliciesencouragingthedevelop-mentofscientificresearchwithintheframeworkofaFrench-Chinesepartnershipofpublicresearch.
(52)Itmustbeemphasised,however,thatdespiteabilateralpoliticaleffort,noprojectwasfinancedintheframe-workofthiscallattheendoftheday.
(53)Thefifthissue:InnovationinspecificeducationThefifthtypeofmajorissuesthattransmissionoftheheritageofChinesemedicinefacesconcernsthespecificteachingmethodofthisdiscipline.
Jumpingsuddenlyduringthe1950sfromanindividualisedmodeoftransmission,mostoftenintra-familial,toamoreinstitu-tionalanduniversitystructure,theteachingofChinesemedicinehasnotyetrecovered,eveninChina,fromthisfundamentalchange.
Threeobservationsattesttothis:thequasi-cultofthe"laozhongyi"(老中醫–venerabledoctors)(54)organisedatalocalandevennationallevel;thesurvivaloftheofficialvalidationofcompetenciesacquiredbystudywithamasterinChinesemedicineoutsideofanyparallelinsti-tutionalcourseofstudies;andtherequestbycertainteachersofChi-nesemedicineinChinaforthereturntoamoreclassicalteachingmethod.
(55)InChina,traditionalmedicinehaslongbeenconsideredtoinvolveagreatdealofknowledgetwiceover,ontheonehandbecausepracticalmasterycouldonlybeacquiredthroughlongpersonalexperience(takingpulses,di-agnosis,discernedmodificationsofpharmacopeiaformulasaccordingtotheneedsofeachparticularpatient,etc.
),andontheotherhand,becauseitstheoreticalknowledgerequiredavastliterarycultureoftextswritteninclas-sicalChinese.
(56)ThechallengeoffindingteachersexcellinginbothareashasariseninChinatodaywithforce.
Recurringdemandsforareturntomoreclassicalteachingarecurrentlyheardintheworldofclassicalmedicine.
Sev-eralproposalsbyProfessorLiuLihong(劉力紅)illustratethispoint.
(57)Inhistraining,LiuLihongembodiesamixtureoftwopedagogictradi-tions.
TrainedduringninesuccessiveyearsatvariousmodernChineseuni-versities(1978-1983:studentattheGuangxifacultyofMC;1983-1989:researcherinthedepartmentofheatdamagedisorder[溫病研究室–wen-bingyanjiushi],thelastthreeyearsofwhichhespentinChengdu;1989-1992:doctorateattheNanjingfacultyofMCunderthedirectionofpro-fessorChenYiren[陳亦人1924-2004]),hethenreturnedtoGuangxitoteachfundamentaltheories,andwassubsequentlyinvitedtoTsinghuaUniversityfrom2002to2003.
Duringthistraininghealsohadtheoppor-tunitytofollowmoretraditionaltraining–asisdoneinChinabymanydiscipleswhoaccompanymasterstobecomeinitiatedintomedicalprac-ticesthroughdailycontact.
(58)30chinaperspectivesNo.
2011/351.
Sciencereview,"TCMunderthemicroscope:Researchershopetheprojectwillleadtobetterqualitycontrol,"12February2008.
52.
www.
agence-nationale-recherche.
fr/AAPProjetsOuvertsNodId=17&lngAAPId=227(consultedon23November2011),PDFprogram,p.
83,byvelyneMicollier.
53.
ThislongparagraphborrowsfromvelyneMicollier(art.
cit.
,2009,p.
82;art.
cit.
,2011,pp.
87-88).
54.
Thecharacter"lao"hasaprimarymeaningof"old,"buthereitshouldbetranslatedas"venerable"in-stead.
55.
Forthecultoflaozhongyi,alsoseeinthisissuethedescriptionbyricMariéandFrédéricObringerofrecentattemptstorevalorisemaster-teacherinstruction(師徒傳承–Shituchuancheng).
56.
Thedifficultyoffindingandtrainingatleastsomespecialistsabletoassimilateknowledgeinthistra-ditionthatisnotonlypractical(facultiesofmedicine)orliterary(facultiesofsinology),butwhichunitesthesetwoaspects,isofcoursemuchgreaterintheWestthaninChina.
Francehasalongtra-ditionofinnovationinthisarea.
Asearlyas1813,Dr.
AbelRémusat(1788-1832)presentedadisser-tationonChinesemedicine(Dissertatiodeglossosemeioticesivedesignismorborumquaeelinguasumuntur,praesertimapudsinenses).
Thenextyear,hewasappointedtothechairofChineseandTar-tar-ManchulanguageandliteratureattheCollègedeFrance.
Later,inthe1970s,TaoiststudieswereinauguratedinParisaroundtheworksofKristoferSchipper.
Today,200yearsafterthethesisofAbelRémusat,whynotenvisagethecreationofaFrenchorEuropeanchairofChinesemedicineaimedatpromotinginFranceandinEuropetheprotection,andthusthetransmission,ofwhathasnowbecomeaculturalheritageofhumanity57.
Bornin1958,LiuLihongin1992becamethefirstholderofadoctorateinTCMfromtheprovinceofGuangxi.
HehasbeenteachingattheUniversityofTCMofthisautonomousregionsince1997,spe-cialisingintheuseofclassicalformulasforthetreatmentofchronicillnesses.
Knownasagreatspe-cialistofShangHanLun(TreatiseonFebrileDiseases),aclassicofChinesemedicinewritteninthesec-ondcenturybyZhangZhongjing(張仲景150-219),LiuLihongbecamefamousthroughthepublica-tionoftwoworks:Kaiqizhongyizhimen(OpeningtheDoorsofChineseMedicine,1998)andaboveallSikaozhongyi(ReflectingonChineseMedicine,2004)whichispresentedasaknowledgecommen-taryonShangHanLun.
Readingthelatterbook,oneofthemostfamouscontemporaryChinesedoc-tors,ProfessorDengTietao(鄧鐵濤bornin1916),said:"Inolongerwalkmypathalone;thereissome-onebehindmewhowantstocontinuethetraditionofMCT…(吾道不孤,後繼有人矣–wudaobugu,houjiyourenyi).
TheconversationbetweenLiuLihongandWangQingyuonthenatureofthenec-essarytransmissioninChinesemedicine(www.
classicalchinesemedicine.
org/2011/01/3050),andLiuLihong'sdeepconvictionontheprimordialroleofemotions(感動–gandong)inthisprocess(www.
classicalchinesemedicine.
org/2011/02/liu-lihong-reflections-on-gandong-real-transmission-of-knowledge-requires-that-our-hearts-are-moved),demonstratehowcentralthequestionofthemodeoftransferringknowledgeistohisreflectionsonthefutureofTCM.
58.
ThusLiuLihongspentaperiodofsevenyearswithLiYangbo(李陽波,1947-1991),andrecognisesthatheowestheessentialpartofhisfirstworktohim.
FortwoofthoseyearshelivedwithLiYangboaswellasothermasterssuchasWangQinyu(王慶餘1932-2002)andZengBasheng(鄫雝生,www.
hun-yuan.
org/main_html.
phppage=qanda&subpage=24),whotaughthimTaoism,andcertaindoctorssuchas,in2004,Dr.
LiKe(李可),anelderlydoctorworkinginShanxisometimescalledLiLao(–oldLi),andin2006,LuChonghan()inChengdu,agrandmasterofthethirdgenerationoftheschoolofmedicaltraditioncalledhuoshenpai(火神派–currentofspiritualfire)foundedbyZhengQin'an(鄭欽安1804-1901)attheendofthenineteenthcentury.
SpecialfeatureIncertainpassagesofhisbookReflectingonChineseMedicine,LiuLi-hongpaintsarelativelysombresituationforChinesemedicineinChina:(59)WhetherinacademiesofChinesemedicineorindepartmentsofChinesemedicineofWesternacademiesofOrientalmedicine,Chi-nesemedicinehasbecomealmostamereornament.
ThosewhostudyChinesemedicinedon'thaveconfidenceinit:assoonastheyencounterabitofdifficulty,theyeitherhastilyadministerWesternmedicationoraddtothestandardWesternremediesabitofChi-nesemedicinetodoabitgood[…]SeeingChinesemedicinefallsolowcanonlyleadtogloom.
(60)Hepointsout:Theselasttenyears,aquestionoftenraisedintheworldofChinesemed-icineiswhythetheoryofChinesemedicinehasstoppedatclinicalprob-lems.
Inallscientificdisciplines,itistheorythatwalksintheforefrontwhilepracticeslowlyfollowsbehind.
(61)ButcontrarytothisideaofaChinesemedicinedevoidofaspecificthe-oreticalfoundation,LiuLihongsetsouthispersonalpositionasfollows:ThewayIseeitisquitetheopposite:theory[ofChinesemedicine]hasnotexperiencedregression(沒有落後–meiyouluohou),buthasevenmadeenormousprogress(大大的超前–dadadechao-qian)inmanyareas.
Forhim,animportantproblemisthedidacticone:CurrentlyinChinesemedicinethereisastrangeandevenfrighten-ingphenomenonthatconsistsofaprogressiveweakeningoftheteachingoftheclassicsofChinesemedicine.
MostcontemporaryacademiesofChinesemedicinehavealreadytransformed[thestudy]oftheclassicsintoanoptional(elective)course–thoseofChengduorNanjing,honourableinstitutionsthatinthepastgavesuchweighttothismaterial,havenotbeentheexception.
ButdoesthistypeoftransformationtrulyconstituteprogressIhaveseriousdoubts.
(62)AccordingtoLiuLihong,thestudyoftheclassicsisanindispensableel-ementinlearningChinesemedicine:Theclassicsareforlife,[forthepractitionerofChinesemedicine]acompulsorycourse:ifyoureallywanttostudyChinesemedicine,thenworkingontheclassicsindepthisthetypeofprojectthatyoumustdoofnecessity.
(63)Thisstudyisdoublydifficult.
Fromaliterarypointofview,thestudyoftheclassicsofChinesemedicinerequiresahighphilologicalintelligenceal-lowingthestudenttoprogressivelygraspthemultiplemeaningsofatextandthenpenetratethemeaningofwords(字義–ziyi)andsentences(句義–juyi),aswellastheoverallmeaning(總義–zongyi)ofthetext.
Next,thisprocessrequirestheinnercultivationofareceptivespirittowardthesubtext.
ThusLiuLihongstates:Anotherproblemtowhichwemustpayattentioninordertostudytheclassics[ofChinesemedicine]wellistofulfilafundamentalcondition,ortoputitanotherway,toacquireanessentialquality:knowinghowtoundertakethisstudyinastateofafaithfullyre-spectfulreceptivity(信受舉行–xinshoujuxing).
Inourmoderntimes,manystudytheclassics[ofChinesemedicine]byapproach-ingthemwithacriticaleye,consideringtheclassicsunscientificandthereforebeneaththeintelligenceofthestudents;butthen,whatclassicswouldtheystudyIfyoulaunchyourselfintostudyoftheclassicswithantipathyandconsideringthemoutmoded,howwillyoubeabletoenterintoitThisiswhytheattitudebroughttostudyingtheclassicsissoimportant;youmustbelievethemcom-pletely,acceptthem,andthenreflectonhowtoactinconformancewiththeirspirit.
(64)TheLiuLihong'scommentscitedobviouslycannotsummarisethethoughtsdeeplycultivatedbyadetailedandlivingstudyofShangHanLun,buttheydodemonstratethevigorwithwhichareturntoateachingofTCMbasedontheclassicscanbedefendedtodayinChina.
Theimpor-tancegiventoastudyoftheclassicsinthelearningofChinesemedicineisexplainedbythefactthatthemedicalpracticeinheritsalonghumanex-perienceofindividualswhohavefoughtforcenturiestomaintainhealth,defeatillness,andholdoffdeath.
Bybasingitselfmainlyonthescientificandexperimentalobjectivityof"contemporary"science,accordingtothescientificparadigmitprescribes,biomedicinetendstoconsiderthesether-apeuticexperiencesofthepastasrelativelyoutmodedvis-à-visthestrengthofexperimentalevidence.
(65)Thisiswhatconstitutesitsspecificstrength,butwhatcansometimesbefeltasoppressivebypractitionersofChinesemedicine:ObviouslythemethodsforarrivingatadiagnosisinChinesemedi-cineandinWesternmedicineareprofoundlydifferent.
TheWesterndoctorhasalargenumberofmodernisedmethodstohelphim,andthesemethodsthemselvesarealwaysprogressing.
WhatisthestateofthisregardingChinesemedicineIthasnothingsimilar:inallthingsitcanonlybaseitselfonitself.
ThatiswhystudyingChinesemedicineismoredifficultthanstudyingWesternmedicine.
IfyoustudyWesternmedicine,allthetechniquesoftheentireworldcometoyouraid:modernphysicshelpsyou;modernchemistrysupportsyou;modernbiologyhelpsyousomemore.
ButifyoustudyChinesemedicine,nobodyhelpsyou;onthecontrary,youseemdeterminedtocomplicateyourlife.
ThatiswhyifsomebodywantstosucceedinstudyingChinesemedicine,especiallyinthecontextofthecurrentmodernisation,itisreallynoeasymatter.
Everyonemustthinklongandhardaboutthisproblemandallowanunshakableconfidencetotakeroot[inthevalueofChinesemedi-cine].
(66)No.
2011/3chinaperspectives3159.
LiuLihong,Sikaozhongyi–duiziranyushengmingdeshijianjiedu(ReflectionsonChineseMedicine–explanatorylectureonthenaturalandbiologicaltemporality),Taipei,Jimuwenhuachuban,2004(2009),p.
1.
60.
Ibid.
,p.
14.
61.
Ibid.
,p.
15.
62.
Ibid.
,p.
18.
63.
Ibid.
,p.
70.
64.
LiuLihong,op.
cit.
,p.
70.
65.
Itshouldbenoted,however,thattheclinicalexperiencegivenbycasestudiesisrecognisedasimpor-tantinallmedicaldisciplines.
66.
LiuLihong,op.
cit.
,p.
127.
Pierre-HenrydeBruynandvelyneMicollier–TheInstitutionalTransmissionofChineseMedicineConclusionTheanalysisoftheprincipalissuesthatpolarisediscussionsonChinesemedicineandthatinfluenceitsprocessofinstitutionaltransmissiondoesnotallowustoimaginethefutureandevensurvivalofthismedicaltradi-tionwithoutacertaintrepidation.
ProfessorXiePeishan(謝培山–1934-)illustratedthispointbysaying:"Inreality,thefutureofChinesemedicinetodayhangsbyathread"(中醫藥的前途實際上是處在命懸一線的關口–zhongyiyaodeqiantushijishangshichuzaimingxuanyixiandeguankou).
(67)Thereflectionsaboveindicateseveralfocalpointsthatcouldallowcon-siderationofthefuturewithagreatersenseofease:1.
Beawareofthecurrentideologicalpolarisationofthedebates,inChinaaswellasintheWest,betweenpartisansandopponentsofChi-nesemedicine;2.
Reconfirmascentralthetherapeuticperspectiveofthemedicalactvis-à-visthetheoreticalmodelofapproachtothebodyonwhichitsefficiencyisbased;3.
Buildadequatepoliticalstructuresonanationalaswellassuprana-tionalleveltoensureglobalmanagementoftheapplicationofthismedicaltradition;4.
Takegreateraccountofthemultipleeconomicfactorslikelytoinflu-encethedevelopmentandreceptionofthistradition;5.
Encouragepedagogicinitiatives(respectfulatthesameofthehistoryofdidacticsspecifictothedisciplineandthedemandsofscientifictrainingataninternationallevel)thatpromotesuperiorinstructioninthismedicaltradition.
(68)Ontheotherhand,weshouldnotunderestimatethefactthatadvan-tagesfavouringtheinstitutionaltransmissionofcertainChinesemedicineonagloballevelcanbeidentified:thesizeandinfluenceofChinesedias-porasthroughouttheworld,thekeypositionsheldbyChineseprofession-alsatWHO,Chinesemedicine'srelativelylowercostcomparedtobiomed-icinefortransmissiontodevelopingcountries,andfinally,theincreasedin-ternationalmobilityoftraditionaldoctorsandamiddleclassthatisequallymobileandconsidersChinesemedicineaheritagetobepreserved,valued,andpromoted.
ThismobilityhascertainlybeenfacilitatedbyChina'seconomicdevelopment.
Asacomplementtothehighlightedissuesinthisarticle,allthesefactorshelpexplainwhyChinesemedicineisal-readyaworldmedicine.
Consequently,theprospectsforfutureresearchaimedatidentifyingtheformsthataredevelopinginthecontextandtransformationofthisverylivingknowledgearenumerousandpromising.
zTranslatedbyMaxiSchwarz-Bastami32chinaperspectivesNo.
2011/367.
DHKCMIP-08,p.
1868.
AnofficialreportgiventotheHongKongauthoritiesin2001statedtheurgencyofteachingthistra-ditioninawaythatwillallowittobecomeinternational,whichimpliesdefinedcourseswithexamsofwhichthevalidationisdulyrecognised(DHKCMIP-08,p.
22).
OneexampleinthisdirectionisthethreeuniversitydegreesinChinesemedicinethathavebeencreatedtheselastfewyearsatthefacultyofmedicineofMontpellierUniversity,intheframeworkofapoliticalpartnershipwiththecityofChengdubeforethemanagementwasentrustedtoricMarié,whichisexperiencingamajorsuccess,http://offre-formation.
univ-montp1.
fr/fr/_modules/education/education.
htmleducationid=FR_RNE_0341087X_PR_1247058274080(consultedon23November2011).
Specialfeature