Hardware腾讯rom
腾讯rom 时间:2021-01-29 阅读:()
IntegrityMeasurementbasedonTrustedComputingYimingLi1,a,HaiheBa2,bandJiangchunRen3,c1CollegeofComputer,NationalUniversityofDefenseTechnology,Changsha,Hunan410073,China2CollegeofComputer,NationalUniversityofDefenseTechnology,Changsha,Hunan410073,China3CollegeofComputer,NationalUniversityofDefenseTechnology,Changsha,Hunan410073,Chinaaemail:jason.
24@qq.
com,bemail:bahaihe@hotmail.
com,cemail:wwwrjc@163.
comKeywords:TrustedComputing;IntegrityMeasurement;RemoteAttestationAbstract.
Withtherapiddevelopmentofmoderninformationtechnology,moreandmorepeoplebelievethattheprotectionofhardwareequipmentmustbeenhancedinordertoimprovethesecuritycapabilitiesofcomputerinformationsystemsbetter.
Trustedcomputingimprovethetrustworthinessofsystemthroughthesecurechipfromhardwarelevel,usingthetrustedroot,chainoftrust,trustedmodeltoensuretheintegrityofthesystem,andexpandsthetrustedchaintoapplicationlayer,ensuresthecredibilityofsoftwarethroughmeasurementandverificationtechnology.
Inthispaper,wewillintroducerelatedhotresearchaboutintegritymeasurement.
IntroductionTheideaoftrustedcomputingderivedfromsuccessfulmanagementexperienceinhumansociety,thatis,eachcountryhasastablerootoftrust,andbuildtrustchainsecuritymechanismbasedonit,whichisresponsibleforthemanagementandimplementationofthenationallevelsofassessment.
However,atpresent,hasnotyetformedaunifieddefinitionontrust.
TrustedComputingGroup(TCG)definedatrustedentity'sbehaviorisalwaysintheexpectedway,toachievethedesiredgoal,thencallthisentityistrusted[1,2].
Asystemistrustediftheoperationorprocedureofcomponentsinvolvedinthecomputingispredicableinanyconditions,andcanprotectagainstvirusesandphysicaldisturbance,definedbyInternationalOrganizationforStandardization/InternationalElectroTechnicalCommission(ISO/IEC).
Measurethetrustworthinessofcomputingsystems,andstoremeasurementsecurely;provideattestationreportwhenremoteobjectaskedforsystem'strustworthiness,thismechanismreferredto"Measure-Storage-Report"mechanism.
Thismechanismdoesnotonlyensurethetrustworthinessofthetrustedcomputingsystem,butalsohavetheabilitytoprovidetrustedproofoutward.
Rootoftrustisthebasispointoftrustedcomputersystem,thereare3trustedrootsoftrustedcomputingplatform,whichisRootofTrustforMeasurement(RTM),RootofTrustforStorage(RTS)andRootofTrustforReport(RTR).
Theyarethetrustedbasepointsofcomputersystem,measurementofplatformandstorageofplatformseparately.
AsshowninFig1,chainoftrustreflects"Measure-Storage-Report"mechanismwell,thatis,measurethetrustworthinessofcomputingplatform,storemeasurementvalueandprovideattestationreport.
Chainoftrustisthetechnicalimplementationoftrustmeasurementmodel,toextendtrustrelationshipfromrootoftrusttoentirecomputingplatform.
Usinganiterativecalculationofhashvalue,whichisconnectingpresentvaluewithnewvalue,andthencalculatehashvalueasanewmeasurement.
Aftermeasurementandstorage,providingattestationreportwhentheremoteentityasked.
ThismechanismiscalledRemoteAttestation.
BIOSBootSectorOSBIOSBootBlockApplicationNetworkHardwareROMMainMemoryTrustModelMeasureStoreReportLogRootofTrustRTSRTRFig.
1.
ChainoftrustmodelIntegrityMeasurementbasedonStaticRootofTrustMeasurementApplicationintegritymeasurementandverificationneedtoprovewhetherthetrustworthinessoflocalcomputingsystemisinlinewiththepredictionofbothlocalandremoteauthenticator.
a.
Binary-basedEarlyintegritymeasurementandverificationismainlyaboutintegritymeasurementofbinarycodeimage,softwareconfiguration.
ThatusingTPMsignatureandlogofintegritymeasurementtoprovetheintegritystatusofsoftware.
Thismethodrequiresplatformmorestringent,isnotflexibleenough,therearetwodisadvantages:(1)Privacy.
IntegritymeasurementbasedonbinaryneedsTPMsignature,andcontainschainoftrust,exposingtheconfigurationinformationofplatform,provideabreakthroughtohostiletosomeextent,sothatlocalcomputingsystemismorevulnerabletovariousattacks.
(2)Difficulttoupdate.
Chainoftrustinvolvingmultiplesystemcomponents,theinformationandversiondifferentfromeachother.
Systemupdatelikelytocausetheintegrityinformationisdifficulttoverify.
IBMhasdesignedandimplementedIMA(IntegrityMeasureArchitecture)3basedonTCGspecifications,measureanintegrityintheorderfromrootoftrust,BIOS,bootsector,OStoapplications,progressivemeasureandtrustlevelbylevel.
Thismethodisabletodetectcurrentoperatingstatusofsystem,whichcouldfindpossibletampering.
IMAmeasurementmodulehasbeenusedasapartofLinuxsecuritymechanisms,andarewidelyusedinavarietyofpracticalapplications.
b.
Property-basedToovercometheshortcomingsofbinaryauthentication,Haldarproposedsemanticremoteauthenticationscheme[4],usingatrustedvirtualmachinetoverifycertainsemanticpropertiesofprogram,achievingacomplexanddynamicintegritymeasurementofadvancedapplicationprograminaplatform-independentway;ChenfromHPLabsproposedtheproperty-basedremoteattestation,convertedbinaryattestationtoproperty-basedattestationbyusingthemainfunctionsofTCG,solvedissueslikesensitiveinformationleakageandupdatedifficultycausedbybinarymeasurement,andselectedatrustedthirdpartyastheissuerofproperty-configurationcertificate.
TheauthenticationmethodbasedonpropertyproposedbySadeghietal.
[5]isabletoestablishmappingbetweenpropertiesandplatformconfigurationsbyreportingplatform'sproperties,andestablishingpropertiesbytrustedcertificateauthority.
Binary-basedmeasurementmechanismprovidesbasicprotectionfortheintegrityofsystemsandapplications,butthereisahugeapplicationlimitations,especiallyinthesystemwithmultipleversionsofmodules;property-basedintegritymeasurementcanovercomethelimitationofbinary-basedintegritymeasurement,playaneffectiveroleinthebinaryimagewithsamepropertybutdifferenthashes,thespecificdifferencesisshowninTable1.
Table1.
ComparisonbetweendifferenttypesofintegritymeasurementBinary-basedProperty-basedObjectsExecutablebinarycodePropertyofplatformTypicalSystemsIMA[3],PRIMA[6]PBA[7],CPBA[8]PrivacyMayleakprivacyProtectprivacyEffectsLowefficiencyPracticalandscalableIntegrityMeasurementbasedonDynamicRootofTrustMeasurementThemeasurementaboveisIMAintegritymeasurementarchitecturebasedonStaticRootofTrustMeasurement,measureintegrityonlywhensystemstartup,cannotguaranteetheintegrityoftheprocess.
Tomakeupfortheseshortcomings,TCG1.
2specification[9]definesanewmechanism:verifythestartupprocessbyDynamicRootofTrustMeasurement(DRTM).
Intel'sTXT(TrustExecutionTechnology)[10]andAMD'sSVM(SecureVirtualMachineExtension)[11]arebothusingDRTMasunderlyingtrustmechanism.
ThedynamicestablishingprocessoftrustedenvironmentbasedonDRTMisknownasLateLaunchinTCG1.
2specification,toguaranteeatrustedstartupofavirtualmachinemanager.
BIND[12]proposedbyCarnegieMellonUniversityisfine-grainedsecuritycertificationservicefordistributedsystems,byusingTPM-basedmeasurementandsignaturemechanism,insertameasurepointineachprocessandprotectrunningprocessbyusingsecurekernelbasedonAMDsecurecoprocessor,toachievedynamicmeasurementsoftrustedprocesses.
BernhardKauer[13]analyzedtrustedcomputingsystembasedonStaticRootofTrustMeasurement(SRTM)indetail,pointedoutthesecurityvulnerabilitiesofthisRTM,andproposedasafeopeningloaderOSLO,transferredrootoftrustfromSRTMtoDRTMbyusingAMD'sskinitinstruction,narrowedthetrustedcomputingbaseofapplicationandweakenedtheattacksagainstTPMandBIOS.
CarnegieMellonUniversityCylablaboratorydesignedTrustVisor[14]basedonvirtualmachinemonitor,whichprovidesmemoryisolation,DMAprotectionandseveralvirtualTPMinterfaces(suchasSeal/UnSeal,Extend,Quote,etc.
),asaresult,notonlyprotectsuser'ssecuresensitivecodebutalsoreducestheimpactofDRTMforrunningefficiency.
UnlikeSRTM,DRTMisabletostartatanytimeandberepeatedanynumberoftimes.
ThereareagreatdifferencebetweenchainoftrustbasedonSRTMandDRTM,thespecificcomparisonasshowninTable2.
Table2.
ComparisonbetweendifferentchainsoftrustDRTM-basedSRTM-basedConfigurationTPM/TCMchipTPM/TCMchip,CPUsupportedspecialinstructionProtectionNospecialhardwareprotectionDisableDMAandinterruptConstructiontimeOnlywhensystempowerupAnytimewhensystemisrunningTrustedcomputingbaseRTM,BIOS,bootsector,OSandupperlayerapplicationSpecialinstructionsinIntelandAMDConclusionSecurityandtrustworthinessofcurrentservicesfocusedonprotectionofmessagelayer,trustedcomputingandsecurityserviceshasnotformedaneffectiveinteraction,italsomakesthecurrentinformationsystemfaceenormouschallenges.
Thispaperdescribestheservicesandsecuritytechnologies,trustedcomputingbase,staticmeasurementtechniquesofprogram,behaviorandsomeprinciplesandtechniquesoftraditionaltrustedcomputing,introducesthelatestdevelopmentoftrustedcomputingtechnology,comparingtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofvarioustechniques.
References[1]TrustedComputingGroup(TCG).
http://www.
trustedcomput-inggroup.
org.
[2]ModuleTP.
MainSpecification,Level2,Version1.
2,Revision116(2011)[J].
[3]R.
Sailer,X.
Zhang,etal.
DesignandimplementationofaTCG-basedintegritymeasurementarchitecture.
Proceedingsofthe13thUsenixSecuritySymposium,August2004,pp.
223-238.
[4]V.
Haldar,D.
Chandra,etal.
,SemanticRemoteAttestation-VirtualMachineDirectedApproachtoTrustedComputing.
Proc.
ofthe3rdVirtualMachineResearchandTechnologySymposium,2004,pp.
29-41.
[5]R.
Sadeghi,etal.
,Property-basedattestationforcomputingplatforms:caringaboutproperties,notmechanisms.
ProcoftheNewSecurityParadigmsWorkshop,2004,pp.
67-77.
[6]T.
Jaeger,R.
Sailer,etal.
,PRIMA:Policy-ReducedIntegrityMeasurementArchitecture.
Proc.
ofACMSymposiumonAccessControlModelsandTechnologies,2006,pp.
19-28.
[7]ChenL,LandfermannR,LhrH,etal.
Aprotocolforproperty-basedattestation[C]//ProceedingsofthefirstACMworkshoponScalabletrustedcomputing.
ACM,2006:7-16.
[8]YuQin,DengguoFeng.
Remoteattestationbasedoncomponentproperty[J].
JournalofSoftware,2009,20(6):1625-1641.
[9]TCG.
PCclientspecifictpminterfacespecification.
Version1.
2,revision1.
00.
http://www.
trustedcomputinggroup.
org,July2005.
[10]Inteltrustedexecutiontechnologymledevelopersguide.
http://www.
intel.
com/technology.
[11]AMD64virtualization:Securevirtualmachinearchitecturereferencemanual.
AMDPublicationNo.
33047rev.
3.
01,May2005.
[12]ElaineShi,AdrianPerrig,LeendertVanDoorn.
BIND:AFine-grainedAttestationServiceforSecureDistributedSystem.
Proc.
oftheIEEESymposiumonS&P,2005,pp.
154-168.
[13]KauerB.
OSLO:ImprovingthesecurityofTrustedComputing[C]//ProceedingsoftheUSENIXSecuritySymposium.
2007,24(25):173.
[14]McCuneJM,LiY,QuN,etal.
TrustVisor:EfficientTCBreductionandattestation[C]//SecurityandPrivacy(SP),2010IEEESymposiumon.
IEEE,2010:143-158.
24@qq.
com,bemail:bahaihe@hotmail.
com,cemail:wwwrjc@163.
comKeywords:TrustedComputing;IntegrityMeasurement;RemoteAttestationAbstract.
Withtherapiddevelopmentofmoderninformationtechnology,moreandmorepeoplebelievethattheprotectionofhardwareequipmentmustbeenhancedinordertoimprovethesecuritycapabilitiesofcomputerinformationsystemsbetter.
Trustedcomputingimprovethetrustworthinessofsystemthroughthesecurechipfromhardwarelevel,usingthetrustedroot,chainoftrust,trustedmodeltoensuretheintegrityofthesystem,andexpandsthetrustedchaintoapplicationlayer,ensuresthecredibilityofsoftwarethroughmeasurementandverificationtechnology.
Inthispaper,wewillintroducerelatedhotresearchaboutintegritymeasurement.
IntroductionTheideaoftrustedcomputingderivedfromsuccessfulmanagementexperienceinhumansociety,thatis,eachcountryhasastablerootoftrust,andbuildtrustchainsecuritymechanismbasedonit,whichisresponsibleforthemanagementandimplementationofthenationallevelsofassessment.
However,atpresent,hasnotyetformedaunifieddefinitionontrust.
TrustedComputingGroup(TCG)definedatrustedentity'sbehaviorisalwaysintheexpectedway,toachievethedesiredgoal,thencallthisentityistrusted[1,2].
Asystemistrustediftheoperationorprocedureofcomponentsinvolvedinthecomputingispredicableinanyconditions,andcanprotectagainstvirusesandphysicaldisturbance,definedbyInternationalOrganizationforStandardization/InternationalElectroTechnicalCommission(ISO/IEC).
Measurethetrustworthinessofcomputingsystems,andstoremeasurementsecurely;provideattestationreportwhenremoteobjectaskedforsystem'strustworthiness,thismechanismreferredto"Measure-Storage-Report"mechanism.
Thismechanismdoesnotonlyensurethetrustworthinessofthetrustedcomputingsystem,butalsohavetheabilitytoprovidetrustedproofoutward.
Rootoftrustisthebasispointoftrustedcomputersystem,thereare3trustedrootsoftrustedcomputingplatform,whichisRootofTrustforMeasurement(RTM),RootofTrustforStorage(RTS)andRootofTrustforReport(RTR).
Theyarethetrustedbasepointsofcomputersystem,measurementofplatformandstorageofplatformseparately.
AsshowninFig1,chainoftrustreflects"Measure-Storage-Report"mechanismwell,thatis,measurethetrustworthinessofcomputingplatform,storemeasurementvalueandprovideattestationreport.
Chainoftrustisthetechnicalimplementationoftrustmeasurementmodel,toextendtrustrelationshipfromrootoftrusttoentirecomputingplatform.
Usinganiterativecalculationofhashvalue,whichisconnectingpresentvaluewithnewvalue,andthencalculatehashvalueasanewmeasurement.
Aftermeasurementandstorage,providingattestationreportwhentheremoteentityasked.
ThismechanismiscalledRemoteAttestation.
BIOSBootSectorOSBIOSBootBlockApplicationNetworkHardwareROMMainMemoryTrustModelMeasureStoreReportLogRootofTrustRTSRTRFig.
1.
ChainoftrustmodelIntegrityMeasurementbasedonStaticRootofTrustMeasurementApplicationintegritymeasurementandverificationneedtoprovewhetherthetrustworthinessoflocalcomputingsystemisinlinewiththepredictionofbothlocalandremoteauthenticator.
a.
Binary-basedEarlyintegritymeasurementandverificationismainlyaboutintegritymeasurementofbinarycodeimage,softwareconfiguration.
ThatusingTPMsignatureandlogofintegritymeasurementtoprovetheintegritystatusofsoftware.
Thismethodrequiresplatformmorestringent,isnotflexibleenough,therearetwodisadvantages:(1)Privacy.
IntegritymeasurementbasedonbinaryneedsTPMsignature,andcontainschainoftrust,exposingtheconfigurationinformationofplatform,provideabreakthroughtohostiletosomeextent,sothatlocalcomputingsystemismorevulnerabletovariousattacks.
(2)Difficulttoupdate.
Chainoftrustinvolvingmultiplesystemcomponents,theinformationandversiondifferentfromeachother.
Systemupdatelikelytocausetheintegrityinformationisdifficulttoverify.
IBMhasdesignedandimplementedIMA(IntegrityMeasureArchitecture)3basedonTCGspecifications,measureanintegrityintheorderfromrootoftrust,BIOS,bootsector,OStoapplications,progressivemeasureandtrustlevelbylevel.
Thismethodisabletodetectcurrentoperatingstatusofsystem,whichcouldfindpossibletampering.
IMAmeasurementmodulehasbeenusedasapartofLinuxsecuritymechanisms,andarewidelyusedinavarietyofpracticalapplications.
b.
Property-basedToovercometheshortcomingsofbinaryauthentication,Haldarproposedsemanticremoteauthenticationscheme[4],usingatrustedvirtualmachinetoverifycertainsemanticpropertiesofprogram,achievingacomplexanddynamicintegritymeasurementofadvancedapplicationprograminaplatform-independentway;ChenfromHPLabsproposedtheproperty-basedremoteattestation,convertedbinaryattestationtoproperty-basedattestationbyusingthemainfunctionsofTCG,solvedissueslikesensitiveinformationleakageandupdatedifficultycausedbybinarymeasurement,andselectedatrustedthirdpartyastheissuerofproperty-configurationcertificate.
TheauthenticationmethodbasedonpropertyproposedbySadeghietal.
[5]isabletoestablishmappingbetweenpropertiesandplatformconfigurationsbyreportingplatform'sproperties,andestablishingpropertiesbytrustedcertificateauthority.
Binary-basedmeasurementmechanismprovidesbasicprotectionfortheintegrityofsystemsandapplications,butthereisahugeapplicationlimitations,especiallyinthesystemwithmultipleversionsofmodules;property-basedintegritymeasurementcanovercomethelimitationofbinary-basedintegritymeasurement,playaneffectiveroleinthebinaryimagewithsamepropertybutdifferenthashes,thespecificdifferencesisshowninTable1.
Table1.
ComparisonbetweendifferenttypesofintegritymeasurementBinary-basedProperty-basedObjectsExecutablebinarycodePropertyofplatformTypicalSystemsIMA[3],PRIMA[6]PBA[7],CPBA[8]PrivacyMayleakprivacyProtectprivacyEffectsLowefficiencyPracticalandscalableIntegrityMeasurementbasedonDynamicRootofTrustMeasurementThemeasurementaboveisIMAintegritymeasurementarchitecturebasedonStaticRootofTrustMeasurement,measureintegrityonlywhensystemstartup,cannotguaranteetheintegrityoftheprocess.
Tomakeupfortheseshortcomings,TCG1.
2specification[9]definesanewmechanism:verifythestartupprocessbyDynamicRootofTrustMeasurement(DRTM).
Intel'sTXT(TrustExecutionTechnology)[10]andAMD'sSVM(SecureVirtualMachineExtension)[11]arebothusingDRTMasunderlyingtrustmechanism.
ThedynamicestablishingprocessoftrustedenvironmentbasedonDRTMisknownasLateLaunchinTCG1.
2specification,toguaranteeatrustedstartupofavirtualmachinemanager.
BIND[12]proposedbyCarnegieMellonUniversityisfine-grainedsecuritycertificationservicefordistributedsystems,byusingTPM-basedmeasurementandsignaturemechanism,insertameasurepointineachprocessandprotectrunningprocessbyusingsecurekernelbasedonAMDsecurecoprocessor,toachievedynamicmeasurementsoftrustedprocesses.
BernhardKauer[13]analyzedtrustedcomputingsystembasedonStaticRootofTrustMeasurement(SRTM)indetail,pointedoutthesecurityvulnerabilitiesofthisRTM,andproposedasafeopeningloaderOSLO,transferredrootoftrustfromSRTMtoDRTMbyusingAMD'sskinitinstruction,narrowedthetrustedcomputingbaseofapplicationandweakenedtheattacksagainstTPMandBIOS.
CarnegieMellonUniversityCylablaboratorydesignedTrustVisor[14]basedonvirtualmachinemonitor,whichprovidesmemoryisolation,DMAprotectionandseveralvirtualTPMinterfaces(suchasSeal/UnSeal,Extend,Quote,etc.
),asaresult,notonlyprotectsuser'ssecuresensitivecodebutalsoreducestheimpactofDRTMforrunningefficiency.
UnlikeSRTM,DRTMisabletostartatanytimeandberepeatedanynumberoftimes.
ThereareagreatdifferencebetweenchainoftrustbasedonSRTMandDRTM,thespecificcomparisonasshowninTable2.
Table2.
ComparisonbetweendifferentchainsoftrustDRTM-basedSRTM-basedConfigurationTPM/TCMchipTPM/TCMchip,CPUsupportedspecialinstructionProtectionNospecialhardwareprotectionDisableDMAandinterruptConstructiontimeOnlywhensystempowerupAnytimewhensystemisrunningTrustedcomputingbaseRTM,BIOS,bootsector,OSandupperlayerapplicationSpecialinstructionsinIntelandAMDConclusionSecurityandtrustworthinessofcurrentservicesfocusedonprotectionofmessagelayer,trustedcomputingandsecurityserviceshasnotformedaneffectiveinteraction,italsomakesthecurrentinformationsystemfaceenormouschallenges.
Thispaperdescribestheservicesandsecuritytechnologies,trustedcomputingbase,staticmeasurementtechniquesofprogram,behaviorandsomeprinciplesandtechniquesoftraditionaltrustedcomputing,introducesthelatestdevelopmentoftrustedcomputingtechnology,comparingtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofvarioustechniques.
References[1]TrustedComputingGroup(TCG).
http://www.
trustedcomput-inggroup.
org.
[2]ModuleTP.
MainSpecification,Level2,Version1.
2,Revision116(2011)[J].
[3]R.
Sailer,X.
Zhang,etal.
DesignandimplementationofaTCG-basedintegritymeasurementarchitecture.
Proceedingsofthe13thUsenixSecuritySymposium,August2004,pp.
223-238.
[4]V.
Haldar,D.
Chandra,etal.
,SemanticRemoteAttestation-VirtualMachineDirectedApproachtoTrustedComputing.
Proc.
ofthe3rdVirtualMachineResearchandTechnologySymposium,2004,pp.
29-41.
[5]R.
Sadeghi,etal.
,Property-basedattestationforcomputingplatforms:caringaboutproperties,notmechanisms.
ProcoftheNewSecurityParadigmsWorkshop,2004,pp.
67-77.
[6]T.
Jaeger,R.
Sailer,etal.
,PRIMA:Policy-ReducedIntegrityMeasurementArchitecture.
Proc.
ofACMSymposiumonAccessControlModelsandTechnologies,2006,pp.
19-28.
[7]ChenL,LandfermannR,LhrH,etal.
Aprotocolforproperty-basedattestation[C]//ProceedingsofthefirstACMworkshoponScalabletrustedcomputing.
ACM,2006:7-16.
[8]YuQin,DengguoFeng.
Remoteattestationbasedoncomponentproperty[J].
JournalofSoftware,2009,20(6):1625-1641.
[9]TCG.
PCclientspecifictpminterfacespecification.
Version1.
2,revision1.
00.
http://www.
trustedcomputinggroup.
org,July2005.
[10]Inteltrustedexecutiontechnologymledevelopersguide.
http://www.
intel.
com/technology.
[11]AMD64virtualization:Securevirtualmachinearchitecturereferencemanual.
AMDPublicationNo.
33047rev.
3.
01,May2005.
[12]ElaineShi,AdrianPerrig,LeendertVanDoorn.
BIND:AFine-grainedAttestationServiceforSecureDistributedSystem.
Proc.
oftheIEEESymposiumonS&P,2005,pp.
154-168.
[13]KauerB.
OSLO:ImprovingthesecurityofTrustedComputing[C]//ProceedingsoftheUSENIXSecuritySymposium.
2007,24(25):173.
[14]McCuneJM,LiY,QuN,etal.
TrustVisor:EfficientTCBreductionandattestation[C]//SecurityandPrivacy(SP),2010IEEESymposiumon.
IEEE,2010:143-158.
- Hardware腾讯rom相关文档
- 投标腾讯rom
- rysrc腾讯rom
- 关注"ahsydwks"微信公众号回复"题库"可获得海量习题
- 2014年软件产品登记名单(8月第二批)
- TubeMQ:腾讯开源的万亿级分布式消息中间件
- Xo腾讯rom
Megalayer(月599元)限时8月香港和美国大带宽服务器
第一、香港服务器机房这里我们可以看到有提供四个大带宽方案，是全向带宽和国际带宽，前者适合除了中国大陆地区的全网地区用户可以用，后者国际带宽适合欧美地区业务。如果我们是需要大陆地区速度CN2优化的，那就需要选择常规的优化带宽方案，参考这里。CPU内存硬盘带宽流量价格选择E3-12308GB240GB SSD50M全向带宽不限999元/月方案选择E3-12308GB240GB SSD100M国际带宽不...
LightNode(7.71美元),免认证高质量香港CN2 GIA
LightNode是一家位于香港的VPS服务商.提供基于KVM虚拟化技术的VPS.在提供全球常见节点的同时，还具备东南亚地区、中国香港等边缘节点.满足开发者建站，游戏应用，外贸电商等应用场景的需求。新用户注册充值就送，最高可获得20美元的奖励金！成为LightNode的注册用户后，还可以获得属于自己的邀请链接。通过你的邀请链接带来的注册用户，你将直接获得该用户的消费的10%返佣，永久有效！平台目前...
JustHost，最新高性价比超便宜俄罗斯CN2 VPS云服务器终身8折优惠，最低仅8元/月起，200Mbps带宽不限流量，五大机房自助自由切换，免费更换IP，俄罗斯cn2vps怎么样，justhost云服务器速度及综合性能详细测评报告
主机参考最新消息：JustHost怎么样？JustHost服务器好不好？JustHost好不好？JustHost是一家成立于2006年的俄罗斯服务器提供商，支持支付宝付款，服务器价格便宜，200Mbps大带宽不限流量，支持免费更换5次IP，支持控制面板自由切换机房，目前JustHost有俄罗斯5个机房可以自由切换选择，最重要的还是价格真的特别便宜，最低只需要87卢布/月，约8.5元/月起！just...
腾讯rom为你推荐
-
美团月付怎么关闭商家退出美团怎么退传奇类手游哪个好传奇手游版哪个好玩人多？压缩软件哪个好电脑常用压缩软件哪个好录音软件哪个好好用的录音软件！ 急！！苹果手机助手哪个好iphone有什么比较好用的软件！尼康和佳能单反哪个好尼康和佳能哪个好红茶和绿茶哪个好红茶和绿茶哪个更好?辽宁联通网上营业厅的联通营业厅怎么走dns服务器未响应DNS服务器未响应是什么360云盘下载别人在百度知道给了你360云盘资源，怎么在360云盘使用？？？？