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UniversityofWisconsinMilwaukeeUWMDigitalCommonsUWMLibrariesOtherStaffPublicationsUWMLibraries5-1-2013Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStoryTylerScottSmithUniversityofWisconsin-Milwaukee,Tssmith@uwm.
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RecommendedCitationSmith,TylerScott,"Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory"(2013).
UWMLibrariesOtherStaffPublications.
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https://dc.
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'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
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htmlCinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStoryTylerScottSmithCinderella:BoundToChinaShoes,slippers,feetandsandalsplayoneofthemostpivotalrolesintheprominentCinderellastoriesthroughthetale'shistory.
TracingversionsofthetalegeographicallyasitspreadthroughoutCentralAsiaandthenthroughouttheglobecanexemplifythedifferenttraditionsandmoresasocietyentruststothestory.
However,feetandtheircoveringssurvivealloftheseretellingsafteracertainpoint.
FootbindingandthespreadofearlyversionsoftheCinderellatalesharethesametimeperiodsintheninth-century,andthetraditionoffootbindingmakesalastingimpactonthestoryonceitbeginsmovingfromsouthernChina.
1ReviewoftheLiteratureThepopularlyagreeduponoriginforthetaleisinsouthernChinaandisthoughttohavebeenrecordedbyDuanChengshiintheearlyninth-century.
HeiscreditedwithrecordingthetaleofYeh-Shen,amistreatedstepchildwhoissubjectedtohardshipbutlateriselevatedbyherselectionforamarriageintopowerandaffluence.
Themostextensiveresearchonthetale'soriginisauthoredbyMarianCoxwhocataloguedandclassifiedoverthree-hundredvariantsofthetalethroughouttheworld,inherbookCinderella:ThreeHundredandForty-fiveVariantsofCinderella,Catskin,andCapO'Rushes.
2SheexplainsthemotifsrequiredintheconstructionofaCinderellatale.
Coxstatesthatthe'TypeAmotif,'themostcommoninCinderellatales,ismadeupoftwokeyelements,an'ill-treatedheroine'andher'recognitionbymeansofashoe.
'3ThesesamemotifsareutilizedbyAnnaBirgittaRooth,whoupdatesandaugmentstheworkofCoxbybringinganother300versionsofthetaletotheattentionofresearchersinherwork,TheCinderellaCycle.
4AlanDundescompilesthescholarshipofbothCoxandRooth,alongwithmanyothers,inhisbook,Cinderella:ACasebook.
5ThevariantspointedoutbyRooth,CoxandDundesdisplaythatthetaleswhichreachEuropemaintaintheshoemotif.
CharlesPerrualt'srecordingtheLittleGlassSlipperin1697madetheimpactonthewesternizationofthestory.
HoweverPerrault'sversionallowsforCinderellatobenoticedforherbeautyandelegance,andevenaddsameetingbetweenthePrinceandCinderellabeforetheirmarriage.
TheseaspectsaremissingfromYeh-Shen.
6Later,in1812,theBrothersJacobandWilhelmGrimmpublishedtheircollectionofstories;theyalsomaintainedtheshoemotifandalsoallowforameetingbetweenCinderellaandthe1ThetimeperiodscitedforthisobservationarederivedfromdatacollectedandpublishedbyDorothyKo.
Ko'sworkexplainsthedevelopmentoffootbinding,whichiscomparedinthispapertotheemergenceoftheCinderellataleincorrelativeregions.
2MarianCox,Cinderella;ThreeHundredandForty-FiveVariantsofCinderella,Catskin,andCapO'Rushes(London:TheFolk-loreSociety,1893).
3Cox,xxv.
4AnnaRooth,TheCinderellaCycle(NewYork:ArnoPress,1951).
5AlanDundesandW.
Gregor,ed.
Cinderella,ACasebook(NewYork:WildmanPress,1988).
6Lai,'TwoTranslationsoftheChineseCinderellaStory',Perspectives:StudiesinTranslatology15.
1(2007)50.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
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Thesetwowell-knownEuropeanversionsofthestoryrepresenttheversionsaftertheirjourneythroughChina.
Yeh-Shenwasbroughttotheattentionofthescholarlycommunityin1947whenArthurWaleypublishedhispaper,TheChineseCinderellaStory.
7HistranslationofthefolktalerecordedbyDuanChengshiintheninth-centurybecamethedefinitivetextforthestory.
Waleycreditstherootsofhisversionofthestorywiththe'aboriginesintheextremesouthofChina.
'8Theevidenceofgeographyandthetimeperiodpointtothe'aborigines'WaleyspokeofasthepeopleoftheYungchowClan.
DuanChengshiactuallystatedinhisoriginaltextthatthestorywasobtainedbyhisservant,LiShihYuan,whowasfromtheYungchowfamilialgroupintheregion.
9AlthoughthestoryiswidelyregardedashavingitsrootsinthesouthernmostpartofChina,WayneSchlepparguesthataversionofthetaleofYeShencanbefoundinTibetanditpredatestheChengshirecord.
10HecitestheTibetancollectiontales,TheTwenty-fiveStoriesoftheMagicCorpse,inwhichsimilarmotifsfromthestoryYeh-Shenareobserved.
InthetranslatedtalepresentedbySchleppthemaincharacteristrickedintokillingherownmotherandthenmovesinwithtwoogresseswhomistreather.
Whensheisgrantedwishesfromhermother,whohasbeenreincarnatedasacow,sheattendsalocalfairandtherecatchestheeyeofaprince.
Thegirlfleesthefairforfearoftheogressesandleavesherslipperwhichishowsheisthenconfirmedtobethebeautifulgirlatthefair.
IfSchleppiscorrectinhisanalysisofthetext,itwouldmeanthatstorytravelledalongtheTangDynasty'sTea-Horseroad.
11TheroadislikelyhowthetaletravelledfromSchlepp'sTibettoChina.
GarySigley's2010articleonChineseculturalheritagepointstothetwomajortraderoadsofancientChina.
Thefirstofthosetraderoutesbeingthewell-knownSilkRoad,whichwasthemainchanneloftradetoEurope.
Thesecondwasthelesser-knownTeaHorseRoad.
12SigleydescribestheTeaHorseRoadasbeingthemainroutethatranfromTibetintoChina,reachingitspeakofuseduringtheruleofTangDynasty.
13ShiShou,aprofessorandresearcherattheCenterforTibetanStudiesofSichuanUniversityconfirmsSigley'sdescriptionoftheTeaHorseRoad.
Shouexplainsthattheroadwas'notonlyachannelforancestors'migrationandalsoakeytunnelforancientinterculturalcommunicationamongtheseregions.
'14IfSchleppiscorrectinhisassertionthatthestoryofYeh-ShenisfromTibet,thentheversionhetranslateswouldbeunaffectedbythesouthernChinesetraditionoffootbinding.
Schlepphimselfnotesthatalthoughthestorycontainsashoe,itis'notprotractedandseems7ArthurWaley,'TheChineseCinderellaStory,'Folklore58.
1(1947),226-38.
8Waley226.
9BrianMilne,'GoodScience,BadScience:TheContributionoftheModernAnthropologisttotheDeliveryofHumanRights,'AnthropologistSpecialIssue1(2002)191.
10WayneSchlepp,'CinderellainTibet,'AsianFolkloreStudies61.
1(2002)123-47.
11LiQian,'AForgottenAncientPassageway,'BeijingReview45(2002)23-4.
12GarySigley,'CulturalHeritageTourismandtheAncientTeaHorseRoadofSouthwestChina,'InternationalJournalofChinaStudies1.
2(2010)535.
13Sigley536.
14ShiShou,'Changdu:JunctionontheAncientTea-HorseRoadanditsAncientCulture,'JournalofTibetUniversity4(2003)12.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
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html3almostmatteroffactbycomparison.
'HegoesontostatethattheTibetanauthorswerelikelyconcernedwiththingsotherthantheshoes.
15Itshouldbesaid,thatSchleppdoesnottouchuponthepossibilityofthemonogenesisspreadofthetale.
StithThompsonarguesthatLang,whowroteCox'sintroduction,believedthetalewasnotoneofpolygenesis.
16ThompsonalsocitesthecriticismsofapolygenesistheorybeingappliedtothestoryofYeh-Shen.
Hesaysthatthistheoryisbasedon'thepresumptionofaparalleldevelopmentofcultureeverywhere,aparallelismwhichwouldmanifestitselfinanalogoustales.
'17GeraldGressethagreeswithThompson'sassessment.
HeanalyzesRooth'stextandexplainsthelikelihoodofthetalehavingastationaryoriginandtravelinginvariouscultures.
18TheagreementofThompsonandGressethmakesthetaletravelingalongtheTea-Horseroadentirelyprobable.
Yeh-ShenandCinderellaInWaley'stranslation,Chengshitellsthestoryofayounggirl,whoisadoptedbyherstepmotherafterthedeathofhermotherandfather.
Thegirlfindsafishinanearbypond.
Thefishisanincarnationofhermotherandshefeedsthefish.
Thestepmotherfindsoutwhothefishisandpromptlykillsandeatsit.
Yeh-Shenfindstheremains,whichgrantherwishes.
Yeh-Shenattendsaroyalgatheringinakingfishercloakandshewearsshoesofgold.
Yeh-Shengrowsfearfulofherstepmotherfindingheratthegatheringsosheflees,leavingbehindagoldslipper.
Thekingobtainstheslipperandsetsouttofindtheoriginalwearer.
Heordersallofthewomeninthekingdomtotryiton,butnoneoftheirfeetweresmallenoughtofittheshoe.
Finallythekingfindsawomanwithsmallenoughfeettofit,Yeh-Shen.
ThekingmarriesYeh-Shenandtheyreturntohiscourtwiththefishbonesfromhermother.
Thekingmisusesthebonesandsuffersamutinybyhissoldiers.
19Thevariantsforcomparisonshowaninterestingtrendwiththeshoemotif.
ThethreevariantswithwhichtocompareYeh-ShenaretheTibetanCinderellapresentedbySchlepp,theCinderellatalewrittenbyPerraultandfinallytheBrothersGrimmandtheirstoryretelling.
Allofthestorieshavethestructureofayounggirlseparatedfromherbiologicalparentsandbeingabusedbyhernewcaretakers.
AllofthevariantsalsoofferamagicbeingwhohelpstheCinderellacharactertoattendacelebrationofsomekind.
WherethestorieslackcongruencyisthatinSchlepp,PerraultandGrimmtheprince/headmanisinattendanceatthecelebration.
InYeh-Shentherulerisnowhereonthepremises.
InSchlepp'sretellingthegirlgoestothefairandseestheprince:Thegirlwenttothefair;shecircledthecrowdtotherightandsawthatthosetwowerebeggingforsomethingtoeat.
Shethencircledagainstthedirectionofthesunandtheresawagreatprincewhowasmosthandsomeofall.
Sheenjoyedherselfverymuchlookingatallthethingsatthefair.
Beforethecrowddispersed,shehurried15Schlepp138.
16StithThompson,TheFolktale(NewYork:DrydenPress,1946)380.
17Thompson380.
18GeraldGresseth,'TheOdysseyandtheNalopakhyana,'TransactionsoftheAmericanPhilologicalAssociation109(1979)7119Waley227-9.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
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html4homebutonthewaybackshelostoneofherslipperswhilejumpingacrossastream.
Whenshegothomeshehidawayallherclothesandjewelry.
20Theprinceuponbeingpresentedwiththeshoelostbythegirlremembersher,havingseenherduringthefair:Whentheprince'shorsekeeperwentouttowaterthehorses,thebayhorsesdidnotdrinkbutinsteadwanderedupstreamandthekeeperfollowedafterit.
Thehorsesniffedoutabeautifulslipper,whichthekeeperpickedup,andwhenthehorseswerewatered,heledthembackandgavetheslippertotheprinceandreportedthematter.
Theprincesaid,'Yesterdayamongthecrowdwasagirlaboutfifteenyearsoldwhohadallthesignsandmarksofagoddess.
Ifshecomesagaintoday,sinceIhavefoundherthrough[thegoodofficesof]thisfinehorse,Ishallmakehermyqueenandtakeherintothepalace.
'21Itisclearthattheprincewasenamoredofher,describingherashavingmarksofagoddess.
Inhisdescriptionofherthoughhedoesnotmentionhershoes,onlyherbeauty,hisonlyinterestintheshoeisthatwillbeausefultoolinidentifyingtheyoungladyhesaw.
MarianCox,AnnaB.
RoothandAlanDundesallidentifythatoneofthemostcommonmotifsofallvariantsoftheCinderellastoryisheridentificationbyhershoe.
Rooth,whobuiltheavilyontheresearchdonebyCox,definesthelossofafootcoveringasa'TypeA'Cinderellamotifbecauseofitsfrequencyandassociativenaturetothestory.
22Perrault'sversionofthetalehasasimilarsequenceofeventstoSchlepp's.
Thegirlgoestotheeventandfindshertruelovewhoseesherasabeauty:Theking'sson,whowastoldthatagreatprincess,whomnobodyknew,hadarrived,ranouttoreceiveher.
Hegaveherhishandasshealightedfromthecoach,andledherintothehall,amongallthecompany.
Therewasimmediatelyaprofoundsilence.
Everyonestoppeddancing,andtheviolinsceasedtoplay,soentrancedwaseveryonewiththesingularbeautiesoftheunknownnewcomer.
Nothingwasthenheardbutaconfusednoiseof,'Howbeautifulsheis!
Howbeautifulsheis!
'…Shejumpedupandfled,asnimbleasadeer.
Theprincefollowed,butcouldnotovertakeher.
Sheleftbehindoneofherglassslippers,whichtheprincepickedupmostcarefully.
Shereachedhome,butquiteoutofbreath,andinhernastyoldclothes,havingnothingleftofallherfinerybutoneofthelittleslippers,thematetotheonethatshehaddropped.
2320Schlepp128.
21Schlepp128.
22Rooth73.
23CharlesPerrault,Histoiresoucontesdutempspassé,avecdesmoralitésed.
DeeAshliman:'Cinderella,'2003,UniversityofPittsburgh,03/31/2013http://www.
pitt.
edu/~dash/type0510a.
html.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
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html5Theconsistenttrendbeingthattheprinceisawareofthegirl,heseesherandisawareofherbeauty.
Itisonlyafterheisinloveandawareofherbeautythattheshoemakesanimportantshowinginthestory.
TheGrimmstory,thoughmoregrizzlywiththeidentificationprocesshasthesameorderofimportance.
Firsttheprincenoticesthegirl,fallsinlovebecauseofherbeautyandthenusestheshoetofindthegirlhefellinlovewith:Thenthebirdthrewagoldandsilverdressdowntoher,andslippersembroideredwithsilkandsilver.
Shequicklyputonthedressandwenttothefestival.
…Theprinceapproachedher,tookherbythehand,anddancedwithher.
Furthermore,hewoulddancewithnooneelse.
Heneverletgoofherhand,andwheneveranyoneelsecameandaskedhertodance,hewouldsay,'Sheismydancepartner.
'…WheneveningcameCinderellawantedtoleave,andtheprincetriedtoescorther,butsheranawayfromhimsoquicklythathecouldnotfollowher.
Theprince,however,hadsetatrap.
Hehadhadtheentirestairwaysmearedwithpitch.
Whensherandownthestairs,herleftslipperstuckinthepitch.
Theprincepickeditup.
Itwassmallanddainty,andofpuregold.
Thenextmorning,hewentwithittotheman,andsaidtohim,'Nooneshallbemywifeexceptfortheonewhosefootfitsthisgoldenshoe.
'24AlloftheseversionscontradicttheorderofeventsinYeh-Shen.
Withtheaforementionedvariantssheisnotedasabeautyandtheshoeislaterfoundbyabyapasser-byandtheshoeissubsequentlysenttoaking.
Thekinglovestheshoe'ssmallsizeandgoestogreatlengthstofindthepersonwhocanfitintoit,despiteneverhavingseenher:Whenthetimecameforthecave-festival,thestep-motherwent,leavingthegirltokeepwatchoverthefruit-treesinthegarden.
Shewaitedtillthestep-motherwassomewayoff,andthenwentherself,wearingacloakofstuffspunfromkingfisherfeathersandshoesofgold.
Herstep-sisterrecognizedherandsaidtothestep-mother,'That'sverylikemysister.
'Thestep-mothersuspectedthesamething.
Thegirlwasawareofthisandwentawayinsuchahurrythatshelostoneshoe.
Itwaspickedupbyoneofthepeopleofthecave.
Whenthestep-mothergothome,shefoundthegirlasleep,withherarmsroundoneofthetreesinthegarden,andthoughtnomoreaboutit.
Thiscavewasneartoanislandinthesea.
OnthisislandwasakingdomcalledT'o-han.
Itssoldiershadsubduedtwentyorthirtyotherislandsandithadacoastlineofseveralthousandleagues.
ThecavemansoldtheshoeinT'o-han,andtherulerofT'o-hangotit.
Hetoldthoseabouthimtoputiton;butitwasaninchtoosmallevenfortheoneamongthemthathadthesmallestfoot.
Heorderedallthewomeninhiskingdomtotryiton;buttherewasnotonethatitfitted.
Itwaslightasdownandmadenonoiseevenwhentreadingonstone.
ThekingofT'o-hanthoughtthecave-manhadgotitunlawfully.
Heputhiminprisonandtorturedhim,butdidnotendby24JacobandWilhelmGrimm,'Aschenputtel,'Kinder-undHausmrchened.
DeeAshliman:'Cinderella,'2003UniversityofPittsburgh,03/31/2013.
http://www.
pitt.
edu/~dash/type0510a.
html.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
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html6findingoutwhereithadcomefrom.
Sohethrewitdownatthewayside.
Thentheywenteverywhere,throughallthepeople'shousesandarrestedthem.
Iftherewasawoman'sshoe,theyarrestedthemandtoldthekingofT'o-han.
Hethoughtitstrange,searchedtheinner-roomsandfoundYeh-Shen.
Hemadeherputontheshoe,anditwastrue.
25Theheroineofthestory,isidentifiedandpropelledintowealthandpowerbymarryingthekingbecauseofthesizeofherfeet,whereasintheothervariantstheshoeisusedsolelyasaformoffindingher.
InYeh-Shenthekinghasneverevenseenthegirlwhoworetheshoe,hismadcrusadetofindtheownerisfueledonlybyhisloveoftheslipperandtheassumptionthatthewearermustbebeautifulbecauseoftheshoessmallsize.
This'TypeA'storylineisfoundfirstinChina.
ThedevelopmentoftheslipperorshoemotifisalsoderivedfromtheChineseinfluenceonthestory.
RoothstatesthattheshoemotifsurvivesintotheothervariantsthatleavesouthernChinaaftertheshoecomponentisaddedandcontinueonintotheEuropeanandNearEasternversions.
26Herbeautyandworthwereallbasedonthefactthatshewastheonlygirlinthekingdomwithfeetsmallenoughtofittheslipper.
Thisisevidencethatratherthanthe'loveatfirstsight'motifthatthewesternCinderellaisrenownedfor,Yeh-Shenisnotfalleninlovewithbecauseofheraesthetics.
Sheisstillonlyrecognizedandappreciatedbythekingforthesizeofherfeet,notherbeauty.
FootbindingandYeh-ShenLessthanone-hundredyearsaftertherecordingofChengshi'stale,southernChinasawtheemergenceofthecustomknownasfootbinding.
Whilethetimelinepresentedhereforfootbindingputstherecordingofthetalepriortotherebeingstaticevidenceoffootbinding,itiswidelybelievedbyresearchersthatthecustomhadbeeninpracticeforcenturiesbeforethestorycametoChina.
Thecongruenceofthesetwoeventsinhistoryismorethancoincidental.
ByfollowingtheTea-HorseRoadfromTibetintosouthernChina,thestorywassharedbytradesmenortravellersastheytransportedtheirgoods.
Inthestory,theTibetanauthorsandstorytellerstreatshoesindifferently,howeverinthesouthernChineseversionintheearlyninth-centuryitbecomesatalethatdecidestheprotagonist'sfateonhershoesandfootsize.
AssouthernChinesetraditionsinfiltratedthestory,itwasalsomovingacrossthecountry,makingitswaynorthandwestalongthetraderoutes.
Itfollowsthesamepaththatsawthedevelopmentoffootbindinganddidsoinlessthanacenturybeforethecustombecamestandard.
Theembeddedmotifofsmallfeetandshoesbecamesoindoctrinatedtothestorythatevencenturieslater,inacontinentaway,thesmallestfeetinthekingdomstillresultedinroyalmarriage.
ThehistoryoffootbindingwaslongthoughttohaveitsrootsinthecourtoftheTangDynasty(618–907CE).
WhilecourtwasbeingheldatthecityofNanjing,thedancinggirlsarecommentedonbecauseofhaving'bow-shoes'givingtheirfeetthelookofbeingvery25Waley228-9.
26Waley192.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
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ThecentraldancinggirlmentionedisYaoniang,andshedancedfortheruleroftheSouthernTangDynasty,LiYu.
27DorothyKowhosebook,Cinderella'sSisters:ARevisionistHistoryofFootbinding,28suppliesthemostcomprehensivestudyonthesubject,presentsthemostrecentandaccurateretellingofYaoniangandLiYu(937-78CE).
KotranslatesfromthetextofZhouMi,aneleventh-centuryscholar,thatYaoniang'sfeetwerewrappedwithsilktomakethemsmallandslim.
SoenticingwerehertinyfeetthatLiYuconstructedasix-foottallgoldenlotusstatueinherhonor.
ItisbelievedlikelythatYaoniangneverexisted,butthestatueandYu'sdesireforsmallfeetareafactofthestory.
29Thestoryalsoalludestotheconnectionbetweenbeautyintheformofsmallfeetandtheacquisitionofincreasedsocialandeconomicstatusattainedthroughtheuseofthemasasexualobject.
KocitestwolesserknownstoriesthatsharesimilaritieswiththeYaonianglegend.
Sheexplainsthatthesourcesforthetwo'origin'storiesarenotconcrete,whichiswhytheyareoftenignoredbyscholars.
BoththestoryoftheDukeofDonghun'sspouse,ConsortPan,andthestoryofConsortYangareindicatedasfootbindingrecordsthatpredatetheZhouMiwritings.
ConsortPan,datedinthesixth-centuryandYangdatedinthemideight-century,makenodirectspecificindicationofboundfeet.
Itisthelackofthisspecificitythatcausesthemtobediscreditedassources.
30Inasearchfortextualevidenceoffootbindingthatisconsidereddecisivelydependable,ValerieHansen,inherbookTheOpenEmpire:AHistoryofChinato1600,31lookstoZongyiTao'sNancunchuogenglu32translatinghisnotestoread,…onecanknow[that]flattenedfeetbeganonlysincetheFiveDynasties(907-60CE).
BeforetheXining(1068-77CE)andYuanfeng(1077-86CE)reigns,thepracticewasrare.
Recentlypeoplehavecopiedeachotherandnolongerfeelshame.
33Hansenviewsthisexcerptasthemostdependable,textualevidenceoftheoriginationoffootbinding.
ShepointsoutthatmostresearchersofthesubjectstillconsidertheTangpoeticdescriptionsofcourtdancersbindingtheirfeettobetheevidentialkey,however,sheexplainsthatitisnotgroundedinrecordedtextandthereforeshouldbecarefullyusedasasource.
FootbindingwasacustomuniquetothesouthernregionsofChina,spreadingmostaggressivelyduringtheSouthernSongdynasty(1127–1279CE).
ThecustomdidnotbecomeadoptedinnorthernChinauntiltheYuandynasty(1279–1368CE).
Thecustomitselfwas27SidneyGamble,'TheDisappearanceofFoot-bindinginTinghsien,'TheAmericanJournalofSociology,49.
2(1943)181.
28DorothyKo,Cinderella'ssisters:ARevisionistHistoryofFootbinding(Berkeley,Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2005).
29Ko114.
30Ko112-14.
31ValerieHansen,TheOpenEmpire:AHistoryofChinato1600(NewYork:Norton,2000).
32ZongyiTao,Nancunchuoenglu,(Beijing:Zhonghuashuju:XinhuashudianBeijingfaxingsuofaxing,1360).
33Hansen286-7.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
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html8rootedinthesouthernregionsduringtheTangDynasty.
34Foroverthreehundredyears,thepeopleofthenorthdidnotwraporbindtheirfeet.
Itwasconsideredtobeasoutherncustomwellintothefourteenthcentury.
35ConclusionYeh-Shendidnotbindherfeet,nordidCinderella;howevertheybothbecameemblematicforthecustomoffootbinding.
Byperpetuatingthebeliefthatsmallfeetwillallowapotentialbridetomarrywell,thesestoriesembodytheculturalcustomoffootbindingandvalidateitthroughfolklore.
Thetimeperiods,geographicalspreadandmanipulationofvariantsallareevidencethatfootbindingfounditsrootsinthesoutherntaleofagirlwiththesmallestfeetinthekingdom.
34Ko114.
35Gamble181.
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htmlCinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStoryTylerScottSmithCinderella:BoundToChinaShoes,slippers,feetandsandalsplayoneofthemostpivotalrolesintheprominentCinderellastoriesthroughthetale'shistory.
TracingversionsofthetalegeographicallyasitspreadthroughoutCentralAsiaandthenthroughouttheglobecanexemplifythedifferenttraditionsandmoresasocietyentruststothestory.
However,feetandtheircoveringssurvivealloftheseretellingsafteracertainpoint.
FootbindingandthespreadofearlyversionsoftheCinderellatalesharethesametimeperiodsintheninth-century,andthetraditionoffootbindingmakesalastingimpactonthestoryonceitbeginsmovingfromsouthernChina.
1ReviewoftheLiteratureThepopularlyagreeduponoriginforthetaleisinsouthernChinaandisthoughttohavebeenrecordedbyDuanChengshiintheearlyninth-century.
HeiscreditedwithrecordingthetaleofYeh-Shen,amistreatedstepchildwhoissubjectedtohardshipbutlateriselevatedbyherselectionforamarriageintopowerandaffluence.
Themostextensiveresearchonthetale'soriginisauthoredbyMarianCoxwhocataloguedandclassifiedoverthree-hundredvariantsofthetalethroughouttheworld,inherbookCinderella:ThreeHundredandForty-fiveVariantsofCinderella,Catskin,andCapO'Rushes.
2SheexplainsthemotifsrequiredintheconstructionofaCinderellatale.
Coxstatesthatthe'TypeAmotif,'themostcommoninCinderellatales,ismadeupoftwokeyelements,an'ill-treatedheroine'andher'recognitionbymeansofashoe.
'3ThesesamemotifsareutilizedbyAnnaBirgittaRooth,whoupdatesandaugmentstheworkofCoxbybringinganother300versionsofthetaletotheattentionofresearchersinherwork,TheCinderellaCycle.
4AlanDundescompilesthescholarshipofbothCoxandRooth,alongwithmanyothers,inhisbook,Cinderella:ACasebook.
5ThevariantspointedoutbyRooth,CoxandDundesdisplaythatthetaleswhichreachEuropemaintaintheshoemotif.
CharlesPerrualt'srecordingtheLittleGlassSlipperin1697madetheimpactonthewesternizationofthestory.
HoweverPerrault'sversionallowsforCinderellatobenoticedforherbeautyandelegance,andevenaddsameetingbetweenthePrinceandCinderellabeforetheirmarriage.
TheseaspectsaremissingfromYeh-Shen.
6Later,in1812,theBrothersJacobandWilhelmGrimmpublishedtheircollectionofstories;theyalsomaintainedtheshoemotifandalsoallowforameetingbetweenCinderellaandthe1ThetimeperiodscitedforthisobservationarederivedfromdatacollectedandpublishedbyDorothyKo.
Ko'sworkexplainsthedevelopmentoffootbinding,whichiscomparedinthispapertotheemergenceoftheCinderellataleincorrelativeregions.
2MarianCox,Cinderella;ThreeHundredandForty-FiveVariantsofCinderella,Catskin,andCapO'Rushes(London:TheFolk-loreSociety,1893).
3Cox,xxv.
4AnnaRooth,TheCinderellaCycle(NewYork:ArnoPress,1951).
5AlanDundesandW.
Gregor,ed.
Cinderella,ACasebook(NewYork:WildmanPress,1988).
6Lai,'TwoTranslationsoftheChineseCinderellaStory',Perspectives:StudiesinTranslatology15.
1(2007)50.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
5no.
2,May2013.
http://fhrc.
flinders.
edu.
au/transnational/home.
html2princebeforehisobtainingherslipper.
Thesetwowell-knownEuropeanversionsofthestoryrepresenttheversionsaftertheirjourneythroughChina.
Yeh-Shenwasbroughttotheattentionofthescholarlycommunityin1947whenArthurWaleypublishedhispaper,TheChineseCinderellaStory.
7HistranslationofthefolktalerecordedbyDuanChengshiintheninth-centurybecamethedefinitivetextforthestory.
Waleycreditstherootsofhisversionofthestorywiththe'aboriginesintheextremesouthofChina.
'8Theevidenceofgeographyandthetimeperiodpointtothe'aborigines'WaleyspokeofasthepeopleoftheYungchowClan.
DuanChengshiactuallystatedinhisoriginaltextthatthestorywasobtainedbyhisservant,LiShihYuan,whowasfromtheYungchowfamilialgroupintheregion.
9AlthoughthestoryiswidelyregardedashavingitsrootsinthesouthernmostpartofChina,WayneSchlepparguesthataversionofthetaleofYeShencanbefoundinTibetanditpredatestheChengshirecord.
10HecitestheTibetancollectiontales,TheTwenty-fiveStoriesoftheMagicCorpse,inwhichsimilarmotifsfromthestoryYeh-Shenareobserved.
InthetranslatedtalepresentedbySchleppthemaincharacteristrickedintokillingherownmotherandthenmovesinwithtwoogresseswhomistreather.
Whensheisgrantedwishesfromhermother,whohasbeenreincarnatedasacow,sheattendsalocalfairandtherecatchestheeyeofaprince.
Thegirlfleesthefairforfearoftheogressesandleavesherslipperwhichishowsheisthenconfirmedtobethebeautifulgirlatthefair.
IfSchleppiscorrectinhisanalysisofthetext,itwouldmeanthatstorytravelledalongtheTangDynasty'sTea-Horseroad.
11TheroadislikelyhowthetaletravelledfromSchlepp'sTibettoChina.
GarySigley's2010articleonChineseculturalheritagepointstothetwomajortraderoadsofancientChina.
Thefirstofthosetraderoutesbeingthewell-knownSilkRoad,whichwasthemainchanneloftradetoEurope.
Thesecondwasthelesser-knownTeaHorseRoad.
12SigleydescribestheTeaHorseRoadasbeingthemainroutethatranfromTibetintoChina,reachingitspeakofuseduringtheruleofTangDynasty.
13ShiShou,aprofessorandresearcherattheCenterforTibetanStudiesofSichuanUniversityconfirmsSigley'sdescriptionoftheTeaHorseRoad.
Shouexplainsthattheroadwas'notonlyachannelforancestors'migrationandalsoakeytunnelforancientinterculturalcommunicationamongtheseregions.
'14IfSchleppiscorrectinhisassertionthatthestoryofYeh-ShenisfromTibet,thentheversionhetranslateswouldbeunaffectedbythesouthernChinesetraditionoffootbinding.
Schlepphimselfnotesthatalthoughthestorycontainsashoe,itis'notprotractedandseems7ArthurWaley,'TheChineseCinderellaStory,'Folklore58.
1(1947),226-38.
8Waley226.
9BrianMilne,'GoodScience,BadScience:TheContributionoftheModernAnthropologisttotheDeliveryofHumanRights,'AnthropologistSpecialIssue1(2002)191.
10WayneSchlepp,'CinderellainTibet,'AsianFolkloreStudies61.
1(2002)123-47.
11LiQian,'AForgottenAncientPassageway,'BeijingReview45(2002)23-4.
12GarySigley,'CulturalHeritageTourismandtheAncientTeaHorseRoadofSouthwestChina,'InternationalJournalofChinaStudies1.
2(2010)535.
13Sigley536.
14ShiShou,'Changdu:JunctionontheAncientTea-HorseRoadanditsAncientCulture,'JournalofTibetUniversity4(2003)12.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
5no.
2,May2013.
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flinders.
edu.
au/transnational/home.
html3almostmatteroffactbycomparison.
'HegoesontostatethattheTibetanauthorswerelikelyconcernedwiththingsotherthantheshoes.
15Itshouldbesaid,thatSchleppdoesnottouchuponthepossibilityofthemonogenesisspreadofthetale.
StithThompsonarguesthatLang,whowroteCox'sintroduction,believedthetalewasnotoneofpolygenesis.
16ThompsonalsocitesthecriticismsofapolygenesistheorybeingappliedtothestoryofYeh-Shen.
Hesaysthatthistheoryisbasedon'thepresumptionofaparalleldevelopmentofcultureeverywhere,aparallelismwhichwouldmanifestitselfinanalogoustales.
'17GeraldGressethagreeswithThompson'sassessment.
HeanalyzesRooth'stextandexplainsthelikelihoodofthetalehavingastationaryoriginandtravelinginvariouscultures.
18TheagreementofThompsonandGressethmakesthetaletravelingalongtheTea-Horseroadentirelyprobable.
Yeh-ShenandCinderellaInWaley'stranslation,Chengshitellsthestoryofayounggirl,whoisadoptedbyherstepmotherafterthedeathofhermotherandfather.
Thegirlfindsafishinanearbypond.
Thefishisanincarnationofhermotherandshefeedsthefish.
Thestepmotherfindsoutwhothefishisandpromptlykillsandeatsit.
Yeh-Shenfindstheremains,whichgrantherwishes.
Yeh-Shenattendsaroyalgatheringinakingfishercloakandshewearsshoesofgold.
Yeh-Shengrowsfearfulofherstepmotherfindingheratthegatheringsosheflees,leavingbehindagoldslipper.
Thekingobtainstheslipperandsetsouttofindtheoriginalwearer.
Heordersallofthewomeninthekingdomtotryiton,butnoneoftheirfeetweresmallenoughtofittheshoe.
Finallythekingfindsawomanwithsmallenoughfeettofit,Yeh-Shen.
ThekingmarriesYeh-Shenandtheyreturntohiscourtwiththefishbonesfromhermother.
Thekingmisusesthebonesandsuffersamutinybyhissoldiers.
19Thevariantsforcomparisonshowaninterestingtrendwiththeshoemotif.
ThethreevariantswithwhichtocompareYeh-ShenaretheTibetanCinderellapresentedbySchlepp,theCinderellatalewrittenbyPerraultandfinallytheBrothersGrimmandtheirstoryretelling.
Allofthestorieshavethestructureofayounggirlseparatedfromherbiologicalparentsandbeingabusedbyhernewcaretakers.
AllofthevariantsalsoofferamagicbeingwhohelpstheCinderellacharactertoattendacelebrationofsomekind.
WherethestorieslackcongruencyisthatinSchlepp,PerraultandGrimmtheprince/headmanisinattendanceatthecelebration.
InYeh-Shentherulerisnowhereonthepremises.
InSchlepp'sretellingthegirlgoestothefairandseestheprince:Thegirlwenttothefair;shecircledthecrowdtotherightandsawthatthosetwowerebeggingforsomethingtoeat.
Shethencircledagainstthedirectionofthesunandtheresawagreatprincewhowasmosthandsomeofall.
Sheenjoyedherselfverymuchlookingatallthethingsatthefair.
Beforethecrowddispersed,shehurried15Schlepp138.
16StithThompson,TheFolktale(NewYork:DrydenPress,1946)380.
17Thompson380.
18GeraldGresseth,'TheOdysseyandtheNalopakhyana,'TransactionsoftheAmericanPhilologicalAssociation109(1979)7119Waley227-9.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
5no.
2,May2013.
http://fhrc.
flinders.
edu.
au/transnational/home.
html4homebutonthewaybackshelostoneofherslipperswhilejumpingacrossastream.
Whenshegothomeshehidawayallherclothesandjewelry.
20Theprinceuponbeingpresentedwiththeshoelostbythegirlremembersher,havingseenherduringthefair:Whentheprince'shorsekeeperwentouttowaterthehorses,thebayhorsesdidnotdrinkbutinsteadwanderedupstreamandthekeeperfollowedafterit.
Thehorsesniffedoutabeautifulslipper,whichthekeeperpickedup,andwhenthehorseswerewatered,heledthembackandgavetheslippertotheprinceandreportedthematter.
Theprincesaid,'Yesterdayamongthecrowdwasagirlaboutfifteenyearsoldwhohadallthesignsandmarksofagoddess.
Ifshecomesagaintoday,sinceIhavefoundherthrough[thegoodofficesof]thisfinehorse,Ishallmakehermyqueenandtakeherintothepalace.
'21Itisclearthattheprincewasenamoredofher,describingherashavingmarksofagoddess.
Inhisdescriptionofherthoughhedoesnotmentionhershoes,onlyherbeauty,hisonlyinterestintheshoeisthatwillbeausefultoolinidentifyingtheyoungladyhesaw.
MarianCox,AnnaB.
RoothandAlanDundesallidentifythatoneofthemostcommonmotifsofallvariantsoftheCinderellastoryisheridentificationbyhershoe.
Rooth,whobuiltheavilyontheresearchdonebyCox,definesthelossofafootcoveringasa'TypeA'Cinderellamotifbecauseofitsfrequencyandassociativenaturetothestory.
22Perrault'sversionofthetalehasasimilarsequenceofeventstoSchlepp's.
Thegirlgoestotheeventandfindshertruelovewhoseesherasabeauty:Theking'sson,whowastoldthatagreatprincess,whomnobodyknew,hadarrived,ranouttoreceiveher.
Hegaveherhishandasshealightedfromthecoach,andledherintothehall,amongallthecompany.
Therewasimmediatelyaprofoundsilence.
Everyonestoppeddancing,andtheviolinsceasedtoplay,soentrancedwaseveryonewiththesingularbeautiesoftheunknownnewcomer.
Nothingwasthenheardbutaconfusednoiseof,'Howbeautifulsheis!
Howbeautifulsheis!
'…Shejumpedupandfled,asnimbleasadeer.
Theprincefollowed,butcouldnotovertakeher.
Sheleftbehindoneofherglassslippers,whichtheprincepickedupmostcarefully.
Shereachedhome,butquiteoutofbreath,andinhernastyoldclothes,havingnothingleftofallherfinerybutoneofthelittleslippers,thematetotheonethatshehaddropped.
2320Schlepp128.
21Schlepp128.
22Rooth73.
23CharlesPerrault,Histoiresoucontesdutempspassé,avecdesmoralitésed.
DeeAshliman:'Cinderella,'2003,UniversityofPittsburgh,03/31/2013http://www.
pitt.
edu/~dash/type0510a.
html.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
5no.
2,May2013.
http://fhrc.
flinders.
edu.
au/transnational/home.
html5Theconsistenttrendbeingthattheprinceisawareofthegirl,heseesherandisawareofherbeauty.
Itisonlyafterheisinloveandawareofherbeautythattheshoemakesanimportantshowinginthestory.
TheGrimmstory,thoughmoregrizzlywiththeidentificationprocesshasthesameorderofimportance.
Firsttheprincenoticesthegirl,fallsinlovebecauseofherbeautyandthenusestheshoetofindthegirlhefellinlovewith:Thenthebirdthrewagoldandsilverdressdowntoher,andslippersembroideredwithsilkandsilver.
Shequicklyputonthedressandwenttothefestival.
…Theprinceapproachedher,tookherbythehand,anddancedwithher.
Furthermore,hewoulddancewithnooneelse.
Heneverletgoofherhand,andwheneveranyoneelsecameandaskedhertodance,hewouldsay,'Sheismydancepartner.
'…WheneveningcameCinderellawantedtoleave,andtheprincetriedtoescorther,butsheranawayfromhimsoquicklythathecouldnotfollowher.
Theprince,however,hadsetatrap.
Hehadhadtheentirestairwaysmearedwithpitch.
Whensherandownthestairs,herleftslipperstuckinthepitch.
Theprincepickeditup.
Itwassmallanddainty,andofpuregold.
Thenextmorning,hewentwithittotheman,andsaidtohim,'Nooneshallbemywifeexceptfortheonewhosefootfitsthisgoldenshoe.
'24AlloftheseversionscontradicttheorderofeventsinYeh-Shen.
Withtheaforementionedvariantssheisnotedasabeautyandtheshoeislaterfoundbyabyapasser-byandtheshoeissubsequentlysenttoaking.
Thekinglovestheshoe'ssmallsizeandgoestogreatlengthstofindthepersonwhocanfitintoit,despiteneverhavingseenher:Whenthetimecameforthecave-festival,thestep-motherwent,leavingthegirltokeepwatchoverthefruit-treesinthegarden.
Shewaitedtillthestep-motherwassomewayoff,andthenwentherself,wearingacloakofstuffspunfromkingfisherfeathersandshoesofgold.
Herstep-sisterrecognizedherandsaidtothestep-mother,'That'sverylikemysister.
'Thestep-mothersuspectedthesamething.
Thegirlwasawareofthisandwentawayinsuchahurrythatshelostoneshoe.
Itwaspickedupbyoneofthepeopleofthecave.
Whenthestep-mothergothome,shefoundthegirlasleep,withherarmsroundoneofthetreesinthegarden,andthoughtnomoreaboutit.
Thiscavewasneartoanislandinthesea.
OnthisislandwasakingdomcalledT'o-han.
Itssoldiershadsubduedtwentyorthirtyotherislandsandithadacoastlineofseveralthousandleagues.
ThecavemansoldtheshoeinT'o-han,andtherulerofT'o-hangotit.
Hetoldthoseabouthimtoputiton;butitwasaninchtoosmallevenfortheoneamongthemthathadthesmallestfoot.
Heorderedallthewomeninhiskingdomtotryiton;buttherewasnotonethatitfitted.
Itwaslightasdownandmadenonoiseevenwhentreadingonstone.
ThekingofT'o-hanthoughtthecave-manhadgotitunlawfully.
Heputhiminprisonandtorturedhim,butdidnotendby24JacobandWilhelmGrimm,'Aschenputtel,'Kinder-undHausmrchened.
DeeAshliman:'Cinderella,'2003UniversityofPittsburgh,03/31/2013.
http://www.
pitt.
edu/~dash/type0510a.
html.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
5no.
2,May2013.
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flinders.
edu.
au/transnational/home.
html6findingoutwhereithadcomefrom.
Sohethrewitdownatthewayside.
Thentheywenteverywhere,throughallthepeople'shousesandarrestedthem.
Iftherewasawoman'sshoe,theyarrestedthemandtoldthekingofT'o-han.
Hethoughtitstrange,searchedtheinner-roomsandfoundYeh-Shen.
Hemadeherputontheshoe,anditwastrue.
25Theheroineofthestory,isidentifiedandpropelledintowealthandpowerbymarryingthekingbecauseofthesizeofherfeet,whereasintheothervariantstheshoeisusedsolelyasaformoffindingher.
InYeh-Shenthekinghasneverevenseenthegirlwhoworetheshoe,hismadcrusadetofindtheownerisfueledonlybyhisloveoftheslipperandtheassumptionthatthewearermustbebeautifulbecauseoftheshoessmallsize.
This'TypeA'storylineisfoundfirstinChina.
ThedevelopmentoftheslipperorshoemotifisalsoderivedfromtheChineseinfluenceonthestory.
RoothstatesthattheshoemotifsurvivesintotheothervariantsthatleavesouthernChinaaftertheshoecomponentisaddedandcontinueonintotheEuropeanandNearEasternversions.
26Herbeautyandworthwereallbasedonthefactthatshewastheonlygirlinthekingdomwithfeetsmallenoughtofittheslipper.
Thisisevidencethatratherthanthe'loveatfirstsight'motifthatthewesternCinderellaisrenownedfor,Yeh-Shenisnotfalleninlovewithbecauseofheraesthetics.
Sheisstillonlyrecognizedandappreciatedbythekingforthesizeofherfeet,notherbeauty.
FootbindingandYeh-ShenLessthanone-hundredyearsaftertherecordingofChengshi'stale,southernChinasawtheemergenceofthecustomknownasfootbinding.
Whilethetimelinepresentedhereforfootbindingputstherecordingofthetalepriortotherebeingstaticevidenceoffootbinding,itiswidelybelievedbyresearchersthatthecustomhadbeeninpracticeforcenturiesbeforethestorycametoChina.
Thecongruenceofthesetwoeventsinhistoryismorethancoincidental.
ByfollowingtheTea-HorseRoadfromTibetintosouthernChina,thestorywassharedbytradesmenortravellersastheytransportedtheirgoods.
Inthestory,theTibetanauthorsandstorytellerstreatshoesindifferently,howeverinthesouthernChineseversionintheearlyninth-centuryitbecomesatalethatdecidestheprotagonist'sfateonhershoesandfootsize.
AssouthernChinesetraditionsinfiltratedthestory,itwasalsomovingacrossthecountry,makingitswaynorthandwestalongthetraderoutes.
Itfollowsthesamepaththatsawthedevelopmentoffootbindinganddidsoinlessthanacenturybeforethecustombecamestandard.
Theembeddedmotifofsmallfeetandshoesbecamesoindoctrinatedtothestorythatevencenturieslater,inacontinentaway,thesmallestfeetinthekingdomstillresultedinroyalmarriage.
ThehistoryoffootbindingwaslongthoughttohaveitsrootsinthecourtoftheTangDynasty(618–907CE).
WhilecourtwasbeingheldatthecityofNanjing,thedancinggirlsarecommentedonbecauseofhaving'bow-shoes'givingtheirfeetthelookofbeingvery25Waley228-9.
26Waley192.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
5no.
2,May2013.
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flinders.
edu.
au/transnational/home.
html7smallandbeautiful.
ThecentraldancinggirlmentionedisYaoniang,andshedancedfortheruleroftheSouthernTangDynasty,LiYu.
27DorothyKowhosebook,Cinderella'sSisters:ARevisionistHistoryofFootbinding,28suppliesthemostcomprehensivestudyonthesubject,presentsthemostrecentandaccurateretellingofYaoniangandLiYu(937-78CE).
KotranslatesfromthetextofZhouMi,aneleventh-centuryscholar,thatYaoniang'sfeetwerewrappedwithsilktomakethemsmallandslim.
SoenticingwerehertinyfeetthatLiYuconstructedasix-foottallgoldenlotusstatueinherhonor.
ItisbelievedlikelythatYaoniangneverexisted,butthestatueandYu'sdesireforsmallfeetareafactofthestory.
29Thestoryalsoalludestotheconnectionbetweenbeautyintheformofsmallfeetandtheacquisitionofincreasedsocialandeconomicstatusattainedthroughtheuseofthemasasexualobject.
KocitestwolesserknownstoriesthatsharesimilaritieswiththeYaonianglegend.
Sheexplainsthatthesourcesforthetwo'origin'storiesarenotconcrete,whichiswhytheyareoftenignoredbyscholars.
BoththestoryoftheDukeofDonghun'sspouse,ConsortPan,andthestoryofConsortYangareindicatedasfootbindingrecordsthatpredatetheZhouMiwritings.
ConsortPan,datedinthesixth-centuryandYangdatedinthemideight-century,makenodirectspecificindicationofboundfeet.
Itisthelackofthisspecificitythatcausesthemtobediscreditedassources.
30Inasearchfortextualevidenceoffootbindingthatisconsidereddecisivelydependable,ValerieHansen,inherbookTheOpenEmpire:AHistoryofChinato1600,31lookstoZongyiTao'sNancunchuogenglu32translatinghisnotestoread,…onecanknow[that]flattenedfeetbeganonlysincetheFiveDynasties(907-60CE).
BeforetheXining(1068-77CE)andYuanfeng(1077-86CE)reigns,thepracticewasrare.
Recentlypeoplehavecopiedeachotherandnolongerfeelshame.
33Hansenviewsthisexcerptasthemostdependable,textualevidenceoftheoriginationoffootbinding.
ShepointsoutthatmostresearchersofthesubjectstillconsidertheTangpoeticdescriptionsofcourtdancersbindingtheirfeettobetheevidentialkey,however,sheexplainsthatitisnotgroundedinrecordedtextandthereforeshouldbecarefullyusedasasource.
FootbindingwasacustomuniquetothesouthernregionsofChina,spreadingmostaggressivelyduringtheSouthernSongdynasty(1127–1279CE).
ThecustomdidnotbecomeadoptedinnorthernChinauntiltheYuandynasty(1279–1368CE).
Thecustomitselfwas27SidneyGamble,'TheDisappearanceofFoot-bindinginTinghsien,'TheAmericanJournalofSociology,49.
2(1943)181.
28DorothyKo,Cinderella'ssisters:ARevisionistHistoryofFootbinding(Berkeley,Calif:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2005).
29Ko114.
30Ko112-14.
31ValerieHansen,TheOpenEmpire:AHistoryofChinato1600(NewYork:Norton,2000).
32ZongyiTao,Nancunchuoenglu,(Beijing:Zhonghuashuju:XinhuashudianBeijingfaxingsuofaxing,1360).
33Hansen286-7.
'Cinderella'sLessonsonFootbinding:HowTinyFeetFoundtheirWayintotheChineseCinderellaStory.
'TylerScottSmith.
TransnationalLiteratureVol.
5no.
2,May2013.
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flinders.
edu.
au/transnational/home.
html8rootedinthesouthernregionsduringtheTangDynasty.
34Foroverthreehundredyears,thepeopleofthenorthdidnotwraporbindtheirfeet.
Itwasconsideredtobeasoutherncustomwellintothefourteenthcentury.
35ConclusionYeh-Shendidnotbindherfeet,nordidCinderella;howevertheybothbecameemblematicforthecustomoffootbinding.
Byperpetuatingthebeliefthatsmallfeetwillallowapotentialbridetomarrywell,thesestoriesembodytheculturalcustomoffootbindingandvalidateitthroughfolklore.
Thetimeperiods,geographicalspreadandmanipulationofvariantsallareevidencethatfootbindingfounditsrootsinthesoutherntaleofagirlwiththesmallestfeetinthekingdom.
34Ko114.
35Gamble181.
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