riseluxurygoods

BusinessHistoryReview85(Summer2011):273–294.
doi:10.
1017/S00076805110003892011ThePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege.
ISSN0007-6805;2044-768X(Web).
TEugénieBriotFromIndustrytoLuxury:FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCenturyTheproductionofperfumeryarticlesbecameanindustryinthenineteenthcentury,andtheirbroadersocialdiffusionin-vitesquestionsabouttheaccuracyofperfume'sidenticationatthattimeasaluxuryproduct.
Theinnovationsgeneratedoradoptedbyperfumers,whethertheyinvolvednewextractionmethodsortheuseofsyntheticcompounds,notonlyintro-ducednewcreativepossibilitiesbutalsoallowedwidermar-ginsonsales.
Theshiftfromartisanalfabricationtoindustrialmanufacturingaccompaniedrelativelysteepincreasesinthepriceofperfumes.
Nineteenth-centuryperfumersdevelopedmarketingstrategiestobuildthevalueoftheirproductsandtopositionthemasluxurygoods.
henineteenthcenturywasacrucialtimeintheevolutionoftheperfumemarket,asitwastheperiodwhenperfumeproductsturnedfrombeingitemsofexceptionaluseintoabroadlydistributed,morewidelyconsumedcommodity.
1AccordingtohistorianAlainCorbin,sen-sitivitytobadodorsincreasedasbetterhygienicpracticesbecameamoreroutinepartofdailylifeinthesecondhalfofthecentury,duetothediffusionofwaternetworksandtheintegrationofbathameni-tieswithinhousesandapartments.
2Perfumeproducts,especiallyper-fumedtoiletsoaps,guredamongthepowerfulpurifyingagentsinthis1Inthecontextofmyresearch,whichdealsexclusivelywiththeolfactoryaspectofcos-meticproducts,Ihaverestrictedperfumeproductstoallfragranttoiletries:alcoholicex-tracts,toiletwatersandvinegars(usedtoperfumethewaterusedtowashoneself),eauxdeCologne(whoseusewasoftentherapeuticallyaswellashygienicallyprescribed),lotions,hairoilsandpomades,ricepowders,fragrantwardrobesachets,andsoaps.
Theselastitemsrep-resentamassivepartoftheindustry'sproducts.
Ihavethusexcludedmakeupproductsfromtheeldofmyinvestigations.
2AlainCorbin,Lemiasmeetlajonquille:L'odoratetl'imaginairesocialXVIIIe–XIXesiècles(Paris,1982);Jean-PierreGoubert,Unehistoiredel'hygiène:EauetsalubritédanslaFrancecontemporaine(Paris,1986);GeorgesVigarello,LePropreetlesale:L'hygièneducorpsdepuisleMoyenge(Paris,1985).
EugénieBriot/274hygienerevolution,oneconsequenceofwhichwasthatthebourgeoisiewereabletodifferentiatethemselvesmoreclearlyfromthecommonpeople.
However,althoughtechnologicalandculturalchangesdidfur-therthedevelopmentoftheperfumeindustry,theirimpactwasnotsuf-cienttoaccountforthewidespreadconsumptionofscentedproducts.
Beginninginthe1860s,theinnovationsgeneratedoradoptedbyper-fumemanufacturers,includingnewtechniquesforextractingrawma-terialsand,after1880,thediscoveryofnewsyntheticcompounds,alsoincreasedproductivity,greatlyloweringproductioncostsandexpand-ingconsumptionamongnewcategoriesofcustomers.
Thesedevelopmentsintheperfumeindustryradicallyreshapedadifferentiatedmarket,notonlyopeningittodemocratization,butalsopermittingaluxurysectortoemerge.
Bothphenomenaconvergedandreachedtheirheightinthe1890swiththeemergenceofperfumeba-zaarsandthepressurefeltbytraditionalperfumeproducerstoreafrmthevalueoftheirproductsandbrands.
AsGeoffreyJonesemphasizesinhisbookonthebeautyindustry,theexpansionofthemarketsinthenineteenthcenturypushedproducersto"assureconsumersofthequal-ityoftheirproductsandtomakethemattractive.
"Manufacturers'strongincentivetodifferentiateproductsthatwere"oncesoldascommodi-ties"ledtotheemergenceofbrands,whichfunctionedas"conveyorsofinformation"and"sourcesofvalueforrms.
"3Traditionallyanexpen-siveproductwhosevaluewasbasedontheestimatedpriceofitsrawmaterials,bythe1880sperfumehadbecomeaffordableasaresultofmechanizationandtheintroductionofsyntheticcompounds.
Inspiteoftheloweringoftheircosts,someproducersdecidedtomaintaintheiroriginalhighpricesbyrenamingandconferringasymbolicvalueonproductsthathadbecomeavailableatlowerprices.
Theemergenceofaluxurymarket,whichshiftedthevalueofproductsfromtheirbasisinthecostofrawmaterialstoasymboliclevel,isthefocusofthisarticle.
IwillanalyzetheParisianmarket,thenthelargestinEurope,look-ingatboththedemocratizationofaccesstoperfumeproductsandthenewsegmentationofthemarket.
4PatentsregisteredintheInstitutna-tionalpourlapropriétéindustrielle,therecordsoftheAcadémiedessciences,technicaltreatises,andprofessionalreviewsorinventorieswereevidenceofthesemarketchanges.
Inanalyzingthecourseofthesector'sindustrialization,Iconsiderthescienticandtechnicalaspects,notfromaninternalperspectivebut,rather,astheyrelatetotheman-agementstrategiesofParisianperfumeproducers,who,facedwitha3GeoffreyJones,BeautyImagined:AHistoryoftheGlobalBeautyIndustry(Oxford,U.
K.
,2010),18and74.
4EugénieBriot,"Lachimiedesélégances:LaparfumerieparisienneauXIXesiècle,nais-sanced'uneindustriedeluxe,"PhDdiss.
,ConservatoireNationaldesArtsetMétiers,2008.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/275newlysegmentedmarket,developedtheirproduct'simageofluxury.
Mystudyisalsobasedonaperusalofapproximatelysixtyproducers'andretailers'catalogsfromthe1830sandthe1910s.
Togetherwithex-amplesfromthewomen'spress,thecatalogs'listingsgiveanaccountoftheproductsofferedtoconsumersthatcomplementstheperfumeproducers'handbooksofformulas.
Manualsofmannersandthewom-en'spresswerebothpowerfulprescriptiveagentswhosedistributionexpandedconsiderablyduringthenineteenthcentury.
Thus,aswellastheperfumeproducers'andretailers'catalogsandadvertisements,Iex-aminedabouttwenty-vemanualsofmannerspublishedbetween1804andthe1910sandlookedatarticlesthatappearedinthewomen'spress,mainlythosepublishedinLebontonbetween1836and1879andLepetitmessagerdesmodesbetween1842and1896.
Ialsodrewfromacorpusofnineteenth-centurynovelsassourcesforthearticle.
Inexploringhowperfumeproducersandretailersbuilttheirimageofaluxuryitem,Irevealthemaincharacteristicsandleadingactorsoftheperfumebusiness,beforereviewingthefactorsthatwereinvolvedinproductiondevelopment.
Ialsotracetheparallelevolutionoftheproducts'pricesandthesegmentationofthemarket.
Finally,IrecountthecommercialpracticesandmanagementstrategiesthatParisianper-fumersdevelopedtobuildanimageofluxuryfortheirproduct,despiteitslossofintrinsicvalue.
AHighlyCompetitiveEnvironmentIn1810,theperfumetradeinFrancerepresentedslightlylessthan2millionfrancs.
By1912,thevalueofitsassortedproductshadrisento100millionfrancs.
From1880to1890,productionshotup,risinginvaluefrom45millionfrancsin1878tobetween70millionand75mil-lionin1889.
5AlfredPicard'sreportontheUniversalExhibitionof1900inParisgivestheguresfortheproductionofperfumeryitems:12mil-lionfrancsin1836,45millionfrancsin1878,between70millionand75millionfrancsin1889,80millionfrancsin1900.
6In1789,theperfumetradewasdealtaheavyblowbytheoutbreakoftheFrenchRevolution,butitrecoveredduringthenineteenthcentury5Atthesametime,thepopulationofParis,therstconsumersoftheseproducts,grewconsiderablyaswell(from547,000inhabitantsin1801toabout4millionin1901),butthegrowthoccurredataslowerratethantheconsumptionofscentedproducts.
TheexpansionofthetotalFrenchpopulation(from28.
25millionin1801to38.
96millionin1901)wasalsolessrapid.
6AlfredPicard,Expositionuniverselleinternationalede1900àParis:Lebiland'unsiècle(1801–1900),vol.
5:Industriechimique,Industriesdiverses,Economiesociale(Paris,1906),115.
EugénieBriot/276andthenumberofParisianperfumehousesgreatlyincreased,bolsteredbynewlawsthatgavefreereintothemanufactureandtradeofperfumedproducts.
In1807,theAlmanachducommercerecorded139perfumehousesthatwereengagedinfabricationandboutiquetrade.
Thenumberremainedstableataround130housesuntilthe1830s,butby1840theAlmanach-Bottinducommercerecorded151perfumehousesin1840,206in1850,270in1880,and356in1914.
7From1855on,theperfumebusiness,accordingtotheAlmanach-Bottinducom-merce,wasdividedintoproducersandretailers,followedlaterbytheadditionofraw-materialsuppliers.
AnestimateoftheprecisenumberofParisianperfumehousesisdifculttoestablish,becausesomeoftheirnameswerelistedunderseveralcategories.
TheAlmanachgivesanestimateonlyofthenumberofperfumehousesinthecapitalbutdoesnottakeintoaccountthemanyshopkeepersforwhomperfumewasonlyasideactivity.
RegistrationintheAlmanachducommerceoc-curredatthediscretionoftheretailerandwaslargelyameansofpro-motinghisorhername.
AreportontheUniversalExhibitionof1889givesafarhigherestimate,listingthenumberofperfumeproducersasreachingover300andthenumberofParisianshopkeepersasabout2,000.
8Whenitcametothecapital'sestablishments,theStatistiquesdel'industrieandtheRésultatsstatistiquesgiveonlycomplementarydataontheindustry'sgrowth,sinceonlytheperfumeproducerswerethesubjectofaspecialcensus.
9Perfumeretailersdidnotalwaysappearasadistinctcategorywithinthegrouplabeledthe"outtandclothingtrade.
"Howeverimprecisethesedifferentsetsofdata,theyareenoughtoprovethesector'sdensityanddynamism.
Theyalsorevealthatthe7AlmanachducommercedeParis(1797–1838),thenAlmanach-Bottinducommerce(1839–1856),thenAnnuaireetalmanachducommerce,del'industrie,delamagistratureetdel'administration(1857–1903).
8Picard,Expositionuniverselleinternationalede1900,242n6.
9ChambredecommercedeParis,Statistiquedel'industrieàParisrésultantdel'enquêtefaitepourlesannées1847–1848(Paris,1851),829;102perfumemanufacturerswereregis-tered.
ChambredecommercedeParis,Statistiquedel'industrieàParisrésultantdel'enquêtefaitepourl'année1860(Paris,1864);197perfumemanufacturerswereregistered.
PréfecturedelaSeine,Servicedelastatistiquemunicipale,Résultatsstatistiquesdudénombrementde1881pourlavilledeParisetrenseignementsrelatifsauxrecensementsantérieurs(Paris,1884);perfumemanufacturerswerenotregisteredasadistinctgroup.
PréfecturedelaSeine,Servicedelastatistiquemunicipale,Résultatsstatistiquesdudénombrementde1886pourlavilledeParisetledépartementdelaSeine,etrenseignementsrelatifsauxdénombre-mentsantérieurs(Paris,1887),70;210perfumemanufacturersand392comb,brush,andperfumeretailerswereregistered.
PréfecturedelaSeine,Servicedelastatistiquemunicipale,Résultatsstatistiquesdudénombrementde1891pourlavilledeParisetledépartementdelaSeine,etrenseignementsrelatifsauxdénombrementsantérieurs(Paris,1894),280;232perfumemanufacturerswereregistered.
PréfecturedelaSeine,Servicedelastatistiquemunicipale,Résultatsstatistiquesdudénombrementde1896pourlavilledeParisetledépartementdelaSeine,etrenseignementsrelatifsauxdénombrementsantérieurs(Paris,1899);perfumemanufacturerswerenotregisteredasadistinctgroup.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/277structureofthetradewasbasedonadivisionbetweenretailersandproducers.
Tothesetwocategorieswaslateraddedthatofraw-materialsuppliers.
Largeowerfarmsweredevelopedintheeighteenthcentury,mainlyinGrasseorCannes,tosupplyParisianperfumemanufacturerswiththerawmaterialstheyrequired.
TheChirisfactorywasestablishedin1768,thenLautierin1795,Rourein1820,Meroin1832,Robertetin1850,andtheSociétédesparfumsnaturelsdeCannesin1883.
Someperfumehouses,likePiver,integratedtheirownraw-materialfactoriesintotheirbusinesses.
Inacompetitiveenvironmentgovernedbytheneedtoreducecosts,integratingproduction,possiblydowntothelevelofmanagingtherawmaterials,wasthestrategyadoptedbymostper-fumeretailers,especiallyafter1850.
Noneofthem,however,couldpro-ducetheentirerangeofessencesnecessaryforperfumeproduction;thus,theyhadtoresorttomorethanonesupplier.
Asaresult,theper-fumehousesbecamehighlydependentononeanother.
By1914,aboutthirtyraw-materialsupplierswerespecializingintheproductionofsyn-theticcompoundsinFrance,mainlyintheParisiansuburbs.
Thebig-gestweretheDeLairefactories(foundedin1876)inIssy-les-Moulin-eaux.
However,thesuppliers'businessesoperatedintheshadowoftheParisianperfumers,whosemostfamousbrandshadbythenbecomewidelyrecognized.
Historicalstudiesoftheperfumebusinesshaveignoredtheexis-tenceofhundredsofretailers,traders,andmanufacturersoperatinginnineteenth-centuryParis.
10Historianshaveidentiedabouttwentyemergingguresforwhomsufcientlydocumentedsourcesareavail-able:LouisToussaintPiver,AlphonseHonoréPiver,LucienToussaintPiver,PierreFranoisPascalGuerlain,AiméGuerlain,JacquesGuer-lain,EdouardPinaud,JeanBaptisteGellé,FélixProt,PaulProt,Fran-oisRigaud,AntoninRaynaud,AndréMonpelas,FélixMillot,ArmandRoger,CharlesGallet,AlexandreBourjois,andVictorKlotz,tonameafewoperations.
Throughtheirsuccesses,thesemajorguresrepresentedthesustainedgrowthoftheperfumesector;thepioneerswerethemodelforCésarBirotteau,acharacterimaginedbyHonorédeBalzacin1837.
11Amanofmodestorigin,Birotteau,andreal-lifepeoplelikehim,owedtheirconsiderablefortunestotheirownhardworkandpersever-ance.
Intherstyearsofthenineteenthcentury,forinstance,Louis10SeetheexcellentworkofRosineLheureux-Icard,"Lesparfumeursentre1860et1910d'aprèslesmarques,dessinsetmodèlesdéposésàParis,"Master'sthesis,EcoleNationaledesChartes,1994.
11HonorédeBalzac,"HistoiredelagrandeuretdeladécadencedeCésarBirotteau"[TheRiseandFallofCésarBirotteau],LaComédiehumaine:uvrescomplètesdeM.
deBalzac,vol.
10(Paris,1844;1sted.
1837).
EugénieBriot/278ToussaintPiverstartedoutasoneofPierre-GuillaumeDissey'sshopassistants,beforebecominghisassociatein1813andthentakingoverthebusinessuponDissey'sdeathin1823.
Between1813and1823,thecompany'scapitalrosefrom20,000francsto160,000francs.
12In1810,theDisseybusinessturnoverreached35,000francs,amountingto2percentofthenationalperfumetrade.
In1862,AlphonseHonoréPiver,LouisToussaint'sfty-year-oldson,whohadbeentherm'sdi-rectorsince1844,couldpridehimselfonaturnoverof1,920,000francs,fty-fourtimesthecompany'srecordin1810.
13Anothersuccessfulper-fumeentrepreneur,FranoisRigaud,bornin1829inRiom(Auvergne),startedintheperfumebusinessin1859.
Receivingnothingbutaffec-tionateadvicefromhislargefamily,herelied"onlyonhishardlaborandperseverancetoraisehissocialposition.
"14Inthe1890s,Rigaudprovidedsixmillionofthesevenmillionfrancsofthetotalsharecapi-talputupforthenewrm,Rigaud,ClermontetCie.
15Similarly,FélixProtwasonlytwelveyearsolduponenteringPierreFranoisLubin'sperfumehousein1824.
Twentyyearslater,heassumedleadershipofthebusiness.
16AntoninRaynaud,bornthesonofabutcherin1827inGrasse,becameanapprenticeatViolet'sattheageofsixteen,beforeenteringtheLegrandperfumeryasapartnerin1857andtakingoverthebusinessin1860.
17Besidestheseexamplesofself-madesuccess,therearetheperfum-erswhobelongedtodynasties.
Thecareersofmostoftheperfumersfromhumbleroriginswereovershadowedbythemajorgures,andtheprofession'sreputationforaccumulatingfortuneswasalwaysbasedonthefameofthegreatnames.
Beginninginthesecondhalfofthenine-teenthcentury,perfumersplayedavisibleroleinpubliclife,bothasrepresentativesofhighbourgeoissocietyand,sometimes,asinuentialindividuals.
AsignoftheirriseinsocialstatuswastheappearanceattheendofthecenturyofseveralParisianperfumersamongthemembersofhighsocietylistedintheTout-Parisyearbook.
18Beyondtheirinclusioninaselectsocialnetwork,perfumerswerealsodistinguishedfortheirskills12JacquelineRobert-André,"AlaReinedeseurs,"LaTribunePiver,Revued'informa-tion,no.
6,2ndterm1960,n.
p.
13JulienTurgan,"ParfumerieL.
T.
Piver,"Lesgrandesusines,étudesindustriellesenFranceetàl'étranger,vol.
4(Paris,1865),130.
14F.
Rigaud,conseillergénéralducantondeNeuilly,candidatrépublicain,Electionlégis-lativedu23février1896—Neuilly-Boulogne,sérieZ,2Z282,MunicipalArchivesofNeuilly-sur-Seine(hereafterNSS).
15ConventionpourlaconstitutiondelaStéRigaud,ClermontetCie,anciennemaisonRigaud,fabriquedeparfumsetdeproduitspharmaceutiques,sérieZ,2Z42,NSS.
16Lheureux-Icard,"Lesparfumeursentre1860et1910,"11.
17Ibid.
,17.
18ToutParis:Annuairedelasociétéparisienne(Paris,1885–1939).
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/279andprofessionalsuccess,eitherbytheirpeersontheoccasionsoftheUniversalExhibitionsorbythestateintheformofLegionofHonorawards.
Alphonse-HonoréPiver,forexample,wasknightedin1867andwasmadeanofcerin1878.
19Hisson,LucienToussaintPiver,wasknightedin1900.
AiméGuerlainreceivedaknighthoodin1892,asdidPaulProt,FélixProt'sson.
20Noneofthesemenbelongedtothefound-inggenerationoftheperfumehousestheymanaged,nordideitherAn-toninRaynaud,whowasknightedin1890attheageofsixty-threeafterforty-sevenyearsinthebusinessandthirtyastheheadoftheLegrandhouse,orVictorKlotz,whowasmadeanofceroncehesucceededtheheadofthePinaudhouse.
21FranoisRigaudwasdistinguishedasthefounderofhisperfumehouse.
22Someperfumersalsobecameelectedrepresentatives,revealingtheinuencethattheirfameconferredonthemincitylife.
InOctober1893,forinstance,RigaudwaselectedasaregionalcounciloroftheNeuillycanton.
23InFebruary1896,hewasalsoelectedasadeputyoftheSeinedepartment.
ThesuccessoftheperfumebusinessenabledtheParisianperfum-erstotakeadvantageoftheirfametopromotetheirnamesasbrands,thusenhancingthevalueoftheirproducts.
Inthecompetitiveenviron-menttheyexperiencedattheendofthecenturyasaresultofinvest-mentsbynewcomers,perfumerscouldeithertrytodominatebyachiev-ingcostreductionssotheycouldwidentheirmargins,ortheycoulddifferentiatetheirproductsbyconferringahighlysymbolicvalueonthem.
Capitalizingontheirnameswasamongtherst,andbest,waystoachievedominance,togetherwithtechnicalinnovationandcarefullyconsideredmanagementstrategies.
MajorTechnicalInnovationsbehindCostReductionsLikemanyothersectors,theperfumeindustrybenetedduringitsinitialdevelopmentfromanewsourceofenergy—steampower—whichperfumemanufacturerscametorelyonmoreheavilyafterthemid-nineteenthcentury.
Forinstance,Gellé&Taveau'ssoapfactoryinNeuilly-sur-Seine,beginningin1851,owneda4-horsepower(HP)steammachinethatdelivered4.
5atmospheresofpressure.
24Inthenaltwentyyearsofthecentury,powerquicklyincreased:in1880,Roger&Gallet's19AlphonseHonoréPiver,LH2174/43,ArchivesNationales,Paris(hereafterAN).
20LucienToussaintPiver,LH2174/44;AiméGuerlain,LH1222/26;PaulProt,LH2231/53;allAN.
21AntoninRaynaud,LH2275/24;VictorKlotz,LH1404/31;bothAN.
22FranoisRigaud,LH2329/38,AN.
23F.
Rigaud,conseillergénéralducantondeNeuilly,candidatrépublicain,NSS.
24"Etablissementsdangereux,insalubresetincommodes,"n5:"Savonneries—Fabriquesdeparfumerie,"n3:"Gellé,"1669C,NSS.
EugénieBriot/280factory,locatedinLevallois-Peretsince1863,adopteda6-HPsteammachine,soontobereplacedbya20-HPmachine.
Attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,thepowerusedbythisfactory,whichthenemployed600workers,roseexponentiallyfrom70HPin1895,to200HPin1900,andthento500HPin1905.
In1903,theGelléfactory,withonly400workers,waspoweredby165HP.
25Inthesameyear,DeLaire,inIssy-les-Moulineaux,deployedthreeRosergeneratorstoproducesteam,whichwasdriventhroughtwomachines.
26Thus,itwasonthebasisofthisnewenergy,deliveringunheard-oflevelsofpower,thatthediffer-entindustriesoftheperfumesectordevelopedandnewtreatmentsofrawmaterialsemerged.
Perfumeproducersdidnotnecessarilyplayadirectroleinconceiv-ingtheirnewequipment.
Theirmanufacturingprocessesweresimilartothoseofotherindustries,suchaspharmaceuticals,soap-making,ordistillationofrawmaterials,andtheysometimesingeniouslyadaptedmachinesthathadbeendesignedforotherpurposestotheneedsoftheirindustry.
Confrontedwithanincreasingdemandforviolet-scentedproducts,forexample,Pinaud&MeyerbegantousetheVapartgrind-ingmachinetocrushirisrootsintheirPantinfactoryinthe1880s.
Al-thoughthemachinewasnotdesignedforthatpurpose,itprovedtobeagreathelpinthemanufactureofiris-rootpowder.
27Atthesametime,othermanufacturers,includingAlphonseHon-oréPiver,developedtheirownmachinesorprocesses.
Byallowingnewtreatmentsoftraditionalrawmaterials,theseimprovements,orinven-tions,offeredcreativepossibilitiestotheperfumeproducers'olfactorypalettes.
Theyalsoconsiderablyraisedproductivity,asthereportsoftheUniversalExhibitionsreveal:Everyday,ancientknow-how,foundedonempiricaldata,tendstodisappearinfrontoftheprogressofscience.
.
.
.
Since1878,thesub-stitutionofmechanicalworkformanualworkhasincreasedagain,resultinginmoresavings,regularity,andrapidityinproducing.
Pro-ducersusesteamalembics,infusingdevices,extractsshakers,grind-ingandpulverizingmachines,hydraulicpresses,pomademixers,saponicationboilers,awholerangeofdevicesspecictotoiletsoaps(designedforshaving,perfumeandmixingcolors,grinding,moulding,casting,packing),etc.
Steamrooms,tanks,sinks,contain-ers,mortars,dryers,racks,etc.
canbeaddedtothisequipment.
2825DépartementdelaSeine,EtatdescommunesàlanduXIXesiècle,Levallois-Perret(Montévrain,1903),124.
26Ibid.
27JulienTurgan,"EtablissementsdelaparfumerieEd.
Pinaud,MeyeretCiesucesseurs,"Lesgrandesusines:tudesindustriellesenFranceetàl'étranger,vol.
14(Paris,1882),4–6.
28AlfredPicard,Expositionuniverselleinternationalede1889àParis:Rapportgénéral,vol.
5,Lemobilier,letissuetlesvêtements(groupeIIIetIVdel'Expositionuniversellede1889)(Paris,1891),241.
Alltranslationsinthisarticlearemine.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/281Suchtechnologicalinnovationsenabledspectacularincreasesinpro-ductivity.
Amongthehelpfulinventionswasthe"automaticdryer,"pat-entedbyAlphonseHonoréPiverin1864,whichturnedwhitesoapintoperfumedsoapwithinafewdays,whereaspreviouslythedryingpro-cessalonehadtakenmorethanamonth.
Withthisinvention,soapfab-ricationinPiver'sfactoryrosetosixthousandpiecesaday.
29Similarly,the"rationalsaturator,"inventedbythesamemanufacturer,allowedtheeneurage(aprocessofexposinggreaseoroiltofreshowersthatcon-veytheirperfumetothesesubstances)of800kilosofhotgreasetooccurperday;anotherdeviceenabledtheeneurageofcoldgreasetotakeplacewithintwenty-fourhours,insteadofthirty-vedays.
30Beginningin1883,theextractionofaromaticrawmaterialsbyvolatilesolventspartlyreplacedtraditionalwaterdistillation,leadingtolow-temperaturetreat-mentsthatweremoresparingofthescentoffragileowers,suchasjas-mine,andenabledmanufacturerstosavemoneyonproduction.
TheSo-ciétédesparfumsnaturelsdeCannessoonspecializedinthistechnique,describingitas"realizingamorecompleteextractionofscents,and,asaconsequence,areductioninthecostprice,bysubstitutingthetech-niqueofmethodicalextractionstotheoneofrepeatedeneurages.
"31Economicconsiderations,ratherthanargumentsforquality,con-vincedtheSociety'sclientproducerstoadoptthenewtechniques.
Theinnovationthatmoststrengthenedtheperfumeproducers'fortunes,however,wasalsothemostdiscreetandwentunnoticedbyconsumers.
Theadoptionofarticialolfactorycompoundsinlargequantitiesbyperfumemanufacturers,beginninginthe1870s,causedupheavalintheindustry.
Piperonal,smellingofheliotrope,wasacaseinpoint.
Thesyn-thesisofpiperonaldidnotresultfromresearchundertakenspecicallyforperfumery.
Thechemicalwasdiscoveredtohaveapleasingscentbychance.
Afteritwassynthesizedin1869bythechemistsR.
FittigandW.
H.
Mielk,piperonalbegantobeproducedindustriallyin1874andinquantitiesin1886.
Thescentofheliotropewasrstlistedinperfumers'catalogsintheearly1880s.
32Itappearedinthe1878Guerlaincatalogintheformofasoap(sapoceti),butthenthe1882catalogopenedwithafull-pageengravingofabottleofwhiteheliotropeextract.
3329Turgan,"EtablissementsdelaparfumerieEd.
Pinaud,MeyeretCie,"134.
30PaulPoiré,"Lasavonnerieetlaparfumerie,"Atraversl'industrie(Paris,1897,2nded.
),318.
31SociétédesparfumsnaturelsdeCannes,Extractiondesparfumsparlesdissolvants(Paris,1885),3.
32Itwasindeedentirelynewinperfumery.
"Intheeldofperfumeproduction,anevenmoreinterestingcasecanoccurwhenanarticialproductbringsanewolfactorynotethatperfumersdidnothavebefore:asisthecaseofpiperonal,terpineol,phenylacéticacid,"Sep-timusPiesse,Chimiedesparfumsetfabricationdesessences(1903),192.
33Guerlain,Prix-courantdeGuerlain,Parfumeurbreveté(S.
G.
D.
G.
),15ruedelaPaix,Paris(Paris,1878),5,13,GuerlainArchives,Levallois-Perret(hereafter,GA).
EugénieBriot/282Literaturereectedtheadoptionofheliotropeinfashion,inspiringthediffusionofthisscentacrosssocialgroups:in1884,forexample,itwastheperfumeofchoiceforrespectableyoungladieslikeChérie,ageneral'sgranddaughterandthesubjectoftheeponymousnovelbyEd-monddeGoncourt,orlikeLouiseThibaudier,abanker'sdaughter,fea-turedinEmileZola'sLajoiedevivre.
34Twelveorfteenyearslater,however,ithadbecometheperfumewornbydisreputablectionalchar-acters.
AlfredJarrywritesaboutUbu'swifeinhisplayUburoi:"Before,shewasdrunkfromseveninthemorningandperfumedherselfwithbrandy;nowthatsheperfumesherselfwithheliotropeshedoesn'tsmellworse.
"Anditsadoptionforwearbyalow-classswindlerinLuisd'Herdy'snovelL'hommesirène,associatingitwiththelowerclasses,signaledtheendofthescent'spopularity.
35Between1879and1899,thepriceofonekilogramofpiperonaldroppeddramatically,to37.
5francs,onehundredthofitsformerprice.
Inthiscase,thesynthesisofapoten-tiallyfashionablescentcarriedtoindustrialdevelopmentledtogainsinprotability,beforeadropinitspriceresultedinlarger-scalesocialdif-fusionthatwassynonymouswithgreatersuccess.
Eventually,itwasad-optedbypopulationswhosetastesweremorequestionable.
Economicandsocialfactorsthusinteractedtoexplainandgeneratethefadofheliotrope-scentedproducts,followedbytheirdownfall.
Thedropinproductioncostsaffectedallthearticialcompoundsusedintheperfumeindustry:coumarin,smellingofnew-mownhay,fellfrom2,550francsperkiloin1877to55francsin1900;thepriceofvanillindeclinedfrom8,750francsin1876tolessthan60francsin1906.
36Naturalmusk,whichcostfrom1,200to2,000francsperkilo-gramin1871butwiththecapacitytocostmore,dependingonitsqual-ityandorigin,wassynthesizedbychemistAlbertBaurin1889.
37Ini-tiallyavailablefor2,000francsperkilogram,thepricefellto100francsperkilogramonceitspatentexpired.
38Throughthesavingstheypro-vided,synthesizedarticialolfactorycompoundsplayedamajorroleinthehugeexpansionoftheperfumeindustryinthenineteenthcentury,apointemphasizedbytheperfumersthemselves:34EmileZola,Lajoiedevivre(Paris,1884),164,347,394,516,521.
35AlfredJarry,UbuRoi(Paris,1900;1st.
ed.
1896),86;Luisd'Herdy,L'homme-sirène(Paris,1899),82–83.
36LucienToussaintPiver,Expositionuniverselleinternationalede1900àParis:Rap-portsdujuryinternational,GroupeXIV:"Industriechimique,"Troisièmepartie,Classe90:"Parfumerie"(Paris,1902),456;HenriCoupin,Promenadescientiqueaupaysdesfrivoli-tés,étudepittoresquedesfrivolitésfourniesparlanatureàlamode,àlaparureetauluxe(Paris,1906),366.
37EugèneRimmel,Lelivredesparfums(Paris,1990,1sted.
1882),248.
38Coupin,Promenadescientique,364.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/283Thankstochemicalcompounds,perfumersandsoap-makerscouldestablishproductsatmuchlowerprices,whichimmediatelybroughtinnewcustomers.
Oneoftheoutstandingfeaturesofthesocialhis-toryofourtimeistheascentofthehumbleclassestowardsawell-being,aluxury,aswecouldsay,untilthenreservedonlytothepriv-ileged.
Thistrendwasparticularlyobviousinthecaseofperfumery.
Today,thehumblestcraftsmanusesperfumedsoap,whichheorshecanobtainatinnitesimalprices.
TheuseofeaudeCologne,aromaticvinegars,eaudetoilette,handkerchiefextracts,iswide-spread.
Thisgrowthofproductionwasmadepossiblethankstotheresorttoarticialproductsthat,foramodestprice,offerperfumersaconsiderableolfactorypower.
39ANewSegmentationoftheMarketThedropinraw-materialcostsopenednewmarketsegmentstomoreaffordableproducts.
Someperfumeproducers,likeAgnel,orper-fumebazaars,liketheGaleriesSaint-Martin,forinstance,whichopenedatthebeginningofthe1890s,chosetospecializeinthesaleofcheaperproducts.
Atthesametime,departmentstores,suchasLeBonmarché(establishedin1852),theGrandsmagasinsduLouvre(1855),orLaSa-maritaine(1870),mentionedtheirperfumedepartmentsintheAnnu-aireetalmanachducommercein1885,arguingthattheirgoodpriceswerethemainreasontobuyfromthem.
Thesourcesneglecttoestimatethevolumeofthesecheaperproducts,whichwereintendedtobedif-fusedmorewidely,comparedwiththeglobalvolumeofperfumesales.
Butifprobateinventoriesdidnotlisttheselow-statusobjects,novelsmentiontheirusebyhumblepeople,likeChérie'smaidinEdmonddeGoncourt'sChérie(1884),whosesoapwasperfumedwiththebalsamicsmellofbenzoin,orliketheporkbutcherQuenu'sshopattendantinEmileZola'sLeVentredeParis(1873),whosehairpomadewasscentedwithjasmine.
40AperusalofthearchivesoftheBibliothèquehistoriquedelavilledeParis,whichholdsarichcollectionofcommercialdocumentsfromnineteenth-centuryperfumers,revealstheprominenceofperfumeryba-zaarsatthattime.
Thesemustbedistinguishedfromdepartmentstores,whosesalesofperfumedproductsdidnotseemtohavebeenasconsid-erable.
Thedepartmentstoresattractednumerouscustomerswhowere39Piesse,Chimiedesparfums,193.
40EdmonddeGoncourt,Chérie(Paris,1884),83–84.
Theactioninthischapterofthenovelprobablytakesplaceatthebeginningofthe1860s,asChérie'sfatherhadbeenkilledduringtheCrimeanwar(1853–56),andChériewassixorsevenyearsoldatthetime.
Chérie'stasteforheliotrope-scentedperfumes,however,isverytypicalofthe1880s,sincethisrawmaterialwasnotusedbyperfumeproducersbeforethemid-1870s.
EmileZola,LeVentredeParis(Paris,1998,1sted.
1873),135.
Theactioninthisbooktakesplacein1858.
EugénieBriot/284seducedbythenewlyestablishedsalesrulesoftheseestablishments,suchasxedpricesandcashpayment.
Perfumedepartments,how-ever,wereintroducedinthestoresratherbelatedlyinthe1880sandwerenotgiventheamountofadvertisingspaceinthecatalogsthattheywereallottedinothervenues.
HugedepartmentstoreslikeAubonmarchéorAuxtroisquartiersneverallottedmorethanonepagetoperfumeproductsintheircatalogs,nordidperfumesaccountforasignicantportionoftheirsales.
Thus,thebazaarsbecametheagentsofamassivediffusionofper-fumeproductsinnineteenth-centuryParis.
Therstperfumebazaar,GaleriesSaint-Martin,wasfoundedatthebeginningofthe1890sbybusinessmenBaudisandManilèveadozenyearsafterperfumedepart-mentswererstopenedinthestores.
Thebazaarwaslocatedonboule-vardSaint-MartinwithinashortdistanceofPlacedelaRépublique,wherethedepartmentstoreLesMagasinsréunishadbeenbuiltin1866.
Theperfumebazaarssoonourished:GaleriesSaint-Martinwasfol-lowedbytheGrandeparfumerieparisienne,theParfumeriedesgaler-iesSaint-Germain,theGrandeparfumeriedeRennes,theGrandepar-fumerie,andtheParfumerieMoncey.
EveryParisianarondissementseemedtohavebenetedfromitsownperfumerybazaar.
Notonlyhadthebazaarsbecomeubiquitousbytheearly1900s;theirrangeofper-fumeshadalsogrownmoreimpressivethananyfoundinthedepart-mentstores.
Theysoldtheproductsofalltheperfumeproducers,aswellastheirownbrands,atmuchlowerpricesthanthosechargedinthestores(theirownbrandsgenerallywentforhalfprice),andtheyad-vertisedinleaetsthatmainlydisplayedpricelists.
Lubintoiletwater,forinstance,soldat2.
25francsintheLubinboutiqueoftherueRoyalebutretailedfor1.
85francsattheGaleriesSaint-Martin.
41Theproductsweresoldatstandsonthepavementfromnineinthemorninguntiltenatnight,orevenuntilaslateasmidnight.
Theseinnovativetechniqueshadbeenanticipatedin1843byBal-zacinL'IllustreGaudissart:"Ourcenturywilllinkthereignofindivid-ualforce,withmanyoriginalcreations,tothereignofuniformforce,whichbyleveling,trimmingproducts,swampingmarkets,andobeyingaunitaryidea,isthelastexpressionofsocieties.
"42Facingthe"uniformforce"Balzachaddescribed,traditionalshopkeepersingeneralwerecompelledtoimitate,thentoadopt,practiceslikexedpricesandcashpayment.
Thecaseofperfume,however,wasunique:asthemarketex-pandedandbecamemorecompetitive,thevarioussegmentswerere-distributedinaccordancewithtwoopposingstrategies.
Ontheone41Lheureux-Icard,"Lesparfumeursentre1860et1910,"88.
42HonorédeBalzac,"L'IllustreGaudissart"[1833],inLaComédiehumaine,vol.
6(Paris,1843),318.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/285hand,therewerethedepartmentstores,perfumerybazaars,andafewsmallperfumers,likeAgnel,thatchosetomaketheirproductsmoreac-cessibleandoptedforapolicythatfavoredsalesvolumes.
Ontheotherhand,therewerethetraditionalperfumers,whochargedhigherpricesandbenetedfromwidermargins,dependingontheabilityofconsum-erstopaymorefortheirproducts.
Byattachingdifferentpricestothesameproducts,dependingonwhethertheyweredistributedintradi-tionalboutiquesorindepartmentstoresorbazaars,aperfumerad-dressedcustomersintwoways.
Therst,representinganaffordableentryintothemarket,reliedonproductssuchastoiletsoaps,pomades,oils,lotions,andeauxdecologne—whichwerelessexpensivethaneauxdetoiletteorextracts.
Thesecondwaytoapportionthemarketde-pendedondistributionchannels.
Traditionalperfumersadoptedanalternativetodemocratization:maintainingaconstantsellingprice,regardlessofthedropinproductioncosts.
Becauseperfumeproductswereeasilyinterchangeable,imagebecamethemainfactoruponwhichvaluewasbuilt.
Thecaretakenbythemanufacturerstopromotetheirproducts,andthedecisiontoselltheitemsinrichlydecoratedboutiques,wasintendedtoimpresswealthiercustomerswiththesymbolicvalueanddesirabilityofperfumes,inordertojustifytheirhighprices.
PromotionalengravingfortheMignotboutiqueinthe1860s.
(Source:Parfumerie,Album"Imageriedeparfumerie,"Actualités,série120,ArchivesoftheBibliothèquehistoriquedelavilledeParis.
)EugénieBriot/286AlettersenttoCharlesGalletin1862abouttheCollasperfumeryillustratesthelatterapproach.
ArmandRogernotedthat"eaudeCo-logneisretailedat12francsperlitrebutcostsonly2.
90francsperlitretoproduce,"andthat"itissoldwholesaleat8francsperlitrebutcosts2.
40francstoproduce.
"43Themarginonthisproductthusroseto70percentinthewholesalesales,and76percentintheretailsales.
Inbothcases,theproducersobviouslychosetobetonhighprices,ratherthanonlargequantities,andconceivedoftheirgoodsasluxuryprod-ucts,ratherthanaswidelydistributeditems.
Balzac'sdescriptionofhischaracter,theperfumerCésarBirotteau,rejoicingatthecomfortablemarginthattheparticularlycheapbottlesdiscoveredbyhisassistantPopinotforhisHuilecéphaliquewillprovidehim,makesitclearthattheprotabilityofthisbusinesswaswellknowninthenineteenthcen-tury:"'Foursous!
'saidBirotteau.
'Doyouknowthatwecoulduseoilatthreefrancs,andmakeaprotofthirtysous,andgivetwentysousdis-counttoretailers'"44Birotteaugavehimselfamarginof1.
50francsonthewholesalepriceand2.
50francsontheretailpriceinhisboutique,AlaReinedeseurs.
FranoisRancé,areal-lifewholesalemerchantfromGrasse,didnothesitatetoexhorthisclientstograntthemselvesthelargestpossiblemarginsonhisproducts:"Tothemanydealersofper-fumeproducts(especiallypomadesandoils)forwhomthesearenoth-ingbutaccessoryitemsthatmakethesellingofothergoodseasier,Iurgethesegentlementoalwaysraisetheirdemandstohigherprices(asmuchastheirbusinessmayallowthemto).
"45Someperfumeretailers,ontheotherhand,chosetoexpandac-cesstotheirproductsbysettinglowprices.
Thiswastheroutetakenbydepartmentstores,perfumebazaars,andbrand-nameproducerslikeAgnel.
P.
Pradal,inhisManuelcompletduparfumeur,regrettedthattheperfumeindustrydidnotfollowthenewrulesofmodernbusi-ness:"Sellinginquantityinsteadofsellingexpensively,diminishingone'sprotinretailtoincreaseitwholesale,isanaxiomthewholeen-lightenedbusinessnowadaysagreeson,butwhichitisnotappliedenoughtotheperfumetrade.
"46Mostperfumeproducers,ontheotherhand,understoodthatsettingahighpriceonaproductstrengtheneditssymbolicvalueandsocialdesirability,inthesamewaythatotherimagefactors,suchastheeleganceoftheproductitself,thequalityof43Henri-FranoisSoulié,"Roger&Gallet,Paris:Chroniqued'unedoyennedelaParfum-eriefranaise,"unpublishedms.
,1985,90,citedinLheureux-Icard,"Lesparfumeursentre1860et1910,"23.
44Onesouwasequivalentto0.
05francs.
Balzac,"Histoiredelagrandeuretdeladéca-dencedeCésarBirotteau,"288.
45FranoisRancé,PrixcourantdesparfumeriesdelafabriquedeFranoisRancé(Grasse,n.
d.
).
46P.
Pradal,Nouveaumanuelcompletduparfumeur(Paris,1863),1.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/287itsdistribution,andthepraisegeneratedthroughitspromotion,addedtoitsappeal.
Theseperfumeproducersbetonastrategyofexclusivity,whichwasbasedonmaintaininghighretailpricesthatseeminglywouldhavebeenhardtojustifyinthecontextofthefallingcostsofbothrawmaterialsandlabor.
47Unfortunately,thereisnotenoughdocumentationtoformanesti-mateoftheprotsthatwerereturnedtoproducersasaresultoftheirinvestmentsinindustrialequipment.
Thus,Iamunabletocalculateex-actlythecoststructuretheyusedtojustifythepricestheyset.
Never-theless,thedramaticdropinthepricesofrawmaterialshighlightsthefactthat,ontheeveofWorldWarI,theintrinsicvalueoftheperfumeproductsconsumerscouldbuywasconsiderablydegraded.
AperusaloftheCoudrayhousecatalogsbetween1850and1876yieldsanexampleofthegrowthoftheproducers'margins.
Between1850and1862,thepricesofeauxdecologneandlavenderwaters,productsthatwerecom-parablebasedontheiruseofthesamebottlesofequalcapacity(mostbottlemodelswerekept)didnotvary,nordidthepricesofperfumeex-tractschangefrom1862to1876.
From1868to1872,however,thecata-logsoftheCoudrayhouserevealedasharpdropinthepricesofrawmaterialssubmittedforsale:onekiloofOrientroseessencefellfrom1,200francsto1,000francs;thatofylang-ylang,from1,800francsto1,200francs;vetiveressence,from1,200francsto800francs;andthepriceofonekiloofpatchouliwashalved,droppingfrom400francsto200francs.
Yet,atthesametime,thepricesofsomeofthemostutilizedessencesrose:amber,forinstance,wentfrom80francsto160francs,andmuskgrewfrom120francsto160francs.
Thegreatestdrops,how-ever,affectedthemostexpensiveandpopularrawmaterials,likeOri-entroseessence.
Adropincostsofatleast15percentthusoccurredinthecompositionofaheliotropeextractmadeaccordingtoaformulabySeptimusPiesse,oneofthemostfamousperfumersofthelatenine-teenthcentury.
48Withtheadventofsyntheticcompoundsinthe1880s,thedropbecameallthemorespectacular.
InthecaseofGuerlain,thepricesofeaudeCologneimpériale,eaudeColognemusquée,eaudetoi-letteGuerlain,andeaudevioletteremainedremarkablystable:noneofthesepricesvariedatallbetween1878and1910.
49Thus,evenwhiletheirproductioncostswerediminishingsigni-cantly,producersmaintainedtheirretailpricesandwidenedtheirmar-gins.
Bydisconnectingtheintrinsicvalueoftheirproductsfromtheir47TheanalysesofRosineLheureux-Icardhighlightarelativedecreaseinsalariesbetween1847and1892.
Lheureux-Icard,"Lesparfumeursentre1860et1910,"67.
48SeptimusPiesse,Histoiredesparfumsethygiènedelatoilette(Paris,1890).
49Prixcourant1878,Prixcourant1882,Prixcourant1904,andPrixcourantvers1910,GA.
EugénieBriot/288retailprices,theproducersintroducedelementsthatwereexternaltotheproductitself,makingitmoredesirabletoconsumersandshiftingitsvaluetosymbolicgrounds.
ManagementStrategiesforBuildinganImageofLuxuryThemanagementstrategiesthatperfumeproducersusedinordertobuildthevalueoftheirproductswereincorporatedbothintheirof-feringsandintheirproductdistributionandpromotion.
Inahighlycompetitiveenvironment,differentiatingoneproductfromanotherbe-cameacriticalimperative.
Therewasconsiderablerationalizationofproductrangesandbrands.
Untilthebeginningofthe1880s,eachperfumeintheperfum-ers'catalogswasofferedinseveraldifferentbottles,asmanyastwentyforsomeproducts.
(Forinstance,theeaudeColognerectiéeno.
18listedintheperfumeproducerViolet'scataloguein1865waspackagedineighteendifferentways.
)Thepriceofthebottleitselfdeterminedthenalprice.
50Duringthelastdecadesofthecentury,themerepre-sentationofproductsincatalogsreectedatrendtowardmorerationalorganization:publicationsclassiedtheirdisplaysaccordingtoproductranges,ratherthankindsofproduct.
Alltheproductsperfumedwiththesamescent,whethertheyweresoaps,pomades,orhairoils,ap-pearedtogetherononepage.
Onestyleofdecoration,color,anddraw-ingcreatedauniedpresentation.
Productrangeswerecalled"par-fumeries":"parfumeriesàl'héliotrope"or"parfumeriesDélicia"weredisplayed,forinstance,in1880byRoger&Gallet,whoserstrangeofproductswastheirViolettedeParme,whichencompassedeightdiffer-entitems.
Thewholeprofessionjoinedintheefforttorationalizetheirproducts,limitingthenumberofreferencesincatalogsandpromotingsomeoftheirproductrangesbybuildingandarticulatingthemlikebrands.
Theproducts'elaboratelydecoratedpackagingwasalsofactoredintotheprices.
Withimprovementsincolorprintingandglass-bottlemanufacture,packagingbecameallthemoredecisive.
Thelabels'de-signswereoftendelicateandornate.
L.
T.
Piver'slabels,forexample,wereengravedeitherbyAlexandreBrongniardFils,thedirectoroftheSèvresporcelainfactory,orbyhispupils.
51Perfumersdidnothesitatetohighlightthedecorativeaspectsoftheirproducts,whichsuggestedbothartistryandluxury.
Fromthemid-nineteenthcentury,aconsiderable50Alareinedesabeilles(Paris),Cataloguegénéraldelafabricationdessavonsetpar-fumsdeViolet(Paris,1865).
51JacquelineRobert-André,"AlaReinedeseurs,"LaTribunePiver5(1stterm1960):9.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/289amountofmoneywasinvestedinpresentation.
In1856,L'Illustration,initsregularcolumn"ReviewoftheIndustry,"underlinedthefactthat,withanannualturnoverof900,000francs,theMaillyhouseinNeuillyspentmorethan100,000francsonprinting,embossing,satin-wrapping,andgildingtheirlabels.
52Maillyemphasizedthefactthatitsfactorymadeitsownenvelopesandboxes.
Atthistime,thefamousjewelerRenéLaliquealsobegancreatingbottlesforL.
T.
Piver'sAeterna,Scar-abée,Misti,andIlkaperfumes.
53In1907,FranoisCotyhiredLaliquetodesignabottleforL'Efeurperfume,followedbyanappointmenttodesignfteenmore.
54TheRoger&Gallethousesoonemployedhimtoo.
55Althoughitishardtoevaluatewhatpercentagetheseexpensesrepresentedwithinthecoststructuresoftherms,theelaboratelydec-orativepackagingcertainlyplayedanessentialsymbolicrole.
Newformsofpromotionhelpedtodifferentiateproductsaswell.
Inadditiontotheirtraditionalads,someperfumehousesranadvertise-mentscalled"Faits-Paris,"whichweredisguisedassocietygossipcol-umnsandcostdoubletheamountofregularads.
Itwaspreferablethatsuchadvertisingnotbetoovisibleandnotberevealedforwhatitwas,becausepraisewasallthemorevaluablewhenitappearedtocomefromaladyofthehighestsociety,notfromtheperfumerhimself.
Forthisreason,nomentionofpriceappearedintheFaits-Paris.
Thistypeofad,morethananyotherformofpromotion,wasanefcientwaytobuildthebrand'sassociationwitharistocraticsociety.
Theperfumedcard,anotherpromotionaldevice,appearedattheendofthenineteenthcentury,benetingfromprogressinprintingtechniques.
Thecardswerewidelydistributedduetotheirlowcostandwerealsoprintedascalendarsortraintimetables.
Newconsumerswerethusreachedthroughpromotionsofanameorabrandoutsidethecon-nesoftheperfumeboutique,providingameansforperfumeretailerstosolicitthecustomerswithintheircatchmentarea,andtoraiseaware-nessoftheirproductsoutsidethecustomaryboundaries.
Atthebegin-ningofthetwentiethcentury,anewpracticedeveloped:customerswereofferedfreetrialsamplesofperfumes.
Alabelwasafxedtoanornatecylindricalglasstube,whichwassometimesattachedtoacardboard52ElisabethdeFeydeau,"Del'hygièneaurêve:L'industriefranaiseduparfum(1830–1939),"PhDdiss.
,UniversitédeParisIV,1997,vol.
1,192.
53G.
Champtocé,"Lesenveloppes,lesemballagesLesemballagesenparfumerie,Revuedesmarquesdelaparfumerieetdelacosmétique,specialissue,Paris,1925,quotedbyLheureux-Icard,"Lesparfumeursentre1860et1910,"218.
54GhislaineSicard-Picchiottino,FranoisCoty:UnindustrielcorsesouslaIIIeRépub-lique(Ajaccio,2006),74.
55AssociationpourlapromotiondelacultureàBernay,Roger&Gallet:Parfumeursetcréateurs,1806–1989,ExpositionduMuséemunicipaldeBernay,3juin–3sept.
1989(Ber-nay,1987).
EugénieBriot/290support.
Thissamplingtechniquewassoonfollowedbyamorerenedonethatemergedinthe1910sandtookoffinthe1920sandinvolvedthedistributionofminiaturebottles.
Whilethispromotionalstrategywasrelativelyexpensive,resultinginnarrowerdistributionthantheperfumedcard,itgreatlycontributedtobuildingtheluxuryimageofperfumehousesanddifferentiatingabrandfromitscompetitors.
WiththedevelopmentofpublictransportandParisians'increasedmobility,perfumemakerspromotedtheirproductsthroughsamplingorbroadenedthescaleoftheiradvertisingcampaignsinresponsetotheexpandingcustomercatchmentarea.
56Perfumeproductscouldbepurchasedthroughlargeperfumebazaarsthatofferedanassortmentofseveralbrands,indepartmentstores,andinproducers'ownboutiques.
Promotingabrandthusalsomeantpromotingitspointofsale,wherethemarginsrealizedweremuchbigger.
Inthisrespect,thespaceandvisi-bilityallottedtoengravingsrepresentingboutiquesintheperfumepro-ducers'catalogsemphasizedtheimportanceofthesespecializedstores.
Establishingboutiquesenabledproducerstosatisfythetastesoftheirmostelitecustomers.
Withnowaytomakecustomersawareofperfumesfromadistance,boutiqueswerethemostaccessiblelocationsforbroadcastingtheavailabilityoftheirproductsinthenineteenthcen-tury,andtheywereparticularlyefcientelementsofbrand-building.
Asthemarketexpandedtoincludenewgroupsofconsumersanddistribu-tionchannels,andasthecommercialgeographyofParisevolved,Pari-sianperfumeretailersadaptedtheirstrategiestoaccommodatetheshifts.
Theolderperfumehousesunderwentasignicantevolutionintheirapproachestoestablishingnewpointsofsale.
Inthersthalfofthenineteenthcentury,theboutiqueswerelocatedinthecentralareasofthecapital.
Between1820and1855,therewereabouttenperfumersontheruedeRichelieuandclosetotwentyonrueSaint-Honoré.
TheperfumeterritorywasboundedontheeastbyrueSaint-DenisandrueSaint-Martin,andtherewereelevenperfumeriesoneach.
57Thesefourstreetshousedthehighestnumberofperfumeretailersinthersthalfofthenineteenthcentury,correspondingtothedistributionoffash-ionandnoveltyboutiquesinthesameareaascafés,tearooms,operahouses,coveredpassages,andboutiques,allcontributingtotheneigh-borhood'supscaleambience.
AfterGeorgesHaussmann(theprefectofthedepartmentoftheSeinethatincludedParis)openedboulevardsrunningfromthePlacedelaRépubliquetoLaMadeleine,perfumere-tailersleftthecapitalcenterforthenewareasthatthendrainedoffthe56DominiqueLarroque,MichelMargairaz,andPierreZembri,"NombredevoyageurstransportésdansParisetsarégionde1871à1996,"Flux50(2002):92.
57ArchivesoftheSociétéFranaisedesParfumeurs,"Notesconcernantl'histoiredespar-fumeursparisiens,"vol.
1.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/291elegantcustomers.
PerusaloftheAnnuaireetalmanachducommerceandtheRésultatsstatistiquesdudénombrementde1886pourlavilledeParisetledépartementdelaSeineconrmsthegeneralattractive-nessoftheseplaces,whoseestablishmentswereemblematicofthetri-umphofaleisureclass.
58ThecaseofthePiverperfumemanufacturer,whichmoveditsboutiqueseveraltimesbeforeopeningveotherbranchesinParis,revealedthemerchants'desiretoestablishapres-enceinthisemergingshoppingarea.
Inthemid-1860s,AlphonseHon-oréPiverownedsixboutiquesinParis.
59WhilemaintaininghisplaceVendmelocationwithintheboundariesofwhatwasformerlyconsid-eredelegantParis,nearrueSaint-Honoré,helocatedhisothershopsnearthenewerboulevards.
Astheestablishedzoneofperfumeretailersmovednorthandwestintoareaslesstraditionallygivenovertothesaleofluxuryproducts,thedecorationoftheboutiqueslocatedwithinitbecamemoreelabo-rate.
Sincenineteenth-centuryParisianperfumersposedasarbitersofgoodtaste,theywereboundtoconceiveanddiffuseboutiquemodelsthatstrengthenedthebelieftheircustomershadinthem.
Themostim-portantlocalesfordisplayingtheirmerchandisetopassers-byweretheshopwindows,whichtheproprietorswidenedtotakeupthefullextentoftheirstores'faades.
Thedevelopmentofglass-castingtechniquesafter1860permittedmuchlargerwindowpanestobefabricated.
Show-cases,displaycabinets,counters—inoakorpreciouswoods—mirrors,pots,andscalesmadeupthemainfurnitureoftheperfumeboutique.
60Thequalityofthematerials,thecomfortofthefurniture,theattentive-nessofthepersonnelwereillustratedinanengravingrepresentingthePiverboutiqueinthe1860s,wherenofewerthansevensalesmenandsaleswomenaredepictedwaitingonfourcustomersinanarrangementdesignedtoconveytheutmostluxury.
61TheOrsayMuseumcollectionscontainstudiesforthedecorationofthePiverboutique,aswellasadrawingofashowcasedesignedforMillotbythefamouscolede58Annuaireetalmanachducommerce,del'industrie,delamagistratureetdel'ad-ministration,(Paris,1857–1903);PréfecturedelaSeine,Résultatsstatistiquesdudénom-brementde1886.
59JacquelineAndré,"AlaReinedeseurs,"LaTribunePiver,Revued'information,1–12(1959–62).
60TherestorationoftheHoubigantboutiqueat19faubourgSaint-Honorétoitsappear-ancein1885inordertocelebrateitscentenary,in1955,shows"aheightenedpieceoffurni-tureforcashiers,counters,drawers,innershowcasesandchairsinlemontreewoodornatewithamaranthmouldings,aninlayparquetoor,andadecoratedceiling.
"Pressbookonthe1955reconstructionofthe19faubourgSaint-Honoréboutique,Actualités,série120—Parfumerie,Houbigant,ArchivesdelaBibliothèqueHistoriquedelaVilledeParis,Paris(hereafterBHVP).
61A.
Hermant,"GrandesindustriesdeFrance:MaisondeparfumeriedeM.
A.
Piver,"LeMondeillustré,17oct.
1863,351–52,Actualités,série120—Parfumerie,Piver,articledepresse,BHVP.
EugénieBriot/292NancyartistHectorGuimard.
62AboutiqueliketheCherryBlossom,lo-catedat12boulevarddesItaliens,featuredpicturesqueelements,suchasarock,water,amirror,andgreenery.
63Nodetailofthisspectacularsettingwasoverlooked.
In1893,theperfumerAlexandreBourjois,forexample,registeredapatentforafan-shapeddevicethatdisplayedbot-tlesinanoriginalway.
64Duringthesecondhalfofthecentury,thebou-tiqueevolvedinthedirectionofmorecomfortanddecoration,progres-sivelylosingitslinkswiththemanufacturingactivitywithwhichithadlongbeenassociated.
Boutiquesinwhichperfumewassoldwerede-scribedbythewomen'spress.
Theopulentsurroundingsofaboutiqueandthedeferentialwelcomewithwhichcustomerswerereceivedwerepartofaproduct'sprice.
Atthesametime,thepriceitselfwaspartoftheitem'simage,contributingtoitsdesirability,inlinewiththeeffectpostulatedbyThorsteinVeblen.
65Thus,owingtoitsimpermanenceandlackofintrinsicvalue,per-fume'sworthwaslargelysubjective,whetheritwasbasedonthejudg-mentsofconsumersthemselves,ontheprescriptionsofthewomen'spress,oronthemanualsofmanners.
Thatworthwasexpressedbythesystemofsymbolsdirectlysurroundingtheperfumeitself—itsname,bottle,label,advertisements,theboutiqueinwhichitwassold—thatcombinedtoconveyaparticularimage.
Thecommercialrhetoricitselfbecamethewaytodescribeperfume.
Balzac,forexample,depictsthecharacterCésarBirotteauthinkingofhisnewEssenceComagène:Theperfumer,lostinhiscomputations,wasmeditatingashewentalongtheRueSaint-HonoréonhisduelwithMacassarOil.
Hewasreectingabouthislabelsandtheshapeofhisbottles,workingoutthestructureofthecorks,thecoloroftheplacards.
Andyetpeoplesaythereisnopoetryincommerce!
NewtonhadnotmadeasmanycalculationsforhisfamousbinomialasBirotteaumadeforhisCo-mageneEssence—forbythistimetheOilhadbecomeanEssence62HectorGuimard,ModèledemeublepourlesalondelaparfumerieMillot,ExpositionUniverselledeParis,1900(3.
3m*1.
5m),Muséed'Orsay,GP2087;AlbertBesnard,ProjetdedécorationpourlaparfumeriePiver,1900,watercolor,pencil,beigepaper,gouache(0.
315m*3.
040m),MuséeduLouvre,fondOrsay,RF36526.
63TheCherry-blossomboutiqueisthesubjectofanarticleinLaConstructionmodernein1893:"Astotherock,itdoesnotseemoutofplaceinthissevereboutique,foritbringsalivelynotewithitswatereffects,itsmirrorsandgreenerypoints.
Atnightitpresentsanen-tirelydifferentaspect,maybemorepleasant,withitseffectsofelectriclightofvariouscol-ors.
"G.
Hennequin,"Boutiquedeparfumerie,àParis,boulevarddesItaliens,"LaConstruc-tionmoderne(Paris,1893),126–27.
64SociétéA.
Bourjois,Certicatd'additiondu12octobre1893aubrevetd'inventionpour"Ungenredeboteprésentantenéventaillesaconsetautresobjets,"brevetno.
230732,9June1893,Archivesdel'InstitutNationaldelaPropriétéIndustrielle,Paris.
65TheVebleneffectasdescribedbyHarveyLeibensteinin"Bandwagon,Snob,andVe-blenEffectsintheTheoryofConsumers'Demand,"QuarterlyJournalofEconomics64(1950):183–207.
FrenchPerfumeintheNineteenthCentury/293again;hewentfromonedescriptiontoanotherbutdidnotperceivetheiractualvalue.
Hisheadspunwithhiscomputations,andhetookthisactivityofunclearthoughtforthesubstantialworkofrealtalent.
66Whethersymbolicorformulated,thediscoursesurroundingtheproductcamerst.
Itspresentation,promotion,anddistributionwerecarefullydesignedtoconstructitssymbolicvalueandenhanceitsdesir-abilitytoconsumers.
Inthegeneralcontextoffallingproductioncoststhatresultedfromthelowerpricesofrawmaterialsandtheindustrial-izationofthesector,itbecameallthemorenecessarytolinkperfumetotheimageofluxury.
Theintroductionofperfumeindistributionstruc-tureslikedepartmentstores,whichchargedmoreattractivepricesthantheperfumeboutiques,pushedperfumerproducerstoadoptstrategiesofdifferentiationanddistinction.
Whattheproductlostinintrinsicworthhadtobegainedinsymbolicvalue.
ConclusionTheendofthenineteenthcenturywasanageoftransition,com-bininguniquecultural,technological,andeconomicconditionswithintheperfumeindustryandamarketplacefavorablebothtoadramaticdevelopmentoftheperfume-manufacturingsectorandtotheemer-genceofnewmanagementstrategies.
Theemphasisshiftedfromthefragranceitselftothedisplayofthepraisesurroundingit.
Thenewmanagementstrategieswereparticularlyefcient,sincetheyenabledperfumeproducerstolaunchtheirnamesinaluxurymarketandtosucceedinmaintaininghighprices,despitethegrowthofthesector,bybuildingthevalueoftheirproductsandbrands.
Collaboration,whilenotexplicitlyspelledout,wasacommonoccurrenceamongtraditionalParisianperfumeproducersatatimewhentheirgroupcohesionwasreinforcedbytheorganizationofUniversalExhibitionsandthefounda-tion,in1890,oftheChambresyndicaledelaparfumeriefranaise(ChamberofFrenchPerfumeProducers)underthepresidencyofAiméGuerlain.
Perfumeproducersdidnotfollowtheexampleofotherluxurysectors,suchasthatofthesilversmiths,whousedtheargumentthatplatedsilverwareofferedtheircustomersthebestprice:"Why,whenfortunenowadaysreliesalmostsolelyoninterest,immobilizeseveralhundredthousandfrancsYoucangetexactlythesamevisualresultwithafewdozenthousandfrancs.
"67Bypositioningtheirproductasa66Balzac,"HistoiredelagrandeuretdeladécadencedeCésarBirotteau,"266.
67Christoe'scatalog,1862,quotedbyLouisBergeron,LesindustriesduluxeenFrance(Paris,1998),68.
EugénieBriot/294luxury,perfumersbuilttheimageofaprofessionwhosesocialsuccessandwealthbecameproverbialandformedpartoftheirprofessionalgroupidentity.
Thecommercialandmarketingpracticesoftraditionalnineteenth-centuryParisianperfumeproducersshowedtheoriginalityoftheirstrategies,whichwereinuencedbythefactthatperfumeitemsavoidedthetraditionaloppositesofgenuineandfake,naturalandarticial,onwhichanyestimationofthevalueofgoodsisgenerallyfounded.
Inthiscenturyofsyntheticcolorings,papier-mché,andnickelsilver,whosetastefulworkwaslikelytointroduceobjectsintothecategoryofdemi-luxe,nothingenabledanyonetodistinguishaperfumeexclusivelycom-poundedofrawmaterialsofnaturaloriginfromonethatintegratedar-ticialproducts.
Onthecontrary:articialproductswerelikelytoenhancetheolfactoryqualityofperfumes.
Thus,perfumeavoidedthefatethatbefellothergoodthatwereseparatedintoluxuryordemi-luxecategories.
Perfumeisthusaparticularlyusefulsubjectfordiscussingthecri-teriaofluxuryandsocialdesirability.
Indeed,neitheritsworkvaluenoritsexchangevalueisaneffectivewaytoestimatethisproduct'sworth.
Shouldperfumerepresentautility,Jean-BaptisteSaywoulddeneitinthisway:"Byproductionismeantthecreation,notofsubstance,butofutility.
"68Inthecaseofperfume,utilityismainlysocial,makingitdif-culttoassigntoitamonetaryvalue.
Becauseitleadsustorethinkthecategoriesandfoundationsofthevalueofobjects,perfumepavesthewayforfruitfulstudiesonthemanagementofotherluxuryproducts.
Fromthebeginningoftheinterwarperiod,however,theutilitymodelwasbrokenbytheallianceofperfumeproductionwithcouturehousesthatbeganafter1910withPaulPoiret'sParfumsdeRosine.
Per-fumethusfounditselfattachedtonameslikeGabrielleChanel,JeanPatou,orJeanneLanvin,whichrestedonstrong,extremelyvisualiden-tities.
Thenewnamesinthebusiness,byturningperfumeintoafash-ionaccessory,capitalizingonthefameofabrand,andaccessingmorepowerfulcommunicationmeans,nallyeclipsedtheoldperfumehouses.
ApartfromGuerlainandRoger&Gallet,littleremainstodayofthenineteenth-centuryParisianperfumers'originalfame.
.
.
.
EUGNIEBRIOTisassistantprofessorattheInstitutderechercheengestion,UniversitéParis-Est–Marne-la-Vallée.
Sheisinterestedinindustriesthatdealinluxurygoods,especiallythelinkstheymaintainwiththeirherit-ageandhistory.
68Jean-BaptisteSay,Traitéd'économiepolitique(Paris,1972[1sted.
,1803]),p.
5.