TD-SCDMAtv

CHINACOUNTRYREPORTMAPPINGDIGITALMEDIA:MappingDigitalMedia:ChinaAREPORTBYTHEOPENSOCIETYFOUNDATIONSWRITTENBYHuYong(leadresearcher)FangKun,LiuYang,IrisHa,ZhangYuping,WangMengyao,KathrynNute(researchers)EDITEDBYMariusDragomirandMarkThompson(OpenSocietyMediaProgrameditors)GrahamWatts(regionaleditor)EDITORIALCOMMISSIONYuen-YingChan,ChristianS.
Nissen,DusˇanReljic,RussellSouthwood,MichaelStarks,DamianTambiniTheEditorialCommissionisanadvisorybody.
ItsmembersarenotresponsiblefortheinformationorassessmentscontainedintheMappingDigitalMediatextsOPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAMTEAMMeijinderKaur,programassistant;MorrisLipson,seniorlegaladvisor;andGordanaJankovic,directorOPENSOCIETYINFORMATIONPROGRAMTEAMVeraFranz,seniorprogrammanager;DariusCuplinskas,director9July2012MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA2ContentsMappingDigitalMedia.
4ExecutiveSummary.
6Context.
11SocialIndicators.
13EconomicIndicators14MediaContext.
151.
MediaConsumption:TheDigitalFactor.
221.
1DigitalTake-up.
221.
2MediaPreferences.
251.
3NewsProviders311.
4Assessments382.
DigitalMediaandPublicorState-AdministeredBroadcasters392.
1PublicServiceandStateInstitutions392.
2PublicServiceProvision.
442.
3Assessments453.
DigitalMediaandSociety.
463.
1User-GeneratedContent(UGC)463.
2DigitalActivism.
523.
3Assessments563OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20124.
DigitalMediaandJournalism584.
1ImpactonJournalistsandNewsrooms.
584.
2InvestigativeJournalism.
634.
3SocialandCulturalDiversity704.
4PoliticalDiversity.
754.
5Assessments795.
DigitalMediaandTechnology815.
1Spectrum815.
2DigitalGatekeeping.
855.
3Telecommunications.
885.
4Assessments916.
DigitalBusiness.
956.
1Ownership.
956.
2MediaFunding.
996.
3MediaBusinessModels.
1026.
4Assessments1067.
Policies,Laws,andRegulators.
1097.
1PoliciesandLaws.
1097.
2Regulators.
1157.
3GovernmentInterference.
1207.
4Assessments1218.
Conclusions1228.
1MediaToday.
1228.
2MediaTomorrow.
122ListofAbbreviations,Figures,Tables,andCompanies.
124MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA4MappingDigitalMediaThevaluesthatunderpingoodjournalism,theneedofcitizensforreliableandabundantinformation,andtheimportanceofsuchinformationforahealthysocietyandarobustdemocracy:theseareperennial,andprovidecompass-bearingsforanyonetryingtomakesenseofcurrentchangesacrossthemedialandscape.
Thestandardsintheprofessionareintheprocessofbeingset.
Mostoftheeectsonjournalismimposedbynewtechnologyareshapedinthemostdevelopedsocieties,butthesechangesareequallyinuencingthemediainlessdevelopedsocieties.
TheMappingDigitalMediaproject,whichexaminesthechangesin-depth,aimstobuildbridgesbetweenresearchersandpolicymakers,activists,academicsandstandard-settersacrosstheworld.
Italsobuildspolicycapacityincountrieswherethisislessdeveloped,encouragingstakeholderstoparticipateinandinuencechange.
Atthesametime,thisresearchcreatesaknowledgebase,layingfoundationsforadvocacywork,buildingcapacityandenhancingdebate.
TheMediaProgramoftheOpenSocietyFoundationshasseenhowchangesandcontinuityaectthemediaindierentplaces,redeningthewaytheycanoperatesustainablywhilestayingtruetovaluesofpluralismanddiversity,transparencyandaccountability,editorialindependence,freedomofexpressionandinformation,publicservice,andhighprofessionalstandards.
TheMappingDigitalMediaprojectassesses,inthelightofthesevalues,theglobalopportunitiesandrisksthatarecreatedformediabythefollowingdevelopments:theswitch-overfromanalogbroadcastingtodigitalbroadcasting;growthofnewmediaplatformsassourcesofnews;convergenceoftraditionalbroadcastingwithtelecommunications.
Covering60countries,theprojectexamineshowthesechangesaectthecoredemocraticservicethatanymediasystemshouldprovide—newsaboutpolitical,economicandsocialaairs.
5OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012TheMappingDigitalMediareportsareproducedbylocalresearchersandpartnerorganizationsineachcountry.
Cumulatively,thesereportswillprovideamuch-neededresourceonthedemocraticroleofdigitalmedia.
Inadditiontothecountryreports,theOpenSocietyMediaProgramhascommissionedresearchpapersonarangeoftopicsrelatedtodigitalmedia.
ThesepapersarepublishedastheMDMReferenceSeries.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA6MappingDigitalMedia:ChinaExecutiveSummaryThestoryofmediadigitizationinChinaisinseparablefromthecountry'srecentmodernization.
Probablynowhereelsehavesomanyotherthingsbeenchangingatthesametimeasthetechnologicaladvanceswithwhichthisstudyisconcerned.
Andprobablynowhereelsehasdigitizationourishedonsuchascaleinsuchaclosedmediaenvironment.
Asaresult,digitizationhastransformedthediversityofinformationandpublicopinionformanymillionsofpeople.
Thegovernmenthasbeentherefromthestart.
FromthefoundingofthePeople'sRepublicofChinain1949,throughtheanalogageandmorethanadecadeofdigitization,partyandstatehaveowned,run,anddisciplinedthemediaanditspractitioners.
Theyhavealsodrivenandnancedthetransitionfromoldtonewtechnology,recognizingthatdigitalmediaingeneralandtheinternetinparticulararecriticaltothecountry'seconomicdevelopmentandmodernization.
Buttheyhavenotalwayshadtheirway.
Thehugedisparitiesofwealthanddevelopmentacrossthisvastcountry,fromthericheastandsouthtothepoorcentralandwesternprovinces,haveresultedinaccessibilityandusagegaps.
Andinmanyrespectstheauthorities'holdontheboundariesofpublicdiscoursehasslipped,despiteeortstomaintainandeventotightenit.
Thechangeshavebeenbreathtaking.
Intheveyearsfrom2005to2009,internetcoveragemorethantripledandmobilephonecoveragealmostdoubled.
AsofDecember2011,therewere513millioninternetusers,155millionbroadbandsubscribers,andover1billionmobilephoneusersinChina,andthenumberof3Gphonesubscribers—afternearlytriplingto128millioninjustoneyear—exceedsthetotalpopulationsofmostothercountriesinthisproject.
Atthesametime,theinternetisstillbeyondthereachof800millionChinesewhorelyalmostexclusivelyontelevisionfortheirinformationandentertainment,inparticularthemammothstatebroadcasterChinaCentralTelevision(CCTV).
Butasignoftheprofoundchangestakingplaceisthatthisyear(2012)thetimepeoplespendontheinternetissettoovertakethatwhichtheyspendwatchingtelevision.
7OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Chinahastheworld'slargesttelevisionmarket.
Ithasestablishedadigitalterrestrialtelevisionbroadcastingstandardthatwillnotonlyallowimproveddeliverytoruralandurbanareas,butalsosupportmobiletelevision,makingpossibletelevisionreceptiononbuses,taxis,andevenhigh-speedmass-transittrains.
In2003thegovernmentsetatimetablefortheswitch-overfromanalogtodigital.
InJanuary2008,CCTVbeganatrialofdigitalterrestrialbroadcastinginBeijingandbyAugustofthatyear,eightcitieswereabletobroadcastdigitalcoverageoftheOlympicGames.
By2009,morethan100citieswerebroadcastingdigitalprograms.
By2010,simulcastofanaloganddigitaltelevisionwasrealizedandby2011bothstandardandhigh-denitiondigitalterrestrialtelevisionprogramswerebeingbroadcastinallChinesecitiesaboveprefecturelevel.
Thegovernment'splanistobeginslowlyshuttingdownanalogtransmissionsfrom2015andtodiscontinuethementirelyin2020.
Becauseofgapsineconomicdevelopmentindierentpartsofthecountry—andthereforeinbroadcastinfrastructureinvestment—theprocesshasbeenpatchy,withtake-upbehindschedule.
By2011thenumberofdigitalterrestrialtelevisionuserswasjust12million,sonotevenclosetothe30millionthatwereplannedby2005.
Bycontrast,in2011China'scabletelevisonsubscribersexceeded200millionforthersttime,whilecabledigitaltelevision(CDTV)householdsubscriptionstopped100million,ahouseholdpenetrationrateof57percent.
Themostfar-reachingimpactofdigitizationinChinahasnotbeenonthebroadcastfrontbutinthemanywaysnewtechnologieshaveunderminedthestate'slong-standingmonopolyoninformationandpublicopinion.
Apartfromtheprocessociallyknownas"commercialization,"involvingreformsthatbeganpriortodigitization,andwhichhasforcedthemainstreammediatopitchtheirservicesmoreatconsumertastes,therehasbeennofundamentalchangeinthehabitsofthebigbroadcastersandnewspapers.
Buttherehasbeenaveritablerevolutionintheinteractiveanduser-generatedworldofforums(or"bulletinboards"),videosharing,socialnetworks,blogs,andmicroblogs.
Thelastareofparticularnote.
SimilartoTwitter(whichisblockedinChina,thoughsomepeopleaccessitviaproxyservers),Chinesemicroblogs(weibo)allowreal-timelimitedcharactertext,photo,andvideocommunicationstobedeliveredonthewebandtomobiledevices.
Whathashelpedtheirpopularityisthefactthatyoucansayagreatdealmorein140ChinesecharactersthanyoucanusingtheRomanalphabet.
Butmorethananythingelse,microblogginghasforthersttimeallowedmillionsofChinesetohaveavoiceunfetteredbythedictatesofpartyandstatepropagandaandtoreceivemostlyunlterednewsandcommentaryfrommillionsoffellownetizens.
Eventhoughthisdiscourseisinterruptedandblockedateveryturn,itisoutthereanddiculttostopentirely.
Littlewonderthatbytheendof2011morethan70percentofChina'shalfabillioninternetuserssaidtheyusedtheinternettogettheirnews.
Andtheexplosivegrowthofmicrobloggingisillustratedbythefactthatwhilelessthan14percentofnetusersin2010saidtheywentonsuchsites,ayearlaternearlyhalfsaidtheydid.
Oneofthethingsdrivingthisistheuser-friendlynatureofmanyofthesesites.
Indeed,ChinaleadstheWestinanumberofWeb2.
0technologiesandapplications.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA8Theliberatinginuenceofuser-generateddigitalmediaisalsowherethegreatesteectsonjournalismcanbefound.
Awayfromtheconstraintsofparty-guidednewsrooms,journalistshaveturnedthemselvesintobloggers,ndingoutletsforstoriestheycannotpublishintheiremployers'columnsorwebpagesandcollaboratingwitheachotherininvestigationsandcampaigns.
Andtheretheyrubcyber-shoulderswithcitizenjournalistsandonlinemaverickvoices.
Microbloggersbreaknews;theylinkavastnetworkofeducatedChineseinrealtimetotheeventsandissuesofthemoment;theyexposewrongdoingandcorruption;andtheycampaignforthevictimsofarbitrarypower,sometimesinperson.
Indoingso,theirreportsremainbeyondthereachofeditor-censorsastheyareforwardedinstantlyacrosscyberspace.
DigitalmediahavehelpedreportersandcitizensaliketorealizeamoreauthenticChina,ratherthantheidealisticimagethatispropagatedbyocialmediasources.
ThesetrendsbringwiththemthepromiseoffurtherdevelopmentofanindependentandvibrantChinesecivilsociety.
Aspartofthis,somesensitiveandneglectedissueshavebeengivenanairingasminorityvoiceshavebeenabletoexpressthemselves,butonlyinalimitedfashion.
Thevastmajorityofthepoorandethnicminorities,andthosewithunconventionalsocialandsexualbehavior,remainineectwithoutavoice,notleastbecausemanyhavenoaccesseventosimpledigitalmedia.
Atthesametime,internetmediahaveprovidedanenvironmentforapolarizationofethniccommunitiesandculturalmovements.
Inthemoremainstreammedia,1shiftsinthewaynewspapersandbroadcastersaremanagedhaveledtoaconictbetweenideologicalguidanceontheonehandandcommercialconsiderationsinnewsproductionontheother—propagandaversusprot.
Chinahasauniquemediasysteminwhichthepartyandstateownallmajormediacompanies,includingnewspapersandmagazines,publishinghouses,televisionandradiostations,andinternetnetworks.
Atthesametime,themediatakecommercialadvantageofthepoliticalfavorsconferredbystateownershipandturnsomeofthatprottothefulllmentofideologicaltasks.
ThebiggestchangeintheChinesenewsmediaoverthepast20yearshasbeen"commercialization,"mentionedabove.
Thepartyandstatehavesuspendednancialsupportforthemediasincetheeconomicreforms.
Theadvertisingindustrywasrestored(advertisinginChinawashaltedforthreedecadesfollowingtheChineseCommunistParty's(CCP)ascenttopowerin1949),providingthenewsmediawiththechallengeandopportunitytosupportthemselvesfromtherevenuetheyareabletogenerate.
Thesetwoinitiativeshavetotallychangedthepoliticaleconomyofthemedia.
Inadditiontosomeofthepositivebenetsthishasbrought,themarketincentivehascontributed,asithasdoneelsewhere,toadeclineinprofessionalismand,insomecases,incontentqualityandinjournalismethics.
1.
Mainstreammedia,inChina'spoliticalparlance,referto"thosemediawhopromotemainstreamvaluesofthenationandtheparty,"accordingtoZhangShouying,directoroftheJournalismResearchCenterofthePeople'sDaily.
SeeNewsFront,March2012.
On20June2008,PresidentHuJintaomadehisrstspeechsincetakingocein2002todealcomprehensivelywiththenewsmediaanditsroleinachangingChina,inwhichhesaid:themediamustplayan"activerole"insuchtasksas"disseminatingthesocialistcorevaluesystem"and"creatinghealthy,richandlivelymainstreampublicopinion.
"Seehttp://politics.
people.
com.
cn/GB/1024/7408514.
html(accessed8June2012).
9OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Littleinthewayofcurrentownershipandregulationpatternsislikelytoaddresstheseissues.
Thesupremacyoftheparty-stateremainsattheheartofpolicy,regardlessoftheopportunitiesandchallengesraisedbydigitization.
Thisistruetoowithregardtotheissuesof"publicservice"broadcastingandfrequencyallocation.
Inalltheserespects,thepartyembodiesthewillandtheinterestsofthepeopleanditisthereforeaxiomaticthatstateinstitutionsledbythepartyprocurethepublicinterest.
Therecanbenopublicservicethatisnotgovernmentservice.
Ontheotherhand,ifthepublicinterestispartlyaboutspeakingtoandengagingwithcitizens,itisatleastinpartservedbyfreeingthemediafrommarketforces.
CCTVtransmitsmanyprogramsthatwouldnotbecommerciallyviable,suchasdocumentariesandeducationalprograms.
Besidestheformalstate-runinstitutionsthatgovernthemedia,therearemyriadbroadlawsandpromulgations,oftenenforcedarbitrarily,thatmaketheworldofdigitalmediaunpredictableandsometimesfraughtwithrisk.
Whilethereappearstobenoformalpolicywithregardtofreedomofexpression,notwithstandingthefactthatitisenshrinedintheconstitution,thecurrentapproachseemstobeonethatallowsasurprisingdegreeoflatitudebutrevertstoharshrestraintwheneverthepartyfearsdisparatedissentcouldcoalesceintoa"massincident"(or"groupincident,"ascivilunrestisociallycalledinChina).
Therearetwoopposingforcesinercecontention:thedriveforcontrol,andthedrivethatseeksopenexpression.
Theparty-stateisalwaystemptedtousepolicepowertopreventcriticismofitspolicies,andisfrequentlysuccessfulindoingso.
Webuserswhopostcontentonlineorparticipateinpublicdiscussionsaregenerallysavvyenoughtoknowwhichtopicstestthegovernment'stoleranceoffreediscussion.
Accordingly,theytempertheirremarksconsciouslyorsubconsciously,resultinginself-censorship.
Mostwebusersneverdirectlychallengethecommunistideologyofthepartyorthecentralgovernment'spolicies.
Asnewtechnologiessuchasweiboputmorepowerintothehandsofnetizens,thegovernmenthasalsobeguntodevelopnewformsofcontrol,suchastheobligatoryidenticationofmicrobloggers.
However,theparty'sinabilitytocensoronlineinformationcompletelyissignicant.
Infact,webusersareoftenabletoaccessanddiscusspoliticallysensitiveinformationdespitethecensors'besteorts.
Inanenvironmentoffast-changingpoliticalrealities,avibrantonlinecivilsocietyandasophisticatedparty-statepropagandaandcontrolsystemactuallycoexist.
Therelationshipsbetweencivilsocietyandocialstructuresarelessdeveloped:civilsocietyisnotinuentialwithintheongoingpoliticalprocessesandmostlyactsasapassiveobserver.
However,itmaybecomeacatalystforlong-termpoliticalchangebecauseitishelpingtoenlargethespaceforcollaborationandconversation.
Muchremainstobedone.
Tobeginwith,thegovernmentshouldrelaxtheparty-state'scontrolofthemedia.
Itshouldputconstraintsonlocalgovernments,takingmeasurestoendthepatternofviolentretribution,harassmentandvictimizationmetedouttojournalistsorwhistleblowersbylocalocialsangeredbycriticalmediacoverage.
Asgovernanceaccordingtotheruleoflawhasalreadybecomeanationalpolicy,thereisanurgentneedforapresslawthatcanhelpprohibitadministrativecontrolandinterferenceinthemedia.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA10Atthesametime,Chinaneedsindependentprofessionalorganizationstodefendpressfreedomandtheindependenceofmediafromthegovernmentandhelpaddressacrisisofethicsintheprofession.
Thereisalsoaneedforanon-commercial,non-prot,publicradioandtelevisionsystemtoguaranteethedisseminationofeducation,science,health,andothercontenttofeedaninformation-hungrypopulace.
AlthoughChinaisalreadytheworld'sbiggestmediamarket,therearestillhundredsofmillionsofpeoplewithlittleknowledgeorunderstandingofhowthemediaareusedandhowtheymightusethemedia.
Anationwidemedialiteracycampaignwouldhelpeducatepeopletoparticipateinpubliclifesothattheopportunitieswhichdigitizationbringscanbemorewidelyenjoyed.
Forthedigitalswitch-over,thereshouldbethemeansforcollaborationbetweenindustryplayers,especiallybroadcastingcompaniesandmobileoperators.
Closecollaborationbetweentheprincipalstakeholders—thegovernment,regulators,broadcasters,transmissionproviders,receivermanufacturersandretailers,andconsumerrepresentatives—isessential.
11OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012ContextChina's1.
37billionpopulation(accordingtothe2010census)isthebiggestintheworld.
Thecountryhas56ethnicgroups,withtheHannationalityaccountingfor91.
51percentofthetotalpopulationandethnicminoritiesfor8.
49percent,accordingtotheSixthNationalCensusin2010.
Chinahas160dialectsand130minoritylanguages,butonlyonewrittenlanguage,Mandarin,orPutonghua,basedonthenorthern,primarilyBeijing,dialect.
ThegovernmentofChinahasalwaysattachedgreatimportancetoethnicproblems,maintainingthattheformulationofitspoliciestowardethnicminoritieshasbeencharacterizedbyastrongtendencytoenhanceequality,justice,andminorityrights.
Butinrecentyearstheprocessofmodernizationthathascomewitheconomicdevelopmentandarisingtideofnationalismhaveledtodestabilizingethnicconicts,sometimesverybloody,suchastheoutbreakofunrestinTibetandXinjiangin2008and2009,respectively.
Therearenoreliablestatisticsonthecountry'sreligiouscomposition.
Nature,economicdevelopment,andmanyotherfactorshavegivenChinaanextremelyunevendistributionofpopulation.
Thepopulationdensityoftheeasternregionishighandthewestsparse,whileoverallthecountryisstillmoreruralthanurban.
However,themoredevelopedeasternareasattractmanymigrantworkersandalargeoatingpopulationisamajorfeatureofeasterncities.
Between1979and2009Chinawastheworld'sfastest-growingeconomy,withanaverageannualgrowthrateof9.
8percent.
In2010,itsgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)wasafractionshortofUS$6trillion,thesecondbiggestaftertheUnitedStatesandaheadofJapan.
2AccordingtotheWorldBank,Chinahasjumpedfrombeingalow-incomecountrytoanuppermiddle-incomeone,asitsGDPperheadhasrisenfrom119renminbi(RMB)(veryapproximatelyUS$20)3in1952toRMB381in1978andtoRMB22,698(veryapproximatelyUS$3,250)in2008.
Growthin2008was32.
4timeswhatitwasin1952.
42.
WorldBank,athttp://www.
worldbank.
org/en/country/china/data(accessed17March2012).
3.
Conversionusingthepurchasingpowerparitymethod,whichindicatesmoreaccuratelywhatcanactuallybeboughtwithadollar,isnotavail-ableforthisperiod,soasimpleconversionusingthecontemporaneousnominalexchangeratehasbeenusedhere.
4.
SeeCentralPeople'sGovernmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,athttp://www.
gov.
cn/test/2009-09/11/content_1415037_2.
htm(accessed26February2011),Chineseonly(hereafterhttp://www.
gov.
cn/test/2009-09/11/content_1415037_2.
htm).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA12Despitethestaggeringgures,China'sregionaleconomicdevelopment,likeitspopulationdistribution,isunbalanced.
In2008,theeasternregionaccountedfor68.
9percentoftotalindustrialoutputvalue,whilethecentralandwesternregionaccountedfor19percentand12.
1percent,respectively.
5Inaddition,thereisahugegapbetweenurbanandruralareas,anditiswidening.
TheannualdisposableincomeperheadofurbanresidentsreachedRMB15,781(US$2,500)in2008,comparedwithlessthanRMB100(veryapproximatelyUS$15)in1949.
However,theannualdisposableincomeperhead6ofruralresidentsincreasedfromRMB44(veryapproximatelyUS$7)in1949toRMB4,761(US$750)in2008.
7Thedisposableincomeofurbanresidentsisbetweenthreeandfourtimesthatofpeopleinruralareas.
5.
Seehttp://www.
gov.
cn/test/2009-09/11/content_1415037_2.
htm(accessed26February2011).
6.
Disposableincomeperheaddeterminesanindividual'sabilitytopurchasegoodsorservices.
Itiscalculatedbytakingincomeearnedfromallsourcesminustaxes,savings,andsomenon-taxpayments,anddividingbythetotalpopulation.
7.
Seehttp://www.
gov.
cn/test/2009-09/11/content_1415037_2.
htm(accessed26February2011).
13OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012SocialIndicatorsThemostrecentcensuswascarriedoutinApril2011.
Population(numberofinhabitants):1.
37billionNumberofhouseholds:401.
5millionFigure1.
Rural–urbanbreakdown(%oftotalpopulation),2010Source:SixthNationalCensus,2010,athttp://www.
stats.
gov.
cn/tjfx/jdfx/t20110428_402722253.
htm(accessed11April2012),ChineseonlyFigure2.
Ethniccomposition(%oftotalpopulation),2010Source:SixthNationalCensus,2010,athttp://www.
stats.
gov.
cn/tjfx/jdfx/t20110428_402722253.
htm(accessed11April2012),ChineseonlyRural,50.
3Urban,49.
7Other,8.
5Han,91.
5MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA14EconomicIndicatorsTable1.
Economicindicators2005200620072008200920102011e2012eGDP(currentprices),totalinUS$billion2,2562,7123,4944,5214,9915,9267,2987,991GDP(currentprices),perheadinUS$1,7262,0632,6443,4033,7384,4215,4135,898GrossNationalIncome(GNI),perhead,current$1,7402,0402,4803,0403,6204,2704,930n/aUnemployment(%oftotallaborforce)4.
24.
14.
04.
24.
34.
14.
04.
0Ination(averageannualratein%againstpreviousyear),consumerprices1.
81.
44.
75.
9–0.
63.
35.
43.
3Notes:e:estimate(InternationalMonetaryFund,IMF);n/a:notavailableSources:NationalBureauofStatisticsofChina;IMF(forallindicatorsfor2011–2012otherthanGNIandforGDPperheadallyears);WorldBank15OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012MediaContextMediaCommercializationBeforeconsideringmediaconsumptioninChina,itisnecessarytoprovideaguidetotheuniquewayinwhichmediaareownedandcontrolledasaresultofreformsoverthepasttwodecades.
Chinaisstillverymuchaone-partystate.
TheCommunistPartymaintainstightcontrolsonpoliticalexpression,speech,religion,andassembly,andanysocialgroupabletoorganizeonalargescaleisdeemedathreat,asaresomeindividuals.
Politicalreformlagsbehindtherapiddevelopmentoftheeconomy,leavingtherulingpartywithtwosometimescontendinggoals:marketreformsandpoliticalstability.
Thisconictisalsomanifestinthemediaindustryasonebetweenideologicalguidanceontheonehandandcommercialconsiderationsinnewsproductionontheother—whatmightbecalledpropagandaversusprot.
Chinahasauniquemediasystemthatcanbedenedas"soleownership,binaryoperation.
"Soleownershipmeansthattheparty-stateownsallmajormediacompanies,includingnewspapersandmagazines,publishinghouses,televisionandradiostations,andinternetnetworks.
Throughthisownership,thestatehastremendouspoweroverthemediamarket.
Binaryoperationmeansthatwhilethemediatakeadvantageoftheirstateownershiptoenhancetheirprot,thatprotisalsousedtofulllideologicaltasks.
Thebiggestchangeinthenewsmediaoverthepast20yearshasbeencommercialization.
Sincetheeconomicreforms,thepartyandstatehavesuspendednancialsupporttothemedia.
Theadvertisingindustrywasrestored(advertisinginChinawashaltedforthreedecadesfollowingtheCCP'sascenttopowerin1949),providingthenewsmediawiththechallengeandopportunitytosupportthemselvesfromtherevenuetheyareabletogenerate.
Thesetwoinitiativeshavetotallychangedthepoliticaleconomyofthemedia.
Commercializationmeansthatthemediahaveundergoneatwofoldprocessoftransformation:rst,changingfrombeingastatepropagandavehicleonlytoalsoservingtheinterestsofaudiences;andsecond,changingfromastate-ownedmediainstitutiontoastate-capitalistentity"withsocialistcharacteristics.
"Thepost-1990speriodhasseenamajorityofnewsmediabecomenanciallyindependentfromthegovernmentwhileremaininganintegralpartofthefunctioningofthegovernmentandadheringtotheCommunistParty'sline.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA16Theparty's"Makingmediabigandstrong"policyofJanuary2002wasaimedatpromotingthecreationofpowerfulandprotabledomesticmediaconglomeratesunderitscontrolthatarereadyforglobalcompetition.
Forexample,printmediaatthecity,provincial,andcentrallevelshavebeenreorganizedintomediaconglomeratesormediagroupsinordertonanciallystrengthenthemediaindustryandconsolidatethepoliticalleadership.
Thesemediagroupsareresponsibleforpublishingboththeocialpapersthatareintendedforthedisseminationoftheocialpartyviewandalsotheprot-drivensemi-commercialpapersthatareintendedformassconsumption.
Thestartlingdiversityofthemediascapetodayisrelatedtothis"institutionaltransformation.
"Themediaarenolongermerelythemouthpiecesofthepartyandthegovernment,buthavebeguntoproduceentertainingandstimulatingcontenttoattractaudiencesinordertoearnmoremoneythroughadvertisingandsubscription.
Thepartyandthegovernmentstillissuemanydirectivesovercontent,buttheyalsoactivelyencouragethemediatoexpandcompetition.
OwnershipStructureWhiletheconglomerationofthemediaindustrywastakingplace,quiteafewenterpriseswentpublicinChina,HongKong,andtheUnitedStates,markingthebeginningofmediacorporatization.
Astherestructuringofstate-ownedenterprises(SOEs)hasbeenafundamentaldrivingforceinChina'seconomicsuccessinthelastdecade,therestructuringofmediaenterprisesafterChinajoinedtheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO)hasbeenatthetopoftheagendaofreformsoftheculturalindustry.
Thisinvolvesaninternalshake-upaswellasanexternalopeningupinbothpolicyandpractice.
Itreectsthegovernment'sstrategytoabsorbprivateandforeigncapitalandWesternknow-howofmediamanagementwithoutlosingitsownershipandpoliticalcontrolofthemediasector.
Intheory,themediacannotbeprivatelyfunded.
Indeed,privateinvestmentinthemediaisillegal.
Inreality,quiteanumberofmediaoutlets,includingsomefamousones,havebeenopentoprivatecapital.
EconomicObserver,oneofthetopeconomics-focusednewspapers,soldtheadvertisingrightsandthedistributionrightsofthepapertoprivatebuyers.
Caijing,theleadingnancemagazine,isbackedbytheStockExchangeExecutiveCouncil(SEEC),composedofagroupofprivateinvestors.
CaixinMedia,aBeijing-basedmediagroupprovidingnancialandbusinessnewsandinformationthroughperiodicals,awebsite,conferences,books,andonlinevideoprograms,wasfoundedbyHuShuli,editor-in-chiefofCaijingfor11years,in2010.
Becausenon-governmentalmoneyinjectedintoamediacompanycannotbeopenlyacknowledged,therehaveemergedvariouswaysforprivatecapitaltoentertheindustry,asfollows.
17OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Theestablishmentofjointventures:thesponsoringorganizationofapublication8setsupajointventurewithenterprisesorseveralotherdomesticmediaorganizationstoinvestinthemediabusinessandshareprotsandlosses.
Thetransferofadvertisingrightsand/ordistributionrightsforacertainperiodoftime:mediausetheirchannels,frequencies,ISSNs(InternationalStandardSerialNumbers),andotherresourcesconferredbythestateasaplatformtoattractprivatecapital.
Directlisting:amediaorganizationdivestsitselfofitsnon-coreassets,suchasprinting,advertising,andotherservices,byformingasubsidiaryinaccordancewiththerequirementsofthesecuritiesmarket,whichthengoespublicthroughadirectlisting.
Indirectlisting:somemediamakeuseofasubsidiarytoacquiresharesinexistinglistedcompanies,andthenthroughholdingandreorganizingthosecompanies,theyobtainfurthernancingthroughthesecuritiesmarket.
Althoughthestateretainsanabsolutecontrollingstakeinanymediabusinessandeditorial(content)managementandproductionremaino-limitsforprivateinvestment,allmediaareabletoaccessprivatecapitalforcertain"operatingassets.
"Theseincludeadvertising,printing,informationprovision,distribution,andtheprovisionofcablenetworks.
Inaddition,privateinvestorsarepermittedtotakeaminoritystakeinlmandtelevisionprogramproductionbutarenotallowedtotakepartintheproductionorbroadcastingofnews.
ForeignMediainChinaSincelate2001transnationalcapitalhasalsobeguntopenetratetheChinesemediamarketsincethecountryjoinedtheWTO.
Liketheirdomesticprivatecounterparts,foreigninvestorshavealsobeentoldthattheycannotholdamajoritystakeandthattheycanonlyinvestinthebusinessoperations.
Inaddition,foreignmediarmsmustformajointventurewithaChinesestate-ownedmediacompany,whichshouldbealwaysthemajorityshareholder,togetalicensetoselltheirproductsinChinabecauseonlydomesticcompaniesareentitledtoholdlicensestocarrymediaproducts.
Forforeignmagazinepublishers,aslightlymodiedruleapplies:theycancompeteforgovernmentpermissiontolicensetheirbrandnamesandcontentsforpublicationinthemainlandmarket.
Notsurprisingly,mostforeignmagazinespublishedordistributedinChinaarenon-politicaltitles.
Similarly,someforeignsatellitetelevisionrmshavealsobeenallowedtoairnon-politicalprogramsthroughcertainChinesepartners'cablenetworksandinreturnforeignbroadcastersmustmakesimilararrangementsforcertainChineseprogramstoairtheiroverseascabletelevisionnetworks.
9Viacom,TimeWarner,andNewsCorpwereallowedlimitedmarketentryinexchangeforhelpingCCTVexpandtheirfootprintintheWest.
8.
Undercurrentlaws,thelaunchofapublicationissubjecttoapermitsystem,andthepublication'ssponsoringorganization(suchasagovern-mentdepartmentorregionaladministrationbody)istheprincipalinvestorbylaw.
9.
HuangChengju,"Negotiatingwiththeglobal:China'sresponsetopost-WTOforeignmediapenetration,"paperpresentedat15thBiennialConferenceoftheAsianStudiesAssociationofAustralia,Canberra,29June–2July2004.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA18ThegovernmentissuedarestrictioninJune2004,forbiddingforeignsatellitebroadcastersfromenteringthemarket10inabidtosafeguardChina'sculturefromthe"spiritualpollution"ofWesterninuences.
Someselectedforeignbroadcastershavebroadcastingrightsinhotelsforforeigners,residentialareassetasideforforeigners,andsomeotherspecicareas.
In2010,therewasatotalof31foreignchannelsavailableinChina,mostlyentertainmentchannels,suchasmusic,sports,fashion,andgeography.
11Therearealsoafewinformationandnancialchannels.
On31October2007,the"CataloguefortheGuidanceofForeignInvestmentIndustries"wasjointlyissuedbytheNationalDevelopmentandReformCommission(NDRC)andtheMinistryofCommerce.
12Originallytheproductionanddistributionofradioandtelevisionprogramsandlm-makingwerelimitedtocontractualjointventuresandcorporations,butarenowclosedtoforeigncapital.
Foreigninvestorsarepermittedtoparticipateonlyinindividualtelevisionprogramorlm-makingprojects.
InMarch2012,thegovernmentmissedthedeadlinetocomplywithaWTOrulingtoenditspracticeofrestrictingforeignmediafromenteringthecountrywithoutastatedistributor.
TherestrictionshavepresentedparticularchallengesforU.
S.
lmstudios.
Underthetightguidelines,onlyabout20foreignlmsareallowedintoitstheaterseachyear.
Whilethemoviemarketisincreasinglyimportanttoforeignstudios,thegovernmenthasbeenreluctanttoopenthesectortoforeignplayersbecauseoffearsthatitsdomesticstudioswillhaveatoughtimecompetingandthatitsinuencewillbeundermined.
NewMediaLandscapeInChina,withoutastrongpushfromthegovernment,therewouldbenosignicantprogress.
MatthewMillerofBloombergwroteanarticlein2005intheInternationalHeraldTribuneabouttheinternetdevelopmentparadoxinIndiaandChina:Indiahasademocraticgovernmentandfreemedia,butitsinternetdevelopmenthaslaggedfarbehindChinaintermsofinternetusers.
13ThemainreasonforthisdierenceisthattheChinesegovernmenthasmadeasubstantialinvestmentininformationandcommunicationstechnology(ICT)infrastructure.
Accordingtoa2010WhitePaperissuedbytheInformationOceoftheStateCouncil,ChinainvestedRMB4.
3trillion(US$680billion)ininternetinfrastructureconstructionovertheprevious13years.
14Indeed,thegovernmentisnotonlyusing10.
See"Measuresfortheadministrationofthelandingofforeignsatellitetelevisionchannels,"athttp://www.
gov.
cn/gongbao/content/2005/con-tent_63224.
htm(accessed12June2012).
11.
ThefulllistcanbeseenontheSARFT(StateAdministrationofRadio,Film,andTelevision)website,athttp://www.
sarft.
gov.
cn/arti-cles/2011/07/20/20110720111551540770.
html(accessed12June2012).
12.
Seehttp://www.
fdi.
gov.
cn/pub/FDI_EN/Laws/law_en_info.
jspdocid=87372(accessed2May2011).
13.
MatthewR.
Miller,"Acensoredmarketthatdelivers,"InternationalHeraldTribune,21July2005.
14.
"Chinainvests4.
3trillionyuanininternetinfrastructureconstructionoverpast13years,"8June2010,athttp://news.
xinhuanet.
com/eng-lish2010/china/2010-06/08/c_13339080.
htm(accessed13June2012).
19OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012infrastructureinvestmenttostimulateeconomicgrowth,buthasalsointentionallypromoteddomestictechnologicalcapabilitybyeectivetechnologypolicies,balancingtheimportofforeigntechnologyandindigenousdevelopment,andengagingthebusiness/privatesectorasamajorforceforimprovingtechnologicalcapabilities.
Withmorethan500millioninternetusersandoverabillionmobilesubscriberstoday,therehasbeenarapidgrowthinrecentyearsinthedomesticdemandforICTgoodsandservices.
Atthesametime,thegovernmentisadoptingpoliciesthatpromotenationalstandardsandprovideone-sidedadvantagestodomesticcompanies.
Theleaders,whointhe1980sbegantolaythegroundworkforamodernITindustry,believedthatChinawouldbemoresecureifitdidnotdependonforeignITandcouldinsteaduseITproductsmadeentirelyinChina.
Thoughitseemsthatthisgoalwouldbediculttoattaininanincreasinglyintegratedandglobalizedindustry,thegovernmentisdetermined.
Throughlocalcontentrequirements,taxbenets,governmentprocurement,andthedevelopmentofcompetingtechnologystandardsfor3Gmobilephones,Wi-Fi,andotherproducts,Chinaconsistentlyseekstofreeitselffromdependenceonforeigntechnology,particularlyfromtheUnitedStatesandJapan.
Despitethegovernment'sfullsupport,fewcompaniesaredazzlinginnovatorsthatcreateoriginalproductspeoplewillpayfor.
Theexponentialgrowthofthemarketkeepshatchingnewinternetventureseveryday,butmostofthesecopyideasfromtheUnitedStates.
Internetstart-upshaveageniusforcopyingWesternbusinessmodelsandadaptingthemtotheChinesemarket.
Tonamethebest-knownexamples,Baidu,China'slargestsearchengine,isacopyofGoogle,whileRenRen,China'slargestreal-namesocialnetwork,wasmodeledonFacebook.
Thispractice,aswellastheblockingofsomeglobalinternetgiantssuchasYouTubeandTwitter,protectsChineseinternetcompaniesfromforeigncompetitors.
Foreignventurecapitalistsandstockmarketinvestorsarethemajorsourceoffundingfortechnologystart-ups.
Becausethegovernmentviewstheinternetasastrategicindustry,therearerulesthatprohibitorseverelylimitforeignownership.
Overtheyears,anownershipstructureknownasthe"variableinterestentity,"orVIE,hasbeendevisedandrenedtocircumventtherules.
UndertheVIEstructure,thelicensestodobusinessinChinaareheldbyChineselegalentities,whichinturnhavecontractsthatchannelrevenuestoalistedcounterpartviaanintermediarybasedinanoshoretaxhavensuchastheCaymanIslands.
ForeigninvestorsbuyingsharesinanoshoreholdingcompanytechnicallyhaverightstoarevenuestreambutnottoownershipstakesintheChineseentity.
VIEhasenabledhigh-proleChineseinternetcompaniessuchSinaandBaidutolistsharesoverseasduringthepastdecadeorso.
ThisstructureisvirtuallyastandardforChinesecompaniesthatarelistedandtradeonaU.
S.
stockexchange.
OnecommentatorevensaysthatwithoutVIE,therewouldnothavebeenthisgoldendecadeoftheChineseinternet.
15Thegovernment'sattitudetowardtheinternetissplitbetweenadesiretocontroltheinformationavailabletointernetusers,andrecognitionthattheinternetisacriticaltoolforthecountry'seconomicdevelopment15.
SouthernDaily,23June2011,athttp://tech.
163.
com/11/0623/09/777M7IJS000915BF.
html(accessed12June2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA20andmodernization.
Sincethebeginningof1996,thestatehassuspendedallnewapplicationsfrominternetserviceproviders(ISPs)seekingtocommenceoperationsinChina;movedtoputallexistinginternetservicesunderthejurisdictionoftheMinistryofPostsandTelecommunications,theMinistryofElectronicsIndustry(thetwoministriesmergedintotheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,MIIT,in1998),andtheStateEducationCommission(nowtheMinistryofEducation);andattemptedtoestablishrewalls,limitthecontentsofwebsites,andblockaccesstocertaininternetsitesthroughroutinglters.
Thefourmajornationalnetworks,namelyCSTNET,ChinaNet,CERNET,andCHINAGBN,formthebackboneofmainlandChina'sinternet.
Theleadingtelecomsprovidershavealsostartedtoprovideinternetservices.
ThegovernmentrequiresbusinesslicensesforvirtuallyeveryfacetofinternetcommercialactivityinChina.
Thesebusinesseslicensesmaybewithdrawnbythegovernmentifthecompanyisdeemedtohaveviolatedgovernmentregulations.
Withlicensingpower,thegovernmentisabletoexertsignicantcontroloverindustryparticipants.
Asaresult,onlinebusinessesaregovernedbymanygovernmentagencies.
ThelistofocialregulatorsincludestheNationalDevelopmentandReformCommission,theMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,theMinistryofCommerce,theStateAdministrationforIndustryandCommerce,theStateAdministrationofTaxation,theStateInformationOce,theMinistryofCulture,theGeneralAdministrationofPressandPublication(GAPP),theStateAdministrationofRadio,Film,andTelevision,tonameafew.
Aboveallthesethereistheall-powerfulmonitoringbody,theCentralPropagandaDepartmentoftheCCP.
Theseagenciesoftenissueinconsistentorconictingdirectives,confusingbusinesses.
Agencies'overlappingfunctionshaveledsomeareasoftheindustrytobeoverlookedwhileothersareover-regulated.
ActivisionBlizzard'spopulargame,"WorldofWarcraft,"sueredfromthisover-regulation.
On2November2009,GAPPissuedanocialannouncementonitswebsite,revokingNetEase'spermittooperatetheonlinerole-playinggameinChina.
However,duringaMinistryofCulture"mediabrieng"heldinBeijingthenextafternoon,LiXiong,thedirectoroftheMinistryofCulture'sDepartmentofCulturalMarket,indicatedthatGAPPhadoversteppeditsregulatoryboundariesandthatthiswasanissuefortheMinistryofCulture.
16NetEase,aveteranofChineseonlinegaming,withsevenyearsofindustryexperience,hadalotoftroubleguringouttheshiftingregulatorylandscapeinChina.
Iteventuallysucceededingettingthepermit.
Butalongtheway,thecompanylostsignicantrevenueandhadtoplayitsowngameswithapairofduelingbureaucraciesthateachsoughttogaintheupperhandinregulatingtheonlinegamingbusiness.
17Althoughtherearesomanyrestrictions,theinternetisstillanentrepreneur'sdream,adynamicplacewhereasmallamountofcapitalalongwithcreativetechnologyandhardworkcanlaunchanonlineserviceaccessibletomillions.
Severallargecommercialwebsitesthatwereallowedtobeinvolvedinnewsserviceswereunveiled16.
"WorldofWarcraft:MinistryofCulturevsGAPP,"EconomicObserver,3November2009,athttp://www.
eeo.
com.
cn/ens/homepage/briefs/2009/11/03/154649.
shtml(accessed8July2012).
17.
ForafascinatingstoryaboutthetravailsinChinaofNetEaseand"WorldofWarcraft,"see"Warcraftrow:anindustrygamechanger,"9March2010,athttp://english.
caixin.
com/2010-03-09/100124148.
html(accessed8July2012).
21OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012in1988.
Bylaw,theyarenotallowedtogenerateoriginalnews.
Buttheydonewsaggregationstoattractonlineadvertisingandsubsidizenewsoperationsthroughotherbusinessactivitiessuchasgamesandvalue-added-services.
Sina,Sohu,NetEase,andTencentquicklybecamethelargestcommercialChinese-languagewebsitesintheworld.
Manylargestate-ownedmediaorganizationshavealsoestablishedcooperativeorotherwisejointlyrunwebsitestostakeaclaimontheinternet.
Someareevenbeginningtogetlisted,suchasPeople.
cn,theonlineversionofthePeople'sDaily.
18Buttheypaleincomparisonwiththecommercialwebmediaservices,sincethelatterhavebroadernewscoverage,afasterpaceofinformationupdates,appealinghuman-interestapproaches,ahigherdegreeofinteractions,andamorerelaxednewsformat.
TheITcolumnistXieWenobserves:OfthetoptenChinesewebsitesintermsofthenumberofusers(countingonlyonewebsitepercompany),sevenareverystrongininternetmedia.
Theyarefrequentedbyanywherefromone-quartertomorethan80percentofChinesenetusers.
Butmonopolisticstate-ownedmedia,whichenjoyenormouspolicysupport,capitalandtalentpools,haveonlyaminusculeaudienceontheweb.
Ofthetop100mostpopularwebsitesinChina,thetopstate-ownedsitereacheslessthan7percentofChineseinternetusers.
Theleastpopularreacheslessthan3percent.
19Together,"commercialization"anddigitizationhaveresultedinamorediversemediastructureandamoreopenmediamarket,andthismayleadtoamoreprofessionalandindependentmediasystemintheforeseeablefuture.
Atthesametime,thegovernmentisboundtobecomemoreadaptable,butonlytotheextentthatitstillcontrolsandownsthemajorityofthemedia.
Therefore,"marketization"andthedeclineofstateownershipinthemediadonotnecessarilymeananautomaticmovetowarddemocracyinthemedia.
Thechangesimplyshiftsthemoreexplicitmethodsofstatecontroltoamoresubtleformofcensorship.
18.
Seehttp://blogs.
wsj.
com/marketbeat/2012/04/26/people-cn-surges-on-trading-debut(accessed12June2012).
19.
See"China'sinternet:Oneclickforward,twoback,"MarketWatch,11January2012,athttp://articles.
marketwatch.
com/2012-01-11/indus-tries/30778963_1_chinese-internet-internet-users-chinese-net-users(accessed13June2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA221.
MediaConsumption:TheDigitalFactor1.
1DigitalTake-up1.
1.
1DigitalEquipmentTelevisionisthemaininformationchannel.
Morethan98percentofhouseholdshaveatelevisionset.
Radiohasneverenjoyedmuchpopularity:theproportionofhouseholdswithareceiverhashoveredaround30percentsinceradio'sinception.
Personalcomputers,whilefarbehindtheownershiprateoftelevisionsets,haveshownamarkedincreaseinusageandpopularity(seeTable2).
Thisisespeciallytrueforurbanareas,wherepersonalcomputerusageis10timeshigherper100householdsthanthatofruralareas,astarkindicatorofthecurrentdigitalgapinChina.
20Internetusagemaybedividedintofourgeneralcategories:theacquisitionofinformation,businesstransactions,communication,andentertainment.
Ofthese,"theacquisitionofinformation"isreportedbyuserstobethesecondmostcommonreasonforwebusage(after"communication").
21Internetusersprefertoaccesstheinternetfromtheirhomes.
AsofDecember2011,88.
8percentofusersreportedthattheyaccessedtheinternetathome,33.
2percentatwork,27.
9percentatinternetcafés,18.
7percentatschool,and13.
6percentinotherpublicareas.
2220.
AccordingtoChinaStatisticalYearbook2009,ChinaStatisticsPress,Beijing2009,andChinaRuralStatisticalYearbook2009,ChinaStatisticsPress,Beijing2009,thereare59.
26computersper100urbanhouseholdsand5.
4per100ruralhouseholds.
21.
ChinaInternetNetworkInformationCenter(CNNIC),"29thInternetDevelopmentReport,"January2012,athttp://www.
cnnic.
cn/research/bgxz/tjbg/201201/t20120116_23668.
html(accessed14February2012),Chineseonly(hereafterCNNIC,"29thInternetDevelopmentRe-port").
22.
CNNIC,"29thInternetDevelopmentReport.
"23OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Table2.
Householdsowningequipment,2005–2010200520062007200820092010No.
ofHH('000)*%ofTHH**No.
ofHH('000)%ofTHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTHHTVsets1,463,46095.
31,457,31894.
91,477,28196.
21,495,70997.
41,520,27999.
01,524,88699.
3Radioreceivers546,68635.
6546,68635.
6537,47235.
0981,27163.
91.
372,85889.
4n/an/aPCs462,22630.
1502,15332.
7752,46149.
0813,88753.
0844,59955.
0921,38160.
0Notes:*Totalnumberofhouseholdsowningtheequipment;**Percentageoftotalnumberofhouseholdsinthecountry;n/a:notavailableSources:ChinaTVRatingYearbooks2006to2010,CommunicationUniversityofChinaPress,Beijing;ChinaRadioYearbooks2006to2009(availableonlyinChinese);"HouseholdOwnershipofTVSetsinNationalSampleof154CitiesandCounties,"CSMMediaResearch2005–2007surveys.
23TheactualnumberofhouseholdswascalculatedbyMDMedi-torsbasedonadditionaldataonhouseholdsfromtheInternationalTelecommunicationUnion(ITU)Undermedialaw,individualhouseholdsandunlicensedcompaniesarenotallowedtoinstallsatellitedishesfordigitaltelevisionservicesathome.
On5October1993,theStateCouncilpromulgatedDecreeNo.
129,SatelliteTVBroadcastingGroundReceptionFacilitiesManagementRegulations.
Article3stipulates:"Thestateshallpracticealicensingsystemfortheproduction,import,sale,installationanduseofsatellitegroundreceptionfacilities.
"Licensesare,inpractice,largelyrestrictedtohotelsandforeigncompounds.
Asaresult,settingupprivatesatellitedishestoreceiveforeignprogramsisillegalinChina.
However,theincreasingdemandforforeigntelevisionprogrammingamongexpatsandlocalresidentshasexpandedthesatellitetelevisionmarketandprovidesopportunitiesforunauthorizedinstallerstoconductbusinessunderthetable.
Inmanycities,peoplealsoinstallsatellitedishesinordertoavoidthecabletelevisioncharges.
Inruralareaswithoutanalternativewayofreceivingdomesticservices,theregulationisnotseriouslyenforced.
WuChunyong,chiefeditorofthebroadcastindustrynewssiteDwrh.
net,saidillegalsatellitedishescostbetweenRMB100(US$15)andRMB300(US$45),whilelegaldirect-broadcastsatellite(DBS)televisionreceiverscostapproximatelyRMB550(US$87).
Thoughsalesofunlicensedsatellitereceptionequipmenthavefalleninrecentyears,therearestilltensofmillionsofdevicesonthemarket.
WuChunyongestimatedanundergroundmarketwithmorethan100millioncustomers.
2523.
ChinaTVRatingYearbooks2006to2010,CommunicationUniversityofChinaPress,Beijing;ChinaRadioYearbooks2006to2009,Communi-cationUniversityofChinaPress,Beijing;HouseholdOwnershipofTVSetsinNationalSampleof154CitiesandCounties,CSMMediaResearch,Beijing,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010.
Seehttp://en.
csm.
com.
cn/index.
php/Home/SinglePage/index/cid/1.
html(accessed5July2012).
24.
Seehttp://news.
xinhuanet.
com/newmedia/2003-05/31/content_897405.
htm(accessed9July2012).
25.
WuChunyong,"IllegalsatellitedishescheaperthanlegalinChina,"18November2011,athttp://blogs.
rnw.
nl/medianetwork/illegal-satellite-dishes-cheaper-than-legal-in-china(accessed9July2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA241.
1.
2PlatformsTherearethreetypesoftelevisionsignals/receivers:cable,terrestrial,andsatellite.
Wherethisdiersfromothercountriesisthatcabletelevisionandsatellitetelevisionhaveacertainamountofoverlapassomesatellitetelevisionsignalspassthroughcabletelevisionlines.
Cableisthemostpopularandbecomingmoreappealingeveryyear,whileterrestrialreceiversarerapidlylosingpopularity.
Table3.
PlatformforthemainTVreceptionanddigitaltake-up,2005–2010*200520062007200820092010No.
ofHH('000)**%ofTVHH***No.
ofHH('000)%ofTVHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTVHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTVHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTVHHNo.
ofHH('000)%ofTVHHTerrestrialreception150,23641.
0122,98231.
9104,32026.
284,00820.
963,58615.
352,87012.
8–ofwhichdigitaln/aCablereception126,00034.
3140,00036.
3150,00037.
6164,00040.
8174,00041.
8187,00045.
2–ofwhichdigital3,9701.
012,6603.
226,8606.
745,28011.
261,99014.
988,29021.
3Satellitereception25,6507.
038,93810.
152,16013.
159,48914.
878,13218.
898,40423.
8–ofwhichdigitaln/aIPTV2670.
075500.
141,2080.
32,6500.
64,7001.
18,0001.
9Total302,15382.
3302,47077.
5307,68877.
2310,14777.
1320,41877.
0346,27483.
7–ofwhichdigitaln/aNotes:*TheguresrefertothemainTVsetinmulti-TVhouseholds;**Totalnumberofhouseholdsowningtheequipment;***PercentageoftotalnumberofTVhouseholdsinthecountry;n/a:notavailableSources:ITU;StateAdministrationofRadio,Film,andTelevision(SARFT);ChinaTVRatingYearbooks2006to2010,Commu-nicationUniversityofChinaPress,Beijing;ChinaStatisticalYearbook2009,ChinaStatisticsPress,Beijing(availableonlyinChinese).
26ThecoverageguresofcableandsatelliteinpercentagetermswerecalculatedbytheMDMeditorsbasedondeductionsfromthedataavailableinfullforterrestrialtelevision.
Notethatmassiveoverlapsbetweensatelliteandcabledatameanone-fthofhouseholdsalmosteveryyeararenotcapturedinthistableAtthesametime,internetandmobilecommunicationsaredevelopingrapidly.
Intheveyearsfrom2005to2009,internetcoveragemorethantripledandmobilephonecoveragealmostdoubled.
China'stotal3Gcellphonesubscriberssurgedto128millionin2011,upfrom46.
6millionayearearlier,accordingtoguresreleasedbytheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnologyinJanuary2012.
2726.
ChinaTVRatingYearbooks2006to2010,CommunicationUniversityofChinaPress,Beijing;ChinaStatisticalYearbook2009,ChinaStatisticsPress,Beijing(availableonlyinChinese).
27.
Seehttp://news.
qq.
com/a/20120207/000759.
htm(accessed13February2012).
25OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Table4.
Internetpenetrationrate(totalsubscribersas%oftotalcountrypopulation)andmobiletelephonypenetrationrate(totalactiveSIMcardsas%oftotalpopulation),2005–20112005200620072008200920102011Internet1633.
137.
944.
850.
856.
560.
760.
7–ofwhichbroadband*7.
814.
919.
530.
437.
542.
342.
3Mobiletelephony82.
199.
1113.
7133.
0136.
8144.
4144.
4–ofwhich3G**n/a1.
75.
317.
233.
245.
445.
4Notes:*Percentagesareofinternetsubscribers,nottotalpopulation;**Percentagesareofmobiletelephonysubscribers,nottotalpopulation;n/a:notavailableSources:ChinaInternetNetworkInformationCenter(CNNIC);ChinaStatisticalYearbook2009,ChinaStatisticsPress,Beijing(availableonlyinChinese)1.
2MediaPreferences1.
2.
1MainShiftsinNewsConsumptionTelevisionChinaintroducedadecentralizationpolicycalledthe"four-leveldevelopmentpolicyforthebroadcast"industry,"startingintheearly1980s.
"Four-level"referstothecountry'sdivisionoftheadministrativesystem:central,regional(30provincesatthattime),municipal(about450cities),andlocal(approximately2,200counties).
28Thispolicywasimplementedbecauseofthecentralgovernment'sshortageofcapital.
Inadditiontocentralandprovincialgovernments,prefectures(geographicaljurisdictionthatranksbelowaprovincebutaboveacounty)andcities/countieswerealsopermittedtoinvestintelevisionstationsintheirjurisdictions.
Asaresult,therearemorethan3,000televisionstationsinChina.
29ThemediascholarWusanSunarguesthatwhilepreviousscholarshiphasmaintainedthattheinstitutionaltransformationofChinesebroadcastingisguidedbythecentralgovernment,infactlocalgovernmentsatdierentlevelshavecontrolledsuchtransformationsandmanipulatedtensionsinthemarketaccordingtotheirowninterests.
30Thelocaltelevisionstationsneedtofulllpoliticalfunctions,servethelocalgovernment,andmaximizetheirowncommercialincome.
CCTV,politicallyandeconomicallythedominantbroadcastmediaorganization,isunderthedirectguidanceoftheChinesegovernmentandtheCCP.
Asthecountry'sonlynationalnetwork,itfallsunderthedualsupervisionofthePropagandaDepartmentoftheCCP,responsibleultimatelyformediacontent,andSARFT,whichoverseesoperations.
Thenetwork'sprincipaldirectorsandotherocersareappointedbythestate.
28.
HongJunhao,TheInternationalizationofTelevisioninChina:TheEvolutionofIdeology,Society,andMediaSincetheReform,GreenwoodPublish-ingGroup,Westport,CT,1998,p.
94.
29.
Seehttp://baike.
sarft.
net/index.
phpdoc-innerlink-%E5%9B%9B%E7%BA%A7%E5%8A%9E%E7%94%B5%E8%A7%86(accessed9July2012).
30.
SunWusan,"StruggleforsurvivalbysmallChinesetowntelevisionstations:howanewinstitutionalarrangementcameintobeing,"WestminsterPapersinCommunicationandCulture,3(1)(2006),pp.
42–57.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA26Ineverysense,CCTVoutstripsothersatellitecompetitors(alltheprovinceshaveanationallydistributedsatellitetelevisionoutlet,suchasHunanSatelliteTV,AnhuiSatelliteTV,andsoon),monopolizingthebroadcastmediamarketandrankingrstinviewersandmarketshare.
CCTV-13,the24-hournewschannelofCCTV,isChina'smostauthoritativespecializednewschannel,emphasizinghardnewsinasolemnstyleofreporting.
However,inrecentyearsCCTV'sdominancehasbeguntodecline,withviewershipfallingfrom22.
9percentin2005to13.
3percentin2009,whileotherprovincialsatellitetelevisionoutletsarecatchingup(seeTable5).
Theselocaltelevisionstationsaresituatedinanintenselycompetitiveenvironmentthathasyieldedfewclearvictors.
Onlythreesatellitechannelshavemanagedtocarveoutasmallyetnotablemarketshare.
HunanSatelliteTVandAnhuiSatelliteTVhavechosentospecializetheircontent(entertainmentandpopularsit-coms,respectively),whileJiangsuSatelliteTVhasrelieduponJiangsu'smassivenancialinuencetopushasideotherprovincialcompetition.
Ifthecurrenttrendcontinues,entertainment-basedprogrammingislikelytoslowlychipawayatthemarketdominanceofnews-basedchannels.
31Table5.
Audienceshare*offree-to-airtelevisionchannels(%),2005–200920052006200720082009CCTVGeneral22.
918.
316.
216.
813.
3CCTV-133.
12.
72.
43.
02.
7HunanSatelliteTV6.
55.
65.
25.
46.
6AnhuiSatelliteTV2.
42.
93.
52.
82.
9JiangsuSatelliteTV1.
72.
22.
42.
43.
4Note:*ShareisthepercentageoftelevisionsetsinusetunedtotheprogramSource:ChinaTVRatingYearbooks2005to2009,CommunicationUniversityofChinaPress,Beijing.
RadioFMradiobroadcastcoverageislimitedand,withtheexceptionofoneocialnationalstation,isgenerallyconnedtolocalbroadcasts.
WechoseBeijing,Shanghai,andGuangzhouasarepresentativesampletoanalyzethecontentofradiobroadcasts.
Music,trac,andnewsconstitutethemostpopularprogramming,withrecentuctuationsshowingmusicandtracpopularityontherisewhilenewsprogramminghasbeenfalling(seeTable6).
31.
AsofDecember2009,inChina'sdomesticsatellitechannels,newsprogramsaccountedfor11.
19percentofthetotalairtimeofalltheprograms.
CCTV'saveragedailynewsbroadcastisabout41hours,accountingfor32.
4percentofthetotalnewsbroadcastairtime.
AlthoughthelocalTVbroadcastaccountsformorethan60percentofthetotalvolumeofnewsprograms,whentheaudienceswatchnewsprogramsonsatellitechannels,65.
3percentofthetimeisspentonwatchingvariousnewsprogramsofCCTV.
CCTVnewschannels,includingCCTV-1,CCTV-13,andCCTV-4,remainthetopthreenationalnewschannels.
Theviewingtimeofthesethreechannelsaccountsfor54.
06percentofthetotalviewingtimeonthesatellitenewsprograms.
Seehttp://www.
c-digital.
com.
cn/info/2010428/2010428144745.
shtml(accessed13June2012).
27OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Table6.
Radioratings*ofnewsstations(%),2005–2008Frequency2005200620072008BeijingPeople'sRadioTrafcBroadcastFM103.
91.
01.
91.
81.
6BeijingPeople'sRadioArtsandLiteratureBroadcastFM87.
60.
71.
01.
01.
0ChinaNationalRadio"VoiceoftheNation"*FM106.
1(Beijing)**0.
60.
80.
50.
5ShanghaiPeople'sRadioAM990/FM93.
41.
41.
71.
71.
5ShanghaiEasternBroadcast"dynamic101"FM101.
70.
81.
11.
00.
9ShanghaiEasternBroadcastAM792/FM89.
90.
60.
70.
70.
7GuangdongPearlRiverEconomicBroadcastFM97.
4/AM10621.
11.
11.
10.
9GuangdongYangchengTrafcBroadcastFM105.
20.
40.
70.
60.
6GuangdongMusicFM99.
30.
40.
60.
50.
5Notes:*Measuredasthepercentageofthesampleaudienceperminutelisteningtothespeciedprogram;**ChinaNationalRadio"VoiceoftheNation"isanationalradioprogram,withdierentratingscountrywide.
HereweonlylistBeijingratingsSource:ChinaRadioYearbooks2006to2009PrintmediaIn2011,Chinaboasted9,884periodicalsand1,954newspapers.
Newspapercirculationhasrankedrstintheworldfor10consecutiveyears.
32Allnewspapergroupsarecurrentlystateowned,meaningtheyaredirectlycontrolledbythegovernmentandtheCCP.
Newspaperspublishedbythesegroupscanbedividedintotwogeneralcategories:ocialnewspapers,suchastheSouthernDaily,arethemouthpiecesoftheprovincialpartycommitteeandtheprovincialgovernment(inthiscaseGuangdong);andcitynewspapers,suchasSouthernMetropolisNewsinGuangzhou,whichcaterforlocalreaders.
Ocialpapersaremanagedbylocalpartycommitteesandusuallyfeaturecontentheavilyweightedtowardthedisseminationofgovernmentpolicy.
Suchpapersaretherecipientsofgovernmentsubsidiesandthereforedonotcompetecommerciallyinthemarket.
Inaddition,circulationofthesepapersisoftenlopsided,withgovernmentaldepartmentsandstate-runinstitutionsformingtheirmainsubscriptionbase.
"Citypapers"areusuallyfoundedby"ocialpapers.
"Sincegovernmentsubsidieshavebeengreatlyreducedovertheyears,theocialpapershavebeentryingtocomeupwithwaystoattractreaders.
Theocialpaperisthusthe"motherpaper"(or"bigpaper"),andthe"citypaper"isthe"childpaper"(or"smallpaper"),andtogethertheyformvariousnewspapergroups.
Citypapersaregearedtotheneedsofthelocalresidentsandthereforemustcompetecommerciallyinregionalmarkets.
Thesepapersgenerateearningsthrough32.
Seehttp://data.
chinaxwcb.
com/epaper2012/epaper/d5276/d1b/201204/20820.
html(accessed9July2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA28advertisementsandsubscriptionsandaretheeconomicbackboneofnewspapergroups.
Whilethe"motherpaper"isprimarilyapropagandatool,amouthpieceinthetraditionalsense,the"child"mustaccommodatethedemandsofthemediaconsumer.
BecauseinChinahardnewssells,33citypapersemployinvestigativejournaliststodigintocontroversialsubjects,plantingseedsofprofessionalisminChina.
Anotherwaytodescribethedivisionisbyreferringtothetwocategoriesaspartypapersandmarket-orientedpapers.
Thelatterenjoyrelativeeditorialindependence;somethingthatcannotbepublishedbyocialpartynewspapersmaybepublishedbycitynewspapers,whicharelessdirectlycontrolledbythepartyandcanreportonmorepopulartopics(sports,entertainment,fashion,etc.
)orlocalissues(crime,trac,environment,education,etc.
)inaneorttoattractmorereadersandadvertisersandhelptheirparentcompany.
Citypapercirculationshaveuctuatedovertheyears.
RecentlypaperssuchasTheYangziEveningNewsandBeijingEveningNewshaveexperienceddropsincirculation,whileSouthernMetropolisNewshasconsistentlyenjoyedawidecirculation(seeTable7).
Table7.
Newspapercirculationnumbers,2007–2010Newspaper2007200820092010ReferenceNews2,530,0003,183,0003,142,0003,180,000People'sDaily1,773,0002,808,0002,939,0002,800,000TheYangziEveningNews1,650,0001,810,0001,483,0001,800,000SouthernMetropolisNews1,030,0001,400,0001,400,0001,400,000YangchengEveningNews1,500,0001,170,0001,200,0001,170,000XinminEveningPost1,218,000998,0001,004,0001,000,000ChutianMetropolisDaily1,213,0001,140,0001,140,0001,140,000BeijingEveningNews980,000800,000780,000n/aCompleteNationalCirculation2,054,537,0002,115,479,0002,083,715,0002,143,768,000Notes:WANsaysonitswebsite:"NewspapersinsomecountriesdonotsubmittheirgurestoindependentAuditBureauxofCirculation.
Inthesecases,guresareprovidedbythepublishersthemselvesorothersourcesandcannotbeveriedindependently.
PublicationinthislistdoesnotimplythatWANendorsesthesegures.
"n/a:notavailableSources:WorldAssociationofNewspapers;GeneralAdministrationofPressandPublication(GAPP)33.
Thiscanbereectedinthenumberofpagesinthenewspapers.
Beforethe1990s,ocialnewspapersusedtohaveonlyfourpages.
In1992,GuangzhouDailyrstexpandedto12pages,usheringinawaveofexpansionthroughoutthecountry.
Thatdecadesawtheemergenceof40-pagenewspapers.
Inthefollowingyears,newspaperscontinuedtoexpandto50oreven80pages.
Aprominentfeatureoftheexpansionprocessisthatmanynewspaperspublishedmorenewspages.
However,itshouldbenotedthatthicknewspapersareaphenomenonofthepopularpress,thatis,citypapers.
29OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Becauseoftheabsenceofpartyrhetoricandbecausetheycarryhard-hittingnewsstoriesaboutcorruptionandothersensitiveissues,citypapersarefarmorewidelyreadthanocialpapers.
Theauthorities,fearfuloftheirimagebeingdamagedbytheexerciseofsuchnewfoundpressfreedom,havebeguntoexercisestrictcontrolovermarket-orientedpapers,suchasbansthatlimitcross-regionalreporting(thepracticeofmediafromoneregionreportingsensitivenewsaboutotherlocalgovernments),eectivelyshuttingdownmuchinvestigativereporting.
Theyhavealsoimposedpre-publicationcensorshiponleadercommentsinmajornewspapers.
341.
2.
2AvailabilityofaDiverseRangeofNewsSourcesTraditionalmedia,suchasnewspapers,radio,andtelevision,stillhavestatusandcredibilityeventhoughtheirreadersandaudienceshavebeensubjectedtocompetitionfromnewmedia.
Forexample,theWorldAssociationofNewspapersandNewsPublishersreportedthatmainlandChinahad25newspapersonthelistofthe2010Top100worlddailynewspapersbycirculation.
Chinahadthehighestnumberonthelistandalsotoppedthelistintermsoftotaldailynewspapercirculation.
35AspointedoutbyJ.
Meng(1999),theChinesemediahavechangedfrombeingastatepropagandavehicleonly—thatis,"servingtheinterestsofthepartyonly"—toalso"servingtheinterestsoftheglobalaswellasthelocalaudiences.
"36ChinahastriedtocatertosomeWestern-dominatedpracticesontheonehand,whilepreservinglocalviewsandvoicesontheother.
Forexample,CCTVnotonlydescribesitselfas"themainnewssourceforthepeopleofChina,"butalsoas"animportantwindowfortheexchangeofinformationandknowledgebetweenChinaandtherestoftheworld.
"37Intryingtodemonstrateaglobalvisionandreadinessforchangeandchallenges,broadcastersnolongerevadenewsofanegativenature.
Theyhavefrequentlycriticizedpartycadresandhavepublisheddebatesonsuchfundamentalissuesastheruleoflaw,anti-corruption,andcitizens'rights.
Theyalsohavereportedonamyriadofpreviouslyuntouchedsocialandlifestylesubjects.
Inthepast,televisiontendedtorunwellbehindtheprintpressinitsnewscoverage.
Morerecently,televisionhascomeundermarketpressuretobeastimely,informative,andresponsiveastheprintmedia.
Radiohasexperiencedarevivalduetoaboominprivatecars,maintainingastableaudience,particularlyamongthosewantingmusicandtracprograms.
Talkradiohasbecomeatopicalandfreshmediaoutlet.
Ithasshiftedtheparadigmfromauthoritiesaddressingthepeopletopeoplevoicingtheirconcerns.
Competitionbetweendierentradiostationsinbigcitieshasresultedinmuchliveliercoverage,includingcall-inprogramsthatairdiscussionsonpolitics,lifestyle,andpreviouslyforbiddensocialsubjects.
Becausecallersusuallyarenotrequiredtoidentifythemselves,suchdiscussionsarefarmorecandidthanwouldbepossibleontelevision.
34.
QianGang,"Centralpartymedia'grabthemegaphone',''ChinaMediaProject,UniversityofHongKong,athttp://cmp.
hku.
hk/2009/08/21/1709/(accessed28February2011).
35.
Seehttp://english.
peopledaily.
com.
cn/90001/90776/7166346.
html(accessed13June2012).
ItshouldbenotedthatChinadoesnotsubmitcirculationguresforindependentauditing(seenotetoTable7).
36.
MengJ.
,"OnchangesofmediavaluesinChinaCentralTelevision,"inYuX.
,GuoZ.
,andHuangY.
(eds),JournalismandSocialChange.
ChungHwaBook,HongKong(inChinese),1999,pp.
1–16.
37.
Seehttp://newscontent.
cctv.
com/about.
jsp(accessed13June2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA30"Commercialization"hasbeenamajorliberatingforceforcitypapers.
Theregimeisfarlessablethanbeforetowieldnancialleverageoverthemedia,whichhaveincreasinglybecomeself-supportingthroughadvertisingrevenuesandcirculation.
Newspapers'growingautonomyhasbeenreectedintheirincreasinglydiversiedcontent.
Forexample,theGuangzhou-basedSouthernMetropolisNewshasbeenrankedasthemostcompetitivecitydailynewspaper.
Thispaperanditssisterpapersareknownfortheirgutsyreportingwhichshowcasestheemergenceandgrowthof'watchdog'journalisminChina.
Itssuccessinthelate1990swasbuiltonitsground-breakinganti-corruptionstoriesanditsreputationforjournalisticintegrity.
Despiteconstanteditorialandpersonnelupheavals,SouthernMetropolisNewsretainsitsreputationasaleadinginvestigativenewsorganizationcommittedtoexposingwrongdoingandexaminingthesocialproblemsaccompanyingthecountry'srapideconomicdevelopment.
Eachday,thepaperincludesfoursections.
A1isoncurrentaairsandsocialnews,A2coversurbanandthePearlRiverDeltaNews;Bpublishesentertainmentnews,sportsnews,andsupplements;Ciseconomicnews,andDismainlyaboutlifestyleandconsumptioninformation.
Togetherthesesectionsexceed100pages,whichmakeitthethickestandmostexpensivedailyonthemainland.
Whiletelevisionandnewspapersremainthemaininformationchannelsforthevastmajorityofconsumers,internetmediahavebeguntochipawayattheirdominance.
Thechiefsourcesofnewsinformationontheinternetarespecializednewswebsites.
Thesecanbedividedintocommercialportalwebsitesandthewebsitesoftraditionalmedia.
Portalwebsitesgathernewsstoriesfromothersources,oftenbuyingcontentfromnewspapersorotherpublicationswhichtheytheneditandreformatfortheirspecicuse.
Thiseditedcontent,alongwiththespeedofnewpostsandfrequencyofupdates,setsonlineportalsitesapartfromonlinenewspapers,whichmerelyre-releasecontentfromprintmedia.
Butonlinenewspapersarecatchingupintheireditorialdesignandrichnessofcontent,andindeedsomeofthebestnewspaperwebsiteshavebeguntodevelopafollowing,suchastheSouthernMetropolisNews.
38Theriseofinteractivenewscannotbeoverlookedwhenconsideringthestructureandmakeupofonlinenewsoutlets.
Grassrootsreporting,called"iReporting,"livediscussions,forumposts,SNS(socialnetworkingsites)sharing,andnewsforwardinghaveallbeeninstrumentalinthepopularizationofonlinemedia.
Thisinstantaneousandinteractiveformofreportinghasbeguntoerodetheinformationmonopolypreviouslyheldbytraditionalmedia.
Inthelastseveralyears,commercialnewswebsiteshavepublishedagrowingnumberofstoriescoveringavarietyofsubjects—includingmedia,culture,politics,andbusiness—thathavestronglyaectedpopularculture,bypassingtraditionalmediaandthreateningtheholdofestablishedmediagroups.
ThePublicOpinionChannelofPeople.
cnpointedoutinits"2011ChinaInternetPublicOpinionAnalysisReport:"38.
Seehttp://nd.
oeeee.
com,inChineseonly(accessed13June2012).
31OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Since2000,theChineseinternetindustryenteredanotherperiodofrapiddevelopment,alargenumberofinternetcompanieswentpublicintheUnitedStates.
Thestrongcapitalmarketgaveastrongimpetustothenewdevelopmentsinthegenerationanddisseminationofpublicopinion.
Inaddition,variousconictsaccumulatedduringthesocialtransformation,theinternethasthusbecomeasafetyvalveforthosesocialactivists,rightsadvocatesandwhistleblowerstoventtheirfrustrations.
.
.
Inthenextfewyears,withtheintensifyingsocialconictsandthegovernment'ssocialmanagementinnovation,variousinternettopicswillcontinuetobeheatedup,increasingthelikelihoodofthepublictoholdthegovernmentdepartmentsaccountableinamoreregularandthoroughway.
39Thecommercialmediaincreasinglydemandaccurateaudiencemeasurement,inordertobringthemediasystemmoreinlinewithWesternones.
This,ontheonehand,couldfurtherunderminetheCCP'spoliticalcontroloverthepress;ontheotherhand,ithasputthemediaundermorecompetitivemarketpressure.
Asaresult,urbanareasaremoreattractivetocommercialmedia.
AtopCCTVexecutive,SunYusheng,haspointedoutthatChinahasaruralpopulationof900millionandtheworld'slargestpopulationofseniorcitizens.
Yetbothdemographicgroupsareincreasinglymarginalizedinatelevisionculturethatcaterstoyoungviewersandhasanurbanbias.
40Thismarginalizationalsooccursinthenewmediaandisaggravatedbyissuesrelatedtotheaordabilityofdigitaltechnologyandlevelsofeducation.
1.
3NewsProviders1.
3.
1LeadingSourcesofNewsOfthosepeoplewhowatchtelevisionnews,mosttuneintoCCTVnewsreportsandsomelocalnewsonlocalchannels.
Newsprogrammingcanbeseparatedintotwotypes.
Therstcovershardnewsfromdomesticandinternationalcurrenteventsandheadlinenews,whichpropagatesandpopularizestheideologicalviewpointofthegovernmentandtheCCPwhileallowingsomeprofessionalin-depthnewsreporting.
InMay2003,CCTV-13cameintobeingastherstround-the-clocknewschannelinChina.
Bycombininghourlynewsupdates,livereports,androllingsubtitles,CCTVcreatedthemostwatchednewschannelinChina.
In2010,itsaverageaudiencesharewas1.
6percent.
InJanuary–June2012,theaudiencesharejumpedto2.
2percent.
41Thesecondtypeofprogrammingisknownas"minshengnews"(minshengmeansordinarypeople'slivelihood).
Thedailylives,attitudes,joys,andsorrowsoflocalpeoplearetheprimaryconcernsofsuchprograms.
"Remarkably,thisprogrammingstrategyhasprovedsuccessfulbyattractingastableandever-increasingaudiencegroup.
AlthoughCCTV'snewsprogramispredominantnationwide,itisinadisadvantageous39.
ZhuHuaxin,ShanXuegang,andHuJiangchun,"2011Chinainternetpublicopinionanalysisreport,"23December2011,athttp://yuqing.
people.
com.
cn/GB/16698341.
html(accessed14June2012).
40.
ShiY.
,"TheriseofChina'smediasupermarket:anappraisalofculturalimperialism'srelevancetotheChineseTVindustry,"InternationalJournalofCommunication,2(2008),pp.
1199–1225.
41.
Seehttp://1118.
cctv.
com/special/2012/20110914/113382.
shtml(accessed14June2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA32positionwhencomparedwithlocalnewsinalocalcontext.
Localstationsenjoytheadvantageofexibilityandproximity.
"42Table8.
Fivemostpopularhardnews*programsonbroadcasttelevision,2010NewsprogramsStarttimeEndtime%rating**2010CCTV"NetworkNewsBroadcast"4319:0019:306.
6CCTV"TopicsinFocus"19:3819:511.
9CCTV"FocusonToday"21:3021:550.
4CCTV"NewsHalf-hour"12:0012:300.
8CCTV"NightlyNews"22:0022:200.
7Notes:*Hardnewsrefersheretonewsrelatedtosocial,economic,andpoliticalaairsingeneral.
Itdoesnotnecessarilyrefertoinvestigativejournalism.
Infact,unlikethepress,investigativenewsintelevisionoutletsisstillnotcommon.
**Ratingreferstothepercentageofindividualsorhouseholdsviewing/listeningtoaprogramduringthespeciedtimeoutofthetotalindividualorhouseholdviewers/listenersSource:CSMMediaResearch,201044Table9.
Threemostpopularminshengnewsprogramsoncabletelevision,2010NewsprogramsStarttimeEndtime%rating*JiangsuSatelliteTV"NanjingFacetoFace"18:4019:455.
7GuangdongPearlRiverTV"Today'sConcerns"21:0021:509.
1ShanghaiTV"FromtheAudience"18:0018:309.
9Notes*SeenotetoTable8fordenitionof"rating"Source:CSMMediaResearch,2010Themostpopulartypesofradioprogramaremusic,currentaairs,andtracupdateswith,unsurprisingly,peopleundertheageof40spendingmoretimelisteningtomusicandthoseover40currentaairsnews.
4542.
S.
Ollig,InternationalizationoftheChineseTVSector,LITVerlagMunster,Munster,2007,p.
70.
43.
"NetworkNewsBroadcast,"("XinwenLianbo")isCCTV'sagshipnewsprogram.
Thisdailynewsprogramisshownsimultaneouslybymostter-restrialtelevisionchannelsinmainlandChina,makingitoneoftheworld'smostwatchedprograms.
Butinterestintheprogramhasdeclined:before1998,theprogramdominatedratingswith40percentofthemarket;today,thatgureislessthan10percent.
Thiswasdueinparttoreportingofocialgovernmentannouncements,whichattractlittleinterest.
Aftera2009restructuring,"XinwenLianbo"hasfocusedmoreoncriticalreportingandhuman-intereststories.
SeeChinaDaily,"CCTVtorevampagshipnewsprogram,"athttp://www.
chinadaily.
com.
cn/china/2009-06/10/content_8266365.
htm(accessed14June2012).
44.
CSMMediaResearchisajointventurebetweenCTRMarketResearch(theleadingmarketresearchcompanyinChina)andtheTNSGroup.
CSMMediaResearchoersratinginformationforHongKongSARandChina.
Seehttp://www.
csm.
com.
cn/en/about/indexhk.
html(accessed24April2011).
ItusesthefollowingtoolstomeasureTVandradioaudiences:establishmentsurvey—identifyingpopulationcharacteristics;panel—representativesampleofTVaudiencechosenforinterviews;peoplemeter—anelectronicdeviceformeasuringTVaudiences'viewingbehavior;Infosys—softwareforanalyzingTVratingdata.
Seehttp://www.
csm.
com.
cn/en/rating/index.
html(accessed24April2011).
45.
InformationfromSMR,aGuangzhou-basedcompanyspecializinginmarketingresearch,mediaresearch,creditinvestigation,andcompetitioninformationresearchinChina.
TheresearchresultisfromanSMRreport,"Nationalradioindustryresearchreport2007,"availableonlyinChinese.
33OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Nationalbroadcaststendtoemphasizehardnews,whileareastationsdevotemoretimetostoriesthatreecttheconcernsandinformationneedsofthelocalpopulation.
Table10.
Mostpopularradionewsprogramsbyratings(%),2006–2008FrequencyNewsprogram200620072008FM100.
6/AM828BeijingPeople'sRadio"NewsBroadcast"10.
68.
339.
8FM106.
1ChinaNationalRadio"VoiceoftheNation"11.
08.
088.
6FM93.
4/AM990ShanghaiPeople'sRadio"News"23.
925.
3224.
1FM90.
9/AM1296GuangdongNewsRadio"News"8.
67.
3n/aFM97.
4/AM1062GuangdongPearlRiverEconomicBroadcast22.
725.
021.
0FM96.
2GuangdongNewsInformationBroadcast5.
86.
15.
2Note:n/a:notavailableSource:ChinaRadioYearbooks2006,2007,2008Forinternetmedia,newsinformationfoundonportalwebsitesismorelikelytobe"soft"inordertoattracthigherclick-throughrates,whilewebsitesoftraditionalnewsmediatendtoadherecloselytothehardernewscontentofthemediaorganization.
Table11.
Fourmostpopular*newsportals,17January2011Website%users(reach)AveragepageviewsperuserNews.
qq.
com21.
811.
0News.
sina.
com.
cn14.
87.
7News.
sohu.
com10.
35.
7News.
163.
com8.
37.
2Note:*Reachistypicallyexpressedasthepercentageofallinternetuserswhovisitagivensite.
Pageviewsmeasurethenumberofpagesviewedbysitevisitors46Source:http://cn.
alexa.
com46.
Alexacomputesthereachandnumberofpageviewsforallsitesonthewebonadailybasis.
ThemainAlexatracrankisbasedonavaluederivedfromthesetwoquantitiesaveragedovertime(sothattherankofasitereectsboththenumberofuserswhovisitthatsiteaswellasthenumberofpagesonthesiteviewedbythoseusers).
Reachmeasuresthenumberofusers.
Forexample,ifasitelikeYahoo.
comhasareachof28percent,thismeansthatofallglobalinternetusersmeasuredbyAlexa,28percentofthemvisitYahoo.
com.
Inthecaseofpageviews,multiplepageviewsofthesamepagemadebythesameuseronthesamedayarecountedonlyonce.
Thepageviewsperusernumbersaretheaveragenumbersofuniquepagesviewedperuserperdaybythevisitorstothesite.
Seehttp://www.
alexa.
com/help/trac-learn-more(accessed24April2011).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA34Table12.
Fourmostpopular*newswebsitesestablishedbytraditionalmedia,17January2011Website%usersAveragepageviewsperuserXinhuanet.
com9.
45.
5People.
com.
cn6.
95.
6Ifeng.
com7.
07.
5Chinanews.
com.
cn4.
34.
8Note:*SeenotetoTable11forhowusersandpageviewsaremeasuredSource:http://cn.
alexa.
comTherearecurrentlynoresearchreportscomparingdierentnewssourcesinChina.
Accordingtothe29thCNNICreportoninternetusage,71.
5percentofinternetusersaccessnewsthroughtheinternet,andonlinenewsranksfourthamongallonlineapplications,afterinstantmessaging,searching,andmusic.
47Fornon-internetusers,televisionremainsthemainsourceofinformationingeneral.
Whencomparinginformationretrievalforinternetuserswithnon-internetusers,itbecomesapparentthatinternetusersfavormorecomprehensive,variedinformationchannels(seeFigure3).
48Thisisduetohighereducationlevelsamonginternetusers.
Figure3.
Comparisonofinformationretrievalmethodsbetweeninternetusersandnon-internetusers(%),20070%20%40%60%80%100%InternetTVNewspapersRadioBooksMagazinesOtherNetusersNon-netusers8509033.
29.
68.
57.
311.
166.
161.
114.
918.
519.
58.
9Note:InformationretrievalisdenedbyCNNICasthechannelsthroughwhichpeopleacquirenewsinformation.
Source:CNNIC,January200747.
CNNIC,"29thInternetDevelopmentReport,"ChinaInternetNetworkInformationCenter,Beijing,16January2012.
48.
AccordingtoCNNIC,"29thInternetDevelopmentReport,"90percentofnon-internetusersacquireinformationthroughTV,while66.
1percentofinternetusersalsowatchTVnews.
Ontheotherhand,internetusersreadmorenewspapers,magazines,andbooks,andalsolistentomoreradio.
Comparedwithinternetusers,non-internetusersaremuchmorenarrowandconcentratedininformationretrieval.
Seehttp://www1.
cnnic.
cn/index/0E/00/11/index.
htm(accessed24April2011).
35OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20121.
3.
2TelevisionNewsProgramsChinahasbothnationalandregionaltelevisionstations.
CCTVbroadcastsnationwidewhiletheregionalstationsareeachallowedtobroadcastonechannelnationally.
Despitethefactthatithaslaunchedseveralnewchannels—itcurrentlyhas15,andagrowingcollectionofpay-TVsubscriptionchannels—CCTV'sviewingshareisfalling.
In2010itwasovertakenbythecombinedaudienceofprovincialbroadcasterssuchasShanghaiMediaGroup,HunanTV,andZhejiangTV.
Whilethetelevisionindustryissaidtoprovideapublicservice(inaccordancewiththeparty'sideologyandunderthegovernment'ssupervisionofcontent),therealityisthatmediainstitutionshavebeenorderedtoseparatetheiradministrationintoshiyeandqiye,thatis,bothpublicserviceandcommercial"self-reliance.
"Forexample,CCTVisstate-ownedbutgetsitsfundsfromthemarket.
CCTVhasrelativeindependenceinprogramdevelopment.
Revenuecomesfromthemarketandadvertisinginsteadoffromdirectgovernmentfunding.
Thishasledthetelevisionindustrytorelentlesslypursueratingsandproducemoreandmoreentertainmentprograms,suchasrealityshows.
Publicservicegenreshavebeenweakening,andadumbing-downofnewscontenthasmadeithardtoengageandenthralltheaudience.
Still,inrecentyearstherehasbeensomeinvestmentinthequalityofnewsprogramsbecauseanumberoftelevisionstationshaverealizedthatnewsprogramscangivethemagreatercompetitiveedgeandalsomeettheneedsofamoredemandingandcriticalaudiencewhichisadeptatnewmedia.
Thevemostpopulartelevisionnewsprogramsarelistedbelow(seeTable13).
Whiletheseprogramshavemaintainedhighviewership,mosthavesueredaslowdecline,partlybecauseaudiencedynamicshavechangedinthepastdecadeorso.
Onceaverysmallelite,China'stelevisionviewerslaterbecameanationalmassaudiencenumberinginthehundredsofmillions,withfamiliesattheheartofviewingbehavior.
However,fromthelate1990sontheaudiencehasbecomeincreasinglyfragmentedandindividualized.
Table13.
Televisionratingsofthevemostpopular*televisionnewsprograms(%),2007–2010Newsprograms2007200820092010CCTV"NetworkNewsBroadcast"3.
88.
77.
16.
6CCTV"TopicsinFocus"3.
15.
34.
11.
9JiangsuSatelliteTV"NanjingFacetoFace"8.
36.
88.
15.
7GuangdongPearlRiverTV"Today'sConcerns"7.
06.
28.
39.
1ShanghaiTV"FromtheAudience"9.
112.
411.
29.
9Note:*SeenotetoTable8forhowthisismeasured.
Source:ChinaTVRatingYearbooks2008to2010,CommunicationUniversityofChinaPress,BeijingFurthermore,anumberofotherchangeshaveaectedaudiences,principallythedevelopmentofmultipleandspecializedchannels,increasedchannelchoicesthroughadvancesincableandsatellitebroadcastingavailability,andthecontinuingdiversicationofsociety.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA36Itisclearthattheoncelargelyuniedtelevisionaudiencehasnowbeendividedaccordingtoviewingtaste,personalinterests,andgeography.
Localchannelshaveincreasedtheamountofbroadcastingindialects,mostnotablyinGuangdongProvincewhichhasstronglinguistic,cultural,andeconomiclinkstoHongKong.
Forexample,GuangdongPearlRiverTVbroadcastsexclusivelyinCantonese.
InfactmostCantonesearegenerallywatchingcompletelydierentchannelsandprogramsfromtherestofthecountry.
InthefarnortheastneartheKoreanpeninsula,manyethnicKoreanscanreceivesomeKoreanbroadcasting.
Becausetherearenowstrongcommercialimperativesaswellaspoliticalones,televisioncontentproductionhasbecomeindividualandconsumer-focused,drivenbytheneedtopleaseaudiences,adaptingandcateringtoanarrayofsocialtastesandinterests.
Becausedigitalmediaareinherentlydesignedtoservenarroweraudiencesandindividualneeds,digitalmigrationacceleratesthisprocess.
Asaudiencesbecomemorediversied,CCTVisbeginningtoloseouttocable,satellite,andregionalnetworks.
Audiencesprefertowatchthetelevisionnewschannelclosesttothem.
InGuangzhou,forexample,CCTVprogrammingonlyaccountsfor45percentoftheweeklyaudienceshare,comparedwith78percentofHongKong'sTVBJadeandATV,and80percentforGuangzhouTV.
49In2007,thetelevisionaudienceroseto1.
2billion.
50Altogethertherewere3,000televisionstationsacrossthecountry.
51Therehasalsobeenarapidgrowthintelevisiongenresandformats.
Asaresult,televisionoccupiesasingularpositioninthestate'smediaarsenal:itistheparty'sgreatestvehiclefortransmittingpropaganda,whetherthroughtheeveningnewsortheCCTV"SpringFestivalGala,"oneofthehighest-ratedshowsoftheyearonChinesetelevision.
Forexample,CCTV'sagshipeveningnewsprogram,"NetworkNewsBroadcast"("XinwenLianbo"),concentratesheavilyonCCPpolitburostandingcommitteememberswithlavishcoverageoftheireverystatementandgesture.
Awidelycirculatedjokesaystheprogramisdividedintothreesegments:therst10minutestalkabouthowbusytheleadersare,themiddle10abouthowhappypeopleareacrossthecountry,andthenal10abouthowchaoticotherplacesintheworldare.
Thelocalstationsdonotfarebetter:newsreportsareroutinelyorganizedbypropagandaocialsandbolsteredbyinterviewswithlocalCCPsecretaries.
Yetdespitetheparty'sstrictcensorshipsomeprovincialtelevisionstationsandevenothernewsprogramsatCCTVhavebeguntoshowsomeindependence.
Fordecades,thepartyhaspushedtelevisionnetworkstoembracethemarket.
Individualprogramshavethusbeengivenagreatdealofresponsibilityandautonomyinmanagingtheoperationsoftheirownprogramandthepeoplewhoworkontheprogram.
Theriseofinvestigativenewsinthemid-1990sandminshengnewsinrecentyearsareallevidenceforthatindependenceandautonomy.
49.
ElaineJ.
Yuan,"Diversityofexposureintelevisionviewing:audiencefragmentationandpolarizationinGuangzhou,"ChineseJournalofCom-munication,1(1)(2008),pp.
91–108.
50.
Seehttp://news.
xinhuanet.
com/newscenter/2007-12/19/content_7281337.
htm(accessed14June2012).
51.
Seehttp://www.
china.
org.
cn/english/features/Brief/193358.
htm(accessed14June2012).
37OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012The1990ssawarelativesurgein'watchdog'journalism,orwhattheChinesecall"supervisionbypublicopinion"(yulunjiandu).
Whilemanycasesofmediasupervisioninvolvedlittlemorethanparty-sanctionedmonitoringoflow-levelocials,someofthebestinvestigativereportsmadeimportantbreakthroughsonavarietyoftopics:ocialfailures,corruptions,socialtensions,conicts,andnaturaldisasters,whichwerealltabootopicsinthepre-reformera.
TherapidriseofminshengnewsprogramsreectsanotherreorientationofChinesetelevision.
Minshengnewsfeatureslocalizedperceptionandproduction,andlocalpeople'sdailylivesaretheprimaryconcernsoftheprograms.
Insteadofbeingelite-centered,newstendstofocusmoreonthegrassroots,whichconstitutesthemajorityofthenewsaudience.
Thisgrassrootsorientationshowsthetendencyfortelevisiontocatertothepreoccupationsofthegeneralpublic.
1.
3.
3ImpactofDigitalMediaonGood-qualityNewsNewmediahavebroughtapluralityofnewsformsandparticipationmodels,subvertingtraditionalmedia'smonopolyonnewsproduction.
Despitethis,newmediastillrelyuponthereportinggeneratedbytraditionalmediatogrow.
Traditionalmediaaudienceshaveslowlyevolvedfrompassive,isolatedconsumersintoinformationcreatorsaswellasconsumers.
However,theseuntrainednewsinformationproducersoftenrelyonemotionorsensationalismtojudgethevalidityandworthoftheircontent,resultinginhighlyvariablequality.
Thebestpartisthatbloggers,microbloggers,andotheramateurjournalistsarescoopingtraditionalnewsoutletsaswellaspointingouterrors,whilepeoplewhohavebeenmadesubjectsofnewsarticlesarerespondingonline,postingsupplementaryinformationtoprovidecontextandcounterpoints.
Increasingly,thepublicisturningtoonlinesourcesfornews.
Astraditionalmediaslowlybecomemoreintegratedwithnewmedia,sotherewillbechangesincontent.
Whileatrsttraditionalmediasimplyduplicatedcontentandrepublishedinformationonline,theironlinepresencehasquicklyevolvedintoamorehybridizedsystem,closelymirroringthestructureofportalwebsites.
Theinformationisupdatedmorequickly,newspagesarebecomingmoreinteractiveandtherearemoremultimediaelements.
Caijing,CaixinMedia,andothertraditionalmediaoutletshaveaddedblogstotheirsites;bothCCTVandPeople'sDailyprovideweiboservicestotheirreaders;theSouthernMetropolitanNewswebsitehasavideosection;52andmanyotherssolicitandusereader-contributedcontent.
Journalistsareblogginglivefromtheeld;forbreakingnews,weiboallowsthemtopostfrequentupdatesinnearreal-time.
Commercialportalwebsitesmostlyassimilatesecond-handinformationratherthancreatetheirowncontentandhaveexperiencedamarkedshifttowardoftenvulgarentertainmentcontent.
Astraditionalmedianewswebsiteshavebeguntoimplementfasterupdatesandincreaseinteractivity,andasparticipatoryjournalismisourishing,portalwebsiteshaveincreasinglyorganizednewsstoriesandcommentsintodierent"specialtopics"(webpagesandpackagesdevotedtoaspecialissue)ornicheintereststofacilitatereaders'accessandtoprovidein-depthanalysis.
52.
Seehttp://nd.
oeeee.
com/mnews/(accessed25January2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA381.
4AssessmentsAccordingtoCNNIC's"29thInternetDevelopmentReport,"asofDecember2011therewere513millioninternetusersinthecountry,up55.
8millioninayear.
Some71.
5percentoftheseusetheinternettogettheirnews.
53Theinstantaneous,interactive,andeasilyharnesseddeliveryofcontenthasdrawnpeopletointernetmedia,makingitoneofthemainchannelsthroughwhichpeopleobtainnews.
AsNielsenwirecommented,"OnescreenisnotenoughforChineseconsumers.
"54Withmoreviewersnolongersolelyfocusedononescreen,newsprovidersmustthinkstrategicallyaboutcontentthatresonatesacrossallthreescreens—television,internet,andmobile.
Asthemediaevolvebeyondtelevision,ithasbecomecruciallynecessaryfornewsproviderstoadapttochangingmediaconsumptionpatterns.
Theadventofnewinternetmediatechnologiesandapplications—suchasmobileinternetandmicroblogging—hascreatedaconvenientandeasy-to-usechannelforordinarypeopletoquicklycreateandretrieveinformation.
SNSrelyoninterpersonalconnectionsbetweenusers,increasingthespeedwithwhichnewsinformationtravelsacrosssocialgroups,aswellasthescopeanddepththatitpermeatessociety.
Theexpansionofthesenewchannelsofcommunicationshasimportantimplicationsforthedisseminationofknowledgeandideasinasocietywherenewsandinformationtraditionallyhavebeenrestricted.
(Seesection3.
)Asthepublicturnstowardparticipatoryformsofonlinejournalism,andastraditionalnewsoutletsadoptmoreofthoseinteractivefeaturesintheironlineversions,audienceshaveenjoyedaccesstoagreaterdiversityofnewsoer.
Butthecorenewsvaluehasnotchanged:servingthepartyandtheimpartingofideologyarestillthemaincharacteristicsoftraditionalnewsonline.
Althoughtheinternethascreatedsomeopeningsfordisseminatinguncensorednews,thegovernmenthasalsosuccessfullyco-optedinternetcompaniesintodoingmuchofitscensorshipandsurveillancework,andatthesametimehasimposedself-censorshiponbloggersandmicrobloggersalike.
53.
CNNIC,"29thInternetDevelopmentReport.
"54.
Nielsenwire,"Onescreenisn'tenoughforChineseconsumers,"7March2011,athttp://blog.
nielsen.
com/nielsenwire/global/one-screen-not-enough-for-chinese-consumers/(accessed25April2010).
39OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20122.
DigitalMediaandPublicorState-administeredBroadcasters2.
1PublicServiceandStateInstitutions2.
1.
1OverviewofPublicServiceMedia;NewsandCurrentAffairsOutputFromthebirthofChinesetelevisionandradiointhe1950stotoday,thebroadcastmediahavewithoutexceptionbeenstate-ownedandstate-operated.
ChinesemediaarecompletelycontrolledbytheChinesegovernmentandtheCCP,whichregulatetheircontentinaccordancewiththeirpolicyandpropagandarequirements.
Asaresult,thecommonlyheldconceptofpublicservicebroadcasting,inthesenseofitbeingindependentofboththestateandthemarket,doesnotapply.
Inotherwords,ifaguaranteeofindependencefromthegovernmentisadeningfeatureofpublicservicemedia,thentherearenopublicservicemedia.
AmoreaccuratedenitioninChina'scaseis"state-operatedbroadcasting.
"Forthepurposesofthischapterstate-ownedCCTVandChinaNationalRadioarebeingtreatedasthecountry'sversionofpublicservicemedia.
Thoughthisstillholdstruefortoday'sbroadcastmedia,therehavebeenchangesinthemediastructuresincetheeconomicandpoliticalopeningofChinathatbeganinthelate1970s.
Beginninginthe1980s,therewasapolicyto"commercialize"Chinesemedia,includingbroadcastmedia,throughthecreationofanumberofmediagroups.
Thishashadtheeectofgraduallyremovingthegovernmentitselffrommanagerialandoperationalresponsibilityandweakeningdirectgovernmentalcontroloverthecommercialaspectofthedevelopmentofthemedia.
However,ultimatecontrolremainsinthehandsoftheCCP,whichhasapartycommitteeineverymediaoperation.
Atthesametime,contentregulatorypowerrestswiththePropagandaDepartmentoftheCCP.
Asbroadcastmediawereallowedtobecomemoremarket-oriented,thesemediagroupsbegantoassumeresponsibilityfortheircommercialperformance.
ChenLidan,aRenminUniversityofChinaprofessor,usestheterm"singlesystem,dualoperation"todescribethepresentstructureofChina'sbroadcastmedia.
Underthisarrangement,broadcastmediatakeadvantageofstateownershiptogaineconomicbenetsinthemarketMAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA40andinturnreinvestthesetofurthertheparty'spoliticalpropagandagoals.
55Becauseofalackofnancialtransparencyinmediaoperations,therearenonancialdataavailabletoexaminethenancesofChina'sbroadcasters.
This"commercialization"ismostpronouncedinlocalbroadcastmedia.
Thereisintensecompetitionbetweenlocaltelevisionstations.
Becauseprovincialstationsremitrevenuetolocalauthorities,theyareusuallyleftwithmorespacetodeveloptheirownprograms.
Nationalbroadcasting,ontheotherhand,isdirectlyguidedbythegovernmentandtheparty,thereforebearingthegreaterburdenofamoreideologicalassignmentunderwhichnewsthatpositivelyevaluatesgovernmentpolicieshelpstoprotecttheirimageandestablishlegitimacy.
Thisideologicallydrivenpolicyisexplicitbecausetheauthoritiesregardbroadcastingaspartofthepublicdomain,whichtheyconsidertheresponsibilityofstateandparty.
Thepublicinterestis,bydenition,servedbystateandparty,andonlyinthatsenseisitpossibletocomparetheChinesemodelwiththeconceptofpublicservicebroadcasting.
Twonewsbroadcasters,namelyCCTV-13andChinaNationalRadio's"VoiceoftheNation,"tellsomethingoftherecentstoryofpublicbroadcasting.
Thenewsprogramsofbothmaybecharacterizedasformalandsolemn,shunning"entertainmentnews"valuesinfavorofhardnews.
In2009,CCTV-13underwentchangesinbothcontentandbroadcaststructure.
56Notonlywasthereamarkedincreaseinbreakingnewsreports,butalsocommentaryandanalyticcontentimproved.
Dailynewsbroadcastingsegmentsincreasedto15–17hours,morethan88percentofpremierprogramoutput.
Asof2009,CCTV-13'saudiencesharereached2.
7percent,placingitinthetop10fortheentirecountry.
57"VoiceoftheNation"runs24hoursofnewscontentsdaily,manyofthemlivebroadcasts,withreviewsandbackgroundinformationaddinglotsofdepthtothenews.
In2008,"VoiceoftheNation"wasrankedthirdintheBeijingdistrict,pullingin0.
5percentoflisteners.
In2009,in25cities,includingWuhanandChengdu,itwasrankedeitherrstorsecond,evidenceoftheeectivenessofastrongnewsagendaforgaininglisteners.
58CCTVandChinaNationalRadiostilldominatetheindustry,buttheyhavecededmarketsharetoprovincialstationsbecausethelatterareproducingthemostpopularentertainmentshows.
Thishasledthetwonationalbroadcasterstoincreasenewsandcurrentaairsoutput,soastoupholdtheirpositionsandbecomemorelikepublicservicemedia.
55.
ChenLidan,"Issuesofmediaeconomy,"18July2005,athttp://media.
people.
com.
cn/GB/40628/3549870.
html(accessed2February2011).
56.
JiangMo,"NewapproachesofCCTV-13restructuring,"YouthJournalist,16,2009,athttp://qnjz.
dzwww.
com/qybg/200909/t20090914_5067429.
htm(accessed25February2011);LuoChang,"AnalysisoftheeditingandbroadcastingoftheneweditionCCTV-13,"PressCircles,June2009.
57.
Therearetwomajoraudiencemeasurementsforbroadcastmedia:ratingspointsandshare,usuallyreportedas:ratingspoints/share.
ShareisthepercentageofTVsetsinusetunedtotheprogram.
Forexample,Nielsenmayreportashowasreceivinga9.
2/15duringitsbroadcast,meaningthatonaverage9.
2percentofallTV-equippedhouseholdsweretunedintothatprogramatanygivenmoment,while15percentofhouseholdswatchingTVweretunedintothatprogramduringthistimeslot.
ThedierencebetweenratingandshareisthataratingreectsthepercentageofthetotalpopulationofTVstunedtoaparticularprogram,whilesharereectsthepercentageofTVsactuallyinuse.
58.
LiangMingzhiandCaiShuai"TherestructuringoftheVoiceoftheNation,"NewsandWriting,BeijingDailyNewspaperGroup,March2009.
41OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20122.
1.
2DigitizationandServicesTodate,digitizationofmediahasbeenatthebehestofthegovernment,whichhasopenlyadvocatedandpushedfortheswitch-over.
SARFThasformedanadministrativeplanfordigitizationinkeepingwiththe"singlesystem,dualoperation"structuredescribedearlier.
Eachstagehasbeencarefullyplannedwithspecicguidelinesforexecution,technologicalsupport,andnewindustrystandards.
CCTVhasalwayshadaspecialstatusamongmediaprovidersasthestationwiththemostdomesticinuence,andisundoubtedlytheleaderintheracetocompletedigitizationaheadofanarrayoflocalareatelevisionstationssuchasHunanSatelliteTV.
YetCCTV'sembraceofonlinemedia(asCctv.
com)hasnotbeenparticularlysuccessful,withthewebsitelaggingfarbehindtelevisioninreachandinuence.
Unwillingtofallbehind,CCTVspentRMB200million(US$31.
5million)onanewvideositeon28December2009calledChinaNetworkTelevision(CNTV).
59OriginalcontentfortheCNTVsiteisbroadandvaried,consistingofnews,sports,artsandentertainment,HDvisualcontent,user-generatedcontent(UGC)suchasblogsandvideo-sharing,anda24-hourcontinuousandcomprehensivestreamofdomestictelevisionchannels.
Beginningin2010,CNTVbeganbroadeningitsonlinecontent,addinginformationconcerningmovies,televisionseries,documentaries,nanceandeconomics,science,health,weather,domesticlife,travel,education,minorityandethnicgroups,andmusic,amongothers,alldrawnfromthe450,000hoursoflmintheCCTVbroadcastlibrary.
Inaddition,clipsfromvariousdomesticlocalstationsareroutinelygatheredforinternetbroadcast.
InthiswayCNTVhasslowlydriftedawayfromitsparentstation,arststeptowarddiversication.
SARFThasgivenBeijingterrestrialradiobroadcasterspermissiontocarryaudio,video,anddigitalbroadcasts.
ChinaNationalRadiohasestablishedfournewdigitalradiostations,twonewdigitalvideostations,onemobiletelevisionstation,andthreemobileaudiobroadcastingstations.
Thetwonewdigitalvideostations,HappyShoppingandHealthyFamily,broadcastproductadvertisementsandhealthtips,respectively,drawingonthelargestonlineradiobroadcastsiteChinaRadioNet.
602.
1.
3GovernmentSupportAsearlyas2001,thegovernmentexplicitlypromotedtriple-play,theintegrationoftelecommunicationsnetworks,cabletelevision,andinternet,yetitwasnotuntil2009thattheStateCouncilandSARFTgavetheideaanysubstance.
On13January2010,PremierWenJiabaocalledameetingoftheStateCouncilinanattempttocreateadenitivetimelineforintegrationandtoremoveintegrationbarriers.
ThetelecomsindustryandtheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology(MIIT)willberesponsiblefortechnologicalaspectsandthecreationofthenecessarynetworks.
However,SARFT,whichhaslongbeen59.
"CCTVThrew200millionRMBtolaunchafullInternetTVservice,"29December2009,athttp://media.
sohu.
com/20091229/n269290797.
shtml(accessed14February2012).
60.
Seehttp://www.
cnr.
cn/service/dtjj.
html(accessed21February2011).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA42responsiblefortheideologicalaspectsofthebroadcastmedia,aswellasholdingconsiderableswayinthecreationofbroadcasttechnologiesandfacilities,willcontinuetoberesponsibleforthecontentandideology.
61Twotriple-playprojectshavebeeninitiated,onewithIPTV(internetprotocoltelevision),promotedbytheMIIT,andonewithNextGenerationBroadcastingnetwork(NGB),promotedbySARFT.
62On9February2010,XinhuaNewsAgencypublishedajoint-ministrypressrelease63announcingtheresultsofinter-ministrynegotiations:IPTVprogrammingmaybetransmittedbytelecomsoperatorswhilecontentcontrolremainsinthehandsoflocalradioandtelevisionregulators;broadcastingnetworksmaytakepartinpartsoftelecomsservicessuchasvoiceanddata,aswellasestablishanationalcabletelevisioncorporation.
Whilethiscompromiseisasteptoward"three-net"(telecoms,internet,andtelevision)integration,itfallsshortofasatisfactorylevelofintegrationandfailstomeettheneedsofthetelecomssector.
Landline,cellular,andinternetoperationsallremainrmlyinthegraspofthetelecomsproviders,whiletelevisionservicesandcontrolofcontentremaindominatedbySARFT.
Atthesametimetelecomsprovidersmayonlyretransmitthoseprogramsalreadybroadcastbytelevisionandradio.
64Thepilotprojectsthatstartedin2010formaclearpatternofasymmetricentry:theystronglyencourageradioandtelevisiontoentertheeldoftelecoms,butiftelecomswanttotestthewaterinthebroadcastingbusiness,theywillstillbesubjecttomanylimitations.
Forexample,telecomsoperatorshavebeenwaitingtoentertheIPTVbusinessforyears,butlicenserightsremaininthehandsofSARFT,whichhasissuedlicensesonlytoitsaliatedenterprises,includingCNTV.
Telecomsoperatorshavethereforetocooperatewiththoseenterprises.
BecauseCCTVhasacquiredtherstIPTVlicenseaswellastherstnetworktelevisionlicense,65itisinauniquepositiontotrulybecomeanationalnetworktelevision.
Itcancombineits400,000hoursofcontent66withmultiplenetworkplatforms.
2.
1.
4PublicServiceMediaandDigitalSwitch-overTheprincipalmeansoftransmissionhistoricallywasterrestrialtelevisionandthisremainsthecaseforruralareas.
Directsatellitetothehome(DTH)hasmademajorinroadsintotraditionalpatternsofterrestrialreceptioninmanycountries,and,inadvancedeconomiesgenerally,theseservicesarenowdigital.
WhenDTH61.
"SARFTisconsideringthestandardsofinternetTV,"DailyEconomicNews,7May2010,athttp://www.
nbd.
com.
cn/newsht-ml/20100507/20100507033501466.
html(accessed25February2011).
HuashuGroupistheleadingcompanyinvolvedinbuildingNextGenerationBroadcasting(NGB).
62.
ZhaoHejuan,"Tripleplayisthesaviorofbroadcasting,"NewCenturyWeekly,21February2010,athttp://media.
163.
com/10/0221/11/601SOKKT00763N4Q.
html(accessed25February2011).
63.
"TriplePlaybecomesaGamebetweenMIITandSARFT,withthelattergainingtheupperhand,"SouthernMetropolisNews,9June2010,athttp://www.
chinanews.
com/it/it-itxw/news/2010/06-09/2331806.
shtml(accessed25February2011).
64.
Bylaw,accordingtoStateCouncilGeneralOce,StipulationNo.
82.
65.
WhileIPTVdisseminationoccursoveramanagedproprietarynetworkandconsumersalsoneedadedicatedset-topbox,networkTVisspreadthroughthepublicinternetandconsumersneedonlyaTVwithinternetaccesstowatch.
66.
Seehttp://www.
cctv.
com/prole/intro.
html(accessed25January2012).
43OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012servicesbegantobebeamedintoChinafromabroad,China'sresponsein1993wastointroduceregulationsbanningtheownershipofDTHreceptionsatellitedisheswithoutaspeciallicenseandthusfunnelingsatelliteservicesthroughcablesystemswhichcouldberegulated.
Sincethen,televisiondevelopmentinthecitieshasbeenpredominantlycable-based.
In2003SARFTreleased"TheTimetableforChina'sTransitionfromCableTVtoDigitalTV.
"67Thistimetabledividedtheprocessoftransitionintofourstepsaccordingtothesizeofcitiesandbyregion,startingwithmajorcitiesintheeast,provincialcapitalsandmajorcitiesinthecentralareas,aswellasacertainnumberofprovincialcapitalsinthewestin2005,withcompletionacrossthecountryby2015.
InJanuary2008,CCTVinBeijingbeganatrialofdigitalterrestrialbroadcasting.
ByAugust2008,eightcitieswereabletobroadcastdigitalOlympiccoverage.
By2009,therstwaveofcitydigitizationwascompleted,and109citieshaddigitalbroadcastingabilities.
AccordingtoSARFT,thedigitalterrestrialtelevision(DTT)networkwillcoverthewholecountryinthreeyears.
DTTdeploymentwillbeintwophases.
Therstphasewillseethedeliveryofhighdenition(HDTV)andstandarddenition(SDTV)programsto37majorcitiesacrossChinaandthesecondphasewillextendSDTVprogramavailabilitytoChina's333citiesand2,861counties.
68Thebasicguidelinesfortheswitch-overtoDTTarethecontinuanceofhigh-qualityservicetothepublic,preservationofHDprogrammingwhereavailable,andcontinuedfreeSDprogrammingforthegeneralpublic.
Thegovernment'splanforthedigitalterrestrialswitch-overbeginswitheconomicallydevelopedareaswithhighdemandformediacontentandalackofopenfrequencieswhereanalogterrestrialtelevisionwillbeslowlyphasedout.
69Thisplanwillalsobedeployedonthebasisofcitysizeandgeographicarea,beginningwithlargercitiesintheeasternareas,thenmovingontosmaller,moreruralcitiesinwesternsectors.
DigitaltelevisionterminalsaswellasHDprogrammingwillbesubsidizedinanattempttopopularizedigitalcontent,therebygarneringsupportforthedigitalswitch-over.
TheSARFTPlanningInstituteproposesthatbeginningin2015,analogterrestrialserviceswillslowlybeshutdowninareasthathaveDTT,inthehopethatby2020allanalogterrestrialtelevisionserviceswillbediscontinued.
70Afterthecompletionofthetransitiontodigital,extensivewirelesspublicserviceprogramswillbelaunched.
Elsewherethepriorityhasbeentoswitchoanalogterrestrialtransmissionstomakemoreecientuseofspectrum,butChinabeginsitsdigitalswitch-overfromCDTVinsteadofDTT.
Thecablesystemcovers67.
Seehttp://business.
sohu.
com/59/90/article212009059.
shtml(accessed25April2011).
68.
Seehttp://tech.
sina.
com.
cn/t/2009-02-21/04092845430.
shtml(accessed9July2012).
69.
LiYixing'sspeechattheForumofDigitalTVTransmissionandTestingon24March2010,Beijing.
LiYixingisthedirectorofWirelessOceoftheSARFTPlanningInstitute.
Seehttp://tech.
163.
com/10/0329/22/62VQ19T90009471J.
html(accessed25February2011).
70.
Seehttp://tech.
163.
com/10/0329/22/62VQ19T90009471J.
html(accessed25April2011).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA44cities,towns,andsomevillages,andhadby2005becomethelargestcablenetworksystemintheworld.
71Thecablenetworkhasbeenthemostpopularplatformforpeopletobeinformedandentertained.
Thoughbroadcastersbegantotransferfromanalogtodigitaltelevisioninthelate1990s,thegovernmentonlydecidedontheDTTstandardinSeptember2006,theyearthatChinalauncheditsrstbroadcastingsatellite.
ThesearethemaintechnicalreasonswhySARFThaschosentomaketheswitch-overfromCDTV.
AsMichaelStarkspointsout,"China'smotivationfordigitalswitch-overisdierent:ratherthanpushingtoreuseanalogterrestrialspectrum,thegovernmentaimstosupporttheinterestsoftheTVreceivermanufacturingindustryand,especially,toimprovethemanagedcommunicationofinformationtotheChinesepeople.
"72ThetransitiontodigitalTVbasicallycontinuesthedominanceofexistingbroadcasters.
SinceChinadoesnothavepublicservicemedia,alleortswithregardtodigitalswitch-overcanonlybediscussedinthecontextofastate-operatedtelevisionindustry.
Theswitch-overprocessiscompletelydeterminedbythestate,withSARFTplayingadecisiverole.
Therearenonewentrantsintheprocess.
2.
2PublicServiceProvision2.
2.
1PerceptionofPublicServiceMediaAsoutlinedinsection2.
1.
1,thebroadcastingsystemisgovernedentirelybythepartyandthestate,whichviewthemselvesastheoverseersofthepublicinterest.
Assuch,therearenostudiesattemptingtogaugepublicopinionontheindependenceandfunctioningofthesystem.
2.
2.
2PublicServiceProvisioninCommercialMediaHowever,thereformsintroducedoverthepasttwodecadestocreateamorecommercialandcompetitivemedialandscape(asopposedtoaprivateone)havebeenpartlyresponsibleforweakeningthestate'sideologicalgripandencouragingpeopletobecomemoreawareofthevalueoffreedomofinformationandcivicparticipation.
Ifthepublicinterestisatleastinpartaboutspeakingtoandengagingwithcitizens,thecommerciallyfundedbroadcastmediaactuallydofulllthatrole.
Atthesametime,ifthepublicinterestisatleastinpartservedbyfreeingthemediafrommarketforces,CCTV,China'slargestandmostpowerfulnationaltelevisionbroadcaster,isabletotransmitprogramsthatwouldnotbecommerciallyviable,suchasdocumentariesandeducationalprograms.
71.
RobertVaaganandWangYu,"ThedevelopmentofdigitaltelevisioninChinaandNorway,"NewMedia,MediatedCommunicationandGlobali-zation.
InterculturalCommunicationStudies,17(3)(2008),pp.
169–184.
72.
MichaelStarks,"Digitaltelevisionswitchover:Chinagoesitsownway,"athttp://www.
westminster.
ac.
uk/__data/assets/pdf_le/0003/59709/003WPCC-Vol7-No1-Michael_Starks.
pdf(accessed9July2012).
45OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20122.
3AssessmentsDuetothedevelopmentofdigitaltechnologyandtheriseofnewmedia,state-operatedbroadcastinghasexpandeditsserviceareasandsphereofinuence.
Itsmediaproductshaveattractedawideraudience,andtherestrictionoftimeandspaceonthedeliveryofmediacontentsissteadilydecreasing.
Consumersarethereforeabletoaccessthecontentandservicesofbroadcastmediainaexibleandconvenientmanner.
Thebroadcasters,throughthecommercializationprocess,haveadoptedsomethingofapublicservicefunction,especiallythenationalbroadcastersdirectlyunderSARFT,suchasCCTVandChinaNationalRadio.
But,inessence,CCTVremainsamixtureofstatetelevisionandcommercialtelevision,aswellaspublictelevision.
Thebiggestobstacletotelevisionrestructuringarethetensionsbetweenthepropagandasystem,thepublicservice,andthemarket.
AsthefamousCCTVanchorCuiYongyuanputsit:"Ifourtelevisionispublictelevision,thenitistheworld'smostdirtypublictelevision;ifourTVstationsarecommercialtelevision,thenitistheworld'sworstcommercialtelevision.
"7373.
Quotedin"SouthernPeopleWeeklyinterviewwithCuiYongyuan:Iwanttobangonthedesk,"athttp://news.
sohu.
com/20050921/n227020984.
shtml(accessed15June2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA463.
DigitalMediaandSociety3.
1User-GeneratedContent(UGC)3.
1.
1UGCOverviewChinesenetizenshaveembracedallformsofuser-generatedmedia,includingblogs,forumsor"bulletinboardsystems"(BBS),videosharing,socialnetworks,microblogs,74andWiki.
75Table14.
ThemostpopulartypesofUGCandUGCwebsites,2011UGCwebsitenameUGCtypeGlobalreach(millionpageviews)%domestictrafc%visitorstoUGCsubsectionofbroaderwebsiteDailyuniquevisitors(million)Baidu.
comSearchengine95796.
9n/a51BaiduTiebaOnlinecommunity221n/a14.
512QQ.
comPortalwebsite11597.
1n/a12Qzone.
qq.
comSNS,weblog212n/a21.
122Sina.
com.
cnPortalwebsite11695.
7n/a11Blog.
sina.
comWeblog855n/a15.
984163.
comPortalwebsite54196.
8n/a85Blog.
163.
comWeblog201n/a13.
431Sohu.
comPortalwebsite48796.
5n/a65Blog.
sohu.
comWeblog206n/a7.
327Youku.
comVideosharing35895.
395.
368Tudou.
comVideosharing57097.
397.
385Renren.
comSNS52.
893.
693.
849Tianya.
cnBBS1.
9796.
597.
038Notes:FordetailsofAlexa'smethodology,seehttp://www.
alexa.
com/help/trac-learn-more;n/a:notavailableSource:http://www.
alexa.
com/topsites/countries/CN74.
Forthepurposesofthisstudy,ChinesedomesticTwitter-likesiteswillbereferredtoasmicroblogs,asTwitteritselfisblockedinthemainland.
75.
Websitesthatallowuserstocollaborateinaddingandupdatinginformationcontent.
47OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012ThenumberofusersforWikiandmicroblogsisofparticularnote.
Wikihasexperiencedslowgrowth;theunavailabilityofinformationontheuserbaseofWikiindicatesitscomparativelackofpopularity(WikiUGChasbeenlargelyignoredbyCNNIC).
WikicontentismainlydividedbetweenHudong.
comandBaiduBaike,twohome-grownonlineencyclopedias.
Hudongclaimstobetheworld'slargestChineseencyclopediawebsite,withmorethan5millionarticlesandmorethan13millionusers.
76AlthoughTable14doesnotshowtheuseofmicroblogs,infactsince2009microblogginghasbecomeoneofthemostimportantplatformsfornetizenstoexpressopinionsandgaininformation.
MicrobloggingemergedasthethirdleadingsourceforinformationandpublicopinioninChinain2010behindtraditionalnewsmediaandonlineforums,accordingtoareportbytheCommunicationUniversityofChinabasedinBeijing77(seeTable15).
Table15.
ComparisonofpopularityofUGCwebsites,2011UGCtypeNo.
ofusers*%totalnetusersMicroblog249,880,00048.
7Forums144,690,00028.
2SNS244,240,00047.
6Blogs318,640,00062.
1Wikin/an/aNote:*CNNICdenesanetuserasonewhohasusedtheinternetforaperiodofatleastsixweekswithinthelastsixmonths;78n/a:notavailableSource:CNNIC,"29thInternetDevelopmentReport"Whilethenumberofmicroblogusersisstilllowerthanblogs,microbloggingsitesalreadysurpassforumsandsocialnetworkingsitesasthesecond-biggestUGCapplication.
AccordingtoCNNIC,microbloggingsitesexperiencedasharpincreaseinpopularityin2011.
Theproportionoftotalnetusersgoingonmicrobloggingsiteswasonly13.
8percentin2010,butroseto48.
7percentinoneyear.
MicrobloggingisdominatedbySina(Weibo.
com)andTencentWeibo(T.
qq.
com).
Ingeneral,theUGCwebsitesarehighlyintegratedintoestablishedmediawebsites,asisthecasewiththeUGCcontentofthefourlargestportalwebsites(Sina.
com.
cn,Sohu.
com,163.
com,andqq.
com).
Thesesitesuseawideselectionofspecializedcontenttoattractusers,oeringaconvenientportalthroughwhichtoaccessnews,entertainment,Wikis,blogs,microblogs,videos,etc.
Itisthereforeverydiculttoidentifywhatspecicinformationisattractinguserstotheseportalsites,whichhavethemostsuccessfulUGCsub-sites.
SpecializedUGCsitestraditionallylagbehindthosethatoeravarietyofmedia.
76.
"Informationgamechanger,"ChinaDaily,22February2011.
77.
"MicroblogsChina's3rdlargestsourceofinformation:report,"seehttp://news.
sina.
com.
cn/m/2011-03-25/150222181325.
shtml(accessed26April2011).
78.
UndertheblanketdenitionofnetuserCNNICdividedusersintosmallercategories,includingusersofmobile-accessedinternetanddesktop-accessedinternet,denedbyself-identicationoftheuser.
Inthiscase,whilethestudydoesnotdirectlydene"user"forthestatisticsusedinTable15,itisindicatedthatusersqualifyasnetusersfollowingthecriteriahere.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA48Thefourtopportalwebsitesallrankwithinthetop20sitesinChina(Sina.
com.
cnatno.
2,Sohu.
comatno.
4,163.
comatno.
6,andQQ.
comatno.
8).
AccordingtoAlexa,onlyeightstand-aloneUGCwebsitesrankinthetop100.
Table16.
UGCwebsitesrankedinChinesetop100byAlexa,2011NameUGCtypeRankYouku.
comVideosharing10Tudou.
comVideosharing11Renren.
comSocialnetwork16Tianya.
comBBS20Kaixin001.
comSocialnetwork21Douban.
comSocialnetwork24Mop.
comBBS50Wikipedia79Wiki98Source:http://www.
alexa.
com/topsites/countries/CN3.
1.
2SocialNetworksBefore2010,themostpopularandinuentialsocialnetworkingwebsiteswereQzone.
qq.
com,Renren.
com,andKaixin001.
com.
Theriseofmicrobloggingserviceshascomplicatedthepicture.
AlthoughtheCNNICreportseparatesmicroblogsfromSNSsites,manyobserverswouldincludemicroblogsinanassessmentofthepopularityofthetopsocialnetworks.
Becauseofthegovernment'sblockingpolicy,internetusersdonothaveaccesstobigSNSwebsitessuchasFacebookandTwitter,andmanyusersareactuallyunawareoftheirexistence.
However,copycatsitessuchasRenren.
com,Kaixin001.
com,andWeibo.
comhavesprungupacrosstheChineseinternet.
Table17.
Fivemostusedsocialnetworks,2011SNSwebsitesTypeUserdemographicsActiveusers(million)Reg.
users(million)Qzone.
com(Tencent)http://qzone.
qq.
com/NicknameSNSTeens190481Renren.
comhttp://www.
renren.
com/Real-nameSNSStudents,white-collar95170Pengyou.
comhttp://www.
pengyou.
com/Real-nameSNSWhite-collar80131SinaWeibohttp://weibo.
com/MicroblogWhite-collar65120Kaixin001.
comhttp://www.
kaixin001.
com/Real-nameSNSWhite-collar4095Source:TechRice,awebsitecoveringChina'stechindustry8079.
BoththeChineseandEnglishversionsofWikipediahavebeenblockedseveraltimessince2004.
Currently,bothversionsareaccessibleinChina,exceptforpoliticalarticles.
80.
Seehttp://techrice.
com/2011/03/08/chinas-top-15-social-networks/(accessed14February2012).
49OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20123.
1.
3NewsinSocialMediaBecausethereisadistinctlackofsurveysofUGCcontentinChina,wecanonlyuserelatedstatisticstoindicatetheextenttowhichUGCsitesinvolvenewsconsumption.
AccordingtoCNNIC's"29thInternetDevelopmentReport"(datedJanuary2012),71.
5percentofinternetusersaccessnewsthroughtheinternet.
ThoughofcoursewecannotdirectlyconnectthisstatistictoUGCcontent,itisastrongindicatorthatnewsconsumptionisviewedascentraltotheuseoftheinternet.
ItisthereforeunderstandablethatthetopfoursitesofUGCcontentareportalsitesthathaveincorporatednewssectionsintotheirlargerframeworks.
Table18indicatesthatthemajorityofuserswouldclassifysocialnetworkingandblogsasaplatformforcommunication,butitisnotconclusiveabouttheroleofnews.
CNNICdidnotincludetheirresearchquestionnaireinthepublishedreport,sothereisnowayofknowingwhethertheconnectionbetweenUGCandthe"Communicationanddiscourse"categorywasbychoiceorwaspre-designedintothequestionnaire.
Whatwemayconcludefromthetable,however,isthatitindicatestherelativeimportanceofUGCandnewsconsumption.
Table18.
Internetapplicationusage(%)andrankingamongtheinternetpopulation,2010–2011TypeUsageUsageasofDecember2010UsageasofDecember2011RankingasofDecember2010RankingasofDecember2011InformationaccessSearchengine81.
979.
412InternetentertainmentOnlinemusic79.
275.
223InformationaccessOnlinenews77.
271.
534CommunicationanddiscourseInstantmessaging77.
180.
941InternetentertainmentOnlinegames66.
563.
256CommunicationanddiscourseBlog64.
462.
167InternetentertainmentOnlinevideo62.
163.
475CommunicationanddiscourseEmail54.
647.
989CommunicationanddiscourseSocialnetworking51.
447.
6910InternetentertainmentOnlineliterature42.
639.
51011CommerceandbusinessOnlineshopping35.
137.
81112CommunicationanddiscourseForum/BBS32.
428.
21215CommerceandbusinessOnlinebanking30.
532.
41314CommerceandbusinessOnlinepayment30.
032.
51413CommerceandbusinessOnlinestockspeculation15.
57.
81518CommunicationanddiscourseMicroblog13.
848.
7168CommerceandbusinessTravelreservation7.
98.
21717CommerceandbusinessGrouppurchase4.
112.
61816Source:CNNIC,"29thInternetDevelopmentReport"MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA50However,specicexamplesfromUGCsitesmaybeusedtoextrapolatethelevelofnewsconsumption.
Weibo.
com,asocialnetworkingsitemuchakintoTwitter,allowsbothindividualsandgroupstocreateproles,whichhasledtothecreationoftensofthousandsofnews-orientedgroupsandproles.
81EstablishedmediaoutletssuchasSouthernWeekendandtheWallStreetJournal(Chineseversion)havefoundstrongfollowingsonsuchsocialnetworkingsites:Figure4.
Numberof"fans"ofmediapublicationsonWeibo.
com,2011050000010000001500000200000025000003000000SouthernWeekendChinaDailyGlobalTimesWallStreetJournal(Chineseversion)iFengFinance2686293282052237357989361176733Note:Ifengisaportal-likewebsitethatfeaturesnews,forums,andmoreSource:http://media.
weibo.
com/home/(accessed20June2012)ManyprominentjournalistsalsomaintaintheirownpersonalblogsonsitessuchasSina.
comandIfeng.
com.
HanHanisanextremelypopularbloggeronSina.
comwhopublishessocialcommentarypieces.
WhileHanHanisnotaprofessionalreporter,hehasadoptedaroleasinvestigativejournalistbyseekingoutcontroversialguresforinterviewsandresearchingsocialissues.
OnIfeng.
com,therespectedPhoenixTVjournalistLuqiuLuweihasbloggedextensivelyonherexperiencesininvestigativejournalism,aswellaspostsabouthertripstohotspotssuchasIraqandEgypt.
ManyjournalistshaveopenedtheirownaccountsonSina.
comandQQ.
com.
SonewsconsumptionhasbecomeanimportantaspectofUGCinsocialnetworkingsites,blogs,andmicroblogsatthesametimeasithighlightstheremarkabledevelopmentofmicrobloggingasaformofpropagatingnews.
Inrecentyears,therehavebeenseveralhigh-prolecasesofnewsandjournalismbeingspreadviablogsandmicroblogs,suchasthecaseofthe2008Sichuanearthquake.
This7.
8-magnitudeearthquakewasrstreportedthroughTwitter,microblogs,instantmessages,andforumwebsitessuchasQQ.
comandTianya.
81.
Seehttp://media.
weibo.
com/home/(accessed25January2012).
51OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012com,quicklyspreadingacrosstheglobewayaheadofmainstreammedia.
82AccordingtothebloggerRobertScoble,theChinesemicrobloggersevenbeattheUSGeologicalSurvey'sannouncementofthequakeinwhatbecameknownas"Twitterquake"outsideChina.
83Inthewakeofthisdisasterandbecauseoftheslowresponseoftraditionalmedia,manyusersturnedtoblogsandmicroblogsastheirmaininformationchannel.
84Thisphenomenonwasrepeatedduringthe2009Qinghaiearthquake,whererescueteamstweetedwithlocalstobroadcastinformationaboutdangerousareasandthoseinneed.
85Attheheightoftheemergency,rescueteamswerepostinguptoatweeteveryminute,reportingontheirmovementsanddescribingthedisasterscene.
Reportersalsotookadvantageofthespeedofmicrobloggingsitestopostinformationaboutroadblockagesandightdelaysforothermediarepresentativesastheyrushedtothearea.
86Microblogshavebecomeaformidabletoolforgrassrootsreportingandsocialorpoliticalactivism.
Twitteranddomesticmicroblogsoftenbroadcastinformationnotcoveredbytraditionalmedia,creatinganewinternet-basednewsnetwork.
AlthoughFacebookandTwitterarebothblockedinChinabythe"greatrewall,"manycitizens,especiallyjournalistsandacademics,havebegunusingproxyserverstoaccessblockedsites.
Forsuchusers,FacebookandTwitterhavebecomenexusesofinformationoutsidethecontrolofthegovernment.
Butthe"greatrewall"isonlyonelayerofthegovernment'sonlinecensorship.
WhataremoredamagingtointernetnewsarethevastlayersofcensorshipthatoccurontheChinesesideofthewall.
Throughvariouscyberlawsandregulationsitistheseinternetcompanies—suchasBaidu.
comandSina.
com—thatcarryoutthecensorship.
AnythingthatcouldpotentiallyharmCCPrulewillbetakendownbythehostingcompany.
RoutinelytabootopicsincludecallsforgreaterautonomyinTibetandXinjiang,relationswithTaiwan,theTiananmenSquareprotestsof1989,religiousfreedom,andanycriticismofCCPleaders.
Specicpartydirectivesin2011curbedreportingonuprisingsintheMiddleEast,independentcandidatesforlocalpeople'scongresses,publichealthandfoodsafetyissues,laborunrest,andparticularhumanrightsactivists,journalists,andlawyers.
Socialmediamessagescouldbedeleted,andaccountsclosed.
Atthesametime,thegloricationoftheCCPisgivenfreerein.
Infact,paidandvolunteerpro-governmentcommentatorshaveaspecialnameontheChineseinternet,the"50CentParty.
"87SowhilethegovernmentisabletostampoutexpressionsofhostilitytotheCCP,itisalsoabletobolsteritsownimageontheinternet.
82.
R.
Cellan-Jones,"TwitterandtheChinaEarthquake,"12May2008,athttp://www.
bbc.
co.
uk/blogs/technology/2008/05/twitter_and_the_chi-na_earthqua.
html(accessed2December2010).
83.
D.
Sullivan,"Twitterbeats(wow,by3minutes)theUSGSwithChinaearthquakenews,"12May2008,athttp://searchengineland.
com/twitter-beats-wow-by-3-minutes-the-usgs-with-china-earthquake-news-13976(accessed2December2010).
84.
ZhongKexunandZouWanming,"ThepowerofpublicopiniononSNS:throughtheWenchuanEarthquake,"JournalofSouthwestUniversityforNationalities,August2008.
85.
"Impressiveperformanceofmicroblogindisasters,"17April2010,seehttp://zjc.
zjol.
com.
cn/05zjc/system/2010/04/17/016527278.
shtml(accessed14December2010).
86.
"Thedisseminatingfunctionofmicroblogincrises,"7June2010,seehttp://media.
people.
com.
cn/GB/22114/45733/193275/11805178.
html(accessed14December2010).
87.
Thecommentatorsaresaidtobepaid50centsforeverypostthateithersteersadiscussionawayfromanti-partyorsensitivecontentondomesticwebsites,BBS,andsocialmedia,orthatadvancestheCommunistPartyline.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA523.
2DigitalActivism3.
2.
1DigitalPlatformsandCivilSocietyActivismDuetothelevelofgovernmentinterventioninthecontentofestablishedmediasuchastelevision,radio,andprintmedia,internetmediahavequicklybecomeanimportantplatformforcivilsocietyactivism.
Theleveloffreedomofspeechandthevarietyofbroadcastformsfoundinblogs,microblogs,SNS,andBBShaveledtotheiruseinmanyhigh-proleactivismcases,someofwhichhavebeenultimatelysuccessful.
Asanimportantcomponentoftheactivitiesofcivilsociety,popularprotestandsocialmovementsarepowerfulmeansofresistingstatepowerandprotectingcitizens'rights.
Butorganizedprotestisunderstrictcontrol.
Bycontrast,thescale,speed,andanonymityoftheinternetfacilitatepopularprotest.
Sometimes,suchprotestisjustamoreradicalformofpublicdebate.
Thisisevidentintheproliferationofinformationontheinternet,theoverowofsuchinformationintoconventionalmedia,thestronginterestinseekinginformationfromtheinternet,andagrowingrelianceontheinternetforpersonalexpressionandpublicdiscussion.
Atothertimes,workers,farmers,theurbanmiddleclass,andothersorganizeproteststhroughinternetandmobile-phonecommunications,reectinggrowingpublicangeroverwrongdoingbyocials,corruption,landconscation,laborpolicy,pollution,andfatalpolicebeatings.
Thestateiscommittingmoreresourcestosocialmediacontrol.
Microblogsarebeingregularlykeptundersurveillance,ratesofdeletionsofcertainpoliticalandsocialtopicsbecomehigherwhen"sensitive"incidentshappen,andtherehasbeenanincreaseinarrestsforspreading"rumors.
"InDecember2011authoritiesinBeijing,Shanghai,andothermajorcitiesannouncedrulesrequiringmicrobloguserstoregisterwiththeirrealnames.
Despitethegovernment'scontrols,factorsincludingthetechnology'sexibility,circumventiontools,netizens'"wisdomofcrowds,"andthelargevolumeofonlinecommunicationshaveallowedmanyuserstoaccesscensoredcontent,exposeocialcorruption,mobilizeprotests,andcirculatebannedpoliticaltexts.
53OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012TheCaseofDengYujiaoOneofthemoredramaticallysuccessfulactivismcasesisthatofDengYujiao,akaraokeworkersentencedtodeathafterfatallystabbingagovernmentofcial.
Accordingtoheraccountofevents,thegovernmentofcialmistookherforaworkerinthesexindustry,andafterherrepeatedrejectionsofhisadvancesshewasforcedtostabhiminself-defense.
Enragedbythesentencehandeddownbythecourts,Chinese"netizens"beganacampaigntofreeDengYujiao,usinginstantmessages,BBS,blogs,andmicroblogstospreadthewordofherfate.
Onebloggercametotheforefrontofthiscampaignundertheusernameof"Butcher.
"Butcherspearheadedanonlinemovementthroughhispersonalblog,whichspreadthroughtheTianya,Mop,andotherforums,aswellasvideo-sharingsitessuchasTudouandYouku.
Themovementfocusedmuchonthe"virtuous"actionsofawomanprotectingherselfandrefusingtosellherbodyformoney,andcalledforthereleaseofDengYujiao.
ButcherwentsofarastogatherdonationsfromothernetizenstobuyaplanetickettovisitDengYujiaoandsupporther,aswellasbringingheralawyerforlegalcounsel.
PicturesofButcherandthelawyerweepingaftertheirmeetingwithDengYujiaosoonwentviral,transmittedthroughTencentQQinstantmessengerandplasteredacrossforumboards.
SoonafterwardshundredsofpicketersgatheredoutsidetheBadongpolicestationcallingforanopentrial.
However,itwasatthistimethatButcher'sblogwaspermanentlyshutdownandmuchofthesupportingmaterialwascensoredordeleted.
Thoughanopentrialwasnotgranted,DengYujiaowasultimatelydeemedmentallyunstable,andthereforeexcusedfromanycriminalchargesandreleased.
FewtracesofButcher'sactivismremain,andmostofthevirtualdiscussionshavesincebeenremovedbysiteadministrators.
AsecondcaseistheAnti-PXMovement.
"88In2007,residentsoftheeasterncoastalcityofXiamenbeganacampaigninthehopeofforcingatoxicchemicalplanttomoveitslocation.
Paraxylene,PXforshort,createdastrongsourodorwhichwaspermeatingthenearbyareas,andisbelievedbysometocausebirthdefects.
Asresidentsbecamemoreconcernedaboutplungingreal-estatepricesandpossiblehealthproblems,theybandedtogethertoaskthelocalgovernmenttointervene.
Thoughearlierpleasforgovernmentassistancewerelargelyineective,thecausewaseventuallytakenupbylocalexpertswhobeganpublishingpiecesdiscussingthedangersofthepollutant.
Soonafter,on29March2007,awell-knownblogger,LianYue,published10(lateramendedto12)guidelinesforXiamenresidentstofollowintheiractivism.
Theserulesforactivismencouragedresidentsnottooutwardlyprotest,buttoremaincalmandrefertothearticlespublishedbytheexperts.
Asatextmessagebegancirculatingcallingfortheresidentsto"goforastroll"infrontofthelocalgovernmentoces,pressurebegantomount.
Thoughtheresidentswereordered88.
"Xiamenstrollleader,"3January2008,athttp://news.
qq.
com/a/20080103/004676_2.
htm(accessed16April2011).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA54todisband,theirconstantcallsforinterventionwereeventuallysuccessful.
InDecember2011,residentsreceivedwordthatthechemicalplantwouldbeclosedandrelocated.
Therewasanothernotablecaseinwhichindividualmicrobloggers,citizenjournalists,andprofessionaljournalistsallplayedapart.
InSeptember2010inYihuangcountyinJiangxiProvince,membersoftheZhongfamilypostedprotestsontheinternetrequestingfellownetizenstohelphalttheimminentforceddestructionoftheirhometomakewayforatransportredevelopmentprogram.
Indesperationthreeoldermembersofthefamilythensetthemselvesaameandjumpedotheroofoftheirhouse(oneofthemlaterdiedfromhisburns).
SouthernMetropolisNewswastherstmainstreamnewspapertoreporttheincidenton12September.
Theincidentwasquickly"harmonized"(suppressed)inmainstreammediaandmajorwebportalsbythepropagandadepartmentandwebcensors.
However,therewasacriticalturnofeventson16Septemberwhentwoyoungerfemalemembersofthefamily,ZhongRucuiandZhongRujiu,decidedtotraveltoBeijingforapetitionvisit(aprocesswherebycitizenscanhavetheirgrievancesheardbythegovernment).
OntheirwaytoNanchangairporttheywerechasedbypoliceandgovernmentocials.
Thetwogirlsmanagedtolockthemselvesintheairportlavatoryfromwheretheysentoutmobiletextmessagestolocalreporters,seekinghelp.
Anumberofmicrobloggingjournalistsstartedtolive-casttheeventonSinaandTencentmicroblogs.
AfterhavingtoabandontheirtriptoBeijing,ZhongRujiu'smicroblogsattractedtensofthousandsoffans.
OthermicrobloggersblastedthestoryacrosstheChineseinternet,causinganoutpouringofsympathyfortheZhongfamilyandoutrageagainstthelocalocialswhohadtriedtoevictthem.
SoonitwasclearthatChineseonlinepublicopinionhadagainchangedthecourseofevents,wheneightocialsinYihuangcountywereplacedunderinvestigationandremovedfromtheirpostsinconnectionwiththecase.
AndtheZhongfamily'shomeremainsstanding.
ZhongRujiu'smicrobloggingwashailedas"anewpageinthehistoryofChinesecitizens'rights.
"ThePhoenixWeeklyreporterDengFei,whoplayedasignicantroleinhelpingtheZhongfamilyduringtheincident,said:"ZhongRujiu,bornin1988,uponlearningthepowerofmicrobloggingandlivecasting,willnolongerkneeldownandbowherheadlikeherfather'sgeneration.
Instead,shewillusemicrobloggingtodefendherrights.
"89Inthesecases,thepressurefromthegeneralpublicthroughtheinternetresultedinthegovernmentbeingheldaccountableandhavingtoreportthetruth.
Butthereareclearboundariesandno-goareas.
Foronething,itismucheasiertopointngersatlocalauthoritiesforfailingtodealwithcrime,corruption,andlocalabusesofpower,forexample,thantoraiseissuesthatarethepreserveofthecentralgovernmentandtheparty.
EventhecivilrightslawyerChenGuangcheng,inhisrstmajorpublicappearanceafterarrivingintheUnitedStatesinMay2012,spokeof"atendencyamongthelocalauthoritiesinChina,farfromthegazeofthecentralgovernmentinBeijing,tooutthelawanddueprocessguaranteedbytheChineseConstitution,"89.
InterviewwithDengFei,Shanghai,18November2010.
55OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012shunningthecriticismofthegovernment.
Buttherearealsosignsofchangeonthisfront.
Forexample,ahigh-speedtraincrashinJuly2011sparkedpublicoutrageaseortsweremadebytheauthoritiestocoverupthecause.
Thiswasanotableexampleofcriticismofthenationalauthorities,evenleadingtocriticismofthe"Chinamodel,"bywhichtheauthoritarianpoliticalsystemisacceptedaslegitimateinexchangeforincreasingeconomicprosperity.
Moreover,protestopportunitiesariseintheeventofnaturaldisastersorsuddenaccidents,thingsthathappensosuddenlythatthegovernmenthasnothadachancetoissueanordertotheinternetcompaniesaboutwhethersuchcontentshouldberemoved.
Onthewhole,netizensaretestingthelimitsofpermissibleactivity,sometimeseectivelyforcinggovernmentconcessionsregardingrightsviolations.
3.
2.
2TheImportanceofDigitalMobilizationsInacountrywherefreedomofexpression,association,andassemblyarelimited,theinternethashelpedtobuildlinksandtofacilitatecollectiveactionsamongthepeople.
Manyresearchersbelievethatanincreaseinconictandprotestsareaby-productofthereformsintroducedincontemporaryChina.
Forinstance,accordingtoFrancesPivenandRichardCloward,protests"donotappearinnormaltimes.
Theyappearinaperiodwhenlarge-scalechangesunderminepoliticalstability.
"90Accordingtoanotheranalysis,themainreasonisthatwidespreadsocio-economicchangesandreforminitiativeshavethreatenedthewayoflifeandtheinterestsofaverylargenumberandrangeofpeople,frompeasantstoworkerstohome-owners.
91Asaresult,socialconictsandprotestshaveincreasedinnumber,size,andintensityoverthepastdecadeormore.
Someresearchers,forinstanceElizabethJ.
Perry,haveidentied"theuseofadvancedelectronictechnologyasthemostobviousnewfeature.
Itimprovescommunicationsamongprotestors.
Italsoallowsprotestorstobroadcastnewsabouttheirpredicamenttosupporterswiththehelpofthemassmediaandtheinternationalcommunity.
"Itgeneratesnewsocialrelations,newties,andnewcommoninterestsamongpeopleandhelpsimprovethemobilizationcapacityoftheirsocialmovements.
92Thefrequencyandscopewithwhichtheinternetisusedforsocialmobilizationhaveexpandedbeyondexpectation.
Organizerswhousetheinternetforsocialmobilizationtodaycomefromallwalksoflife,someevenfromgovernment.
Othersdoitonbehalfofnon-governmentalorganizationsorotherassociations,whilesomedoitjustasindividuals.
Ontheinternet,asinglevoicecanstartamovement,evenintheabsenceoforganizationalnetworks.
90.
FrancesFoxPivenandRichardCloward,PoorPeople'sMovements:WhyTheySucceed,HowTheyFail.
Vintage,NewYork,1978,p.
386.
91.
CaiYongshun,CollectiveResistanceinChina:WhyPopularProtestsSucceedorFail.
StanfordUniversityPress,Stanford,CA,2010,p.
22.
92.
ElizabethJ.
Perry,"PermanentRebellionContinuitiesandDiscontinuitiesinChineseProtest,"inKevinJ.
O'Brien(ed.
),PopularProtestinChina,HarvardUniversityPress,Cambridge,MA,2008,pp.
205–216.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA56Thatsaid,sinceinternetpenetrationinChinaisstilllessthan40percent,nearly800millionpeoplearebeyonditsreachandtheinternethaslittleornoimpactontheirdailylives.
Intoday'sChina,therearebothworld-classcitiessuchasBeijingandShanghaiandverypoorareas.
Partsoftheeastandcentral-westofChinahaveexperienceddierentratesofeconomicandsocialdevelopment.
So,whiletheinternethasbroughtaboutsomethingofarevolutionforsomepeople,ithasalsowidenedthedigitaldivide.
Overtheyears,theurbanandruralinternetpenetrationgaphasbeenwidening.
Attheendof2011,Chinahad377millionurbaninternetusersandaninternetpenetrationrateof56percent,closetotheoveralllevelofEurope(58percent),whileruralinternetusersnumbered136million,apenetrationrateof20percent,onlyaboutathirdoftheurbanlevel.
Therearealsolargeregionaldierencesininternetpenetrationlevels.
Thisgapexistsespeciallybetweentheeasterncoastalareasandthelessdevelopedwesternregions.
Forexample,Guizhou'sinternetpenetrationrateisonlyaboutone-thirdofBeijing's.
93IncentralandwesternChinaverylargenumbersofpeoplehaveneverevenseenacomputer.
TherearedierencesineducationalandsocialstatusamongChina'smorethanhalfabillioninternetusers.
Peoplearejustbeginningtolearntoexpressideasandghtfortheirrightsbytakingfulladvantageoftheinternet.
Themainbodyofinternetusersremainssilent,andthesocialelite(suchaswhite-collarworkers,students,academics,andthosewiththepowertoinuencethemedia)arestillthedominantvoicesinthevirtualworld.
Accordingtothe"2011ChinaInternetPublicOpinionAnalysisReport,"internetusersaccountforaboutone-thirdofthecountry'spopulation.
Amongthem,31.
7percentareactivelypostingontheinternetorleavingcommentsonposts,accountingfor10.
6percentofthetotalpopulation.
Inotherwords,thecurrentinternetvoicesbelongtoonlysome10percentoftheChinesepeople.
Internetusersaremainlycomposedoftheyoung,highlyeducated,urbanpopulation.
943.
3AssessmentsDigitizationhasboostedthequantityofnews.
Peoplecanread,commenton,produce,andrepublishnewsontheinternetveryeasily,whichmeansordinarypeoplecannowbeinvolvedatalllevelsintheproduction,dissemination,conrmation,anddiscussionofnews.
Theinternetendedthemonopolyoftraditionalnewsinstitutionsandweakenedthegovernment'sabilitytocensorinformation.
WiththehelpofdigitaldevicessuchasPCs,cellphones,cameras,anddigitalvideo,citizensandjournalistshavemadeanabundantcontributiontonewsontheinternet.
Vastamountsoflinking,republishing,andsharinghaveturnedsome93.
ChenJiangong,"WhereistheroomforgrowthininternetusersinChina,"8March2012,athttp://www.
cnnic.
cn/research/fxszl/fxswz/201203/t20120308_23977.
html(accessed15June2012).
94.
ZhuHuaxin,ShanXuegang,andHuJiangchun,"2011Chinainternetpublicopinionanalysisreport,"23December2011,athttp://yuqing.
people.
com.
cn/GB/16698341.
html(accessed14June2012).
57OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012newseventsintohotissues.
ThistendencyhasacceleratedwiththeriseofChinesemicrobloggingin2010.
Moreover,theriseofdigitalmediahasforcedthegovernmenttobegintorespondtopublicopiniononissueswhichtheymighthavepreviouslyignored.
Peopleareusingtheinternettoghtfortherightsofexpressionandassociation.
Countlessonlinesourcesofinformationhavebrokenthelimitsofthetraditionalmedia.
Theinternethasbecomeatoolfornetizenstoseekandknowthetruthandtovoicetheiropinionspublicly,sometimesenoughtoovercomethepowerofvestedinstitutionsandthegovernment.
Moresignicantly,collaborationandcooperationonalargerscaleamongnetizenshavebeguntotakeform,suchastheAnti-PXMovementthatappearedinXiamen,allowingresidentstousedigitalmediatoorganizeintogroupsandbegintoprotestagainstpoliciesthataectedtheirlives.
Moreover,digitalmediahavebeguntobringaboutsocialchangesthatencouragecivicculture.
Broadnon-revolutionarymovementsmayappearwhich,whilenotdedicatedtotheoverthrowofthestate,maystillbepersistentlytransformative.
Thesemovementsarededicatedtothelong,slowtransformationofsocietyandthestatesoastofacilitateequalityanddignityforallmembersofsociety.
Throughonlinecommunicationandtransmission,internetusersareabletocomeincontactwith,passon,discuss,andevenchangeopinions.
Evenmoreimportantistheabilitynetizensnowhavetobringaboutaconsensusamongonlinecommunitiesandtoorganizelarge-scalecooperativeactionaimedatsocialtransformation.
Ofcourse,whatmustbemadeclearisthatwhiletheinternetisavailabletomany,therearealsoverymanywhoareunabletotakeadvantageofthisopportunity.
Thepoorhavelittleopportunitytocomeincontactwithinternetmedia.
Chinesesocietyhasstilltomakehugeeortstopopularizeandextendinformationtechnologiessothatallmaysharethebenets.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA584.
DigitalMediaandJournalism4.
1ImpactonJournalistsandNewsrooms4.
1.
1JournalistsDigitizationhasdeeplyaectedChinesejournalismoverthepastveyears.
Thismaybeseeninmanyareas:newproductionandbroadcasttechniques;thepromotionofcitizenparticipationinnewscreationanddissemination;andachangeinthebalanceofinformation-relatedrightsbetweenthegovernment,professionaljournalists,andcitizens.
Journalistsareusingdigitaltechnologiesforinterviews,writing,editing,andproduction,whilenewsproductsmustbecreatedinaccordancewiththedemandsofavarietyofdigitalplatforms,includingmultimedia.
Forjournalistssourceshavemultiplied,withearlyleadscomingfromforumwebsites,blogs,SNS,andmicroblogs.
Moreover,theinterviewprocessisnowaidedbyemail,mobilephones,VoIPandotheronlinephoneservices,instantmessaging,anddigitalaudiovisualmediarecorders.
Atthesametime,itisnolongerenoughtoreportaninterviewinthetraditionaltext-aloneformat.
Picturesorvideoarenowrequired.
ZiYun,aninuentialseniormediaeditor,pointsout:"Todayreportersmustusetheinternet,whetherpersonalwebsites,blogs,microblogsortheirownSNSaccounts.
"95ZhangJieping,executiveeditor-in-chiefoftheiPadmagazineiSunAairs,saysthatinthelastveyearsshehasincreasinglyreliedontheinternetspecicallyforacquiringsourcesandgettingandconductinginterviews,aswellasforthepublicationofthematerial.
96Fiveyearsago,shewouldrelyuponhersocialcircle,televisionnews,orportalwebsitesasmainsourcesofleads,butshehasslowlyfoundherselfpayingmoreattentiontoblogsandRSSfeeds.
Today,thespeedymicroblogsarecatchingherattention.
95.
InterviewwithZiYun(alias),aninuentialseniormediaeditorinoneofChina'sbiggestportals(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespond-enceandBeijinginterview,13December2010.
96.
InterviewwithZhangJieping,Beijing,20December2010.
59OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012MicroblogsinChinaarebasedonTwitterinformandfunction,withmessagecontentlimitedto140characters.
Theseshortmessagesaretransmittedtootheruserswhochoosetofollowaccounts.
ThereareseveraldistinctdierencesbetweenChinesemicroblogsandTwitter.
First,intheformer,commentsarethreadedundertheposts.
Second,itiseasytosharephotos,audios,andvideos,whicharealsodisplayedinlineundertheposts.
Third,youcansaymorein140charactersinChinesethanintheRomanalphabet,makingitpossibleformicroblogstooperateasaninformationoutletandadiscussionforum.
Fourth,thesearchanddiscoveryfunctionsonSinaWeiboaremoreadvancedthanTwitter.
Theycanbeusedtotrackemergingissuesandagendas.
Lastly,Weiboalsohasthe"longweibo"function,inwhichalongessaycanbeturnedquicklyintoajpegdocumentanduploadedasanattachmenttoaWeibopost.
Inthisway,peoplehavethechancetoreadlongarticleswithoutjumpingintolinks,furtherexpandingthediscussionspace.
InZhangJieping'sopinion,thevastmajorityofimportantnewsstoriesin2010brokefrommicroblogs.
Examplesare:thecontroversialdeathofQianYunhui,thevillageheadandcampaigneragainsttheabuseofpower;97"MyFatherisLiGang"(thecaseofadrunkhit-and-rundriverwhotriedtoavoidarrestbyinvokingthenameofhisfather,aseniorpoliceman);98thefakediplomaoftheprominentbusinessmanTangJun;99andthemassmourningorganizedforthevictimsofanapartmentreinShanghairethatkilled58people.
100Internetmedia,specicallyresponsestopostsorcomments,havehelpedZhangJiepinglocatemanynewssourcesotherthanthemorecommonlyapproachedprominentindividualsandocials.
Infact,hermainstreampublicationwentsofarastoaddaspecialpagetotrackstoriesoriginatingfromonlinemedia.
AnevenmorecompellingexamplecanbefoundintheSouthernDailyMediaGroup,whichownsmorethan10nationallyinuentialwebsites,newspapers,andmagazines.
In2009,thisgroupdistributedpersonaliPhonestoalmostathousandoftheirmostnotablejournalistsinordertopromotehigh-speedandconvenientreportingthroughon-locationinterviews,photographs,videos,andaudiorecording.
ItsagshipnewspaperSouthernMetropolisNewshasanannualproductionofover100millionwords,150,000pictures,and60,00097.
QianYunhui,a53-year-oldelectedandpopulareasternZhejiangProvincevillageheadwhohadalonghistoryofpetitioningagainstallegedabusesbylocalgovernment,diedon25December2010afterbeingcrushedbythefrontwheelofatruckloadedwithrocks.
ItwasrumoredthatQianYunhuiwasheldonthegroundbyfourmeninsecuritypersonneluniformswhilethetruckwasdrivenslowlyoverhim.
AtagovernmentpressconferenceaweeklateritwasannouncedthatQianYunhuihaddiedinanordinarytracaccident,struckandkilledcrossingtheroad.
Withinhoursofhisdeath,imagesofhisdeadbodywerecirculatingonChinesewebsitessuchasSinaWeibo,asmanypeopleexpressedtheirdisbeliefintheocialpoliceexplanation.
98.
MichaelWines,"China'scensorsmisreinabuse-of-powercase,"NewYorkTimes,17November2010,athttp://www.
nytimes.
com/2010/11/18/world/asia/18li.
html(accessed15February2012).
99.
TangJun,aformermultinationalexecutive,waslongregardedaspersonifyingoneofthemostsuccessfulbusinessstoriesinChina,untilhewaspubliclycriticizedin2010forlyingabouthiseducationandworkexperience.
HeclaimedtoholdadoctoraldegreeincomputersciencefromCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology(Caltech).
However,WeibocelebrityFangZhouzicheckedCaltech'salumnilistandlistsofdoctoraldisserta-tions,andfoundnorecordsforTangJun.
FangZhouzialsodiscoveredthatsometechnicalinventionswhichTangJunclaimedcreditforwerelistedunderothernamesinpatentdatabases.
FangZhouziaccusedTangJunoffabricatinghiscredentials.
TangJunlateradmittedthathedidnothaveadegreefromCaltech.
100.
On15November2010,58peoplediedinareinanapartmentbuildinginShanghai.
Asthebuildingburned,observersusedcamerasandphonestotakeanduploadimagestomicroblogs.
On20November,microbloggerscalledonthepeopleofShanghaitovisitthescenetomournandlaywreaths—andthenextday,200,000citizensdidso.
Boththroughthelivebroadcastofeventsandthemasslayingofwreaths,thisnewmediumbroughtpeopletogetherandplayedamajorroleinthegovernment'shandlingoftheincident.
Formorebackgroundonthesestories,seeZhangJieping,"WeibochangestheecologyofpowerandspreadstheinformationrevolutiontotheglobalChinese,"YazhouZhoukan,no.
5,2010,athttp://www.
yzzk.
com/cfm/Content_Archive.
cfmChannel=ac&Path=3188989351/05ae1a.
cfm(accessed29April2011);HuYong,"Crowdcontrol,"IndexonCensorship,40(1)(March2011),pp.
66–71.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA60pages.
Ithasestablishedanall-mediaplatform,providingmultimediaproductsanddistributingthemthroughmulti-channeltelevision,radio,internet,mobilephones,andoutdoorelectronicbulletinboards.
101Likemanyofthe2,000nationalandprovincialnewspapersinChina,SouthernMetropolisNewshasinvestedheavilyintheCanon5DmkII,acamerathathastakentheChinesenewsindustrybystormasnewspapersintroducemultimediaontotheirwebsites.
Theynowhave12photographersshootingstillsandvideo,aswellasadedicatedmultimediateamworkingonlongertermprojects.
102Thenewseditingprocesshasalsobeengreatlyaectedbydigitization.
Editorsnotonlyhavetomanagetexts,images,andvideos,butalsomustcomplywiththedierentneedsofvariedbroadcastplatformssuchasnewspapers,television,andtheinternet.
Forexample,inthewakeofamudslidein2010thatclaimedthelivesofseveralthousandpeopleinGansuProvince,editorsweregiventhetaskofstreamliningandsimplifyinghighlydetailednewspaperreportsforinternetconsumption.
Thissortofeditingworkalsoinvolvesorganizingthousandsofphotographsandvideosforeasierbrowsingandinformationretrieval,aswellasthecreationofgraphs,charts,andexplanatorygraphics.
Relatedreports,analysis,andcommentarymustalsobelinkedorcross-referenced.
Digitalmediahaveincreasedthespeedwithwhichnewsissuppliedandreplenished,requiring24-hourmonitoringandupdating.
Theriseofdigitalmediahasalsointensiedmediacompetition,threateningthecommercialviabilityofprintmedia.
Notonlyhaveprintmediaexperiencedanerosionofadvertisingrevenue,103butalsothelow-costorno-costreprintingofnewspapersandmagazinesonthewebhasattractedreaders,enticingthemtoabandonmorecostlyprintmedia.
Dierentoutletshavebeenforcedtochangetheirbusinessstrategies,bandingtogetherandcooperatingforprotection.
Consequently,journalists,includingseasonedveterans,fromdierentmediaplatformshavehadnooptionbuttomeetthedemandsofdigitalmedia.
Notonlydotheyhavetolearnandrenetheirskillsinwriting,photographing,audio-videoproduction,animation,etc.
,tobecomequaliedreporters,buttheyalsoneedtoengageinbloggingandmicroblogging,joinforums,TencentQQgroups,andsocialmedia,toexpandtheirsourcesofinformation,enhancecommunication,andengageinexchangeswiththeaudience.
Journalistsarenolongerthelonesuppliersandcreatorsofnews.
Citizenscannowdisseminatetheirownnewsreports,commentary,andopinionsurveys(asin"voting"whetherone"likes"anarticle),promotinganewpluralizationofnewssources.
Thischangehasalsobroughtaboutnewchallengesregardingthevalidity,reliability,andobjectivityofnews.
LangZi,anationallyinuentialnewspaperreporterandcommentator,statesthatthesourcesofnewsareincreasinglydierentiated,faster,moreinteractive,andmoreextensive.
104101.
YiHaiyan,"Theroadofmediaconvergenceunderanall-mediastrategy,"NetworkCommunication,May2010,athttp://news.
xinhuanet.
com/newmedia/2010-05/21/c_12126558.
htm(accessed16June2012).
102.
Seehttp://umedia.
nddaily.
com/#20090912-12(accessed12June2012).
103.
"Traditionalmediaadvertising,albeitgrowingthisyear,showssignicantweaknesses,"ChinaPressandPublishingJournal,12June2012.
104.
InterviewwithLangZi(alias),anationallyinuentialnewspaperreporterandcommentator(condentialityrequested),Beijing,20November2010.
61OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Moreover,digitalmediahelpreportersandcitizensaliketorealizeamoreauthenticChina,ratherthanjustthemoreidealisticimagethatispropagatedbyocialmediasources.
XinhuaNewsAgency'sformereditor-in-chiefNanZhenzhonghaslongnotedthatinpresent-dayChinathereexisttwocompletelydierent"publicopinionelds.
"Partynewspapers,nationaltelevision,andthenationalnewsagencyformthe"mainstreammediaopinioneld,"faithfullypromotingpartyandgovernmentpoliciesanddisseminating"socialistcorevalues.
"Butanotherpublicopinioneldreliesonwordofmouth,especiallytheinternet,wherepeopleareabletodiscusscurrentevents,commentonsocialissues,andassessthegovernment'spublicadministrationonBBS,QQ,blogs,andmicroblogs.
105TheocialversionoftheChinastoryisalwaysaprosperouseconomy,aharmonioussociety,andpeoplelivingahappylife;butinthe"folk"version,Chinaisfullofocialcorruption,"groupincidents"(publiclyexpresseddissatisfaction),andmoraldecline.
Therstversionismainlytoldthroughnationaltelevision,especiallynewsprogramssuchas"NetworkNewsBroadcast,"whilethesecondisspreadontheinternet.
WhichstoryistrueZhuHuaxin,whoisinchargeofPeople.
cn'sPublicOpinionChannel,wrotethat"inordertounderstandtherealChina,wewillneedbothtelevisionandtheinternet.
"106LiXiao,aformernewspaperinvestigativereporterandchiefnewsdirectorofawell-knowninternetsite,statesthatthenewsmostindemandinthelastseveralyearshasnotnecessarilyoriginatedfromprofessionalreporters.
107Theinternethaschangedthetraditionalmechanismofnewsreportingandalteredthegenredistinctionswithinnewscontent,inparticularbetweennewsandcommentary.
Forjournalistsmanytraditionallydistinctivelineshaveblurred,forexample,thelinebetweenreadersandwriters,thedistinctionbetweentweet,blogpost,newspaperstory,andmagazinearticle,andthelinebetweenprofessionalsandamateurs.
Withoutsacricingfactsorsensationalizing,journalistshavetobebetterstorytellers,butatthesametimetheyhavetoaimforanelusiveobjectivityandbalance.
Fornetizens,personalposts,newsreports,commentaries,andevenvideo-basedinformationareallmixedtogetherintoalargeandvariedinformationpackagewithoutregardfordieringlevelsofqualityandobjectivity.
Informationhasalsobecomehardertoverifyandconrm,aswebsiteshaveprovenwillingtorepublishunveriednewsstoriesinordertoprovidetimelyreporting.
Whatmustbeemphasizedisthatwhiledigitalmediahavebeenanimportantfactortriggeringchangesintheroleofjournalists,therehavebeenothers.
Inthelastveyears,manymediahavebeentransformedfromtoolsforpartypropagandaintosemi-autonomousmarket-orientedmedia.
Duringthischange,thepartylinehasweakenedwhilemarketinuenceshavebeenstrengthened,solemnnewsreportinghasdecreasedwhilehuman-intereststories,entertainmentnews,andtabloidjournalismhaveabruptlyincreased.
Thesechangeshaveprofoundlyinuencedthepublic'snewsdemands,themedia'snewsoer,andtheroleofjournalists.
105.
QuotedinaPeople.
cncommentary,11July2011,athttp://opinion.
people.
com.
cn/GB/15119932.
html(accessed16June2012).
106.
ZhuHuaxin,"TelevisionandinternetarebothnecessaryforunderstandingarealChina,"ChinaYouthDaily,26September2011.
107.
See,forexample,"2Dec20108-hourdiscussionwithAiWeiweiand16mediapersonnel,"2January2011,interviewmoderatedbyLangZi,contentdisseminatedbyLangZi.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA62Digitaljournalistshavehadtobecomemorebroadlyskilledandreadytoaccommodateafull24-hournewscycle.
Thisshiftrequiresconsiderableadaptationandofteninvolvesjournalistsnotonlyinwritingstories,butalsoinmanipulatingimagesandusingaudioandvideo,whichmeanstraditionaljournalistshavehadtobetrainedtousenewdigitaltools.
4.
1.
2EthicsThedualpressuresofcontinuedgovernmentcensorshipalongwithunfetteredmediacompetitionhavegivenrisetoquestionableethicalpractices,suchas"newsextortion"(forcingadvertisingcontractsbythreateningwatchdogreportingagainstdetractors),108paid-forcontent,andthemanufactureofnewsstories.
Varyingformsofmediamanipulation,suchastakingmoneyinexchangeforcoveringupanexposé,orconversely,inexchangefordoingapositivereport,arebecomingalltoocommoninthedigitalmedia.
OnlinePRcompaniesemploypeopletopostonsocialmediainaneorttochangepublicopinion.
Suchpaidpostersareknownasthe"internetwaterarmy"becausetheyarereadyandwillingtooodtheinternetforwhomsoeveriswillingtopay.
Theoodcanconsistofcomments,gossip,andinformation(ordisinformation),andthereseemstobeplentyofdemandforthisarmy'sservices.
Somecompaniesspendtensofthousands,evenmillions,ofRMBtocoverupnegativereportstoavoidonlinePRcrises,aneedwhichhasgivenbirthtospecialized"post-deletingcompanies.
"Withtheincreasedcompetitionbroughtaboutbydigitalmedia,traditionalmediahavehadnochoicebuttocutcosts.
Somehaverespondedbychoosinglow-pricedprovidersofnews,leadingtoareductioninoriginalcontent.
Atthesametimelargenumbersofcitizenandnon-professionaljournalistshaveappeared,causingadilutionandadeclineinthetraditionalunderstandingofprofessionalethicsandstandards.
Withnewsdemandsbeingdrivenmorebyspeedandquantity,lessattentionhasbeenpaidtoquality,thoughanumberofmediadoupholdstrictstandards,suchasCaixinMediaorSouthernMetropolitanNews.
Seriousintellectualpropertyrightsviolationshavebecomecommonpracticeasmanyjournalistsareturningtotheconvenientservicesofsearchenginesanddatabases,freelyreproducingandpiecingtogethernewsstoriesfromotherdocumentspublishedonlineratherthanusingtheirownprimaryresearch.
Inthefaceofintensecompetitionforspeed,manymediaproducershavetacitlyapprovedthisbehavior.
Internetandtraditionalmediaalikehavebegunusingeye-catching,exaggerated,shocking,oroutrightfalseheadlinestoattractreaders.
Atthesametimemoreunveriedsourcesarebeingused.
Anincidentin2009providesanexampleofthisgrowingtrend.
Afterastorybrokeoninternetnewssites(originalunknown)concerninganamedKoreanprofessorfromanameduniversitywho"madedisrespectfulcommentsaboutChina,"anti-Koreansentimentswerepublishedonthenetasthestorywasspreadacrossblogs,microblogs,BBSforums,andocialnewssitesthataregenerallyconsideredtobemorereliable.
Itwasonlydiscoveredlaterthatnotonlywasthestory108.
AsCaixinOnlineexcellentlyreported,"BuyingmediasilenceisacommonrststeptowardaninitialpublicoeringinChinathatsiphonsbil-lionsofyuaneveryyearfromcompaniesseekinginvestorsinShanghaiandShenzhen.
"See"RoadshowmediabanditssqueezeIPOhopefuls,"CaixinOnline,7June2012(accessed8July2012).
63OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012acompletefake,buttherumorhadbeendriftingaroundtheinternetforseveralyears.
Moreover,boththeuniversityandtheprofessorwerecompletelyctitious.
Yetrampantplagiarismandtheabsenceofvericationpracticeshadallowedthemediatocreatetheirownpublicopinionincident.
Similarly,manydomesticmediaoftenrelyonthestirringsofnationalismtoexciteandattractattention.
Yetitmustbepointedoutthattraditionalmedia,especiallyprintmedia,stillplaceacertainamountofemphasisonthevericationofsourcesandattemptstoensurethereliabilityofnewsreports.
Unveriedsourcesandinternetstoriesareunlikelytobepublishedinthetraditionalpress.
Anothernotablecharacteristicofmodernmediaisthatlonginvestigativearticlesarelikelytoreceivelessattentionfromreaders.
Comparativelyspeaking,digitalmediatendtoplacegreateremphasisonsimple,uncomplicatedinformation,pictures,andvideos.
LiXiao,chiefdirectorforanotablenewswebsite,believesthatpicturesandvideoshaveagrowinginuence,asnetizenshavealreadybeguntoshowtheirincreasingimpatiencewithprint.
109Evenathisownworkplace,whiletheyhavealargenumberofeditorialsta,theyndthemselvesunabletospendmuchoftheirresourcesonseriousinvestigativecontent.
YetatthesametimeLiXiaoadmitsthatasthedailyproductionrateofinformationincreases,errorsappearmoreoften,andhisteamisunabletomatchtraditionalmediaineditingandfact-checking.
110Digitalmediaalsocarryacertainrisktothesecurityofpersonalinformation.
Journalistsandeditorsoftenuseinformationleaksfromnewmediasourcestoreportonpersonalinformation,threateningthesecurityofpersonaldataofordinarypeople.
Thisoftenmeansusingonlinesearchenginestocombthewebforinformationonpersonalonlineaccounts,educationhistory,andcurrentemploymentinformation.
Ontheotherhand,journalisticinterviews,compilations,anddatabasesrepresentevengreaterrisksofinformationleaksasthereareamyriadofmethodstotap,steal,orotherwisecompromisedigitalinformation.
Journalists'personalinformation,suchasprivatephonenumbersandhomeaddresses,areincreasinglyeasytolocateonthenet,leadingtodirectbribesorthreats.
Therehaveevenbeenattacksonjournalists'computersandphonesbyhackersattemptingtostealinformation.
Inafewcases,journalists'emailaccountshavebeenshutdown,informationstoredoncellphoneshasbeendivulged,anddigitalcamerashavebeenwiped.
4.
2InvestigativeJournalism4.
2.
1OpportunitiesDigitizationhasclearlymadeinvestigativejournalismmoreconvenient.
First,ithasbecomemucheasierforjournaliststolocatepublicinformation.
Second,investigativejournalistsnowhavetheaidofdigitalmediatolocateintervieweesandtoconductinterviewsunimpededbydistanceandinaccessibility.
109.
InterviewwithLiXiao(alias),chiefdirectorofanotablenewswebsite(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespondence,8December2010.
110.
InterviewwithLiXiao(alias),chiefdirectorofanotablenewswebsite(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespondence,8December2010.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA64Anothersignicantadvantageofdigitizationhasbeeninthepublicationofinvestigativereportsthatwereformerlysuppressedinthetraditionalmedia.
Journalistsareabletousedigitalmedia,suchasBBSorblogs,todisseminatetheirreports,oftenrepublishingreportsthatwerecensoredforcontentorentirelyrejectedbytraditionalmediaeditors.
ZiYunnotesthatdigitalmediahaveincreasedthenumberandtypesofplacesthatinvestigativenewsisdisseminated.
111Eveniftheoriginalpostisdeletedfromthenet,theinformationmayremainoutthereasitisspreadthroughemailgroups,Twitter,microblogs,andinstantmessaging.
Forexample,whenthegovernmentimposedamediablackoutoncoverageofahigh-speedrailaccidentinJuly2011,newspapersacrossChinahadtowithdrawfront-pagearticlesandrapidlyrevisetheircoverageoftheaccident.
ManyjournaliststooktosocialnetworkingsitestovoicetheirdisapprovalandsomeevenpostedcompletelayoutsofthecensoredpagesonWeibo.
China,likemanyothercountries,hasexperiencedtheriseof"citizenjournalists,"non-professionaljournalistswhousetheinternet,video,mobilephones,andotherdigitaltoolstogatherinformation,interviewpeopleaectedbyevents,andseekoutspecialists'opinions.
Onecitizenjournalist,knownsimplyasBeifeng(meaning"NorthernWind"),hasdoneextensiveinterviewsandreportingonmajoreventsoverthelastseveralyears.
In2007,whentheresidentsofXiamentooktothestreetstoprotestagainstachemicalplantthatwaspollutingtheareawiththechemicalparaxylene(seesection3.
2.
1),BeifengraisedfundsfromothernetizensandtravelledtoXiamentodocumenttheprotestsandinterviewparticipants.
Hepostedlivereportsoftheprotestsstraightfromthescenethroughhispersonalblog,Facebook,andTwitteraccounts.
Afterthissuccess,anincreasingnumberofcitizenjournalistsbegantomimicBeifeng'sreportingstylebypublishinginvestigativereports.
Non-professionalinvestigatorsoftenusetheinternetforlivebroadcasting,winninggreaterpublicattentionandassistance.
Wereaprofessionaljournalisttoattemptthistypeofopenreporting,theywouldonlybecreatingproblemsforthemselves.
Itiseasierforcitizenreporterstocoversuchissuesmoreopenly.
Investigativejournalismhasgrowncautiouslyamidtheebbandowofocialgovernmentcontrolinthepast10years.
TheveteraninvestigativejournalistWangKeqinlikestosuggestthatinvestigativereportinginChinahasdevelopedabitlikeacamel'shump,withmajorupsanddowns.
Forexample,therewasabigfall-oinreportingfreedomin2008and2009becauseoftheOlympicsandthe60thanniversaryofCCPrule.
ButforWangKeqin,2010wasapeakpointforin-depthjournalismwhich"pushedinvestigativereportinginChinatoanewhigh.
"112Thisnewhighiscloselyrelatedtothedevelopmentofsocialmedia.
In2010Weibograduallydevelopedintothemostinuentialdigitalmediainpublicaairs,changingthepowerbalancebetweenthetwopublicopinionelds(seesection4.
1.
1).
Thesocialmediahavebecomeavanguardforbreakingcensorshipandcreatingspacefortraditionalmediatoreportstoriestheycouldnotyearsago.
Moreimportantly,theyare111.
InterviewwithZiYun(alias),aninuentialseniormediaeditorinoneofChina'sbiggestportals(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespond-enceandBeijinginterview,13December2010.
112.
"Veteranreporter:muckrakingontheriseinChina,"ChinaMediaProject,15July2011,athttp://cmp.
hku.
hk/2011/07/15/13862/(accessed16June2012).
65OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012makinginvestigativereportingintoaprocessratherthanaproduct.
Twitter-likemicrobloggingaswellasconventionalblogginghaveaddedfurtherpossibilitiesthatallowjournalistsnotonlytopublishwhathasbeeninvestigated,buttoturntheinvestigationintoapublicconversationandaskfortips.
4.
2.
2ThreatsAllinvestigativejournalistsareexposedtoacertainamountofdanger,afactthatremainstrueinthedigitalage.
Everyyear,journalistsreceivepressuresandthreatsfromamyriadofdierentsources.
InChina,theseperilscomefromtwomainsources.
Therstisocialdirectives,usuallyadministeredbypartypropagandadepartments.
Amoreorlessformalsystemforthiswasintroducedfollowingthepublicationofhighlysensitivestoriesorstoriesthatwereconsideredtohavehadadverseeectsonsociety.
Itincludesthedirectingandsupervisingofdailyupdatestointernetnewssites,aswellasasystemofpunishmentsforprofessionaljournalistswhoerr,includinglossofstatus,reducedwages,beingred,orpermanentexpulsionfromthemediacommunity.
Generallyspeaking,the"supervision"ofsuchreportingincludesorderstowebsitesnottoallowpublication,deletionofarticlesalreadydisseminated,anddirectpunishmentoftheauthor,aswellasmoremoderateactionssuchasrequiringtherevisionofarticles,suggestingchangestobringmore"balance"tothestory,andusingreportsofothersubjectstooodnewschannels.
Ironically,digitizationhasmadeiteasierforpropagandadepartmentsbothtolocatetargetedcontentandtoissueinstructionstospecicmediaorganizations.
113Fordomesticmedia,theDepartmentofPropagandamaydirectlycontactthenewspaper'soce,pressuringthemtopreventpublication.
Forexample,untilrecentlytherehadbeenthreeveryfamousinvestigativejournalistsandcommentatorswhowerewellknownfortheirintenseandpointedcriticismofthegovernment.
PengXiaoyun,XiaoShu,andChangPingwereemployeesofthreeprestigiouspapers:TimeWeekly,SouthernWeekend,andSouthernMetropolisNews,respectively.
BetweenFebruaryandMarchof2011,allthreewereforcedtoquittheirjobs.
Thesecondthreatcomesintheformofobstructionandretaliationfromcommercialorganizations,socialgroupsandindividuals,aswellasotherlegalandillegalmethods.
Theyincludepressurefromone'spersonalnetwork,governmentaldepartments,businesspartners,oradvertisers,eectivelyforcingonetodeleteworkorabandonacertainlineofenquiry.
Legalmethodsincludeaccusationsofslanderorbribery,orblackmail,therebyapplyingpressureandpreventingpublicationthroughalawsuit.
Illegalmethodsincludethreatsandphysicalviolence,andmaybecarriedoutbyindividuals,businessgroupsoreventhepolice,courts,orgovernmentministriesexploitinglegalloopholesormakingfalseaccusations.
Theresultiswhatmightbedescribedasasortofthree-levelexaminationandltrationstructure.
Therstlevelisthatofgovernmentalsupervision,thesecondconsistsofpressurefromcommercialentitiesandsocialgroups,andthethirdisself-censorship.
AccordingtoresearchbyinternetscholarRebeccaMacKinnon,113.
InterviewwithZhangJieping,Beijing,20December2010.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA66dierentmediaorgansandindividualsallhavedierentstandardsfor"self-censorship,"andoftenthecriteriaimposedbyjournalistsonthemselvesarestricterthanthosethegovernmentwouldimpose.
114YuChen,aseniormediaeditor,believesthisisbecausegovernmentsupervisionguidelinesaresounclear.
1154.
2.
3NewPlatformsInternetmediahavebegunanassaultontheinvestigativemonopolyoftraditionalmedia,bringingpreviouslyignoredissuestotheattentionofviewers.
Aswehaveseen,professionalinvestigativejournalistsusetheinternettopublishinvestigativereportsthatwouldotherwisenothaveseenthelightofday.
Thegovernmenthasnotallowedwebsitestobesetuptohostinvestigationsintospecializedsubjectsorthemes,suchascorruption,humanrights,energyandtheenvironment,healthandsafety,thoughcommercialportalshaveregularlycreateddedicatedpagesoncontroversialissues.
But"investigativereportersbecamemoreconnectedwiththehelpofBBSmessageboardsatthebeginningofthecenturyandthenmoresothankstoinstantmessagingsoftwareand,mostrecently,microblogging,"accordingtoZhangZhi'an,AssociateProfessorwithFudanUniversity'sSchoolofJournalism,whocompiledareportonthestatusofinvestigativereportersin2011.
116"Microblogginghasprovidedanopenplatformforthepublictounderstandinvestigativereporters,tocontributetoinvestigationsandtosupervisetheauthorities,"ZhangZhi'anadded.
Thisplatformisbecomingveryimportantintwoways:rst,itisacollaborativeplatform.
Cooperationamongjournalistsfromdierentmediaorganizationsexistedbefore,butneverascloselyasitdoestoday.
Microbloggingbreakstheboundariesofnewsorganizations,andinvestigativereporters,eveniftheyarecompetitors,tendtoformatemporarycommunityonmicroblogsforinformationgatheringtomeettheirvariousneeds.
Manyinvestigativereportershaveusedmicrobloggingtoupdatetheirinvestigations,searchforcontacts,andexchangestoryideas.
Theimageoftheinvestigativereporterasalonewolfisnolongercorrect.
Intheageoftheinternet,investigativereportingisbeingrevamped.
Manyoftoday'sinvestigativejournalistsareworkinginnetworks,aidedbytechnologiesandtoolsthatarerevolutionizingreporting.
Forexample,theveteraninvestigativejournalistDengFeimanagesaTencentQQgroupconsistingof500investigativereportersandwebeditors,coordinatingactions,integratingresources,andsharingnewstips.
117ThiscollaborativeplatformhasspecialrelevanceinChina.
Becauseinvestigativejournalismoftentouchesuponsensitiveissues,atemporarycommunitycanensurethatpoliticalrisksaretakentogether.
Thepublicationofthestoryinmanydierentmediaatthesametimeisoftenregardedasmaximizingtheinuencesthatare114.
InterviewwithRebeccaMacKinnon,aformerCNNjournalistwhoheadedtheCNNbureauinBeijingandwhoisnowaWashington-basedinternetresearcher,HongKong,6October2009.
115.
"2Dec20108-hourdiscussionwithAiWeiWeiand16mediapersonnel,"2January2011,interviewmoderatedbyLangZi,contentdissemi-natedbyLangZi.
116.
"Crackreporters'burningout,'"GlobalTimes,14June2011,athttp://www.
globaltimes.
cn/NEWS/tabid/99/articleType/ArticleView/arti-cleId/661370/Crack-reporters-burning-out.
aspx(accessed15February2012).
117.
InterviewwithDengFei,Shanghai,18November2010.
67OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012strongenoughtokeepthereportsaliveandtoforcethegovernmenttoaddresstheissue.
Inextremecases,investigativereporterscanusemicroblogstoappealforhelpwhenindanger.
Themicrobloggingplatformbringsprofessionaljournalistsandcitizenreporterstogethertocreatenew"networkedjournalism.
"118Whenitcomestobreakingnews—fromthehigh-speedtraincrashinWenzhouon23July2011119toChongqingpolicechiefWangLijun'smysteriousvisittotheU.
S.
Consulateon6February2012120—themicroblogleadsthepack.
Althoughnotenvisionedordesignedforuseasan"instant"informationsource,itquicklychangedintoone,asshortburstsoftexts,images,andvideosfromcitizensonthesceneofbothman-madeandnaturaldisastersbegantospreadvirallyaroundthecountry.
Studiesinparticipatoryjournalismsuggestthatprofessionaljournalistsnowsharejurisdictionoverthenewsinthesensethatcitizensareparticipatingintheobservation,selection,ltering,distribution,andinterpretationofevents.
Thisofcoursehasitsprosandconsforinvestigativejournalism.
Themicroblogcanbeaseriousaidinreporting.
AsPaulFarhisaysofTwitter:"Itcanbealiving,breathingtipsheetforfacts,newsourcesandstoryideas.
Itcanprovideinstantaneousaccesstohard-to-reachnewsmakers.
.
.
Itcanalsobeabluntinstrumentforcrowdsourcing.
"121Buttheactivepublicmayprovidetheiraccountandunderstandingoftherealityinoppositiontothatprovidedbyinvestigativereporters.
Sometimesonlinepublicparticipantsandinvestigativereporterscompeteforthelegitimationoftheirversionsofthetruth.
118.
Theterm"networkedjournalism"wascoinedbyJeJarvis,AssociateProfessorattheCityUniversityofNewYork'sGraduateSchoolofJournal-ism.
"Networkedjournalismtakesintoaccountthecollaborativenatureofjournalism:professionalsandamateursworkingtogethertogettherealstory,linkingtoeachotheracrossbrandsandoldboundariestosharefacts,questions,answers,ideas,perspectives.
Itrecognizesthecom-plexrelationshipsthatwillmakenews.
Anditfocusesontheprocessmorethantheproduct.
"Seehttp://www.
buzzmachine.
com/2006/07/05/networked-journalism(accessed15February2012).
119.
See"Inbaringfactsoftraincrash,blogserodeChinaCensorship,"NewYorkTimes,29July2011,athttp://www.
nytimes.
com/2011/07/29/world/asia/29china.
htmlpagewanted=all(accessed15February2012).
120.
See"SearchingforpoliticalcluesinChina'ssocialmediacensorship,"9February2012,athttp://thelede.
blogs.
nytimes.
com/2012/02/09/search-ing-for-political-clues-in-chinas-social-media-censorship(accessed16February2012);"Chinaunabletosilenceinternetbuzzonpolicechief,"USAToday,15February2012,athttp://www.
usatoday.
com/news/world/story/2012-02-14/china-internet-police-chief/53096440/1(accessed16February2012).
121.
PaulFarhi,"Thetwitterexplosion,"AmericanJournalismReview,April/May2009,athttp://www.
ajr.
org/article.
aspid=4756(accessed15Febru-ary2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA68ACuckoo'sNestthatOneCouldNeverFlyOverXuWu,onceanemployeeofasteelcompanyinWuhan,thecapitalcityofcentralHubeiProvince,hadbeenpetitioningsince2003withoutsuccessinBeijingtogetjusticeinadisputeaboutpaybetweenhimselfandthecompany.
InDecember2006,hewasseizedinBeijing,apparentlybyWuhanpolice,andtakenbacktoWuhanwherehewasdetainedinconnectionwithasuspectedexplosioninBeijing.
Laterhewasforciblyadmittedtoamentalhospitalandmistreatedforfouryears.
XuWunevergaveupthethoughtofextricatinghimself.
HemanagedtobreakfreefromtheasyluminMarch2007andreturnedtoBeijing,buthewassoonsentbackunderescort.
Sincethenhehadbeendoingexerciseseverydayforabettershotattheescape.
InApril2011heescapedagain.
ThistimeXuWuborrowedmoneyfromafriendandgotonatraintoGuangzhou,1,000kmaway,hopingtogetoutofharm'swayandtobehelpedinthecitywhichisrenownedforhavingthecountry'sbestrespectedandcivic-mindednewsorganizations.
On22April2011,hewentthroughaprofessionalmentalhealthcheck-upinahospitalinGuangzhou,andwasdiagnosedtobeonlyof"lowself-esteem,sufferingfrommilddepression.
"HeapproachedTVS,aGuangzhou-basedbroadcaster,andwasinterviewedon27April2011.
XuWuclaimedthathesufferedsubstantialabusesinthementalhospital,includingelectricshocks.
Thistime,XuWu'sfreedomlastedonlyeightdays.
Aftertheinterview,hegotintoacabatthesideentranceofthetelevisionstationandwasleavingforalocalnewspaperofce.
Rightinfrontofatelevisionreporter'seyes,thetaxicabwaswaylaidbyseveralmenwhoclaimedtobepolice.
TheydraggedXuWu'sfatheroutofthecabandthengotintothecabtotakeXuWuaway,deliveringhimeventuallybacktothementalhospitalinWuhan.
Thekidnappingwascapturedbyasurveillancecameraattheintersectionandwaspostedontheinternet.
ThenextdaySouthernMetropolisNewssentitsreporterJiXuguangtothehospitalinWuhan.
Buthewasbeatenupbysecurityguardsinthehospital,andwasfollowedaround.
JiwroteabouthisexperiencesinWuhanonhisblog.
122"Whilebeatingmeup,amanyelled,'Areporterisjustafarce.
WecankeepXuhereaslongasourbosseswant,'"Jiwrote.
123Atthesametime,reporterscoveringXuWu'sstoryreportedthroughWeibothatplainclothesofcerswereguardingthehotelinwhichtheylivedroundtheclock;whenevertheywentoutforinterviews,theywouldalwaysbefollowed.
ThemediaattentionputtherelevantdepartmentsofWuhanCityindisarray.
Inthenameofweiwen,or"maintenanceofstability,"thelocalpropagandadepartmenttriedineverywaytocoverupthescandal.
Ontheeveningof5May2011,21stCenturyBusinessHeraldreporterWangSijingwastakenintocustodybythelocalpolice.
HerfellowreportersaswellasalawyerimmediatelypostedaWeibomessagetodemandthatherpersonalsafetybeguaranteed.
Afteranonlineuproar,aWuhanpropagandaofcialwenttothelocalpolicestationandgotWangreleased.
122.
See"Newsinvestigation—JiXuguang'sblog,"athttp://xinwen.
blog.
163.
com(accessed18June2012).
123.
See"MentalHospitalAgainforPetitioner,"RadioFreeAsia,3May2011,athttp://www.
rfa.
org/english/news/china/petitioner-05032011180933.

html(accessed18June2012).
69OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012AccordingtoWangSijing,on2May2011,thereportersinWuhanreceivedablackoutorder.
On3May2011,theWuhansteelcompanyspokesmansentatextmessage:"IwasofciallyinformedthatWuhanIronandSteelwillnotacceptanymediainterviews.
TheXinhuaNewsAgency'sofcialreleaseisthenalinterpretationoftheXuWuincident.
"124Aftershewasreleasedon5May2011,shesentoutamessagetoothermediaonWeibo:"XuWu'sparentshavelostcontactwiththeoutsideworldfornearly48hourssofar.
Asthefactsarebecomingclearer,howcanthewholethingbemufedThosewhohavenotgottheban,canyoujoinin"Caixin'sHuShuliimmediatelyansweredthecall:"Caixin.
comhaspublishedXuWuasheadlinenews,andwehavealsocompiledaspecialtopicaroundmentalhealthlegislation.
"125ThemediacoverageofXuWu'ssufferingstriggeredwidespreadcallsforhismentalstatustobeassessedproperlyandsparkedheateddiscussionsaboutwhethertheauthoritieshavethelegalrighttoforcepeopletoundergopsychiatricassessmentandthensendthemtoamentalinstitution.
XuWunallyreturnedtohisfamilyinearlyJune2011.
Inthesamemonth,theLegislativeAffairsOfceoftheStateCouncilpublishedadraftforChina'srstmentalhealthlawandstartedsolicitingpubliccomments.
Theproposedlawcameafter26yearsofdebateoverhowtoframementalhealthlegislation.
Thedraftlawstipulatesthatnoonehastherighttoforceapersontoundergopsychiatricassessment.
4.
2.
4DisseminationandImpactDigitalmedia,includingmobilephones,cameras,andtheinternet,haveallreducedthecostwhileincreasingthespeedandconvenienceinvolvedininvestigativereporting.
Contributorstoinvestigativereportscanbeclassiedintothreegroups.
Therstareprofessionalspecialistreportersandeditorswhomightuseeithermainstreamoralternativemediatopublishtheirstories.
Theexposéofmelamine-lacedpowderedmilk,whichkilledseveralinfantsandledtothousandsmorebecomingseriouslyill,wasrstpublishedthroughablogbeforegainingnationalandinternationalattentioninallmedia.
Inthewakeofthescandal,severalbusinessmenweregivenlifesentencesandtwoweresentencedtodeath.
Thesecondtypeofinvestigativecontributorsarespecialists,experts,andscholarswho,sometimescollectively,bringtheirprofessionalknowledgetosomeissuethathasbeenraisedinthepublicsphere.
When,forexample,itwasannouncedthatSouthChinatigerswerefoundinthewildsofShannxiProvince,interestedpartiesdemandedthatthepicturestakenbyonefarmerbepublished,whereuponzoologists,photographyexperts,andanimaltrackingexpertscooperatedtoanalyzethemandidentiedthemasfake.
Localmediathenaccusedocialsofendorsingthefakesasameansofgettingstatefundsandpromotingtourisminapoorregion.
Thefarmerwasgivenasuspendedjailsentenceforthefraud.
124.
"Shouldwebesilentaftertheban,"WangSijing'sblog,http://blog.
sina.
com.
cn/wangsijing2010.
125.
FromWangSijing'sWeibo(http://www.
weibo.
com/wsj2009)andHuShuli'sWeibo(http://www.
weibo.
com/hushuli).
ForCaixin.
com'sspecialtopic,seehttp://policy.
caing.
com/2011/zgjsbszlxdj(accessed19June2012).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA70Thethirdgrouparethenon-professionalcitizenjournalists,enthusiasts,andconcernedparties.
ReporterssuchasBeifeng,"Butcher,""BeijingCook,"and"Zola"areallpartofthisgroup,withtheirranksever-increasingsincetheriseofmicroblogging.
Ofcourse,theeectivenessandimpartialityofcitizeninvestigationsarenotacceptedbyall.
Inearly2011,severalgroupsofwell-knownscholars,lawyers,andmediapersonnelbeganinvestigatingthecauseofdeathoftheZhejiangvillagerQianYunhui(seesection4.
1.
1).
Asthevillagehead,QianYunhuiactedonbehalfoflocalswhohadhadtheirpropertyseizedbythelocalgovernment,earninghimselfarespectedpositioninthecommunity.
Reportsofhisdeathwerepostedthroughmicroblogs,splitbetweenthosewhobelievedthecauseofdeathwasmurderandthosewhosaiditwasatracaccident.
Readersquestionedthecredentialsofthe"investigators"andbegantoargueovertheirvariedandsometimescontradictoryndings.
ZhangJiepingnotesthatinvestigativenewsrequiresjournaliststocreateacomplete,truthfulstoryfromscatteredbitsofunclearinformation,whichmeansseekingoutinvolvedparties,insiders,orleaks.
126Today,withmicroblogging,coresourcesofinformationmaynotbewhattheyseem.
Peripheraldiscussionmaybeadoptedbyothersandpresentedasacentralopinion,withtheendlesschatterofusersobscuringtheviewofwhatisfactual.
Inthistypeofenvironment,discriminationandtheabilitytoauthenticateandconrmhavebecomeakeyrequirementforinvestigativejournalists.
Thelackoftheseskillswasabundantlyapparentintheearlystagesofcitizenjournalism,whichledtotheincreasedinuenceofmoresolemn,crediblenewssources.
4.
3SocialandCulturalDiversity4.
3.
1SensitiveIssuesThreeofthemostsensitiveissuesthatariseinChinafromtimetotimeinvolvethefollowing.
ThequestionofthesolepoliticalauthorityoftheCCPandthepowerofthestate.
Thisisveryclearlythemostsensitiveofallquestionsinthemediaandindailylife.
ThesolepowerandauthorityoftheCCPisexplicitlyoutlinedinthenationalconstitution.
Anydirectdiscussionorquestioningofthisisseenasagravemisstepandisinrealityquitedangerous.
Peoplemaysometimescriticizelocalgovernments,butasregardsthenationalgovernment,silenceonmanypoliticalissuesstilllargelyreigns.
ZiYunremarksthatwithinthisbroadissuethemostsensitivetopicsaredemocracy,freedom,andcivilrights.
127Ethnicminoritiesandreligion.
TibetandXinjiangareareaswithcomplexethnicandreligiousissues,includingunclearandsometimescontradictorypracticesandpoliciesconcerningeconomicrights,socialandreligiousrights,andpoliticalrights.
In2008and2009,therewereseverallarge-scaleandhighlydestructiveoutbreaksofviolenceintheseareas.
Storiesthattouchuponissuesofnationalsovereignty,as126.
InterviewwithZhangJieping,Beijing,20December2010.
127.
InterviewwithZiYun(alias),aninuentialseniormediaeditorinoneofChina'sbiggestportals(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespond-enceandBeijinginterview,13December2010.
71OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012wellasethnicorreligiousproblemsareapproachedwithextremecaution.
ZhangJiepingbelievesthatthemediawillavoiddiscussingethnicissueswheneverpossible.
RegardlessofwhetherthisisduetopressurefromtheDepartmentofPropagandaorfromself-censorship,mostmediaorganizationswillchoosetokeeptheirhandscleanofsuchreporting.
Also,thegreaterthefrequencyofsuchconict,thelesslikelyitisthatthemediawillbeallowedtoreportonitfreely.
128So-called"groupincidents.
"Inrecentyearstherehavebeenmanyofthese.
Theymayinclude—butarenotlimitedto—marches,demonstrations,parades,andevenviolentprotestsinresponsetotherequisitionofrurallandforurbandevelopmentorwhatareconsideredunjustpracticesoflocaladministrators.
Theseeventsareanobviousthreattothegovernment'sidealofastablesociety.
4.
3.
2CoverageofSensitiveIssuesGenerallyspeaking,therearestrictreportingstandardsforsuchsensitiveissues.
Inthepast,allreportshavehadtogothroughtheXinhuaNewsAgency,apracticethatwasrarelytransgressedbecauseofgovernmentordersandmediaself-censorship.
Themainocialnewssources—XinhuaNewsAgency,thePeople'sDaily,ChinaNewsAgency,andGuangmingDaily,etc.
—havemultiplechannelreportingsystemswithonechannelforpublicconsumptionandothersforinternalreference,forthenewsthatgoesonlytoocials.
Untilrecentlysensitivenewswasonlyallowedtobereleasedtothepublicafterithadbeenreviewedbyseniorocials.
Thegovernmentalsocontrolsthemediathroughtheappointmentofeditorsandnewsdirectors,theissuingofdirectivesbanningcoverageofspecicsubjects,andtheexpectationthatjournalistswillcensorthemselves.
Thosethatdonotconformtothesecontrolsriskhavingtheiroperationsshutdownorhavingcertaineditorsandjournalistsremoved.
Onmanysensitiveissues,governmentdirectivesrestrictallmediacoveragetocarefullyvettedcopyfromtheocialXinhuaNewsAgency,andprohibitnon-Xinhuajournalistsfromdoingreportsandinterviews.
Duringthe2003SARSoutbreak,Xinhuawasslowtoreleasereportsofthespreadofthepneumoniavirustothepublic.
However,itsreportingintheaftermathofthe2008Sichuanearthquakewasseenasmoretransparentandcredible,asXinhuajournalistsoperatedmorefreely.
On29June2008,onedayafterariotinWeng'an,acountyinsouthwestChina,XinhuaNewsAgencyissueditsrstnewsitemontheincident,brieyreportingthetorchingofthepolicestationbylocalpeople.
129ItwasunusualforXinhuatoreporta"massincident"likethissopromptly.
Itwasregardedbysomemediascholarsas"awatershedofChina'smassincidentsreporting.
"130Themediahavewidelyreportedmanymassincidentssincethen,notjustusingdispatchescirculatedfromXinhua.
128.
InterviewwithZhangJieping,Beijing,20December2010.
129.
"AnincidentofassaultvandalismandarsonoccurredinWeng'anCounty,GuizhouProvince,"XinhuaNewsAgency,29June2008,athttp://news.
xinhuanet.
com/newscenter/2008-06/29/content_8456598.
htm(accessed15June2012).
130.
DongTianceandZhongDan,"Reviewandreectionofthecurrentmassincidentsreporting,"NanjingSocialSciences,March2010.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA72Propagandaocialscontinuetosendoutinstructionsonhownewsshouldbehandledbuttheircommandsareincreasinglybeingignored.
131Insomecases,reportershavebeenallowedtodowhattheywantedforafewweeksbeforethegovernmentgagordercame.
Asaresult,themediaracetoreportbreakingnewseventsbeforethegovernmentissuesanocialban.
Journalistsalsouseeuphemismswhenreportingonsensitivetopics.
Thedecisionsbythecensorsareoftenarbitrary.
Propagandaocialsseldomexplaintoeditorsandpublisherswhyonestorymustbedeletedandwhysomereportsareforbidden.
Thereisnoclearruleinthisarea,leavingamplespaceforself-censorship.
TheChinascholarPerryLinkcomparedtheundenedlimitsonthepresswith"agiantanacondacoiledonanoverheadchandelier.
""Normallythegreatsnakedoesn'tmove,"hewroteintheNewYorkReviewofBooks.
"Itdoesn'thaveto.
Itfeelsnoneedtobeclearaboutitsprohibitions.
Itssilentconstantmessageis,'Youyourselfdecide'.
.
.
afterwhich,moreoftenthannot,everyoneinitsshadowsmakeshisorherlargeandsmalladjustments—allquitenaturally.
"132Inrecentyears,censorsandpropagandapersonnelhavebecomemoresophisticated,usinginterviewsandstoriestopresenttheirsideofanissueratherthandogmaticpropagandalanguage—allowingsomeinformationagainstthemtolterthroughsothatthegovernmentisabletosayitallowsallsidestopresenttheirpointofview.
RebeccaMacKinnoncommentedinaninterview:"Theyaregettingmoresophisticatedinhowtheyarehandlingforeignanddomesticmediacoverageofacrisis.
Itusedtobeinatimeofmajorcrisis,yougetablackout.
.
.
Nowtheapproachistogetthegovernment'sviewpointoutthere.
"133Mediaorganizationstendtoavoidsuchissuesinthecaseofethnicminorities.
Thegovernmentcarefullymonitorsnewsbroadcastsinminoritylanguages,whichareheavilyslantedtowardtheocialpartyline.
Suchbroadcaststendtobeoverlypropagandisticwithlowviewership.
Asaresult,thegovernmentisattemptingtoexpandethnic-languagemediacoverageandreformthenewsprogramming.
ThenewestattemptisKangbaTV,whichbroadcastsinKangba,aregionaldialectofTibet.
ZhangJiepingnotesthatreportsonethnicgroupsandreligionareoftencutfromrelatedstories.
134Forexample,theYushuearthquakeof2010broughttheTibetanareatothemedia'sattention,yetallthemediareportsfocusedontheheroiceortsofrescuecrewsandexcludedanyinformationonethnicminoritiesandlocalpoliticalconcerns.
131.
Chinesejournalistsandbloggersoftenrefertothoseinstructionsas"DirectivesfromtheMinistryofTruth.
"Censorshipinstructions,issuedtothemediaand/orinternetcompaniesbyvariouscentral(andsometimeslocal)governmentauthorities,havebeenleakedanddistributedonline.
Hereisagoodcollection(inChinese):http://chinadigitaltimes.
net/chinese/category/%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86%E9%83%A8%E6%8C%87%E4%BB%A4(accessed16February2012).
132.
PerryLink,"China:theanacondainthechandelier,"athttp://www.
nybooks.
com/articles/archives/2002/apr/11/china-the-anaconda-in-the-chandelier/pagination=false(accessed15June2012).
133.
InterviewwithRebeccaMacKinnon,aformerCNNjournalistwhoheadedtheCNNbureauinBeijingandwhoisnowaWashington-basedinternetresearcher,HongKong,6October2009.
134.
InterviewwithZhangJieping,Beijing,20December2010.
73OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012ZiYunbelievesthatdigitizationhasincreasedthepublic'sabilitytoeducateitselfoncurrentissuesandtoexpressopinions.
135Althoughtherearemanyguidelinesregardingthereportingofsensitiveissues,theprocessofmedia"marketization"andtheproliferationofnon-ocialmediahaveencouragedtheuseofloopholesaswellastactfulorsubtlereporting.
ZhangJiepingnotesthatinternetmediahavebeenabletocreatenewchannelsofinformation,especiallyintherst24–48hoursafterastorybreaks.
Intheserstdays,informationspreadsquitefreelyacrossvariousmediaplatforms.
However,bytheseconddaythegovernmentwillmoveinquicklytosuppresssuchreports.
136LiXiaoremarksthatthegovernmentallowsmediaone"boldstep"everymonthortwo.
Mediaareevenallowedtocarrystoriesongroupeventsforbetweenroughlythreeandvedaysbeforerestrictionsareissued.
137AccordingtoLangZi,religion,emigration,ethnicity,andnon-traditionalsexualityareallsensitiveissues,andwillrarelybereportedon.
138Others,suchassexworkers,impoverishedagriculturalworkers,disadvantagedindustrialworkers,thedisabled,andthosewhosubscribetoanyofanarrayofsubculturesarenotnecessarilyconsideredsensitive,yetwilloftenbeignoredbyboththemediaandthepublic.
Reportingonthesemaybebiasedorunbalanced,partlybecausetheyarenotseenasimportantbythemainstreammedia,thoughtheymightattractsomeinterestontheinternet.
Mostmediaarestillunwillingtoriskoendingthegovernmentbychallengingitssocialoversightandareespeciallyunwillingtochallengethepublic'smoralbordersbybringingattentiontosubjectssuchashomosexuality.
Itisnotuntilsuchmattersarebroughttotheforefrontbyforeignorinternetmediathattheywillappearinthedomesticmedia.
Onesuchcasewasthepro-CantoneselanguagemovementsofGuangzhou.
139Incontrast,thesetopicsarediscussedmoreoftenandmorethoroughlyonline,bothbytraditionaljournalistsandbycitizenjournalists.
Peoplecantouchuponmanyforbiddenareas,solongasthepostsdonotcallfor"real-life"action.
AHarvardprofessor,GaryKing,andPhDstudentsJenniferPanandMargaretRobertshavereleasedaninterestingnewstudy,"HowCensorshipinChinaAllowsGovernmentCriticismbutSilencesCollectiveExpression,"inwhichtheyclaim:"Contrarytopreviousunderstandings,postswithnegative,evenvitriolic,criticismofthestate,itsleaders,anditspoliciesarenotmorelikelytobecensored.
Instead,weshow135.
InterviewwithZiYun(alias),aninuentialseniormediaeditorinoneofChina'sbiggestportals(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespond-enceandBeijinginterview,13December2010.
136.
InterviewwithZhangJieping,Beijing,20December2010.
137.
InterviewwithLiXiao(alias),chiefdirectorofanotablenewswebsite(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespondence,8December2010.
138.
InterviewwithLangZi(alias),anationallyinuentialnewspaperreporterandcommentator(condentialityrequested),Beijing,20November2010.
139.
Putonghua,astandardizedformofMandarinbasedheavilyontheBeijingdialect,isthelanguageofthecountry'sschools,statemedia,andgovernmentdepartments,whichhasinevitablyledtoadeclineinlocallanguagesanddialects.
InGuangdong,someschoolshavereportedlypunishedstudentsforspeakingCantoneseinsteadofPutonghua.
CantonesehasamucholderlinguistichistorythanPutonghua.
Besidesbeingthenativetongueofmorethan70millionpeopleinChina,Cantoneseisalsospokenby20millionmembersoftheChinesediaspora.
On1August2010,morethan1,000protestersralliedinGuangzhouandHongKongagainstthelocalgovernment'sbidtochampionMandarinoverthelocalCantonese,chanting"GuangzhoupeoplespeaktheGuangzhoulanguage.
"Thepro-CantonesemovementwassparkedafterapoliticaladvisorybodyinGuangzhouproposedinJuly2010thatlocalTVstationsbroadcasttheirprime-timeshowsinMandarininsteadofCantoneseaheadoftheAsianGamesintheprovinceinNovemberofthesameyear.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA74thatthecensorshipprogramisaimedatcurtailingcollectiveactionbysilencingcommentsthatrepresent,reinforce,orspursocialmobilization,regardlessofcontent.
"1404.
3.
3SpaceforPublicExpressionNewdigitalmediahavecreatedopportunitiesfordiscussingsensitiveandneglectedsubjectmatter.
SpontaneouslycreatedsitessuchasUighur-languagesites,Tibetan-languagesites,homosexualcommunities'sites,sitesfocusingonworkersissues,andotheronlinecommunities,includingthedisabledorthoseseekinghelpforillness,haveincreasedinterestintheseissues.
SpecicexamplesincludeTibetanCultureNet(Tibetcul.
com),asitededicatedtothepropagationofTibetanculture,art,andsupportforTibetanintellectuals;HaemophiliacFamily(Xueyou.
org),asitepromotingawarenessabouthaemophiliaandalsoorganizingaidfunctionsforsuerersandtheirfamilies.
InGandanxiangzhaoHbvhbv.
com,anonlinesupportgroupforHepatitisBvirus(HBV)carriers,hasaspecialsectiondedicatedtoanti-hepatitisdiscrimination.
Rightsdefendershaveuseditasaplatformtoexchangeinformationandcoordinateaction.
Discussionandcommunicationonthesesiteshavespilledintomainstreammedia,increasingthesocialawarenessofsuchissues.
MrWei,anonlineeditor,notesthatfarmersandmigrantworkersarebeginningtousethepoweroftheinternettoprotecttheirrightsbyattractingtheattentionofmediaandthepublic.
141Forexample,whenanappealforhelpoverlanddisputeswasignoredbythelocalgovernment,16farmersinNinghai,ZhejiangProvince,postedsuicidethreatsonalocalonlineforumNhzj.
comandnationwidesocialnetworkingsiteTianya.
cn,claimingtheywouldkillthemselvesthenextSaturdayunlessthegovernmenthelped.
Thispromptedtheauthoritiestoinvestigatethedispute.
142Yetinrealitysuchsuccessstoriesarenotthenorm.
Insomecasestheoutcomehasbeencommunitypolarization.
Forinstance,inthewakeoftheXinjiangriotsofJuly2009,twointernetforumsindulgedinextremeethnicrivalry.
DuringtheriotsbetweenUighursandethnicHaninXinjiang,severalhundredpeoplelosttheirlivesandseveralthousandwereinjured,fuelingethnichatred.
UighurOnline(Uighurbiz.
net),representingtheUighurpopulation,and"Iron-willedForum"(Bbs.
tiexue.
net),representingtheethnicHanpopulation,appearedtocontributetothetensionsratherthaneasethem.
Atthesametime,thedigitaldividelimitstheeectivenessofthoseendeavorsthatdoraiselevelsofknowledgeandunderstanding.
Forexample,thevastmajorityofTibetanswhoareabletogetonlineareeducatedstudentsorintellectualswhocanexpressthemselvesineitherMandarinorTibetan.
Agreaternumberofcommonpeople,suchasherdsman,agriculturalworkers,theurbanpoor,andmanyotherswhoareunabletocrosssocietalandeducationalboundariesarenotpartofthisonlinediscussion.
140.
GaryKing,JenniferPan,andMargaretRoberts,"HowcensorshipinChinaallowsgovernmentcriticismbutsilencescollectiveexpression,"athttp://gking.
harvard.
edu/gking/les/censored.
pdf(accessed24June2012).
141.
InterviewwithMrWei(alias),experiencedreporterfromasouthernprovince(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespondence,1December2010.
142.
"16farmersinNinghaipostsuicidethreatonlineoverlanddisputes,"17November2010,athttp://www.
whatsonningbo.
com/news-436-16-farmers-in-ninghai-post-suicide-threat-online-over-land-disputes.
html(accessed30April2011).
75OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20124.
4PoliticalDiversity4.
4.
1ElectionsandPoliticalCoverageTheemergenceofdigitalmediahasnotaectedtheregulationsconcerningthecoverageofelections.
Domesticmediawillusuallylimittheirpublicreportstoonlythemostbasicinformation,suchaseachcandidate'socialresumeandtheoutcomeoftheelection.
Itisnotuntilaftertheelectionthatthegeneralpublicwilluseonlinesearchenginestoresearchelectedleaders.
Theoverwhelmingmajorityofcitizenspaynoattentiontothepossibilityofdirectlyparticipatinginelections,nordotheyhaveanyemotionalinvestmentintheresults.
Whatcanbesaidisthatinformationaboutpossiblecandidatesinquasi-democraticprovincialornationalelectionsmaynowbemoreeasilylocatedontheinternet.
However,thingsareslowlybeginningtochange.
Onenewandexcitingdevelopmentisthatmanyindividualsannouncedtheircandidacyforseatsatthetown-andcounty-levelpeople'scongresses(whichareupforre-electioneveryveyears)atvariouslocaldistrictsthroughoutChinain2011and2012.
ThoseindependentcandidateshaveruntheircampaignsprimarilybyusingmicrobloggingsitesSinaWeiboorTencentWeibo.
ThepioneerwasLiuPing,aretired47-year-oldsteelworkerfromXinyu,JiangxiProvince.
Afterlaboringfor31years,shewaspushedintoretirementbyherpublic-sectoremployerwithwhatsheregardedasawretchedpension.
Shepetitionedpartyleaders,buttonoavail.
InApril2011sheregisteredasacandidateforaMayby-electioninherlocaldistrict,andstartedcampaigninginthestreetandonthenet.
"Inalmost50yearsI'veneverseenaballotpaper.
I'vealwayspaidmytaxesandfullledmycivicduties.
ThistimeI'mgoingtoghtformyrightsasacitizen,"shewroteinherWeiboaccountthathasattractedmorethan30,000followers,earningherthenicknameof"China'sRosaParks"amongbloggers.
143AsanindependentcandidateLiuPingwascloselymonitored,harassed,andunlawfullydetainedbylocalpolice.
Thelocalauthoritiesquestionedherintentionsandframedherasanallyofhostiledomesticandforeignpoliticalforces.
Herhomewassearched,herpublicspeakingsessionsinterrupted,andhercampaignbannersandyersconscated.
Authoritieswentasfarastocuttheelectricityatherhometopreventherfromcontactingtheoutsideworld.
On19May,thelocalelectionauthoritiesdroppedherasanocialcandidate,sayingthatshedidnotmeettherequirementofendorsementby10fellowcitizens.
LiuPingcontinuestopostherexperiencesonWeibo,andthishastriggeredarashofWeibocandidates.
OnestrikinggureisLiChengpeng,43,whoisstandinginadistrictofChengdu,Sichuan.
Aformerjournalist,LiChengpengistheauthorofanovelonforceddemolitionprogramsthatcausedastirwhenitwaspublishedinJanuary2011.
On25May2011,heannouncedhiscandidacytomorethan3millionfollowersonhisWeibo143.
SeeLiuPing'sWeiboathttp://www.
weibo.
com/u/1859163942(RosaParkswasanAfrican-Americanwhoin1955refusedtoobeyabusdriver'scommandinAlabamathatshegiveherseattoawhitepassenger,anactofcivildisobediencethatbecameasymboloftherightsmovementthatfollowed).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA76account:"Iamwillingtoexpressthelegalvisionofpeople,supervisethegovernmentandpushforwardsociety.
"Themessagewasforwardedmorethan3,000timeswithinafewhours.
Nearlyalltheindependentcandidatesrelyontheinternettogettheirmessageout.
Intheironlineannouncements,thecandidatesdonotchallengetheCCP'sauthoritytorulebutdosaytheywillspeakforpeoplewhoseconcernsarenotbeingheard.
Manysaytheywillrepresentthoseonthelowerrungsofsociety,suchasmigrantworkers.
Otherssaytheywillrepresenttheconcernsoftheurbanmiddleclass.
Duetoaswiftanddeterminedgovernmentclampdownonthismovement,somecandidateshavedroppedoutandothers,likeLiuPing,havebeenfoiledbybeingdeniedocialregistrationasacandidate.
However,evenifalltheindependentcandidatesloseintheend,itwillstillbeagoodlessontotherestofsociety,byraisingdemocraticawarenessandacquiringnewmedialiteracy.
Despitethecontinuedgovernmentsupervisionofinformation,citizenshavemoreknowledgeaboutcandidatesnowthantheydidinthepast.
TheinternethasalsofosteredgreatertransparencyofNationalPeople'sCongress(NPC)legislationsandgovernmentpolicies.
Forexample,intheprocessofdraftinganamendmenttotheLawonPersonalIncomeTax,theNPCwebsitepublishedadraftforthepublictoprovidefeedback.
Itreceivedmorethan230,000onlinesuggestionsandcommentsinlessthanamonth.
144Intheend,thenalrevisionsraisedthesalarythresholdforpersonalincometaxandreducedtheratesforthelowesttaxbrackets.
Governmentocesarepostingmoreinformationonline.
145On1May2008,Chinaadoptedtherstnationwide"OpenGovernmentInformationRegulations,"markingaturningpointawayfromthedeeplyingrainedcultureofgovernmentsecrecytowardmakingChinesegovernmentoperationsandinformationmoretransparent.
Citizensandthemediaareabletoutilizetheinformationrequestfunctiononthedocumenttounderstandmoreabouthowgovernmentworksandaectsthem.
Buttheimplementationoftheregulationshasbeenincomplete.
Someagenciesandlocalgovernmentshavebeenmoreforthcominginpublishingocialnewsandthedailyactivitiesofleaders,butmanycontinuetowithholdvitalpublicinformation,includingthatontopicssuchassangong(thethreetypesofocialexpenditurethataremostsusceptibletoabuse),146foodsafety,andsmoglevels.
Thestate-runChineseAcademyofSocialSciencesfoundinFebruary2011that51outof59nationaladministrativeagenciesand70percentof43selectedcitygovernmentsfailedtopassanadministrativetransparencyevaluation.
147Governmentdepartmentsarealsomakinguseofsocialmedia.
In2010,localpublicsecuritybureausbecameearlyadoptersofmicroblogging.
In2011,variousgovernmentagenciesatalllevelsopenedmicroblogs,144.
Seehttp://www.
chinanews.
com/cj/2011/05-23/3057936.
shtml(accessed19June2012).
145.
See"Chinesegovernmentwebsiteconstructionanddevelopment,"http://viponline.
cctv.
com/special/2009zfwz/20100111/101756_1.
shtml(accessed20June2012).
146.
Thesethreetypesareocialoverseastravel,ocialcars,andocialreceptions.
147.
"TheAcademyofSocialSciencespublished2010GovernmentTransparencyReport,"25February2011,athttp://news.
sina.
com.
cn/c/2011-02-25/083322013291.
shtml(accessed19June2012).
77OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012communicatingandinteractingwiththepublic.
By2012,thenumberofveriedSinaWeiboaccountsforgovernmentagenciesandocialshadreachednearly20,000.
1484.
4.
2DigitalPoliticalCommunicationsTheeaseofparticipationandvariedchannelsofcommunicationthatcomewithdigitizationhaveincreasedtheabilityofindividualmembersofthepublicandofvariedgroupstoexpresstheiropinions,expandingthediversityofpoliticalvoicesinChina.
Wecanseeathree-levelincreaseindiversityonwebsites,BBS,blogs,andSNS,asfollows:First,inpoliticalthinking,therehasbeenacomplexemergenceofdiversity.
Onlinecommunitieshaveencouragedwidespreaddebate.
SomeofthemorenotableBBScommunitiesinclude:PencilSociety(Impencil.
org),whichsupportsclassicalliberalism(meaningcompleteautonomyandfreedom,withoutgovernmentoversight);Utopia(Wyzxsx.
com),aleftistwebsitewhichsupportsMaoism(meaningtheintenseadorationofMaoZedongandadesiretoremovethegapbetweenrichandpoor);TransitionInstitute(Zhuanxing.
Cn),aliberalwebsiteemphasizingfreedomandjusticeduringChina'stransitionperiod,includingtaxreform,businessregulationandreform,citizeninvolvement,andcivilsociety;ChinaElectionsandGovernance(Chinaelections.
org),apro-reformsitesponsoredbytheCarterCenteroftheUnitedStatestoadvancebettergovernanceandelectionsinChina;andarashofcommunitiesthatadvocatecentralizationoranti-centralization(meaningthosewhowouldhavethegovernmentcloselycontrolsocietalandpersonalbehavior,andthosewhoarecompletelyopposedtosuchcontrols).
Whilethegovernmentisstillwillingtousesuchtacticsasscreeningcontent,closingwebsites,ordeletingposts,thepoliticalarenahasgenerallybecomemorediversied.
149Second,thediversicationofdiscussiononspecicpoliciesisevenmoreevident,especiallyenvironmentalprotection,feminism,animalprotection,andmedicaltreatment.
Websitesfornon-governmentalgroups,BBS,andevenemailgroupsareveryactive.
Darwin,anenvironmentalgroupcallingforlow-carbonemissionsandecologicalprotection,hasusedawidearrayofcommunicationchannelstoreachthepublic,includingaprivatewebsite,onlineschools,databases,emailgroups,microblogs,andSNS,aswellasoneofthemostpopularinstantmessagingandonlinecommunitysites,TencentQQ.
150Theabilityofnon-governmentalgroupstoharnessthepoweroftheinternetisincreasingrapidly.
ZiYunbelievesthatthosewhoparticipateinpoliticallifeusetheinternettoincreasetheirknowledgeandunderstanding,butarealsoimmersingthemselvesinanenvironmentthatispermeatedwiththepressureofbeingsanctioned.
151148.
"TheAcademyofSocialSciences:governmenttransparencyimprovedin2011;moreattentionbeingpaidtomicroblogging,"20February2012,athttp://www.
china.
com.
cn/news/txt/2012-02/20/content_24683575.
htm(accessed19June2012).
149.
On6April2012,CCPcensorsclosedseveral"newleft"websites,includingMaoag.
net,Jinbushe.
org(orProgressSociety),andWyzxsx.
com.
Chinaelections.
orgalsowentoine.
ThiscanbeseenasaneortbytheChineseleadershiptostiedivergentvoicesandmuesignsofanideologicalstruggleaheadofacrucialleadershipchangelatein2012.
See"ChinashutsleftistWebsitesaspoliticalstrifecontinues,"WashingtonPost,6April2012,athttp://www.
washingtonpost.
com/world/china-shuts-leftist-web-sites-as-political-strife-continues/2012/04/06/gIQAn-JLUzS_story.
html(accessed8July2012).
150.
Seehttp://www.
bjep.
org.
cn(accessed8July2012).
151.
InterviewwithZiYun(alias),aninuentialseniormediaeditorinoneofChina'sbiggestportals(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespond-enceandBeijinginterview,13December2010.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA78Third,personalexpressionsofpoliticalopinionhavealsobecomemorediverse.
Individualsmaynowobserveorparticipateinlarge-scalepoliticaldiscussions.
XiaoShu,awell-knownpoliticalcommentator,believesthattheattentionofthepublicisaformofpower,asfocusedpublicopinioncanbringaboutchange.
152Ofcourse,thoughtherehasbeenanexpansionofdiversityatthesethreelevels,governmentoversightandcensorshipofthemediacontinue,asdotheself-censorshippracticesofboththemediaandindividuals.
Whenitcomestodealingwiththeincrediblevolumeofinformationandmillionsofnetusers,thesupervisionsystemhasbeguntoshowthatitsambitionsexceeditsabilities.
Manymediapersonnelhavenotedthatthepublicationofpoliticalcontentstillhasmanyobstructions,andonlinecommunicationtoolssuchasemailandinstantmessagingcannoteectivelyensureusers'privacy.
LiXiaonotesthatthemultipleformsandtypesofsupervisionandcontrolstillexistandarebecomingmorecovert.
153Thesearealsolesssevere,leadingtoasteadyincreaseinthefreedomofnetizens.
Atthesametimethegovernmentmaybewillingtousecommercialpressureorevenfakecommentatorstoincitechangeinpublicopinion.
Thesemethodsarelessdirectandlesseasilyveriable.
Digitalmediahavealsobroughtaboutchangesingovernment.
Multiplewebsiteshavebeencreatedrepresentingdierentlevelsofgovernment.
Afterseveralyearsofpreparation,theCentralPeople'sGovernmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaandCCPwebsitesarenowupandrunning,creatingamoretransparent,modern,andecientimage.
Startingin2009,politiciansbeganutilizinginternetmedia,includingSNS,tohaveonlinecontactwithcitizensinanattempttodevelopagreaterunderstandingofpublicissues.
Thegovernmenthasalsoattemptedtopopularizeaservicewherebythepublicmaysubmitquestionsinthehopethatocialswillbetterunderstandthepopularwillofthepeople.
ZiYunnotesthatthisserviceissomethingnewinChina,yetmuchofitisjustforeectandfewcitizens'issuesareactuallyresolved.
154Acertainnumberofgovernmentocialshavebecomequiteenamoredwithonlinemedia,usingblogsandmicroblogstocommunicatedirectlywiththepublic.
WuHao,aprovincialocialofYunnan,hasaverypopularmicroblog,whichheusestoexpresshisviews,oftenbecominganobjectofpublicridiculewheneverheappearstobe"grandstanding.
"Whileheisnotaparticularlypopulargure,heisseenasmoretransparentandsincerethanhiscounterpartswhohavebeenmorecircumspectintheircommunication.
MrCheng,awell-knowneditor-in-chief,believesthatcurrentpoliticshavebecomemorediversiedandrestrictedsubjectmatterhasbecomerarer.
155Whilethisistrue,thiswasnotachangethatwasengineeredby152.
XiaoShu,"TheattentionofthepublicisaformofpowertochangeChina,"13January2010,athttp://www.
infzm.
com/content/40097(accessed30April2011).
153.
InterviewwithLiXiao(alias),chiefdirectorofanotablenewswebsite(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespondence,8December2010.
154.
InterviewwithZiYun(alias),aninuentialseniormediaeditorinoneofChina'sbiggestportals(condentialityrequested),emailcorrespond-enceandBeijinginterview,13December2010.
155.
Emailexchange,2January2011.
MrChengisanalias.
79OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012thegovernment,butonethatoccurredpassively.
Theappearanceofnewmediahasledtoadiversicationofcommunicationchannels,leavingthegovernmentunabletomaintainpreviouslevelsofcontrol.
Thisrelaxationofcontentcontrolhasbenettedtheadvancementofdigitalmedia,aswellastheliberationofinformationforthepeople.
Today'spublicisnotaseasilytrickedasitwasbefore.
4.
5AssessmentsDigitizationhasdeeplyaectedtheproductionofnewsinChina.
Digitalmediahavepresentedjournalistswithacompletelynewmeansofcreatingandpropagatingnews,allowingnewsstoriestoquicklytakeformandbeavailabletothepublic.
Thisinturnhasallowedthepublicagreateropportunityandabilitytoparticipate,thusstimulatingpeople'smindsandencouragingaction.
Digitizationhaschangedthebasicinformationstructuresbetweenthegovernment,themedia,andthepublic.
Interviews,reports,editing,andpublicationallrelyupondigitalplatforms,asnewscontentmusthaveplentiful,diversiedmultimediadeliveredathighspeeds.
Newseditingprocesseshavealsobeengreatlyaected.
Digitalmediahaveincreasedlevelsofindustrycompetition,withtraditionalmediaexperiencingcrisesandforcingthedevelopmentofcross-mediacooperation.
Citizensmaynowdistributetheirownnewsandcommentary,promotingthediversicationofnewsproduction.
Thisdiversication,whilehavingcertainbenecialaspects,hascreatedchallengesconcerningtheauthenticityandobjectivityofinformation.
Thequalityofnewshasbeguntodeteriorateandprofessionaljournalisticethicshavebecomeclouded.
Originalcontenthasdecreasedandtheaccuracyofinformationhasbeenneglected,whileintellectualpropertyandprivacyrightshaveexperiencedanewcrisis.
Theecacyandimpartialityofcitizeninvestigationshavealsobeenquestioned.
Digitalmediahavecreatedplentifulsourcesofinformationforinvestigativenews,whilethesupervisionsystemfortraditionalnewshasexperiencedproblemswithtimelyresponsesandeciencyasthespeedofallformsofcurrentinformationhasincreased.
Investigativejournalismhasencounteredobstaclesfromthegovernment,socialorganizations,andindividuals,intheformofstatesupervisionsystemsandtheself-censorshippracticesofbothmediaandindividuals.
Sensitiveandneglectedissueshavebenettedfromtheappearanceofdigitalmedia,withdigitalcommunicationavenuesbecominganeectivetoolforminorityvoicestoexpressthemselvesandattractattentiontotheircauses.
Atthesametime,internetmediahaveprovidedanenvironmentforthepolarizationofethniccommunitiesandculturalmovements.
Disadvantagedgroupshavealsoexperiencedimpedimentstousinginternetmediatoexpressthemselveseectively.
Thevastmajorityofthepoor,orthenon-heterosexualcommunityorethnic-minoritygroupsarenotguaranteedaccesstoonlinemedia,withmanyunabletoaccessthesimplestdigitaldevicesoroutput.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA80Theappearanceofdigitalmediahasnothadanidentiableeectonelectioncoverageandregulation.
Onenoteworthyeecthasbeenanincreaseinpublicknowledgeaboutincumbentsinoceaswellasamorelivelyengagementinpoliticalactivism.
AtthesametimethediversicationofpoliticalvoicesinChinahasgrown,withpoliticaltrends,specicpolicies,andpersonalexpressionallmorewidelyavailable.
Onlinecontentcontrolmechanismshavebecomemorecircumspect,allowingforgreateronlinefreedom.
Therulingpartyhasmadeattemptstoutilizetheinternettocreateamoretransparentandeectiveimage,pushingformoreonline,public,governmentaladministration.
Thisshiftinpolicyhasbenettedtheprogressofdigitalmediaaswellastheliberationofknowledgeforthepublic.
81OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20125.
DigitalMediaandTechnology5.
1Spectrum5.
1.
1SpectrumAllocationPolicyAfterthefoundingofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,radiomanagementoperationsweretheresponsibilityofthearmy.
ItwasnotuntilaftertheCulturalRevolutionandtheopeningofChinathatradiomanagementwasturnedovertolocalgovernments.
Eventually,in1998supervisionofradiowasturnedovertotheMinistryofIndustryandInformationTechnology,whichtodayisknownastheMIIT.
On11September1993,theStateCouncilandtheMilitaryCommissionoftheCCP'sCentralCommitteeunitedtoissueajointordinance,"ThePeople'sRepublicofChinaRadioManagementRegulations.
"156ThiswasChina'srsttop-tierradiomanagementadministrativeregulation.
Itclearlyoutlinesthatinrespectofradiofrequencyresources,thereshouldbeimplementationofauniedprogramthat"promotesequitabledevelopment,eectivemanagementandpaiduseofstate-ownedresources.
"Forradiofrequencyresourceallocationandassignment,157decisionsaremadeaccordingto"TheRadioRegulatoryProvisionsofthePeople'sRepublicofChina.
"158Radioregulatoryinstitutionsareattwolevels:MIITandvariousradioregulatoryinstitutionsatprovincial,autonomousregionalandmunicipallevels.
MIITtakeschargeofstateradioregulatoryfunctions,suchastheformulationofaradiofrequencyplanandthedivision,distribution,andallocationofradiofrequencies,andtheRadioRegulationDepartmentisitsspecicexecutivebody.
Provincialradioregulatoryinstitutionsimplementstateradioregulatorypoliciesandcarryoutlocaladministrativeregions'radioregulationwork.
156.
Seehttp://www.
srrc.
org.
cn/NewsShow2141.
aspx(accessed2May2011).
157.
Allocation(ofafrequencyband):entryinthetableoffrequencyallocationsofagivenfrequencybandforthepurposeofitsusebyoneormoreterrestrialorspaceradiocommunicationservicesortheradioastronomyserviceunderspeciedconditions.
Assignment(ofaradiofrequencyorradiofrequencychannel):authorizationgivenbyanadministrationforaradiostationtousearadiofrequencyorradiofrequencychannelunderspeciedconditions.
158.
Seehttp://www.
miit.
gov.
cn/n11293472/n11294912/n11296542/12169542.
html(accessed2May2011).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA82SARFTisresponsibleforallplansfordomesticradioandtelevisionwirelesscoveragetechnologyandfrequencies.
ImplementationofradioandtelevisionspectrumallocationpoliciesismainlyundertakenbytheNationalRadioandTelevisionTechnologyStandardizationCommittee,whichcontrolsthefrequenciesoftheradioandtelevisionstationsofeveryprovinceandcity.
ThetelecomssphereisjointlycontrolledbytheMIITandtheState-ownedAssetsSupervisionandAdministrationCommissionoftheStateCouncil.
Thesetwostateorgansthereforecontrolthethreelargesttelecomoperators:ChinaMobile,ChinaUnicom,andChinaTelecoms,allstate-ownedenterprises.
Table19.
Governmentagenciesoverseeingspectrumallocation,2012AgenciesFunctionsMIITFormulatesradiofrequencyplananddivision,responsibleforthedistributionandallocationofradiofrequenciesProvincialradioregulatoryinstitutionsImplementstateradioregulatorypoliciesandcarryoutlocaladministrativeregions'radioregulationworkSARFTResponsibleforallplansconcerningdomesticradioandtelevisionwirelesscoveragetechnologyandfrequenciesMIITandtheState-ownedAssetsSupervisionandAdministrationCommissionRegulatestate-ownedtelecomsoperatorsBecauseofthewide-rangingapplicationofvariousradiotechnologiesandindustries,alongwiththedevelopmentofdigitalsocietyasawhole,therehasbeenanincreaseintheimbalancebetweensupplyanddemandofradiospectrumresources.
Currently,demandonspectrumresourcesiscontinuingtogrowasthedevelopmentofpublicmobilecommunicationsnetworkssuchas3Gand4Gisaccelerating,useofbroadbandwirelessaccesstechnologyisrapidlyincreasing,andthedevelopmentofthe"internetofthings"hasjustbegun.
159Spectrumregulationmethodologiescanbegroupedintotwotypes.
Underwhatmightbecalledexiblemethodology,regulatorsstrivefortechnology-neutralandservice-neutralrulesthatpermitmarketstodetermineinreal-timethevalueofvariousoptions.
Thiscanalsobecalled"market-orientedmethodology.
"Thenthereishomogeneitymethodology,wherebyregulatorsformulatemarketstructuralrulesregardlessofmarketoutcomes,centeredonasingletechnologypathandthebenetsofthisconcentration.
Bothmethodologieshavesupportersincountriesthroughouttheworld.
Chinafavorsthesecondapproach.
ThusspectrummanagementinChinaislargelybasedonacommand-and-controlapproachinwhichtheregulatormakesmostdecisionsconcerningtheallocationandassignmentofspectrum.
Auctionshaveneverbeenused,buttheregulatorrecentlysoughttouseamarket-ledapproachindeterminingspectrum159.
The"internetofthings"referstouniquelyidentiableobjects(things)andtheirvirtualrepresentationsinaninternet-likestructure.
Withallobjectsintheworldequippedwithminusculeidentifyingdevices,dailylifeonEarthwouldundergoatransformation.
83OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012allocation,ratherthangovernmentagencies.
In2011,forexample,theNationalDevelopmentandReformCommissionintroducedaspectrumoccupancyfee,althoughitwasverylow.
Thereismorescopetoextendtheuseofmarket-basedapproachestospectrummanagementwherethismightbebenecial.
Thiswouldprovidegreaterexibilityandtransparencyinspectrumaccess.
Thenatureandpaceoffuturetechnologyandmarketdevelopmentareveryuncertainanditisthissituationthatcommand-and-controlmechanismscopewithleastwell,becausetheregulatordoesnothavethefullinformationrequiredtomakewell-foundeddecisions,incorporatingissuessuchasmarketrisk.
Transmissioneciencyhasgreatlyincreasedinthewakeofthedevelopmentofdigitaltelevision.
Specically,thereisacertainamountofspectrumthatmaybereassignedorreusedatthe700MHzfrequencycurrentlyusedbyradioandtelevision.
Thistypeofspectrumredistributionwillbequiteprotable,andisknownasthedigitaldividendorspectrumsurplus.
Manycountriesandregionsareattemptingtodoeverythingpossibletousethe700MHzfrequencybandtofurtherthedevelopmentofbroadbandwirelessmobilecommunicationsoperations.
The700MHzfrequencyband,currentlyaUHFtelevisionband,isalsoknownasawhite-spaceresource,andafterthecompletionofdigitalswitch-overin2015willbeturnedoverforusebywirelessbroadband.
Intermsofactualoperations,thisspectrumsurpluswillbediculttosplitbetweentelecomsoperationsandthoseofradioandtelevision.
Therearethreereasonsforthesediculties.
First,SARFTbelievesthatinthewakeofdigitizationandthedevelopmentoftheradioandtelevisionindustry,futureradioandtelevisionindustrieswillhavelargeradiofrequencydemands.
Thefrequencysavedbydigitizationoftelevisionisinadequatetofullltheneedsofbothtelevisionandradio,muchlesstherichfrequenciesofbroadbandmobiletelecoms.
Therefore,thespectrumsurplusshouldonlybeutilizedbyradioandtelevision.
TheseconddicultystemsfromtheabilityofSARFTtousetelevision'spublicserviceaspecttoghtthemarketapproachtospectrumallocation.
Thereareapproximately300millionuserswhocurrentlyrelyonwirelesssignalstowatchtelevision(mostlyterrestrial),soprotectingusers'interestsshouldbeanimportantgoalforapublictelevisionservice.
However,thespectrumsurplushasbeencreatedbyindustryinitiativesbasedontheecientuseofmarket-orientedspectrum.
Therefore,whenthereisaconictbetweentelecomsoperationsandthoseofradioandtelevisionatanationallevel,theprotectionofpublicservicesareahigherpriority.
Third,startingin2006,SARFTbeganthecreationofa"next-generation"broadcastingnetworkbasedondigitaltelevision.
Thisnext-generationnetwouldprovideuserswithaone-stopservice,includingtriple-playstyleHD,SD,digitalaudiovisualcontent,voice,andhigh-speeddatainput.
Thiswouldtransformeveryhousehold'stelevisionsetintoamultimediainformationterminal.
Concurrently,thiswouldallowtheaggressivedevelopmentof"e-government,"education,daily-lifeinformation,entertainment,commerce,andbanking,allthroughtelevisionplatforms,causingdigitaltelevisiontobetrulyanindispensableinformationandentertainmenttoolfordailylife.
Thisfuturebroadcastnetworkwillbeabletosupplytelecoms'broadbandservicecontents—yetanotherreasonwhytheradioandtelevisionindustrywouldliketokeepthespectrumsurplusfortheirownuse.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA84Moreover,SARFTwillnottransfersurplusspectrumduetoitscontinueddevelopmentofHDtelevision.
Fortheabovereasons,accordingtoSARFT,theradioandtelevisionindustryhasastrongimpulsetoreabsorbanyspectrumsurplus.
5.
1.
2TransparencySpectrumpoliciesandmanagementaretheresponsibilityoftheRadioRegulationDepartmentofMIIT.
Spectrumallocationisbasedonadministrativemeasuresratherthanamarket-orientedmethodologyandthereisaneedforamoreconsistentandexplicitsetofpolicygoalsandprinciplesformakingtransparentpolicydecisions.
Inaddition,moreinformationshouldbeprovidedtoindustryonspectrumpolicyintentionsandspectrumuse,sothatuserscanmakeinformedinvestmentdecisions.
Radiospectrummanagementisbecomingachallengetoalladministrationsworldwidebecauseoflimitedspectrumresources.
InChina,thegovernmenthasalwaysregulatedradiospectrumthroughadministrativeenforcement,butinrecentyears,regulatorshaveslowlybeguntoconsidermarketfactors.
XieFeibo,directoroftheRadioRegulationDepartmentofMIIT,pointsoutthatonemethodofresolvingthematterofspectrumshortageisto"conductamoreeconomically-mindedspectrumprogram.
"160Unfortunately,substantiveandimplementableplanshaveyettosurface.
5.
1.
3CompetitionforSpectrumThecommonoverseaspracticeinthecommunicationseld,especiallyintheareaof3Glicensing,istoholdopenauctions,wherewhicheveroperationputsupthemostcapitalwinstheuseofthefrequency.
InJanuary2009,theMIITgranted3Glicensesand3GspectrumtoChinaMobile,ChinaUnicom,andChinaTelecom.
MIITstatedthatthedomesticallocationofspectrumwouldnotimitatethatofothercountries.
Ratherthanrequiringthepurchaseofalicense,operatorsthatusespectrumresourceswillbeaskedtopayasmallusagefee.
Moreover,operatorsthatenjoyfast-paceddevelopmentwillbeabletoapplyforandreceiveadditional3Gspectrumresources.
Followingthemostrecentroundsofallocation,ChinaMobilenowhasaratherlargepreponderanceoffrequencybreadth.
ChinaTelecomandChinaUnicomhavebeenunabletoobtainincreasedspectrumresources,andarethereforeunabletocompetewithChinaMobile.
ChinaMobilehaschosentouseanindependentdomestic3Gmobilecommunicationtechnology,theinternationalstandardTD-SCDMA.
ThatmeansMIITwilloersupportforthistechnologythroughgovernmentpolicies.
Theimbalancebetweenthespectrumallocationforbroadcastandwirelesscommunicationsisreadilyapparent,astheymustoperatesidebyside.
161Newcomerssuchasmobileoperatorsareunceasinglyaskingforareallocationofpublicspectrumresources,aswellasthatpresentlyunder-utilizedspectrumresourcesbe160.
"Telecomoperatorswillfacespectrumshortage,"CommunicationsInformationWeekly,3November2010,athttp://www.
srrc.
org.
cn/News-Show2527.
aspx(accessed2May2011).
161.
Therecoveryofunder-usedradioandtelevisionspectrumisageneraltrendworldwide.
AnalogTVswitch-orepresentsaonce-in-a-generationopportunityforasignicantreallocationofspectrum.
The698–806MHzfrequencyband(oftenreferredtoasthe"digitaldividend"band)hasexcellentpropagationcharacteristicsandcanbeusedveryeectivelytorolloutmobilebroadbandservices.
85OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012handedoverfordevelopment.
Inthewakeoftechnologicaldevelopment,convergedspectrumregulationwillbeabletoremedythelackofresources.
Forthetimebeing,telecoms,radio,andtelevisionfrequenciesarestillseparate.
Withtheadvancementoftriple-playpolicies,concernedparties,includingindustryplayersandregulators,havebegunvoicingtheiropinionsontheconvergedspectrumsupervisionpolicies.
TheRadioRegulationDepartmentmaybewillingtoconsiderthebenetsofconvergedregulation,specicallywhenconsideringtheswitchtodigitaltelevision.
Hereitwilltakealeadershiprole,providinganopportunitytodevelopwirelesscommunicationsservicesbyallocatingmorespectrumresourcestothepublicwhileplanningandmanagingthedigitizationoftelevisionbroadcasting.
5.
2DigitalGatekeeping5.
2.
1TechnicalStandardsDigitaltelevisionusesstandardsfromseveraldierentareas.
Specically,transmissionstandardsencompassservicesdeliveredviacable,satellite,andterrestrialnetworks,aswellasthroughhandhelddevices.
Tobeginwith,inAugust2006terrestrialtransmissionstandardsweresetattheDigitalMultimediaBroadcast-Terrestrial/Handheld(DMB-T/H)standard.
CabletelevisionnetworksgenerallyadopttheEuropeanstandardofDVB-C,whilesatellitebroadcastsuseDVB-S.
Forhandheldequipmenttransmissions,theMIITandChinaMobilehavebeenenergeticallysupportingtheadoptionofTerrestrialMobileMultimediaBroadcasting(TMMB),whileSARFThasbeenpushingforChinaMobileMultimediaBroadcasting(CMMB).
162Becausethereisnoagreementyet,bothstandardsarecurrentlyinatrialstage.
On3April2008,theStandardizationAdministrationofthePeople'sRepublicofChinaheldaworkingconferenceanddecidedtoadoptTMMBasthestandardfortelevisiononmobiledevices,promptingSARFTtoannouncethattheywillnotbeadoptingthenewnationalstandard.
Standardsfordigitaltelevisionhavelongbeenasubjectofercedispute.
Forexample,theDMB-T/HterrestrialtransmissionstandardisamergerofADTB-T(developedbytheShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity),DMB-T(developedbyTsinghuaUniversity),andTiMi,whichisthestandardproposedbytheAcademyofBroadcastingScience.
NeitherShanghaiJiaoTongUniversitynorTsinghuahadenoughpoliticalstrengthtogettheirtechnologyacceptedastheuniquestandard,sothenaldecisionwastooptforadoublestandard,mergedwithTiMi,partlyforcompatibilityreasons.
Therehavebeenmulti-industryagreementsandgovernmentpoliciesenactedinanattempttobringaboutcooperation,erasingthebarriersbetweenindustriesanddierentareasinthehopeofbringingaboutamoreaccommodatingenvironmentforthedevelopmentofdigitalbroadcasting.
Unfortunately,industryregulators162.
BroadcastmobileTVreferstotheprovisionofvideoprogrammingtocellphonesthroughbroadcastnetworks,whichgenerallyrequiresaddingaTVreceivermoduletocellphones.
Currently,thebiggestobstacletothedevelopmentofbroadcastmobileTVisthelackofauniedstandard.
NowtherearetwomajortechnologiestocompeteforChina'smobileTVstandards:CMMBandTMMB.
CMMBisabroadcastingtechnologybasedontheSatelliteTerrestrialInteractiveMultiserviceInfrastructure(STiMi)transmissiontechnologydevelopedbytheSARFT-aliatedAcademyofBroadcastScience,whiletheTMMBstandardisbasedontheDABinEurope.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA86havelongputthebenetoftheirowndepartmentsabovethatoftheindustryitself,preferringtousetheirownstandardsandproducingachaoticenvironmentwhereindustryoperators(bothstate-ownedtelecomsandinternationalequipmentproducers)havenochoicebuttoslowtheirdevelopmenttokeepinstepwithregulations.
Evenso,eortsarebeingmadetopromoteadigitaltelevisionstandardwithindependentintellectualpropertyrights,inlinewiththenationalstrategytoprotectandpromotethedevelopmentofthecountry'sdigitaltelevisionandrelatedindustries.
In2011,DigitalTerrestrialMultimediaBroadcast(DTMB),theocialnameforDMB-T/H,becamethefourthinternationaldigitaltelevisionstandard,followingthoseoftheUnitedStates,Europe,andJapan,startingitstechnicalimplementationinothercountries.
Currently,thegreatestissueisthatofhowtoquicklybringaboutanunderstandingbetweenbroadcastingcompaniesandmobileoperatorsinabalancedandmutuallybenecialmanner.
Thepublicisunabletoexerciseanyrighttovoiceitsopinionsinthismatter.
Inrecentyears,throughadministrativeactions,judicialrulings,andincreasedsupportforresearchanddevelopment,anewtechnologypolicyisbeingpursuedbasedonthepromotionofthecountry'sowntechnicalstandards.
Theadoptionofthisnewpolicyhasmanymotivations.
First,themarketissohugeandmightdeveloptodominatetherestoftheworld.
Second,governmentocialsandmanybusinesspeopleviewtechnologyandindustrialstandardsastradeweaponsusedbyWesterncountriestodiscriminateagainstthem.
Asaresult,mandatestocreateandlegitimizeChinesestandardsthroughpushingproductsintothefast-growingdomesticmarketarepromotedbythegovernmentaspartofanational"indigenousinnovation"initiative.
Third,someforeignobserverssuggestthatChina'sstandardsstrategyisbestunderstoodintermsofaneo-techno-nationalism,inwhichtechnologicaldevelopmentinsupportofnationaleconomicandsecurityinterestsispursuedthroughleveragingtheopportunitiespresentedbyglobalizationfornationaladvantage.
"Unlikeolderformsoftechno-nationalism,China'sstandardsstrategynecessarilyrequiresattentiontointernationalnorms,cooperationwithforeignpartners,andarecognitionoftheneedfornewformsofpublic-privateaccommodation.
"163ThereareChineseeortstodevelopstandardsinmanyareas,including:itsownmicroprocessor(the"dragonchip");itsownsuccessortoDVDs,theEVD(enhancedversatiledisc)standard;intelligentgroupingandresourcessharing(IGRS)forcommunicatingbetweendigitaldevices;anewinternetprotocol(IPV6);radiofrequencyidenticationtagging(RFID);anewsecuritystandardforwirelessdevices,theWLANauthenticationandprivacyinfrastructure(WAPI)standard;andtheprominent3GmobiletelephonystandardTD-SCDMAand4GstandardTD-LTE.
Standardsareestablishedbythegovernmentbodieswhichmanagethecerticationprocessandthenpushthemintothemarketplace,withoutanymajorsuccessestodate.
163.
RichardP.
SuttmeierandXiangkuiYao,"China'sPost-WTOtechnologypolicy:standards,software,andthechangingnatureoftechno-nation-alism,"NationalBureauofAsianResearch,2004.
87OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20125.
2.
2GatekeepersChina'sdigitaltelevisionhasyettondasoundpricingmodel.
Alloverthecountrytherehavebeendozensoffreeanalogtelevisionprograms,whichhasmadeitdiculttojudgehowtochargefordigitalcontent.
Cablehouseholdsprovedreluctanttopurchasenewdigitalset-topboxes,partlybecausetheyalreadyreceivemanyservicesinanalogandpartlybecauseofthepoorqualityofadditionalnewdigitalcontent.
Ruralfamilieshavelimitedspendingpower,yettheyconstitutethemajorityofthetelevisionhouseholds.
Tomakemattersworse,thebroadcastingsystemiscomposedoflocaloperators.
Digitalterrestrialtelevisioncarrieslocaltelevisionprograms,includingprovincialterrestrialchannels(allchannelsdeliveredbytheprovincialtelevisionstation,exceptthelocalprovincialsatellitechannel),municipalchannels,andevencountychannels.
Howtodivideupdigitaltelevisionfeesisacontentiousissue.
Currently,almostallcitiesprovidedigitalbroadcasting,morethanhalfoeringanelectronicprogramguide(EPG).
Nearlyhalfofthecountry'scitiesprovideon-demandservices,includingmovies,televisionshows,andnews.
164Insteadofamajorexpansionofprogramcontent,digitalcableviewersareoerednewdataandinformationchannels,includingpracticaldaily-lifeservicessuchasjobvacancies,property,healthandtransportinformation,andgovernmentinformationservices.
Themostsophisticateddigitalcableinformationservicesoertwo-wayinteractiveservices,supportingtransactionsinshopping,banking,andmakingtravelorentertainmentreservations.
165ThecoreofdigitaltelevisionistheSubscriberManagementSystem(SMS).
SARFThaspushedfora"usermanagementsystemsandmonitoringplatformdataexchangeinterface,"requiringallsuchSMSstosetupaninterfacewithanSARFTmonitoringplatformforregulatorypurposes.
166Theplatformwillmakethenecessaryqueriesaboutuserinformation,programs,andratings,sothatnothingcanescapetheregulator'swatchfuleyes.
5.
2.
3TransmissionNetworksCurrentlydigitalbroadcastinginChinarefersmainlytothedigitizationofcabletelevision,meaningcabletelevisionanalogsignalswillbeswitchedovertodigitalsignals.
Thebackboneofthisprocessarethedigitaltelevisionoperators,whileSARFTremainsresponsiblefortheformulationandimplementationofpolicyandregulations,aswellasindustrystandards.
Inearly2003,SARFTestablishedregulationsfordigitalpay-TV:"Establishmentofpay-TVchannelsmustrstbeapprovedbySARFT;noorganizationsorindividualsmayestablishsuchachannelwithouttheapprovalandauthorizationofSARFT.
"Otherconditionsfortheestablishmentofpay-TVchannelswerealsospecied.
167In2004,regulationswentastepfurther:only164.
"ChinaDigitalTVViewership,"athttp://media.
people.
com.
cn/GB/22114/70684/120550/7123776.
html(accessed14June2012).
165.
WangW.
,"AdescriptionofChina'sdigitalcableTVservices,"InternationalJournalofDigitalTelevision1(1)(2010),pp.
105–111.
166.
Seehttp://www.
sarft.
gov.
cn/articles/2007/05/08/20070908164429760062.
html(accessed3July2012).
167.
"InterimMeasuresfortheAdministrationofDigitalPay-TVChannels,"athttp://news.
xinhuanet.
com/zhengfu/2003-11/20/content_1188763.
htm(accessed30April2011).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA88nationalandprovincialradioandtelevisionbroadcastauthoritiescanindividuallyorjointlyapplyfornationalpay-TVchannels.
168Therefore,theultimategatekeeperfordigitalbroadcastisSARFT,whichdecidesonthescopeofdigitizedbroadcastoperationsandwhoisallowedtoenterthedigitizedbroadcastarena.
ThestrategicpositionheldbySARFTisevident.
Asanationaladministrativedepartment,itconsidersitsowninterestsrstandthenthoseofthecountryasawhole,whichmeansencouragingthedigitaltelevisionindustrytotakeincapitalfromstate-ownedorstate-controlledbusinesses.
Moreover,SARFTcanbeexpectedtoprotecttheinterestsofgovernment-operatedandgovernment-controlledmedia.
Nosurprise,then,thatCCTVwasthersttoacquiretherelevantlicenses.
In2005,SARFTclearlyexpressedtheviewthatthescopeofpreferentialpartnersunderitspolicieswouldbeexpandedtoincludeprovincialradioandtelevisionbroadcastorganizations.
169Thismeansthattheseorganizationswillreceivepreferentialtreatmentwhenapplyingfornationalpay-TVchannels.
Digitalbroadcastoperatorswillthereforebeplacedunderthepurviewofadministrativemanagement,ratherthandevelopthroughmarketcompetition.
Privatelyruncapitalisnotallowedtoinvestin,establish,orrunaradiostation,televisionstation,transmissionstation,relaystation,orradioandtelevisionsatellite,microwavetransmissionstation,ortransmissionbackboneforcabletelevision.
Privateorganizationsarealsoprohibitedfrommanagingradioandtelevisionchannelsandprograms.
170Putsimply,government-controlledmediahaveanunshakablemonopolyofinformationandcapitalinthemarket.
Incomingyears,ChinaTelecomandChinaUnicomhopetogetintothetelevisionbroadcastbusiness,whileSARFThaslongcovetedthetelecomsbroadbandmarket.
Indeed,thenancialpowerofthemobileoperatorsisgrowingfastandoperatorswillincreasepressureandlobbyingofvariouskindsontheregulator.
Politically,however,SARFThasastrangleholdoverradioandtelevisionmediamanagementandcontrol.
Itwillusethepublicnatureofthebroadcastindustryasanexcusetodenythetelecomsindustryentryontoitsturf.
5.
3Telecommunications5.
3.
1TelecomsandNewsIn2008,Chinesetelecomscompaniesbeganarestructuring,forcedbythegovernment,whichinvolvedmergingsixseparatetelecoms(ChinaTelecom,ChinaNetcom,ChinaMobile,ChinaUnicom,ChinaSatcom,andChinaRailwayTelecom)intothree,creatingtoday'soligopolyofChinaMobile,ChinaTelecom,andChinaUnicom.
168.
Seehttp://www.
sarft.
gov.
cn/articles/2003/11/19/20070914165147430657.
html(accessed30April2011).
169.
Seehttp://www.
sarft.
gov.
cn/articles/2005/04/04/20070914165147430972.
html(accessed30April2011).
170.
"SomeDecisionsoftheStateCouncilontheentryofnon-public-ownedcapitalintotheculturalindustry"(onthewebsiteoftheCentralPeople'sGovernmentofthePeople'sRepublicofChina),13April2005,athttp://www.
gov.
cn/gongbao/content/2005/content_64188.
htm(accessed30April2011).
89OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Bytheendof2009,ChinaMobilehadmorethan522millionusersandwasrankedrstintheworld,whileChinaUnicomcameinwith148millionatseventh;171ChinaTelecomhad56millionusers.
172InFebruary2012,ChinaMobilesaiditsmobilesubscribersinJanuaryincreasedto655.
44million,including53.
94million3Gsubscribers.
ChinaUnicomsaidthenumberofmobilesubscribershadrisento202.
89million,including43.
07million3Gsubscribers.
MobilesubscribersatChinaTelecomincreasedto129.
25million,including38.
7million3Gsubscribers.
173Theoperationalscopeofthesethreetelecomsgiantsincludexed-linecommunications,mobilecommunications,satellitecommunications,datacommunications,networkaccess,anddomesticcommunicationinfrastructureservices.
Comparingthecabletelevisionindustrywiththatofthetelecomindustry,therearegreatdierencesinuserscope,industrialconcentration,theextentof"marketization,"andtheabilitytomakeaprot.
Cabletelevisionnetworksarestillhighlygeographicallyscattered,withveryfewintegratedprovincialnetworks.
Theseoperationsrelyonunidirectionalvideotransmissions,whilehigh-endvideoservicessuchasdataservicesandHDinteractiveprogramshavebeenslowtogainpopularity.
Bytheendof2009,therewereapproximately174millioncabletelevisionusers.
Ofthose,62millionuseddigitaltelevisionand7milliondigitalpay-TV.
174AccordingtoNo.
82DocumentissuedbytheStateCouncilinNovember1999,175telecomsdepartmentsmustnottakepartintheradioandtelevisionindustriesandradioandtelevisiondepartmentsmustnotbeengagedintelecomsindustries.
Thatistosay,cabletelevisionistohavecontrolovercontentproductionanddistribution,includingnews,withtelecomsoperatorsexcluded.
Mediafortelecomsdevicessuchas"mobilephonenewspapers"176arethejointcreationsoftelecomsoperators,traditionalmedia,andinternetcompanies.
Thetelecomssupplyamobileplatformasadisseminationchannel,whiletraditionalprintmediasupplynewsinformation,andinternetcompaniescreateanintegratedexperience.
Telecomsaremerelythesuppliersoftheinfrastructureandtechnology,andarethereforenotpermittedtoparticipateintheprocessofnewsgathering,creation,orbroadcast.
Accordingto"InternetAudiovisualProgrammingServicesManagementRegulations,"a2007jointdecreefromSARFTandMIIT,allIPTV,mobileIPTV,andotheraudiovisualprogrambusinessesthatrelyondisseminationthroughinformationnetworksmustobtainan"informationnetworkaudiovisualprogramminglicense,"issuanceofwhichis171.
"ChinaMobileBecomesno.
1mobilephoneoperatorinworld,"26March2010,athttp://tech.
sina.
com.
cn/t/2010-03-26/18193991919.
shtml(accessed30April2011).
172.
"Year-endstatisticsshowarapidincreaseof3Gusersforthebigthreetelecoms,"21January2010,athttp://tech.
qq.
com/a/20100121/000151.
htm(accessed30April2011).
173.
Seehttp://www.
reuters.
com/article/2012/02/20/china-mobile-idUSL3E8CK2HF20120220(accessed4July2012).
174.
"Publiccompaniesfromtheradioandtelevisionindustryhavemixedfeelingstowardstripleplaytrial,"GuotaiJun'anSecurities,21January2010,atwww.
gtja.
com/share/commons/ShowNotesDocumentFile.
jspid=67894(accessed30April2011).
175.
No.
82DocumentisaCircularoftheGeneralOceoftheStateCouncilonStrengthening,ConstructionandManagementofRadioandTelevisionCableNetworks:seehttp://www.
sarft.
net/a/20042.
aspx(accessed30April2011).
176.
Inrecentyears,manynewspapersinChinahavesetupnewsSMSservicesasawayfortraditionalmediatoutilizethenewmediatoprovidevalue-addedinformationservices.
TheseSMSnewsservicesareknownas"mobilephonenewspapers,"nottobeconfusedwithappsformobilephonesthatdelivernewspapercontent.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA90rmlycontrolledbySARFT.
177Accordingtothecurrentlicensingregulations,anytelecomsoperatorsthatwishtolaunchIPTVormobiletelevisionmustchoosealicensedbroadcastoperatorwithwhichtocooperate.
In2005ShanghaiMediaGroupbecamethersttoobtainanIPTVlicense.
ChinaMobilethensignedanagreementwiththegroupandbegantopresentmobilestreamingtelevisionservicestoitscustomers.
Later,ChinaTelecomalsosignedcooperativeagreementsinShanghai,Jiangsu,Zhejiang,Guangdong,andShannxitolaunchpilotIPTVservices.
In2008theNationalDevelopmentandReformCommission,incooperationwithothergovernmentaldepartments,releasedadocument,"ANumberofPoliciesConcerningEncouragementofDigitalTelevisionIndustryDevelopment.
"Thisdocumentcallsfortheadvancementoftriple-play:"Withcabletelevisionasapointofpenetration,thegovernmentwillacceleratethespreadandpopularizationofdigitaltelevisionbroadcasting,strengthenbroadbandcommunicationnetworks,andconstructdigitaltelevisionnetworksandthenextgenerationinternet.
"178Thisdocumentexplicitlyurgescabletelevisionoperatorstoutilizeinformationnetworkssuchasthenationalpubliccommunicationnetworksaswellasradioandtelevisionnetworkstosupplydigitaltelevisionservicesandvalue-addedtelecomsservices.
Telecoms,ontheotherhand,areonlysupportedfortechnicalworkinthetransformationofdigitaltelevisionaccessnetworksandreceivers.
On13January2010,PremierWenJiabaoconvenedaroutinemeetingoftheStateCouncil,inwhichitwasresolvedtodriveforwardtheconvergenceoftelecomsnetworks,radioandtelevisionnetworks,andinternetnetworks,whileclearlyoutliningascheduleforcompletion.
Accordingtothisschedule,thedevelopmentfocusfor2010–2012shouldbeplacedonpilotprojectsinvolvingaccessbetweentelecomsserviceprovidersandbroadcastingoperators.
Later,SARFTandMIIT'splansfortriple-playdevelopmentwererejectedbytheStateCouncilfourtimes;thefthversionwasnallyacceptedon6June2010.
ThisdelaywascausedbyadisputebetweenSARFTandMIIToverthecontrolofIPTVcontentbroadcast.
TheStateCouncilruledthatitwouldbeSARFTalonethatholdspoweroverbroadcastcontent.
Futuretriple-playdevelopmentwillbeledbySARFT,whichmeansauthorityovermediacontent(includingnews)production,dissemination,andcontrol,willalwaysbeinitspalm.
Telecomsoperators,ontheotherhand,willcontinuetoimplementnewtechnologiesandsupplytechnologicalandinfrastructuresupport.
Ofcourse,theseoperatorswillcontinuetovieformediacontentproductionandbroadcastingopportunitiesfortheirownbenet.
5.
3.
2PressureofTelecomsonNewsProvidersTelecomsoperators,asprovidersofinfrastructure,mediachannels,andtechnology,havenopowertocreateordisseminatenewscontent,andthereforehavelittleroomtoexertpoweronnewsproviders.
Cabletelevision,ontheotherhand,haslongbeenagatekeeperofmediacontentproduction,withtheabilitytocontroltheentiremediaprocess,includingcontentselection,creation,editing,andbroadcasting.
Cabletelevisionisanewsprovider,aswellasanewsgatekeeper,whichmeanstheideologicalself-censorshipofnews177.
"Internetaudiovisualprogrammingservicesmanagementregulations,"athttp://tech.
sina.
com.
cn/i/2007-12-29/1419538033.
shtml(accessed1May2011).
178.
Seehttp://www.
sarft.
gov.
cn/articles/2008/01/18/20080118171529790561.
html(accessed1May2011).
91OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012content.
AccordingtoSARFT,theconstructionofIPTVbroadcastandcontrolplatformswillbecompletedthroughanallianceofCCTVandlocaltelevisionstations.
Thesealliedstationswillshareresponsibilitiesinoperationandmanagementwithoutparticipationfromtelecoms.
179Thisindicatesthatcabletelevisionisstilltheprincipalactorinthesupervisionandcontrolofmediacontent,whiletelecomsoperatorsareonlythesupplierandsustainingforceofbasicinternetfacilitiesandtransmissiontechnology.
TotakeShanghaiasanexample,areaIPTVistheproductofcooperationbetweentheShanghaiMediaGroup180andChinaTelecom.
ShanghaiMediaGroupsuppliesbroadcastcontent,whileChinaTelecomisresponsiblefornetworkfacilities.
ManagementoftelevisionbroadcastcontentiscontrolledbyBesTV,ShanghaiMediaGroup'snewmediasubsidiary,whileChinaTelecomhasnopowertoselect,revise,ordeleteprogramcontent.
ChinaTelecomisresponsibleonlyforthetransmissionofsuchprograms,providingBesTVcontenttoitscustomers.
5.
4AssessmentsArticle4ofthegeneralrulesofthe"People'sRepublicofChinaRadioManagementRegulations"stipulatesthatradiospectrumresourcesmustbestate-owned,andtherewillbeimplementationofacentraluniedmanagementsystemforradio.
Spectrumisanationalresource,whichmeansthatundernationalallocationplans,itwillnotbefreelyprovidedtoall.
Thisoutcomeisspurredonbythepoliticalauthorityofthegovernment.
Politicsthereforeplaysadecisiveroleinspectrumallocationpolicies.
Xiaolingtongisacaseinpoint.
ThePersonalHandy-phoneSystem(PHS),alsomarketedasthePersonalAccessSystem(PAS)andcommerciallybrandedasXiaolingtonginChina,isamobilenetworksystemoperatinginthe1880–1930MHzfrequencyband,usedmainlyinJapan,China,Taiwan,andsomeotherAsiancountries.
Asalow-costalternativelaunchedbyxed-linetelecomsoperatorsovercellphonecarriers'services,XiaolingtonggainedpopularityinChinaintheearly2000s.
Fromitsbirth,XiaolingtonghasbeenacompetitorofbothChinaMobileandChinaUnicom,asitslowfeesattractmanylocalusers.
Atitspeak,Xiaolingtonghadover100millionusers.
ButithasbeenlosingmomentuminrecentyearsasChinaMobileandChinaUnicomhaveprogressivelyloweredtheirfees.
InMay2008,aftersettlingonthecountry'shome-grownTD-SCDMA3Gstandard,ChinaMobileraisedthequestionofscarceTDfrequencybandsandexpressedadesiretotakebacktheTDbandwidthoccupiedbyPHS.
TheChinesegovernmentwasworriedthatXiaolingtongwouldinterferewiththesignalsofthecountry'supcomingTD-SCDMAservice,whichhasrecentlybeengrantedanexpandedfrequencybandclosetothatcurrentlyusedbyXiaolingtong.
InFebruary2009theMIITissueddocumentsrequiringallwireless179.
"Nobreakthroughfortripleplayexperiment,"CommunicationsWorldWeekly,11April2011,athttp://www.
cww.
net.
cn/news/html/2011/4/11/20114111555441102.
htm(accessed30April2011).
180.
ShanghaiMediaGroup(SMG)isamultimediatelevisionandradiobroadcasting,news,andinternetcompany.
Formedin2001,SMGistheresultofamergerbetweenthePeople'sRadioStationofShanghai,EastRadioShanghai,ShanghaiTelevisionStation,andOrientalTelevisionStation.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA92accesssystemsoperatingatthe1900–1920MHzfrequencybandtoceaseoperationsbeforetheendof2011,ensuringthatthe1880–1900MHzfrequencybandTD-SCDMAprocessesdidnotexperienceinterference.
ThisisoneexamplewhereChinaMobilehasreceivedthesupportofgovernmentpolicies,symbolizingitstriumphoverXiaolingtong.
Meanwhile,suchamoveclearsthewayforthedevelopmentofTD-SCDMA.
Yetthissituationhaschangedrecently.
Inthewakeofthewidespreaduseofnewtechnologiesandindustries,alongwiththedevelopmentofamarketeconomy,thepressuretoopenupthetelecomssectorhaspickedupmomentum.
Competitionisbeginningtotakeshapeinthecommunicationsmarket,andtheextentandquantityofdemandforspectrumresourcesaregrowingdaily.
TheNationalRadioFrequencyManagementResearchInstitute'sSeniorAdviser,HeTingrun,proposesthatinordertoguaranteetheecientuseofresourcesandavoidanceofwastedfrequency,thereshouldbeanewsystemoffees.
Forinstance,frequencyusefeeswouldbechargedaccordingtoeachoperation'sprotmargin.
Second,achangeintheutilizationmethodsoffrequencyresourcesshouldbeenacted.
Currentusagemustbeexamined,andunusedorunder-utilizedfrequencybandsmustbeidentiedandreassignedinordertobeutilizedtotheirgreatestpotential.
Heisalsoanadvocateoffollowingtheinternationalmethodoffrequencyauctionsforallocationschemes.
181Radiospectrumresourcesarelimited,sotheinterestsofmanydierentgroupsmustbeconsideredduringthecreationofspectrumresourcepolicies.
ThisisthenewproblemthatisfacedbytheChineseradiospectrumresourcesmanagementstructure.
Yetatpresentthemanagementstructurehasnotreleasedanynewpoliciesconcerningfuturespectrumallocation.
Duetothefactthatradiofrequencyresourcesarenon-renewable,thesupervisionstructuremustcarefullyweightheprosandconsoffrequencyresourceplans.
Thisresponsibilitybringswithitnewdiculties,andtheradiofrequencysupervisionstructurewillbeforcedtoissuenewsupervisionpolicies.
Notonlythat,theoldstructuremightalsoneedtobechanged.
Inrecentyears,therehasbeenanincreaseinregulatorswithresponsibilityforbroadcasting,telecoms,andinformationtechnology.
Theseregulatorsarecommonlyreferredtoasconvergedregulators.
Suchstructuresarebetterequippedtoaddressconvergentenvironmentswheredierentservicesareincreasinglyoeredoverthesameplatform.
Byshiftingregulatoryresponsibilitiesregardingthecommunicationssectoraswellasthebroadcastingsectortoonegovernmentagency,stakeholdershaveaone-stopshopforresolvingregulatoryissues,resultingingreaterconsistencyinregulatoryapproachandpractice.
Inaddition,certainoperationalecienciesshouldbeachievedandgreaterresourcesshouldbeavailable,sincethesingleregulatornowhasalargerpoolofexperts.
Operatorsnditeasiertohavetocomplywithonlyoneregulatoryauthorityandtoaddresstheirissuesinoneplace.
Theideaofhavingaconvergedregulatorisstillbrewing.
Thegovernmentalsoneedstoconsidertherelationshipbetweentelecommunications,broadcasting,andcompetitionlaws.
ShouldtheregulatorhaveanyresponsibilityovercompetitionissuesCurrently,thereare181.
"Inneedofanewspectrumsupervisionpolicy,"CommunicationsWorldWeekly,21June2010,athttp://www.
cww.
net.
cn/cwwMag/html/2010/6/21/20106181433534337.
htm(accessed30April2011).
93OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012manyoverlapsandturfbattlesbetweengovernmentagencies;MIITisinfavorofthetelecomsoperators,whileSARFTalwaysstandsbehindtheradioandtelevisionindustry.
Therearemanyunfaircompetitivepractices.
Accordingtotheocialposition,spectrumregulationconformstotheparticulardomesticconditions.
First,thestatewillringfenceacertainnumberofspectrumresourcestoensurethatbasiccommunicationneedsaremet,especiallyinurgentsituationssuchaswarornaturaldisaster.
Second,thegovernmentmustretainacertainquantityofspectrumresourcesfortheuseofpublicservices,sothatthepublicmayconvenientlyreceiveinformation,butitseemsinevitablethatthistypeofinformationwillbepartialtothegovernment'sinterests.
Third,thegovernmentmusthavearmgrasponthedetailedcircumstancesofalldomesticspectrumresourcessoastosafeguardtechnicalmaintenanceandupgradefacilities.
Evenrecognizedassuch,bothcurrentregulationpoliciesandactualregulationpracticeshaveshortcomings.
Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthechiefshortcomingsareasfollows:Governmentregulationofspectrumisexcessivelybroad.
Whenthegovernmentwasthebiggestuserofspectrum,overallgovernmentalregulationseemedappropriate.
Yettodaymanyinformationservicesexist,andtheproliferationofprivateenterpriseoperationshasbroughtaboutacompetitivemarket.
Reactionstothemarketenvironmenthavebeenslow,whichhasdestroyedeciencyandhinderedtheabilityofenterprisestochangeandbringforthnewideas.
Spectrumcontrolhasbroughtaboutlargemanagementcostsforauthoritiesandusers.
182AccordingtoXieFeibo,directoroftheRadioRegulationDepartmentofMIIT,radiofrequencyresourcesareararenationalstrategicresource,andwillbecomemoreprominentduringthecountry'snewindustrializationprocess.
Radioadministrationmustconsideritselfinsomewaysatypeofnaturalresourceadministration,withitsserviceofeconomicdevelopmentasamainpointofreference.
Thismeansthefullutilizationofradiospectrum'seconomicandsocialworth,inactiveservicetoenterprises.
183Inthisstatement,itcanbeseenthatthepublicinterestdoesnothaveahighpriorityintheadministrationofradio.
Inreality,spectrumadministrationpoliciesandregulationsarelackinganyclearreferencetothepublicinterest.
Spectrumallocationpoliciesarecreatedandformulatedbygovernmentdepartments,andthepublichaslittlebargainingpowerinthepolicymakingprocess.
Beforetheformalissuanceofpolicies,departmentsmayseektheadviceandopinionsofexperts,orclaimthattheywillusepublichearingstocarryoutdiscussionandrevisionofsuggestedpolicies.
Buteveniftherearepublicdiscussions,theyaremoreforsymboliceect.
Therehasneverbeenacleardenitionofthepublicinterest,regardlessofwhetheritappearsinthelaworgovernmentregulations.
Generallyspeaking,whenexplainingthebenetsofcertainpolicies,thegovernmentwillassertthereissomebenettothepublicinterest.
182.
SongQizhu,"Researchontheallocationofradiospectrumresourcesthroughmarketmeans,"PhDdissertation,BeijingUniversityofPostsandCommunications,2010,p.
44.
183.
XieFeibo,"Managethestrategicresourceofspectrumstoservetheeconomicdevelopment,"People'sPostsandTelecommunicationsNews,21February2011.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA94Inpractice,however,thisisnotnecessarilyso.
Duetoalackofdemocraticsupervision,thegovernmentpossessesformidableauthorityoverpolicycreationandimplementation,andisnotrequiredtoacceptsuggestionsorconditionsputforwardbythepublic.
Forpolicymakersandadministrators,genuinepublicinterestisnotnecessarilyahighpriority,whilecompletionoftheirownadministrativetasksandprotectionoftheirdepartmentalinterestsareofthegreatestimportance.
95OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM20126.
DigitalBusiness6.
1Ownership6.
1.
1LegalDevelopmentsinMediaOwnershipThereisnogeneralpresslaw,publicationlaw,broadcastingandtelevisionact,ortelecomslawinChina.
ThemediahavelongbeenshapedbydocumentsissuedbytheParty'sCentralCommitteeandPropagandaDepartment,variousresolutionsanddecisionsbytheCentralCommittee,speechesandinstructionsgivenbytopleaders,andprovisionsissuedbygovernmentadministrativeauthoritiesconcerningthemedia.
Foreigninvestmentinmediaisalsostrictlycontrolled.
In2001,the"CircularoftheGeneralOceoftheStateCouncilonDeepeningtheReformofNews,Publication,Broadcasting,FilmandTelevisionIndustry,"commonlyknownastheNo.
17Document,setoutgeneralprinciplesformediadevelopment.
184Itencouragescross-regionalandcross-mediaexpansioninordertobuildupmediaconglomerates,andallowsoutsidecapitaltoenterthemediaindustryandmediaconglomeratestobelistedonthestockmarket.
TheNo.
17Documentwasfollowedbyaseriesof"implementationmeasures"draftedfordierentmedia:press,cinema,andtelevision.
InthethreeyearsafterthereleaseoftheNo.
17Document,mediastructuringproceededinlinewiththeseaimsandpickedupgreatspeedin2003and2004asaresultofpositivesignalssentoutfromthe16thPartyCongressandtherelentlesseortsmadebythestatetopushmediarestructuringforward.
Somestate-ownedmediainstitutionsbegantooperateasenterprisesandcross-regionaloperationswerepermitted,whilerestrictionsonforeigncapitalinvestmentinthemediaindustrywereloosened.
Forexample,inNovember2004,SARFTandtheMinistryofCommercejointlyissued"InterimRegulationsontheAdministrationofSino-ForeignJointVenturesandCooperativeEnterprisesinRadioandTVProgramProductionandOperations,"185allowingforeigncompaniestobeinvolvedinradioandtelevisionprogramproductionanddistribution.
ForeigncompaniessuchasViacomandSonyestablishedanumberofjoint-ventureproductioncompanies.
184.
Seehttp://www.
lexiscn.
com/law/law-chinese-1-70020.
html(accessed2May2011).
185.
Seehttp://www.
china.
com.
cn/chinese/PI-c/705336.
htm(accessed12June2011).
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA96However,from2005,mediapoliciesweretightenedagain.
Cross-regionaloperationsandcross-mediaexpansionwerenolongerallowed.
On31October2007,the"CataloguefortheGuidanceofForeignInvestmentIndustries"wasjointlyissuedbytheNationalDevelopmentandReformCommissionandtheMinistryofCommerce.
Originallyproductionanddistributionofradioandtelevisionprogramsandlm-makinghadbeenlimitedtocontractualjointventuresand"cooperation,"buttheywerenowclosedtoforeigncapital.
Foreigninvestorswerepermittedtoparticipateonlyinindividualtelevisionprogram-orlm-makingprojects.
TheCataloguealsoforbadeforeigncapitalinvestmentinnewsportals,andinternetcontentandserviceproviders.
InJanuary2012,WuBaoan,spokesmanforSARFT,announcedthatradioandtelevisionstationswouldnotbeallowedtohavecross-regionaloperations,tohavealltheirsharestradedonstockmarkets,toseparatebusinesssectionsfrompropagandaandpublicinterestundertakings,ortooperatechannelsandfrequenciescommercially.
Hesaid:"InChina,radioandtelevisionstationsarenotonlyimportantnewsmediaoftheParty,buttheyholdpowerfulpositionsasthemouthpieceofthePartyandtoolsofideologicalpublicity.
Thismeansthatradioandtelevisionstationsshouldalwaysfocusonpropaganda,andshouldbetreatedasshiyedanwei(non-business,not-for-protinstitutions).
"186Nonetheless,althoughthestateretainsanabsolutecontrollingstakeinanymediabusinessandeditorial(content)managementandproductionremaino-limitsforprivateinvestment,allmediaareabletoaccessprivatecapitalforcertain"operatingassets.
"Theseincludeadvertising,printing,informationprovision,distribution,andtheprovisionofcablenetworks.
Inaddition,privateinvestorsarepermittedtotakeaminoritystakeinlmandtelevisionprogramproductionbutarenotallowedtotakepartintheproductionorbroadcastingofnews.
6.
1.
2NewEntrantsintheNewsMarketAsmightbeexpected,itistheinternetthathasbeenresponsiblefornewentrantsinthemarketfornews.
By2007,therewere27publicinternetcompanieswithheadquartersinChina,constituting2.
95percentoflistedinternetcompaniesglobally.
However,onlyoneofthesecompanieswasregisteredandlistedinmainlandChina,while19wereregisteredintheCaymanIslands,twoinHongKong,andoneintheUnitedStates;ofthose,16werelistedonNASDAQ,veontheHongKongStockExchange,andoneontheNewYorkStockExchange.
187Contentcreationanddisseminationremainunderthecontrolofrelevantdepartmentsofthegovernmentevenforthoseinternetcompanieslistedabroad.
Companieshavealsotoabidebytheideologicalguidanceoftheparty.
In2000,theInformationOceofChina'sStateCouncilandtheMIITjointlyreleasedthe"InterimProvisionsontheAdministrationofInternetWebsitesEngagedinNewsPostingOperations.
"188186.
"SpokesmanofSARFT:radioandtelevisionstationsarenotallowedtobelistedwholly,"athttp://news.
sina.
com.
cn/m/2011-01-14/174721817170.
shtml(accessed2May2011).
187.
"GlobalSurveyAnalysisReportofListedInternetCompanies,"ShenzhenStockExchangeResearchInstitute,April2009,athttp://wenku.
baidu.
com/view/198b5e2eb4daa58da0114aac.
html(accessed8May2011).
188.
"InterimProvisionsontheAdministrationofInternetWebsitesEngagedinNewsPostingOperations,"athttp://www.
isc.
org.
cn/20020417/ca42718.
htm(accessed2May2011).
97OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012Thisdocumentdened"newsposting"asdistributingoriginalnewsandredistributingnewsfromotherresourcesviatheinternet.
Commercialwebsitesdidnothavetherighttocreatenewsindependently;theycouldonlyredistributenewsfromapprovedsources.
Onlywebsitesthatbelongedtolargermediagroupswereallowedtogenerateandeditnews.
Moreover,the"InternetAudio-VisualProgramServiceRegulations"promulgatedbytheSARFTspecifythatthoseapplyingtoengageininternetaudiovisualprogramservicesshallhavethestatusoflegalpersons,be"workunits"whollystate-ownedorwithcontrollingstakesheldbythestate,andhavenorecordofillegalactivitiesforthreeyearspriortotheapplicationdate.
In2006,"OpinionsoftheCPCCentralCommitteeandtheStateCouncilonDeepeningtheReformoftheCultureSystem"wasreleased.
Thisdocumentpointsoutthatallmajornews-relatedentitiesshouldbetreatedasshiyedanwei,including:partynewspapers,partyjournals,radiostations,televisionstations,newsagencies,state-ownednewswebsites,andadozenpublisherswithpoliticalandpublicbenetresponsibilities.
189Despitealltheselimitations,commerciallyoperatedwebsitesdenitelyqualifyasnewentrantsinthenewsmarket.
Chineseportalsoftenprovidecurrentandsometimesbreakingnews,suchasinthecaseoftheWenchuanearthquake(seesection3.
1.
3)andtheWenzhoutraincrash(seesection4.
2.
4).
Theyoftenpresentmoreinformationonnewseventsthantraditionalsourcesprovide,drawingheavilyonforeignreports,citizens'accounts,anddiscussionforums.
Theyaredividedintodierent"channels,"withmanyoeringspecicnewscontents,suchasnance,technology,andcurrentaairs.
6.
1.
3OwnershipConsolidationTheestablishmentofnewspapergroupsunderthecommandofpartynewspaperswasrstproposedasearlyas1990.
InJanuary1996,GuangzhouDailyestablishedtherstnewspapergroup,theGuangzhouDailyPressGroup.
Currently,thereare27publishinggroups,49newspapergroups,17distributiongroups,andfourmagazinegroups.
Ofthese,40arelistedinsection6.
1.
2.
190Centralizationofbroadcastingalsobeganinthe1990s.
In1991,therstbroadcastinggroup,WuxiRadioandTVGroup,wasestablished.
TheGeneralOceoftheStateCouncilissuedthe"CircularofSARFTandTheMinistryofInformationTechnologyandTelecommunicationConcerningtheStrengthening,ConstructionandManagementofRadioandTelevisionCableNetworks"inthesameyear.
191Thisdocumentwastherstocialcallfortheconstructionofprovincialbroadcastinggroups,afterwhichmanybroadcastinggroupswereestablished.
Notably,theestablishmentofbroadcastinggroupshasbeenachievedthroughtheamalgamationofradioandtelevisionstationsbygovernmentdecree.
Thistypeofcentralizationdoesnotconstituteatruemergerofresourcesasseparatebroadcaststationsretaintheirownresourcesandoperationalcontrolindependentofthelargergroupstructure.
192189.
Seehttp://wendang.
baidu.
com/view/ba743fce05087632311212c6.
html(accessed3May2011).
190.
Media,January2011,athttp://news.
xinhuanet.
com/zgjx/2011-01/27/c_13709288.
htm(accessed3March2011).
191.
Seehttp://www.
law-lib.
com/law/law_view.
aspid=70494(accessed3March2011).
192.
Therearesomeexceptions,suchasSMG,whichisundergoingaggressiveexpansionintonewareassuchaspay-cableTVservices,programpatentsales,brand-relatedbusiness,andinternetbusiness.
MAPPINGDIGITALMEDIACHINA98ZhuChunyang,aresearcherfromFudanUniversitySchoolofJournalism,pointsoutthatsomemediagroupshaveactuallybecomeintegratedmediagroupsinspecicregions,whichconstitutesamonopolyastheyhavecompletecontrolofmediasources.
Thiscontradictstheoriginallyclaimedpurposeofthecreationofmediagroups,whichwastheimprovementofmediaservicestothepublic.
193Moreover,althoughcentralizationpromotesthescaleofthemediaindustry,itstrengthensadministrativeandregionalmonopolies.
Atthesametime,asstate-ownedandstate-administeredinstitutions,themediaareextensionsoftheadministrativesystem.
Thestaenjoysthesameadministrativerankasequivalentocialsofthepartyandgovernmentcadres,militatingagainstnewsandcurrentaairscontentthatmightbecriticalofthegovernmentortheparty.
Thisproblemhasbecomemoreacutewiththeconsolidationofmediacompaniesasthishasincreasedtheeasewithwhichnewsmediacanbesupervised.
Highlyconcentratedmediahavethereforeproveddetrimentaltothediversityofexpression,justasisthecaseinothersocietieswheresuchconcentrationmightbeprivate,buttheeectisthesame.
6.
1.
4TelecomsBusinessandtheMediaDiscussionsconcerningthemergerofmediaandtelecomsbeganin1998.
Thispolicy,ociallycalledthreenetworkconvergence,ortriple-play(seealsosection2.
1.
3),meanstheconvergenceofcablenetworks,telecoms,andtheinternet.
Ideally,whenthosethreenetworksarefullyintegrated,gettingonline,makingphonecalls,andwatchingtelevisionwillallbeaccomplishedthroughthesameplatform.
Thepracticalobstacleisthatthosethreenetworksbelongtothreedierentindustries:telecoms,internet,andcabletelevision.
Inaddition,telecomsandtheinternetareundertheadministrationoftheMIIT,whilecabletelevisionisunderSARFT.
Thisdivisionisanimpedimenttothedevelopmentofthreenetworkconvergence.
CabletelevisionoutletsatdierentadministrativelevelsactivelypromoteddigitalHDTVbeginninginthe1990s.
AtthesametimetheyadoptedbroadbandaccessservicesinordertosolvethebandwidthlimitationforHDTV.
Broadbandisoneofthetelecomsindustry'scoreservices,whichmeantthetelecomscompanieswerenotpleasedwiththecableoutlets'cross-borderbehavior.
Telecomsoperatorsevenwentsofarastosuecableoutletsoverthisissue.
Inresponsetothisconict,theStateCouncilreleasedadocumentinSeptember1999,entitledthe"CircularoftheGeneralOceoftheStateCouncilonStrengtheningtheConstructionandManagementofRadioandTelevisionCableNetworks,"knownastheNo.
82Document.
Afterthereleaseofthisdocument,telecomswereallowedtomonopolizebroadbandservices,forcingcablecompaniestosurrenderthishighlyprotablemarket.
On15March2001,whentheNPCapprovedthe10thFive-yearPlansCompendium,itformallypresentedthetriple-playnetworkconvergenceforthersttime.
Sincethentheissueofintegrationhasbeenahottopic.
Inthepastveyears,manypolicieshavebeenformulatedtoencouragenetworkconvergence,butwithlittleactualcooperation.
PremierWenJiabaocalledaStateCouncilmeetingon13January2010,whichledtoadecisivepushfortheaccelerationofconvergence.
Thedecisionallowedforqualiedtelecomsunitstoengage193.
InterviewwithZhuChunyang,Shanghai,20November2010.
99OPENSOCIETYMEDIAPROGRAM2012invariousaspectsofbroadcastingprogramproductionandtransmission.
Qualiedbroadcastingunitscanprovidesometelecomsservices,added-valuetelecomsservices,and(iftheyqualifyforanISPlicense)internetservices.
194Butoneyearlater,accordingtoaCaixinOnlinereport,theintegrationoftelephone,internet,andbroadcastingnetworkswhichhadbegunwithsuchafanfareseemedtobeclosetodead.
Televisionandtelecomsoperatorscouldnotagreeonwhoshouldhavenalcontrolofbroadcastingrights,andSARFT'sstancealsoseemednottobeveryhelpful.
195Cabletelevisionhasinthepastprovidedonlyvideoservices.
Chargesforcablearecomparativelylow,whichhashadtheeectofcreatingalargenumberofusersforbroadcastservices.
Afterintegration,thetotalnumberofusersislikelytoshowamarkedincrease,butthepublicnatureoftheservicewillbedilutedaslow-incomehouseholdsmaybeexcludedfromnewmediaduetoincreasedfees.
6.
1.
5TransparencyofMediaOwnershipAccordingtoChineselaw,individualsandforeignorganizationsarenotpermittedtoownmediaindependently.