companysafebase

ABSTRACTForty-threeyearsago,DouglasMcGregor'sTheHumanSideofEnterpriseofferedmanagersanewassumptionofmanagement(TheoryY),whichwouldbemoreeffectivethanwhatheconsideredthen-currentmanagementassumptions(TheoryX).
WhileMcGregor'sTheoryYmodelhasbeenwidelyadoptedinmanagementliteratureasthepreferredmodel,TheoryXmanagementstillpersistsinpractice.
Moreover,manyeffortstointroducemanagementini-tiativesbasedonTheoryYhavefailedtoreformtheworkplaceorworkerattitudes.
Whilemostexplanationsofthesefailuresfocusontraining,implementation,orsabotage,thisarti-cleproposesseveraldefectsinTheoryYthathavecontributedtothesefailures.
TheoryYisbaseduponanincompletetheoryofhumanmotivationthaterroneouslyassumesthatallpeoplearecreative(andwanttobecreative)inthesameway.
ImportantresearchbyMichaelKirtonpresentsadifferentmodelofcreativitythatexplainsthefailureofTheoryYandjustiesTheoryXasanimportantmanagerialtheoryandstrategy.
TheoryXpersistsnotbe-causeofcircumstancesorthenatureofparticularjobs,butbecausedifferentpeoplehavepersonalitiesthatrespondtoTheoryXmanagementbetterthantoTheoryYmanagement.
Butifthetimesandcircumstanceschange,[aleader]willfailforhewillnotalterhispolicy.
Thereisnomansoprudentthathecanaccommodatehimselftothesechanges,becausenoonecangocontrarytothewaynaturehasinclinedhim,andbecause,havingalwaysprosperedinpursuingapar-ticularmethod,hewillnotbepersuadedtodepartfromit.
.
.
.
Ifhewereabletoadapthisnaturetochangingcircumstances,however,hisfortuneswouldnotchange.
—NicoloMachiavelli,ThePrinceAKindWordforTheoryX:OrWhySoManyNewfangledManagementTechniquesQuicklyFailMichaelP.
BobicEmmanuelCollegeWilliamEricDavisCommunityCollegeSouthernNevadaDOI:10.
1093/jopart/mug022JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory,Vol.
13,no.
3,pp.
239–2642003JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory,Inc.
ARTICLESWethankDr.
BerylRadinandtheanonymousreviewers,whosecontributionsgreatlyimprovedthisdraft.
WewouldalsoliketothankDr.
BobCunningham(UniversityofTennesseeatKnoxville),MikeBerheide(BereaCollege),andBobBerman(MarshallUniversity)fortheirsupportandinspiration.
Allerrorsaresolelythoseoftheauthors.
Ifmanisnotwhatconventionalorganizationaltheoryassumeshimtobe,thenmuchoftheorganizationplanningcarriedonwithintheframeworkofthattheoryisnothingmorethanagameoflogic.
—DouglasMcGregor,quotedinWarrenBennis,EdgarH.
Schein,andCarolineMcGregor,DouglasMcGregor,Revisited:ManagingtheHumanSideofEnterpriseIn1960,DouglasMcGregorpublishedTheHumanSideofEnterprise(THSE),funda-mentallyalteringthecourseofmanagementtheory.
McGregor'sperspectivewasthatmanagementwasmorethansimplygivingordersandcoercingobedience;itwasacarefulbalancingoftheneedsoftheorganizationwiththeneedsofindividuals(McGregor1960,53–55;Bennis,Heil,andStephens2000,87).
HedenedtheseindividualneedsthroughpsychologistAbrahamMaslow'shierarchyofneeds(Bennis,Heil,andStephens2000,129).
AtthetimeofMcGregor'swritings,socialscientistswerendingagreatdealofsupportforMaslow'sarguments(McGregor1960,36).
Byapplyingtheideaofahierarchyofneedstotheworkenvironmentofthemid-andlate1950s,McGregorofferedanewtheoryofman-agementthatpromisedtounlockthecreativepotentialoftheAmericanworkforceandbringaboutaneweraofmanagementtheoryandpractice.
Intheforty-threeyearssincethepublicationofTHSE,threecoreelementsofMc-Gregor'stheoryhaveundergonesubstantialerosion.
First,manyworkerstodayndthem-selvesinanenvironmentthatinspiresneithersatisfactionnorjobloyalty(Bennis,Heil,andStephens2000,12);second,Maslow'shierarchyofneedstheoryhasmorecriticsthansup-porters;and,nally,researchonhumanmotivationnolongerdenes"creativity"simplyas"innovation.
"Moreover,evenwithaplethoraofTheoryY–basedmanagementmethodsandapproaches,recentscholarshippointsoutthelackofmeasurableimprovementinjobperformance,satisfaction,orquality(StawandEpstein2000;Fernando2001).
DespitethealmostuniversalbeliefthatTheoryYassumptionsaresuperiortoTheoryXassumptions(McGregor1960,49,245;Tausky1992,4),TheoryXassumptionsstillprevailinthework-place(Collins1996)andsomemanagementstudentsstillpreferthoseassumptionstoTheoryYassumptions(Weinstein2001).
ThisarticlearguesthatTheoryXmethodspersistbecausetheviewofhumannaturefoundinTheoryYisincomplete.
Managerssurmisethat,inmanycases,theviewofhumannatureinTheoryXreectstherealitiesofmodernworkersmoreaccurately.
Thisarticleof-fersatheoreticaljusticationforthatintuition.
Todoso,itisrstnecessarytoreviewthehistoricalcontextinwhichMcGregordevelopedTheoryY.
ThathistorywillexplainwhyTheoryY'sviewofhumannatureisincomplete.
Giventhefundamentalchangesinourun-derstandingofpersonalityandmotivationtheoryandthedramaticchangesintheeconomy,itistimetoreevaluateMcGregor'stheory.
THEFOUNDATIONOFTHEORYYTheWorkEnvironmentMcGregor'sresearchoccurredfromthemid-1930suntilthemid-1950s.
TheGreatDepres-sion,WorldWarII,andthecoldwarrepresentedanexceptionaltimeinAmericaneconomichistory,atimeinwhichmanynewemployeesenteredtheworkforceastheUnitedStatesde-mobilizedandscaleddownitsstandingarmy(FaulknerandKepner1950;Bailynetal.
240JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory1981,873).
Soldiersreturnedtothehomefronttoseekjobs,housing,andthelike.
More-over,themid-1950sbroughtatremendousgrowthofindustry,theinterstatehighwaysys-tem,andasubstantialriseinthenumberofmiddle-classfamilies(Bailynetal.
1981).
WithastrongeconomyandsuchnewbenetsasSocialSecurity,theGIBill,andotherentitlementprograms,mostAmericanssettledintoregularworkpatternsthattheyantici-patedwouldpersistwellintothefuture(Whyte1956,129;Manchester1974,527–28,708).
Bythelate1950s,itwascommonlybelievedthataworkerwouldworkforthesamermformanyyearsfollowingarelativelystableandclearcareerpathuntilretirement(McGregor1960,186;Whyte1956;HelmichandBrown1972;Mihal,Sorce,andComte1984).
Thiswasaworkenvironmentinwhichemploymentwasstable,careerpathswerewell-dened,andemployeesfollowedcertainlifepatternsinwhichbasicneedsforshelterandthelikewouldbemetforaverylongtime(McGregor1960,186;Gabor2000,166).
McGregorwroteTHSEin1960afteralmostthreedecadesofinvestigationintowork-ingconditionsandworkers'attitudestowardtheirjobs(McGregor1960;Gabor2000,164).
Hewasfascinatedbytheideaofmotivation—thatspecialsomethinginapersonthatdriveshimorhertoworkhard,toperformoftenroutineorthanklesstaskswithenergyandenthu-siasm.
Hewantedtoknowwhatmotivatedapersonandwhatmanagersorsupervisorscoulddotoencouragethatmotivation.
Moreimportantly,McGregorwantedtoknowwhy,inaworldinwhichnancialandretirementneedsweremetsoeffectively,somanyworkersweredissatisedwiththeirjobs(McGregor1960,22–24,54).
TheanswerforMcGregorseemedtorestinthedegreeofcontrolorautonomyasub-ordinatewasgrantedoverhisorherworkenvironment(1960,28,29,110–12;1967,61andthefollowingpages)(althoughtobeprecise,the1960editionofTHSEdoesnotmen-tionanyfemalemanagersorlineemployees).
McGregorbelievedthatthemoreautonomyandresponsibilityworkershad,themorelikelytheyweretobemotivatedintheirjobs(1960,36–40;inBennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,52–53;1967,11).
McGregorbelievedthatmotivationgrewoutoftheinherenthumandrivetosatisfyneeds,buthisideasabouthowmotivationandneedswerelinkedevolvedthroughouthisca-reer.
Hisearlywritingsstressextrinsicrewardssuchaspayandbenets(Bennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,43;1967,10–11);however,hesoonbegantofocusonintrinsicorinternalmotivationsforbehavior.
McGregoroftendrewontheworksofChrisArgyris,FrederickHerzberg,andotherswhobelievedthatmanager-subordinaterelationshipsshouldbeun-derstoodassocialconstructsorcomplexroleinteractions(1960,32,55,173,186–88;1967,76).
BythetimeMcGregorbeganworkonTHSE,hehadencounteredtheworkofAbrahamMaslow.
Maslow'sworknotonlysupportedMcGregor'sownideasaboutahierarchyofmotivation(McGregorinBennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,22,40,44),itprovidedastrongertheoreticalfoundationforMcGregor'swork(1960,35–37,67;1967,75;McGre-gorinBennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,43,52–135).
1BobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX2411McGregorrelieduponanumberoftheories,includingsocialconstructivism,toexplainthemanager-subordinaterelationshipanditspathologies.
However,bothinternalandexternalevidencesupportthecentralimportanceofMaslow'shierarchytoMcGregor'snewtheoryofmanagement.
McGregorstatesinTHSEthatMaslow'shierarchywascentraltohiswork(1960,36–40).
Henotedthatitskeyconcepts(particularlyself-actualization)were"centraltomyviewofappropriatemanagerialstrategy"(1967,75)andcriticaltothesuccessoftheScanlonPlan(quotedinBennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,135).
Heoftenreferredtofulllinghigher-orderneedsaspartofmanagement(1960,37,67;1967,75–77;McGregorinBennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,43,52,135).
Scholarsalmostexclu-sivelyinterpretMcGregorintermsofMaslow'shierarchyaswell.
Twenty-eightofthethirty-fourmostpopularman-agementtextsdiscussedMcGregor'sTheoryXandTheoryYdirectlyinrelationtoMaslow.
Noneofthetwenty-fourtextsthatdiscussedsocialconstructtheorymentionedMcGregor.
Maslow'sNeedsModelMaslowbelievedthathumanbeingshaveveascendingtypesofneedsthattheyseektosat-isfyorfulllwithindifferentenvironments(1999,39–40).
AtthebottomofMaslow'shi-erarchyofhumanneedsarethebasicphysiologicalneedsforfood,shelter,andclothing(gure1).
Theseneedsmustbe"reasonablysatised"beforeapersonwillturnhisorherat-tentiontothenexthigherorderneed,though"'reasonablesatisfaction'isculturallydened.
Asubsistencelevelofsatisfactionofphysicalneedsinoursocietytodayisfarhigherthanthat,say,inthevillagesofIndia"(McGregor1967,11).
Oncephysiologicalneedsaremet(andthereisacertainassurancethattheywillcontinuetobemet),apersonturnshisorherattentiontowardtheneedforsafetyfromdanger.
McGregor'sobservationsabouttheworkenvironmentledhimtoconcludethatmostemployeeswerenotprimarilyconcernedabouteitherphysiologicalorsafetyneeds.
Thecultureandstructureoftheworkplaceinthemid-twentiethcenturygenerallyseemedtosatisfysuchneeds(1960).
Onceapersonfeelsreasonablycertainthatheorshecanobtainnecessaryfoodandshelter,andthattheseitemswillnotbetakenaway,thatpersonwillthenturnhisorherat-tentiontowardsocialrelationships.
Humanshaveaneedforasenseofbelongingandtosharepersonalexperienceswithotherhumanbeings,butthatneedispursuedonlywhenlowerlevelneedshavebeenmet.
Beyondtheneedforbelongingaretwoformsof"esteem"needs.
Therstistheneedforrespectfromone'speers,orstatus,whichMaslowcalleda"lower"formofesteem(1998,23;Rowan1998).
Thehigherformisself-esteem,asenseofcondenceandautonomyinwhichapersonmaynotcareasmuchabouttherespectoresteeminwhichothersholdhimorher(withoutbeingself-centered).
Atthetopofthehierarchyofneedsisself-actualization.
Self-actualizationneedsarecomplicated,buttheyencompasstheideaofreachingone'sfullestpotential,doingworkthatisimportantandchallengingandthatprovidesasenseofcreativesatisfaction:Wemaydene[self-actualization]asanepisode,oraspurtinwhichthepowersofthepersoncometogetherinaparticularlyefcientandintenselyenjoyableway,andinwhichheis242JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheoryFigure1Maslow'sHeirarchyofNeeds.
ImageprovidedbyChrisJarvis,oftheBusinessOnLineArchives,BrunellUniversity.
UsedbyPermission.
http://sol.
brunel.
ac.
uk/~jarvis/bola/motivation/masmodel.
htmlmoreintegratedandlesssplit,moreopenforexperience,moreidiosyncratic,moreperfectlyexpressiveorspontaneous,orfullyfunctioning,morecreative,morehumorous,moreego-transcending.
Maslow1999,106[emphasisadded])Innovativenesswas,forMaslow,theessentialcharacteristicofaself-actualizedperson(1998,229–30).
Self-actualizedpeoplewerefarmorelikelytobecreative,tondnewso-lutionstoproblemsthanpeopleatlowerlevelsofthehierarchy(Maslow1970,170–71).
Self-actualization,then,representedthepeakofone'screativepotential.
ThispointwasnotlostonMcGregor.
TheConceptofCreativityMcGregorbelievedthattherealproblemwithmodernemploymentwasthatitstiedhumancreativity(1960,55–56;1966,55–56),whichinturnhinderedmotivation.
CentraltoMc-Gregor's(andMaslow's)understandingofmotivationandbehaviorisanassumptionthatallpeopleareinherentlycreativeandinnovative:Thekeyquestionisn't"whatfosterscreativity"butitiswhyinGod'snameisn'teveryonecreativeWherewasthehumanpotentiallostHowwasitcrippledIthinkthereforeagoodquestionmightbenotwhydopeoplecreateButwhydopeoplenotcreateorinnovate(Maslow1998,13[emphasisadded])ForMaslow,creativitymeanstheabilitytoinnovate.
Thisisdemonstratedinhisdenitionofself-actualization.
Onecanclearlyseethelinkbetweencreativityandinnovationwithinself-actualizersthroughoutMaslow'sworks:Self-actualizersare"lessbound,lessenculturated.
Theyaremorespontaneous,morenatural,morehuman"(1970,171).
Enlightenedmanagementassumeseveryonepreferstobeaprimemoverratherthanapassivehelper(1998,29).
2"WelearnfromtheT-Groupexperiencesthatcreativenessiscorrelatedwiththeabilitytowithstandthelackofstructure,thelackoffuture,thelackofpredict-ability,ofcontrol,thetoleranceforambiguity,forplanlessness"(1998,220).
"You'llnoticethatIstressagreatdealimprovisingandinspiration.
.
.
.
"(2000,189).
Maslowbelievedthatcreativityandinnovationwereinterchangeableterms,thatacreativepersonseekstochangethings,tochallengeexistingparadigms,tondnewwaysofdoingthings(1999,200–202,forexample).
3DouglasMcGregoralsoassumedthatcreativityandinnovationwereindistinguishable.
Heclaimedthat"thecapacitytoexercisearelativelyhighdegreeofimagination,ingenuityandcreativity"tosolveproblemsiswidelydistributedamongpeople(1960,48).
McGregor'sexamplesinTHSEofgoodorsuccessfulapplicationsofTheoryYmethodsgenerallyincludeexamplesofmanagerswhoinnovatebyrecreatingBobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX2432Notetheuseofrhetoricalterminology:passive.
3Maslowdidwrestlewiththeconceptofadaptivecreativity(1999,152–155),butthebulkofhisworkshowsapreferencefor,andperhapstacitapprovalof,innovativecreativity.
theirjobsorbyredeningaproblem.
Moreover,throughoutthetext,McGregor'semphasisisonbreakingcurrentparadigms,seeingproblemsfromdifferentperspectives,andon"rela-tionships,ratherthancontrol"(1960,121).
McGregorsharedMaslow'sbeliefthateveryonehadthepotentialtobeself-actualized.
Thequestionremained:Whyweren'ttheyNeedsandWork:TheoryXandTheoryYForMcGregor,Maslowofferedanewinterpretationoftheworkenvironment,oneinwhichmanagersworkedtofacilitatethedevelopmentofeachemployee'spotentialbyorganizingworktomeettheneedsmostworkerswerepresumablyseekingtosatisfy:theneedsforesteemandself-actualization(McGregor1960,41–42).
McGregorbelievedthatmostmanagers'theoriesofmotivationandmostworktaskswerenotorderedtoallowworkerstosatisfythesehigher-levelneeds(1967,76).
Peoplewerenotencouragedtobeinnovative.
McGregorbelievedthatthekeytounderstandingthesemanagementfailureswastounderstandhowtheassumptionsormentalmodelsthatmanagersusedtointerpretworkers'actionsandbehaviorsledthemintospeciccounterproductivebehaviors(1960,33).
Mc-Gregorbelievedthattheaveragemanageroperatedunderasetofassumptionshecalledclassicalmanagement,orTheoryXmanagement:Peopledislikeworkandwillavoiditifpossible.
Mostpeoplemustbe"coerced,controlled,directed,andthreatenedwithpunish-menttogetthem"towork(McGregor1960,33–34).
Theaveragehumanpreferstobedirected,wishestoavoidresponsibility,haslittleambition,andwantssecurity.
Theseassumptionsleadmanagerstodenyemployeescontrolovertheirworkenvironmentandtousemethodsofinuencethataredirectandharsh.
TheoryXmanagersemphasizethechainofcommand,reward-or-punishmentmotivationaltechniques,andclosesupervisionofsubordinatebehavioralongrigidlydenedbehavioralparameters.
McGregorarguedthatclassicalmanagementpracticewashinderingratherthanhelpingorganizationssolveprob-lems,meetgoals,anddeliveraproductinareliablemanner(1960,62–64;1966,29–30).
ATheoryXmanagementstyleassumesthatpeopleareinterestedinsafetyandphysi-ologicalneedsratherthanhigherneeds,butMcGregorbelievedthatworkersinthe1950shadmovedbeyondlowerneedsandwereseekingtomeetsocialoresteemneeds(1960,40).
Basedonthatconclusion,heproposedanewsetofmanagerialassumptions,whichhecalledTheoryYmanagement:Theexpenditureofphysicalandmentaleffortinworkisasnaturalasplayorrest.
Externalcontrolandthethreatofpunishmentarenottheonlymeansforbringingaboutefforttowardorganizationalobjectives.
Manwillexerciseself-directionandself-controlintheserviceofobjectivestowhichheiscommitted.
Commitmenttoobjectivesisafunctionoftherewardsassociatedwiththeirachievement.
Theaveragehumanbeinglearns,underproperconditions,notonlytoacceptresponsibilitybuttoseekit.
244JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheoryThecapacitytoexercisearelativelyhighdegreeofimagination,ingenuity,andcreativityinthesolutionoforganizationalproblemsiswidely,notnarrowly,dis-tributedinthepopulation.
Undertheconditionsofmodernindustriallife,theintellectualpotentialitiesoftheaveragehumanbeingareonlypartiallyutilized(1960,47–48).
TheoryYmanagersassumethatthepeopletheysuperviseareascommittedtoworkandascapableofndingsolutionstowork-relatedproblemsastheyarethemselves(McGregor1960,11–12).
TheoryYmanagersalsoassumethatpeopleinherentlyprefertoworkratherthannottowork.
Asaresult,theytendtopushresponsibilityforworkdownthechainofcommand.
Theygrantemployeesautonomywithintheirareasofaccountability,andtheystructureworksothatsubordinateshaveampleopportunitytoidentifyproblemsandndcreativesolutionstothem.
TheoryYmanagersattempttostructuretheworkenvironmentsothatemployeegoalscoincidewithorganizationalgoals,resultingpresumablyingreatercre-ativityandproductivity(McGregor1967,77).
ChoosingtoBeCreativeManagers,accordingtoMcGregor,mustchoosebetweentheassumptionsofTheoryXandTheoryYmanagement(1967;Strauss1968,121).
Oncetheymakethatchoice,theirman-agementbehaviorwillchangeaswell.
Insteadofdirectivemanagement,amanagerwhochoosesaTheoryYorientationwillalsochoosestrategiesthataremorecollegialandmorelikelytotransferpowertosubordinatesoratleastcreatereciprocalrelationshipsbetweensubordinatesandthemselves(McGregor1960,47–48;1967,15).
ThisisacorecomponentofMcGregor'sapproachtomanagement:Managerswantemployeestoperformwell,and,giventherightenvironmentandincentives,employeesalsowanttoperformwell.
Whatismissingistherightmind-setor"cosmology"throughwhichmanagersunderstandtheirsub-ordinates(Strauss1968,121;McGregor1967,4–5,79–80).
CRITIQUESOFMCGREGOR'SMODELMcGregor'smodelofmotivationandmanagementcanbesaidtohaverevolutionizedtheeldofmanagementtheory.
Groundedinpsychologicaltheory,acleardenitionofcreativ-ity,andmanyyearsofobservations,McGregor'smodelispersuasive,intuitivelyappealing,andattractivelysimple.
Althoughtheassumptionsunderlyingthemodelseemtohaveen-duredoverthelastfourdecades,manyelementsofthismodelhaveinfactbeensubjectedtoseriouscriticism.
ThesecriticismsareimportantenoughtorequireareevaluationofthefoundationsonwhichMcGregorbuilthistheory.
Inthissection,wewillreexaminethekeycomponentsofMcGregor'smodel:themodernworkenvironment,Maslow'shierarchy,assumptionsofcreativity,whetherornotmanagerscanchoosedifferentmanagementas-sumptions,andwhetherthatchoicealtersamanager'sbehavior.
TheNatureofWorkPerhapsthemostimportantissueinassessingMcGregor'sworksincethepublicationofTHSEisthedramaticchangesintheworkenvironment.
Theoriesofworkmustaccountforsuchchanges,asMcGregorhimselfnotedin1960:"WelivetodayinaworldwhichonlyBobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX245faintlyresemblesthatofahalfcenturyago.
Thestandardofliving,thelevelofeducation,andthepoliticalcomplexionoftheUnitedStatesprofoundlyaffectboththepossibilitiesandlimitationsoforganizationalbehavior"(17).
TherearefouraspectsofworkinAmericathathavechanged:employees'careerpaths,employees'senseofjobsecurity,employees'jobsatisfaction,andthedegreetowhichemployeesprefersecuritytocreativity.
CareerPathChangesWhileemployeesinthe1960scouldanticipatelongcareersfollowingagivencareerpathunderoneortwoemployers,today'sworkersfaceafundamentallydifferentenvironment.
Employeestodayexpecttoworkforbetweenfourandsevendifferentemployersintheirca-reers(HartandAssociates1998).
InarecentShellCorporationsurvey,morethan52percentofthe1,100employedadultssurveyedexpectedtoholdveormorejobsintheircareers(HartandAssociates1998).
Theyoungestemployeesinthesample(thosewhowereincol-lege)hadalreadyhadmorejobs(ameanofve)thanmostretireesinthesamplehadheldinalifetimeofwork(anaverageoffourandahalf)(HartandAssociates1998).
Employ-eestodayengageina"constant"searchfornewjobs,eveniftheyaresatisedwiththeircur-rentpositions;they"remainpluggedintothejobmarket—eveniftheyarenotactivelysearchingforajob"(PRNNewsService[PRN]2001).
ThisclearlycontrastswithMcGre-gor'sassumptionthatcareerswouldexistlargelywithinthesamecompany:"Withthemod-ernemphasisoncareeremploymentandpromotionfromwithin,managementmustpaymorethancasualattentiontoitsrecruitmentpractices"(1960,186).
Workersnolongerexpressloyaltytotheirplaceofemployment,andtheybelievethattheiremployershavelittleloyaltytothem(Camp1995;Ciulla2000).
OftheShellsurveyrespondents,65percentbelievedemployeeswere"onlyslightly"loyalor"nottooloyal"totheiremployers.
Forty-eightpercentoftheShellrespondentsindicatedthatiftheiremployerwantedtotransferthemtoadifferentcity,theywouldquitandndanotherjobinthesamecity.
Thesurveyalsofoundthatmostemployeesbelievethatcompaniesarenotveryloyaltotheiremployees:fully75percentofrespondentssaidcompanieswereeithersomewhatloyalornotloyalatall.
Camp(1995)foundthatdecreasedloyaltytoacompany(inthecaseofCamp'sstudy,decreasedloyaltyamongprisonworkers)correlatedstronglywithhighturnoveramongemployees.
Heconcludedthatemployeesbegintoseekotheroccu-pationsasinstitutionalcommitmentdeclines.
JobSecurityWorkersalsodemonstratefarlesssecurityintheirprospectsforcontinuedemploymentatanygivencompanythantheydidinthe1960sand1970s(Schmidt1999;Valetta1999).
UsingdatafromtheGeneralSocialSurvey(1976–1997)andtheDisplacedWorkers'Sur-vey(1982–1996),Schmidt(1999)foundthatduringthe1990sworkersweremorefearfulofjoblossandwerelessoptimisticaboutthepossibilityofndingnewemploymentthantheyhadbeenintwentyyears.
SchmidtandSvorny(1998)foundthatthedeclineinasenseofjobsecuritycorrelatedwitharisein"involuntaryseparations"asopposedtoemployeesquitting.
StuartWalesh(1997)arguedthatthepointatwhich"jobsecuritydie[d]"wasinearly1996whenAT&Tannouncedasubstantialreductioninforce,layingoffmorethanftythousandemployees.
Subsequenttothataction,othercompaniesbegantoreducetheirworkforcesaswell.
TheresultwasperceivedlossofjobsecurityamongAmericanworkers.
Waleshconcludeshisarticlewithaseriesofrecommendationstoprepareworkersfortheeventuallossofajob.
246JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheoryThoserecommendations,interestinglyenough,includemakingcontactsinothercom-panies.
Inotherwords,Waleshinadvertentlylinkedthelossofjobsecuritytoastrategywhichinvolveddecreasedloyaltytoone'scompanybasedontheassumptionthatthecom-panywouldnolongerbeloyaltoemployees(forasimilaranalysisofthatAT&Tlayoff,seeCiulla2000,153).
Theimpactoflesserjobsecurityandlesserjobloyaltyhasalteredem-ployeeperceptionsaboutwhattheyseekfromjobs.
Forinstance,theHartsurveyindicatedthatworkerspreferredjobsecurityto"ndingtheidealjob"byamarginofthreetoone.
Whenaskedtochoosewhethertheypreferredhavingajobthatprovidedgreaternancialsuccessbutalsohadgreaterrisksorajobwithfewermonetaryrewardsandfewerrisks,58percentchosethestablejobwithfewerrisks.
Onlywhenriskwasnotatissuedid54percentindicatethattheypreferredajobthatal-lowedthemtousetheirtalentsand"makeadifference"asopposedtoajobthatprovidedagoodincomeandgoodbenets(HartandAssociates1998).
Ciulla(2000,232)foundasim-ilarpattern,particularlyamongyoungeremployees.
Asemployeesperceivetheworkplacetobelesssecure,theyconsequentlydesireandvaluesecurity(Schmidt1999).
Thelossofjobsecurityrepresentsaseriouschallengetomanagers(BarrowsandWes-son2000;Ciulla2000,231).
Ifemployeesbelievecorporationswillnotbeloyaltothemandtheyseenoreasontobeloyaltocompanies,thenmanagerscannotreadilylinkindividualneedstothoseoftheircompanies.
Theproblemisparticularlyacutebecausethelossofjobsecurityiscoupledwithalossofloyalty.
BarrowsandWesson(2000)havesummarizedlit-eraturesuggestingthatsurvivorsoflayoffsoftenrespondwithincreasednegativeattitudestowardwork.
McGregorarguedthatmanagement'sgoalwastoassistemployeesinalign-ingtheirpersonalgoalswiththoseoftheiremployer(1960,55;inBennis,Heil,andStephens2000,14),butemployeesintoday'sworkenvironmentincreasinglydisbelievethatsuchacongruenceofinterestsisrealistic(Walesh1997;YankelovichandImmerwahr1986).
JobSatisfactionAmericansbecameincreasinglydissatisedwiththeirjobsthroughoutthe1990s.
Accord-ingtoaConferenceBoardsurveyofvethousandhouseholdsconductedbyNFOResearchIncorporated,therewasan8percentdeclineinoveralljobsatisfactionamongU.
S.
workersinthelasthalfofthedecade(58.
6percentwere"satised"or"verysatised"in1995,andonly50.
7percentweresatisedorverysatisedin2000;ConferenceBoard[CB]2000).
AmericansaremoredissatisedwiththeirworkthanareemployeesinDenmark,thePhilip-pines,Cyprus,Switzerland,Israel,Spain,orTheNetherlands(Oswald1999).
Oswaldfoundthatonly49percentofAmericanswere"satisedorcompletelysatised"withtheirjobs.
Dissatisfactionwithcurrentemploymentishighestamongminoritiesandwomen(UnitedPressInternational[UPI]2001;Schmidt1999),whilehigherexecutivesandmoreseniorpersonneldemonstratethehighestlevelsofsatisfaction(Hamermesh2001;Traut,Larsen,andFeimer2000).
Recentsurveysofnewsroomemployees(UPI2001),nursingprofessionals,doctors,publicservants(BarrowsandWesson2000),andpublicschoolteach-ers(NationalCenterforEducationStatistics1997)revealsubstantialdeclinesinjobsatis-factionineacheld.
However,eachstudyalsopointsoutthatdissatisfactionvariesgreatlydependingonthegender,tenure,position,andsalaryofrespondents.
Theaspectofworkemployeesfoundmostdissatisfyingwasthepayandbenets(HartandAssociates1998;CB2000),followedbyadvancementopportunities(CB2000;BarrowsandWesson2000),whiledissatisfactionwiththenatureofthejobitselfrankedalmostlastBobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX247asanoption.
However,notallsurveysndhighlevelsofdissatisfactionwithwork.
TheConferenceBoardsurvey,forexample,foundthatwhileoveralljobsatisfactionhadde-clinedfrom1995to2000,morerespondentsin2000feltsecureabouttheirjobsthandidre-spondentsin1995.
ThePRNNewsServicesurveyfoundthatamongitsrespondents,nearly70percentrespondedthattheyweresatisedorverysatisedwiththeirjobs.
FewworkersexpectedtheirjobstooffersatisfactionofwhatMaslowwouldcalles-teemorself-actualizingneeds(HartandAssociates1998;PRN2001).
Thedifferenceinneedssatisfactionalsoexistswhencomparingpublicmanagerstoprivate-sectormanagers(LanandRainey1992;Crewson1997).
Thesendingssupportanearlierstudyofwhatem-ployeeswantfromjobsconductedbyBorisBlai(1964).
Blaifoundthatemployeeswork-inginblue-collaroccupationswerefarmoreconcernedaboutlower-levelneeds,whileupper-level,white-collaremployeessoughttosatisfyhigher-orderneedsfromtheirwork.
Becausetheworkenvironmenttodayislessstableandmoreuncertainthanitwasdur-ingthe1950sand1960s,onecouldsimplystatethatthisenvironmentmakesTheoryXmanagementmoreprevalent(Collins1996)andperhapsassuccessfulasTheoryYman-agement.
Afterall,ifMcGregorarguedthattheworkenvironmentofhisdayoffered(orshouldhaveoffered)peoplegreaterchancestofulllthemselves(1960,186),areturntoamoreuncertaintimeshouldcreatetheoppositeenvironment.
Buttheproblemismuchmorecomplexthanthat:Theremaynotbeaclearlinkbetweenworkperformanceandneedssat-isfaction(KirtonandHammond1980).
Recentscholarshiphasraisedseriousquestionsaboutthehierarchyofneedsasatheoreticalandempiricalconcept.
Maslow'sCriticsGiventheimportanceMcGregorplacedonMaslow'shierarchyofneeds,anycriticismoftheMaslowmodelmustbetakenquiteseriously.
4Sinceitsappearance,Maslow'shierarchyhasbeenthesubjectofcontroversy,withnumerouscriticschallengingitstheoreticalandempiricalfoundations(Heylighen1992;Rowan1998;Pearson1999).
Whatfollowsisabriefsummaryofthemoreimportantworkschallengingthehierarchyofneedsmodel.
TheoreticalProblemsMaslowdevelopedhismodelofneedslargelythroughaseriesoflecturesandwritings,andinnooneplacepresentedformaldiscussionofhistheory(Heylighen1992).
Moreover,indevelopinghistheoryofneeds,Maslowusedpersonalinterviewsandreadbiographiesofgreatindividuals.
Heylighen(1992)pointedoutthatMaslowhimselfwasoftenambiguousaboutthemethodsusedtoselectsubjectsandthecriteriausedtoevaluatebiographies.
Maslowconcededthatheconsciouslyrejectedthecanonsofscienticstudy(Goble1970),buthejustiedthedepartureonthegroundsthat"itispreferabletocarryoutmethodolog-icallyprimitiveresearchaboutfundamentalproblems.
.
.
ratherthanrestrictoneselftotech-nicallysophisticatedobservationsaboutminorissues"(Heylighen1992,45).
ScholarshavepointedoutthatMaslowfailedtoconsiderkeyelementsofhumanmo-tivation.
Forexample,Maslowoverlookedsuchmotivatorsaspower-seekingandgroupapproval(Groves,Kahalas,andErickson1975;RabinowandDreyfuss1983;Pearson1994,248JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory4ItcouldbearguedthatTheoryYfailedpreciselybecausescholarsimplementeditbystressingthehierarchyofneedsratherthanotherpossibletheoriesinMcGregor'swork.
However,itcanbeshownthatthesealternativetheo-ries(socialconstructivism,roleinterpretation,andthelike)increaseinformationcostsformanagersandthusincreasetheoddsofaTheoryXapproachaswell.
Wearecurrentlydevelopingthisargument.
1999).
Aron(1977)fearedthatthehierarchy'samoralstructurewouldleadtoadisregardforethicalandpoliticalconsiderationsotherthantheself,afearMaslowshared(Rowan1999).
MostcriticsalsopointtothefundamentallyWesternandspecicallyAmericanbiasfoundinMaslow'sconceptofself-actualization.
Pearson(1999)arguedthatMaslow'scon-ceptofself-actualizationwasbasedonauniquelyAmericanconceptoftheindividual.
Mook(1987)arguedthatthisconceptoftheindividualasthehighestgoodcontradictedmanycul-turalconstructsinnon-Westernsocieties.
RelatedtothisistheundercurrentofelitisminMaslow'swritings(Buss1979).
ShawandColimore(1988)arguedthatMaslow'sdiscus-sionofself-actualizedindividualswasactuallyavalidationofsocialandpoliticalelitesandimpliedacertainsocialDarwinism.
Asaresultofthesecriticisms,somescholarswonderifthehierarchyisitselfaninvalidconcept(SchottandMaslow1992).
EmpiricalProblemsEmpiricalcriticismsarejustasnumerousastheattacksonthetheoreticalbasis.
ThemostcommoncriticismsofMaslow'shierarchyarethatithasneverbeenvalidatedempirically(WahbaandBridwell1976),5thatitishardtoreproduce(Heylighen1992),andthateffortstouseorvalidatetheconstructoftenrelyonredenitionorrestructuringofMaslow'scat-egories.
Despitethecreationofavalidindexofself-actualization(Shostram1965)andademonstrationofthescalabilityofMaslow'sneedshierarchy(Porat1977),theperform-anceofMaslow'shierarchyinempiricalsettingsisnotimpressive.
Mook(1987),forexample,studiedprisonersinNazideathcamps.
ContrarytoMaslow'sexpectations,thesepeople,whendeprivedofbasicphysicalandsafetyneeds,stilldemon-stratedapursuitofhigherneedsthroughcompassionforfellowprisonersandaltruism.
Hey-lighen(1992)summarizedasubstantialbodyofliteraturequestioningtheorderofneedsoutlinedinthehierarchy.
Inparticular,scholarlystudiesfailtoconrmatwhatpointtheneedforloveemerges.
Heylighen(1992)alsoarguedthatMaslow'sconceptofself-actualizationwasconfus-ingandthatatheorybasedonthegraticationofneedswasnotenoughtoexplainhumanbehavior.
Byredeningneedsandtheirsatisfaction,HeylighenwasabletointegrateMaslow'sworkintomorerecentpersonalitytheory.
Kiel(1999)rejectedthenotionthatself-actualizationwasthepinnacleofhumandevelopment;shearguedthatself-actualizationwasitselfcomposedofmultiplelayersandthatthehierarchyofneedsshouldhavebeena"ladderofdevelopment.
"Rowan(1998)redenedbothself-actualizationandesteemneedsso"that[Maslow's]theory.
.
.
tsinmuchbetter"withcurrentresearchintopersonalityanddevelopment(84).
NotethatRowandidnotintendtoreviseorrejectMaslowbutconcededintwoseparateplacesthat,withoutrevisions,Maslow'stheorywascontradictedbymorerecentresearch(1998,83,85).
EvenifoneweretosetasidesuchcriticismsofMaslow'smodel,McGregor'suseofthehierarchyofneedswouldstillpresentsubstantialproblems.
TherstproblemisthatMaslow'smodelwasdesignedtoexplainhumanmotivation,notnecessarilyemployeemo-tivation(1998;2000,251andthefollowingpages).
Nomatterhowstimulatingone'sjobmaybe,ifthebankthreatensforeclosureandseizureofone'shome,oneisunlikelytoattempttosatisfyhigher-orderneeds.
Alternatively,ifone'sjobisnotparticularlychallengingbutBobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX2495Maddi(1976)arguesthatMaslow'smodelhasneverbeenempiricallycontradicted,buteventhisworkconcedesthatthereislittlevericationofMaslow'smodel.
Asthetextdemonstrates,laterworkshavecontradictedcompo-nentsofMaslow'sideas.
allowsonetopursuedesiredhobbiesortomeettheneedsofhome,thenapersonmayseektosatisfyhigher-orderneeds.
McGregorexplainsitthus:"Unlessthejobitselfcanbesat-isfying,unlessthereareopportunitiesrightintheworksituationtogetfunoutofworking,wewillnevergetpeopletodirecttheireffortsvoluntarilytowardsorganizationalgoals.
.
.
.
Workbecomesakindofpunishment[people]undergoinordertogetthosethingstheyre-quireforneedsatisfactionaftertheyleavethejob"(1967,47).
Second,onlyafewpeopleinanypopulationarelikelytoreachthestagesofesteemorself-actualization(Hansen2000),andtherearenotthatmanyjobsintheeconomythatre-alisticallyprovidetheopportunityforemployeestoself-actualize(Lethbridge1986,90).
Thisisnotatrivialpoint:McGregor,citingworkbyHerzbergandothers,claimed"oppor-tunitiesfor'self-actualization'aretheessentialrequirementsofbothjobsatisfactionandhighperformance"(1960,55).
Ifthisisthecase,thensatisfactioninone'sjobisarareeventregardlessofmanagers'assumptions.
McGregorwasconcernedaboutthisproblem(1960,223).
InTheProfessionalManager,heseemstoarguethatthesolutioncanbefoundinhowamanagerstructuresdifferentjobs(McGregor1967,76–77).
Thisisnotatrivialsolution:McGregorarguedthatmanagerscouldhaveaprofoundimpactontheirsubordinates'sensesofselfandself-worth(1967,72–75).
Unfortunately,McGregorpassedonbeforehecoulddeveloptheseideasmorefully.
Third,ifMaslow'shierarchyisculturallybiased,thenMcGregor'smodelislimitedaswell.
IfoneconcedesthatMaslow'smodelisWesterninoutlookandthatheneverin-tendedanybroaderapplication,thenasAmerica'spopulationdiversies,anyMaslowiantheoryofmanagementwillbecomelessandlessrelevant.
Itisprojectedthatby2050,themajorityofU.
S.
citizenswillbeofnon-Westerndescent,meaningthatMcGregor'stheorywouldapplytolessthan8percentofthecountry'spopulation(assumingthatcurrentU.
S.
immigrantsorsucceedinggenerationsofimmigrantsdonotadopttraditionalAmericanval-ues).
Asthisdemographictrendcontinues,McGregor'sideaswouldndevenlessvalidity.
Finally,Rowan(1999)arguesthatpeoplemovingdownthehierarchyofneedsresponddifferentlythanthosemovingup.
Forexample,apersonwhohassatisedhisorheresteemneedswillcontinuetobeself-motivatedevenwhenfacingproblemswithlower-orderneedssatisfaction(Rowan1999,129–30).
Alternatively,anotherpersoninsimilarcircumstancesmaybeoverlyanxiousaboutthepossibilityofthelossofesteem-needssatisfactionanden-gageinunproductivebehavior.
6Simplybecausetheworkenvironmentofthe1990sandintothetwenty-rstcenturyismoreuncertainthanthatofthe1960s,thisdoesnotimplythatworkerswillthenrequireamoreorlessdirectivestyleofmanagementinordertogeneratehighperformance.
IthasbeenarguedthatbecauseMaslowconsciouslyrejectedstandardscienticmeth-odsindevelopinghistheory,anycriticismsbasedonscienticndingsarereductionist.
Thisargumentisdisingenuousontwolevels.
First,itmisinterpretsMaslow'sintent.
Maslowalwaysintendedhisworktobescienticor,atleast,subsequentlysupportedbyempiricalwork(1968,220;1998,70–71),butheknewhewasdealingwithanew,relativelyunex-ploredtopic(Heylighen1992).
Hechoseamethodologythatwas"primitive,"not"unsci-entic"or"metascientic.
"Heanticipatedthatsocialsciencewouldevolvenewmethodswithwhichtoexploreand(hehoped)validatehistheory.
Second,bydenyingthathisworkisscientic,oneneatlysidestepstheveryrealproblemthatscienticevidencesimplydoes250JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory6Rowandoesnotmakethispointinhisarticle,butitislogicallyimpliedbyhisdiscussionandcertainlybycommonexperience.
notconrmMaslow'shypotheses.
EvenifMaslowintendedhismodeltobeaholisticap-proachtohumanmotivation,scienticvericationisatleastapartofholistictheory.
Maslow'scriticsdonotchallengethenotionthatpeoplearemotivatedbyadrivetosat-isfyneeds.
NordotheychallengetheparticularneedsidentiedinMaslow'shierarchy.
CriticsonlydisputeMaslow'sconstructionofthoseneedsintoaspecictypeofhierarchy.
Therearemultiplealternativeconstructsofneedsinadministrationliterature,manyofwhichhaveasubstantialbodyofempiricalsupportandcontradictorchallengeMaslow'scon-struct(Rowan1998).
Withoutthishierarchicalstructure,McGregor'sargumentthatworkersatisfactionandproductivitywillincreasewhenmanagersprovideautonomousandre-sponsibleenvironments(1960,61)issubstantiallyweakened.
Thiswouldhelpexplainnd-ingsthatindicateworkersatisfactionissubstantiallyunrelatedtoproductivity(CaruthandNoe1986;Locke1982)andworkerswhoare"self-actualized"areaslikelytopreferadi-rectivestyleofmanagementastheyaretoprefermoreautonomy(KirtonandHammond1980).
OnemustnotforgetthatMaslow'smodelofhumanmotivationwasmorethananeedshierarchy.
Maslowbelievedthatmotivationorneedssatisfactionwasalsotiedtohumancreativity.
Hebelievedthatallhumanshadthecapacitytobecreative(1998,13)andthatcreativitytookdifferentforms(1968,137).
Maslow(andMcGregor)understoodself-actualizedcreativitytobeinnovative,thatis,toconsistoftheabilitytodevelopnewideasornewsolutionstoproblems(Maslow1968,137;2000,188).
Maslowstatedthattheabil-itytoinnovatewasanessentialcomponentofhumanlife(1998,13;2000,233andthefollowingpages).
McGregorsharedthebeliefthat"thecapacitytoexerciseahighdegreeofimagination"waswidelydispersedinanypopulation(1960,48).
Bothmenpersonallyapproachedproblemsinnovatively.
WarrenBennisoncecom-mentedthatMaslowapproachedproblems"likeaswashbucklingCandide,thatis,withapowerfulinnocencethatisboththreateningandreceptivetowidelyheldbeliefs"(Gabor2000,182).
DouglasMcGregorhadasimilarproblem-solvingapproach(Gabor2000,176).
Bothmenbelievedthatinnovationwasasuperiorformofcreativityandthateverypersonhadthecapacitytobeinnovativeandtoseeproblemsdifferently.
Thefollowingresearchin-dicatesthatcreativityisamuchmorecomplicatedconcept.
CreativityasaMultidimensionalConceptCertainlycreativityinvolvesinnovationorbreakingmolds,butmodernpersonalitytheoristsarguethatcreativitymayalsobereectedinadaptivebehavioraswell.
Thistheory,knownas"requisitediversity,"arguesthatmaladaptivespeciesfailbecausetherearetoofewmem-bersusingvariouscreativemodelsinordertoadapttorapidchangesintheirenvironment.
Bobic,Davis,andCunningham(1999)providedareviewoftherelevantworksdevelopingtheconceptofrequisitediversity.
Socialscientistshaveadaptedtheconceptofrequisitediversitytoarguethatorgani-zationsdominatedbyasingletypeofpersonalityorworkstyleareinferiortoonesthatarebalancedorcontainadiversityofworkstyles(Kirton1989b).
Theprincipleholdsthatthelattergenerallyproduceasuperiorproductorservice.
7MichaelKirtonhasdonesubstantialworkintheeldofrequisitediversityandcreativity,andhisworkcontradictsmuchofBobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX2517Maslowindicatedthatdifferentkindsofmanagementmaybenecessaryindifferentcircumstances.
"TheoryYprinciplesholdprimarilyforgoodconditions,ratherthanforstormyweather"(Maslow1998,xxiii).
McGregor'sresearchindicatesthatpersonality,notcircumstance,determinesstyle.
Maslow's(andMcGregor's)work,asdoBobic,Davis,andCunningham(1999).
Whatfol-lowsisabriefoverviewofKirton'sresearch.
AdaptersandInnovatorsKirtonbelievedthatwhenpeopleconfrontedproblemsorwereaskedtoresolveaconictortask,theyhadcertainhabitualcharacteristicmodesofbehavior(Kirton1989b,5).
Peo-pleeitherreactedbyadaptingtochangedcircumstancesorbyinnovating,ndingdifferentorunorthodoxsolutionstothesenewcircumstances.
"EveryindividualcanbelocatedonacontinuumonwhichthehabitualAdapterandthehabitualInnovatorareattheextremeends"(Kirton1984,11).
Kirton(andothers)createdanindexofcreativityin1976.
Itlocatescreatively"adaptive"peopleatoneendofthescaleandcreatively"innovative"peopleattheotherend.
Kirton'sscale(theKirtonAdaptive-InnovativeInventory,orKAII)measuresrespon-dents'tendencytobeinnovativeoradaptiveintheirworkstyles.
TheKAIIisa33-itemquestionnaireonwhichrespondentsindicatehowdifcultoreasyitisforthemtopresentthemselves"overtime"inspecicways(Kirton1976;KAIIform).
Scalescoresmayrangefrom33(highlyadaptive)to160(highlyinnovative)withameanresponseof96(Kirton1984;Selbyetal.
1993;Rosenfeldetal.
1993).
Laterresearchidentiedthree"modes"orsubstrainsofcreativityidentiedthroughfactoranalysisoftheoriginalKAII(Kirton1978;Taylor1989a).
Thesemodesofcreativityhavebeenlabeledthe"rules-conforming"mode,the"efciency"mode,andthe"sufciencyoforiginality"mode.
AdaptersandinnovatorsareidentiedaccordingtotheirresponsestotheoverallKAIIandtheindividualsubscales.
Anadapterseekstoconformtoacceptednorms(Goldsmith1984;Kirton1976,1989b).
Heorsheusesconventionalrulesandperceptionsofwork,favorsprecisionandmethodi-calapproachestoproblemsolving,andisseenasasafe,predictable,andconsistentpersonwhoseldomapproachesproblemsfromneworunusualperspectives(Kirton1976).
Intermsofthethreemodes(originality,efciency,rulesconformity),adapterstendtohaveahighde-greeofrulesconformity,emphasizeefciency,anddonotgenerateoriginaloruntriedso-lutionstoproblems.
Adaptersgenerallyseekto"dothingsbetter"withinexistingsystems(Korth2000).
Aninnovatorisundisciplined,willingtobreaktraditionalparadigmsand"gooutsidetherules.
"Innovatorsaremostsuccessfulinunstructuredandrapidlychangingenviron-mentsinwhichself-condentdecisionmakingisimportant(Goldsmith1984;FoxallandHackett1992b;Jacobson1993).
Innovatorschallengetheircolleaguestondnewtasksratherthanbetterwaysoffulllingcurrentresponsibilities(Kirton1976).
Innovatorsprefertobreaktherulesandaregenerallyinefcientintheirproblem-solvingmethodsbutshowgreatoriginality(Bobic,Davis,andCunningham1999).
Innovatorsdothings"differently"(Korth2000).
Itisimportanttonoteagainthatadaptersandinnovatorsmaybeequallycre-ativebutthattheircreativitymanifestsitselfindifferentways.
KAII:ValidityandReliabilityIssuesNumerousstudieshaveexaminedthevalidityoftheKAII.
Kirton(1976)hypothesizedthathisindexaccurately,validly,andreliablymeasuredproblem-solvingstyles.
Moststudiesconrmtheconstructvalidityofthetheory,thescale,andthesubscales(MulliganandMar-tin1980;Kirton1980,1985b,1989a;Goldsmith1985,1986a;Hammond1986;MastenandCaldwell-Colbert1987;Robertsonetal.
1988;BeeneandZelhart1988;Taylor1989a,1989b;Arbet1991;Kirton1992;Selbyetal.
1993;FoxallandHackett1992a,1992b;252JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheoryFleenorandTaylor1994;Bobic,Davis,andCunningham1999).
MultiplestudieshavealsoconrmedthecontentvalidityoftheKAII(KirtonandMcCarthy1985;Robertsonetal.
1989;Singer1992;FoxallandHackett1992b;Bobic,Davis,andCunningham1999).
TheKAIIperformssimilarlytoandishighlycorrelatedwithotherpsychologicalscalessuchastheMyers-Briggs,theTorrancescale,theCattell'sInventory,andtheGregoricDe-lineator(Kirton1978;KellerandHolland1978;TorranceandHorng1980;CarneandKir-ton1982;Goldsmith1984;KirtonandDeCiantis1986;GoldsmithandMatherly1986;Goldsmith1987;Robertsonetal.
1988;IsaksenandPuccio1988;Elder1989;FoxallandPayne1989;Furnham1990;Prato-Previde1991;Foxall,Payne,andWalters1992;Kubes1992;FoxallandBhate1993;Jacobson1993).
OtherstudieshaveconrmedthereliabilityandpredictiveabilityoftheKAII(Prato-Previde1984;Hammond1986;Holland1987;Prato-PrevideandMassimo1987;BeeneandZelhart1988;JoniakandIsaksen1988;Taylor1989b;Markus1992;FoxallandHack-ett1992a,1992b;PettigrewandKing1993).
TheKAIIhasalsoprovenareliablemeasureincross-validationstudies(KellerandHolland1978).
MultiplestudieshavereplicatedtheearlyKAIIstudiesofpublicandprivatemanagersandemployees(Goldsmith1986b;GoldsmithandMatherly1986;Prato-PrevideandMas-simo1987;Robertsonetal.
1988,1989;ClappandDeCiantis1989;Selbyetal.
1993;Bobic,Davis,andCunningham1999).
TheKAIIhasbeenusedsuccessfullyinstudiesofBritish(Jacobson1993)andAustralianmanagers(FoxallandHackett1992a),Italianciti-zensandstudents(Prato-PrevideandMassimo1987;Prato-Previde1991),andNewZealandcollegestudents(Singer1990)aswellasincross-culturalcomparisonsofdifferentnations(Foxall1990).
Prato-Previde(1984)concludedthattheKAIIwasbasedonsoundpsychometricprin-ciples.
Thestability,validity,andreliabilityoftheKAIImeasureofcreativityhasbeensowellestablishedthattheBritishPsychologicalSocietyhasgivenitaBrating(DEVAPart-nership2001).
NotonlyhastheKAIIbeenvalidatedanditsreliabilityestablished,abriefInternetsearch(usingNetscape,AltaVista,Yahoo,Infoseek,andothersearchengines)re-vealedthatoverthirtymajormanagementconsultingrmsusetheKAIIintheirprofes-sionalconsultingwork.
TherewereliterallythousandsofsitesmakingreferencetotheKAII,mostofwhichwereeitherbusinessorconsultingrms.
Furtherinvestigationre-vealedthatcorporationssuchasProctorandGamble,PricewaterhouseCoopers,Barclays,KimballConsulting,andtheAmericanChemicalSocietyusetheKAIIforteambuildingandtaskmanagement.
ApplyingtheRequisiteDiversityPrincipleAnindividual'stendencytouseinnovativeoradaptivemethodsisdeeplyingrained(Kirton1984);evenaftertrainingsessions,managerstendtoreverttotheirbasicmanagementmeth-odsovertime(Bobic,Davis,andCunningham1999).
Inotherwords,creativeinnovation,thetypeofcreativityMaslowandMcGregorassumedwaswidelydistributedinthepopu-lation,mayonlyaccountfor40percentofthepopulation(Kirton1976).
Thistypeofcre-ativityseemstobegreateramongthetypeofmanagerMcGregorwasstudying(upper-levelmanagement)thanamongrst-linesupervisors(Kirton1985a).
Thisisanimportantandcompellingpoint:MostmanagementpositionsavailablearestaffedbypeopleforwhosepersonalitiesTheoryYisillsuited.
InnovatorsandadaptersresponddifferentlytoaTheoryYstyleofleadership.
Ifaman-agerusesTheoryYassumptionswithagroupofinnovators,heorsheislikelytohaveaBobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX253greatdealofsuccess.
IfthatsamemanagerappliesTheoryYmethodstoagroupofadapters,thereactionislikelytobenegativebecauseadaptersingeneralarenotseekingtobreakoutofmoldsorchangeparadigms.
Adaptersenjoystructuredenvironmentsandndgreatsat-isfactioninclosedetailworkandclearprocedures.
Kirtonnotesthatadaptersbringtotheirteamasenseofstability,order,andcontinuity:theyprovideasafebasefromwhichinno-vatorsmaytakerisks.
Innovatorsbringtogroupdynamicsthetaskorientationandsenseofchangethatagroupmayneedinaddressingaproblem(Kirton1984,7).
Whileitmaybetrueforinnovatorsthat"adecentralizedorganizationprovidesanenvironmentinwhichtheindividual,throughtakinggreaterresponsibilityforhisownbehavior,obtainsintrinsicre-wards"(McGregor1960,195),suchanenvironmentwoulddriveanadaptertodistraction(forasimilarcriticismofMaslow'swork,seeMaccoby1976).
Kirton'sresearchdirectlycontradictedanumberofkeyassumptionsinMcGregor'swork.
First,ifKirtonwascorrect,andthetendencytobeadaptiveorinnovativeisdeeplyin-grained,thenwhereoneisonthehierarchyofneedsisirrelevant.
KirtonandHammond(1980)demonstratedthatadapterswereaslikelytobeself-actualizedasinnovators,whichcontradictedmostofMaslow'sdenitionsofself-actualizersandself-actualization.
Sec-ond,ifKirtonwascorrect,thenMcGregor'sassumptionthatmanagerscanchangetheiras-sumptions(1960,46,245)maynotbepossibleformostmanagers.
Third,researchbyKir-ton(1984)andBobic,Davis,andCunningham(1999)contradictedMcGregor'sassertionthatchangingone'sassumptionswillleadtochangedbehavior(1960,48,62andthefol-lowingpages;1967,79).
McGregorassumedthatallpeopleareinnovative,butKirton'sstudiesindicatedthatadaptivepersonalitiestendtodominatecertainoccupations.
Usinganinventorytoassessthetendencyofarespondenttouseadaptiveorinnovativeapproachestoproblemsolving,Kir-tondiscoveredthatrst-linesupervisorssuchasmanufacturingorplantmanagers,accountssupervisors,machinistsuperintendents,andtheliketendedtobeadaptiveintheirap-proachestoproblems(Kirton1985a).
Secondarymanagers,personnelmanagers,and"uppermanagers"tendedtowardtheinnovativeapproachtoproblemsolving(Kirton1985a).
WhatwouldMcGregorhavethoughtofthisworkHewouldmostlikelyhavedis-agreeddeeplywiththeideathattypesofcreativityareingrainedinpeople.
Hewouldhaveacceptedtheimportanceofbuildingteamswhosemembershadcomplementarycreativestyles.
Nonetheless,KirtonandMcGregoragreedonseveralpoints.
First,theyagreedthatmanagementisacomplexsocialinteraction,notasimplemechanicalprocess(seeMcGre-gor1960,105).
Second,theyagreedthatpeopledobringassumptionsabouthumanbehav-iortothemanagementtask.
Theyagreedthatmanagersmustconsiderthenaturesofthepeopletheymanage.
Intheend,hadMcGregorlivedtoseeKirton'swork,webelievehewouldhaveincorporatedKirton'sndingsintohisownresearch.
Hehintedatsuchwhenhenotedthat"oneofmanagement'smajortasks.
.
.
istoprovideaheterogeneoussupplyofhumanresourcesfromwhichindividualscanbeselectedtollavarietyofspecicbutun-predictableneeds"(1960,185).
Kirtonhimselfcouldnothavestateditmoresuccinctly.
FinalConcernsMuchofthecriticismaboveisbasedonsocialscienticinvestigationsofvariousproposi-tionsmadebyMaslowandMcGregor.
ItmaybearguedthatsuchanalysisisunfairbecauseMcGregorneverconsideredhisworktobescientic(Strauss1968;Schrage2000)andbe-causeMcGregor'sworkencompassedmorethanasimplesetoftestablehypotheses.
Three254JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheorypointsstandout.
First,McGregorconsideredhisworktobebasedonyearsofsocialscien-ticresearch(1960,5–7;1967,6).
Second,hefullyexpectedhisworktogeneratescholarlyinterestandtestablehypotheses(McGregor1967,55).
Third,hisworkhasgeneratedso-cialscienticinterestandcontroversy.
ItmaybearguedthatmuchoftheevidencepresentedhereisimmaterialtoMcGregor'scoreideas.
McGregor'sdiscussionofmanagementisdirectednottowardrst-linesupervi-sorsortheirsubordinatesbuttowardthosewhomanagemanagers(1960,55),yetmuchoftheresearchpresentedhereexploresrelationshipsbetweenlinemanagersandsubordinates.
Therearethreereasonstorejectthiscriticism.
ItisclearthatMcGregorconsideredrst-linesupervisiontobeauniqueposition(1960,1961;quotedinBennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,27).
Nevertheless,healsoexpectedfutureresearchtondwaystoadaptTheoryYideastothesecircumstances(1960,55;quotedinBennis,Schein,andMcGregor1966,27).
McGregorclearlybelievedthatmanagementsciencecouldprogressonlytothedegreethatscholarsabandonedTheoryXassumptionsandpursuedresearchbasedonTheoryYas-sumptions(1960,245).
Suchprogress(hebelieved)wouldbenetallworkersinthelongrun.
Forourpurposes,thequestionremains:WasMcGregorprematureindismissingthetheoreticalimportanceofTheoryXassumptionsWenowpresenta(relativelymild)de-fenseofTheoryXmanagement.
AKINDWORDFORTHEORYXDouglasMcGregor'sTHSEisnotascientictreatise(Schrage2000)althoughitwastheproductofdecadesofworkandstudy(Gabor2000).
THSEpresentedtwo(amongmany)possibleworldviewsor"cosmologies"thatmanagersbringtotheworkplace(McGregor1960,80).
Butthebookwasmorethanthat:Itwasanefforttopersuademanagerstoex-aminetheirassumptionsclosely.
ItwasalsoacalltoabandonTheoryXmanagementas-sumptionssothat"futureinventions"inmanagementwouldbemorethan"minorchangesinalreadyobsolescentconceptions"ofhumannature(McGregor1960,245).
ThelanguageusedinthebookdemonstratesthatMcGregorintendedhisreaderstoreactnegativelytohisportrayalofTheoryXmanagementbutthathewasmorecircumspectinhispresentationofTheoryYideals.
Twolinesofreasoningjustifythisconclusion.
First,McGregorhimselfconcededthatreaderswouldconsiderhisportrayalofTheoryXassumptionsoverlyharsh(1960,45).
Sec-ond,ananalysisofthelanguageofthetwosetsofassumptionsisrevealing.
TheTheoryXassumptionsaresimple,universal,declarativestatements;TheoryYassumptionscontainmanyqualicationsandmodiers.
McGregorpresentedTheoryXatatenth-gradereadinglevelandTheoryYatatwelfth-gradereadinglevel.
AFleschanalysisofreadingeaseindi-catedthatTheoryXassumptionsareeasiertoreadthanareTheoryYassumptions.
8TopresentadefenseofTheoryX,itisthereforenecessarytoremovethehyperbolefromMcGregor'sdiscussionandrevisethecharacteristicsofTheoryXsothattheyrepre-sentamorerealisticsetofassumptions.
Afterwedothat,weturntoadiscussionofwhatcir-cumstancesandwhatkindsofemployeeswouldbeconducivetoaTheoryXmanagementstyle.
First,though,letusreviewtheassumptionsofaTheoryXmanager:BobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX2558TheseanalyseswereconductedusingtheLanguagefunctionsinWord97,Word2000,WordPerfectVersion8,andWordPerfect2000.
Theanalysesgenerallyagreedintheirresults.
Peopledislikeworkandwillavoiditifpossible.
Mostpeoplemustbe"coerced,controlled,directed,andthreatenedwithpunish-menttogetthem"towork(McGregor1960,33–34).
Theaveragehumanpreferstobedirected,wishestoavoidresponsibility,haslittleambition,andwantssecurity.
TherstassumptionhasbeenthesubjectofgreatdebateinWesternphilosophy.
Tausky(1992)arguesthatthereisnothingintheologyorpsychologytosupportthenotionthatallpeoplebyhumannatureinherentlylikeordislikework.
Whatseemstobemorerealisticisthatanyindividual'sattitudetowardworkisafunctionofmanysociologicalfactors;the"desirabilityorloathsomeness"ofworkislikelytobeamatterofindividualdevelopmentratherthanamatterofhumannature.
Tausky'sworkunderscoresthedangersofusingeitherTheoryXorTheoryYassumptionsasageneralruleofmanagement.
Itismorelikelythatsomepeopledislikeworkandotherslikeit(Tausky1992,8).
Thus,therstcharacteristicneedssomemodication.
Thesecondassumptionseemsoverlyharsh(McGregor1960,36).
Itwouldmeanthatmanagersbelievethattheirsubordinatesneedtobedirectedandcontrolledintheexecutionoftheirduties.
Thisassumptionmayresultfromvariousfactorsincludingalackofknowl-edgeonthepartofsubordinates,theconsequencesofpoorperformanceofaspecictask,therisksassociatedwithajob,oramanager'sbeliefthatheorsheknowsthejobmorethor-oughlythanhisorhersubordinates(Wilkinson,Godfrey,andMarchington1997).
Thenalassumptionlikewiseseemstobeacaricatureofemployeeswhoseekdirectionanddesirejobsecurity.
Thus,amorerealisticTheoryXmodelassumesthefollowing:Manypeopledislikeworkandwillavoiditifpossible.
Manypeoplemustbecontrolledanddirectedintheexecutionoftheirtasks.
Managersknowmoreaboutajobanditsrequirementsthandosubordinates.
Mostsubordinatesconformtorulesandareefcientandrelativelyunoriginal,seekingdirectionintheexecutionoftheirjobs(Aeppel1997,forexample).
Amanageroperatingundertheseassumptionswoulduseadirectiveapproachtomanaging,allowingemployeesonlylimitedautonomyanddiscretion.
ATheoryXmanagerismoreconcernedwithperformanceand"gettingproductoutthedoor"thanaboutmeetingtheemotionalordevelopmentalneedsofhisorhersubordinates.
9UnderwhatcircumstanceswouldTheoryXmanagementbeappropriateIfwerede-neTheoryXassumptionsasadaptiveandTheoryYassumptionsasinnovative,10thenwemaymakeanumberofconclusionsaboutwhenTheoryXmanagementisappropriate.
Whenfacingroutineordetailedtasks,anadaptivestyleismostlikelytobesuccessful.
Kirtonar-guedthatadaptivemanagersaremoreappropriatewhenateamiscomposedofinnovators,becausetheadapterwouldbeabletokeeptherestoftheteamonschedule(Kirton1989b).
256JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory9NotethatevenintheMoutonandBlakeManagerialGrid,theassumptionisthatcreativitymeansinnovation,ratherthanadaptation.
10Thisisnotentirelycorrect,foritispossibleforanadaptivepersonalitytoapproachmanagementfromaTheoryYperspectiveandviceversa.
However,forpurposesofdiscussion,theanalogymaybemade.
Adaptersarealsomoresuccessfulat"doingthingsbetter,"whileinnovatorsaremoresuc-cessfulat"doingthingsdifferently"(Korth2000).
Whatonewantsinamanagerdependsuponthetaskbeingperformed.
Kirton(1978)notedthatcompaniestendedtoseekoutadaptersratherthaninnova-tors,becauseadapterstendedtotwellintobureaucraticorganizations.
Ontheotherhand,Holland(1987)demonstratedthatadaptershaddifcultycopingwithanindustryunder-goingrapidchangeintechnologyorprocedures.
Foxall,Payne,andWalters(1987)arguedthatinnovativemanagerswerebettersuitedtotasksthatinvolvedexternalrelationsforanorganization,whileadaptersweremoresuitedtotasksinvolvingtheinternaloperationsofanorganization.
McNeillyandGoldsmith(1992)notethatemployeeturnoverisaffectedbywhetheramanagerisanadapterorinnovator.
Withamanagerwhoisanadapter,peoplearelesslikelytoleaveapositioniftheyhavegoodrelationswiththeircoworkers.
Withaman-agerwhoisaninnovator,peoplearelesslikelytoleaveapositioniftheyarepleasedwiththepaytheyreceive.
NicholasSkinner(1989)conductedafascinatingstudyindicatingthatmenandwomenbothequateinnovativenessinmalemanagerswitheffectivenessbutequatedadaptivenesswitheffectivenessforfemalemanagers.
Clearly,whatmodelofmanagementisbestisacomplexissue,involvingconsiderationsofthetasktobeperformed,thesubordinatestobemanaged,andtheoutputthatisdesired.
Inanyevent,thebeliefthatTheoryYissuperiortoTheoryXcannotbesupported.
IMPLICATIONSFORMANAGEMENTMETHODSEvidenceinthisarticleindicatesthatseveralessentialcomponentsofMcGregor'sTheoryXandTheoryYrequirereconsideration.
Firstisthequestionofwhatkindofmanagementismostappropriatefornewkindsoforganizations,suchastechnologicalorganizations,adhocorganizations,andregulatedmonopolies.
SecondistheimpactthesendingshaveoneffortstoimplementTheoryYideas,inparticularthroughtheuseofTotalQualityMan-agement(TQM).
TechnologicalindustriesandtheriseofInternetcompanieshaveledtoaresurgenceofinterestinMcGregor'sideas(Bennis,Heil,andStephens2000,4).
Thesecompaniespres-entmanagerswiththekindsofchallengesMcGregorforesaw:employeesworkingathomeandrequiringgreaterexibilityandunderstandingfrommanagersinordertoproducequal-ityproducts.
Internetcompaniesandsoftwarecompaniesstresscreativesolutionstovariousbusiness,academic,andinformationcontrolproblems.
Popularcharacterizationsofthosewhoworkatsuchcompaniesemphasizetheirfree-spiritednatureandunorthodoxapproachtowork.
Yetthosewhoworkinthisindustrytendtocomplainthatwhattheylackintheirworkiscleardirectionfrommanagement(ComputerWorld1999).
Moreover,informationtechnology(IT)workersindicatethattheyaresatised(anddissatised)withthesamethingsasotherworkers.
Theybelievetheyareunderpaidandthattheylackadequatevacationtime(ComputerWorld,1999).
ButmostITworkersliketheirbossesandwouldlikeclearerdirectioninjobassignments.
Thus,onecannotsimplyas-sumethatITpeoplewillbeinnovatorsorthataninnovativemanagementstylewillsatisfyallworkers.
Infact,giventheinnovativenatureofITwork,onemightsuspectthatanadapterbosswouldbemorelikelytokeepprojectsontimeandonbudget.
Adhocorganizationsarearelativelynewentity.
TheseareorganizationslikeDishNetworkorDirecTVthathaveonemaincorporationofferingaservicebutrelyonlocallyBobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX257contractedemployeestocarryoutspecictasks.
Bennis(2000)claimedthatthistypeoforganizationinparticularrequiresacreativemanagementstyle,thatattemptingtocontroltheactionsofliterallyhundredsofemployeesspreadovertheentirecountryseemsanun-manageabletaskunlessoneiswillingtoallowforinnovationamongone'ssubcontractors.
However,thishasnotproventobethecase.
BothDishNetworkandDirecTVhavedis-coveredthattoensureconsistent,qualityinstallations,theymustrequirecontractedin-stallerstofollowspecicguidelinesandtosubmitphotographicevidenceofcompletedwork.
DishNetworkevenrequiresthatcustomerssignaworkformindicatingthatinstal-lationsmettheseguidelinesandtheirrequirements.
Themainchallengepresentedbyquasi-governmentalorganizationsisthatofdemo-craticcontrolandaccountability.
Koppel(1999)studiedtheU.
S.
VentureCapitalFundpro-gramanditstwosubsidiaries,theEnterpriseFundsandtheOverseasPrivateInvestmentCorporation,andconcludedthatinordertoprovidedemocraticaccountability,theseor-ganizationsrequirecloseregulationand"clear,unambiguouspolicyobjectives"(664).
Insimpleterms,suchorganizationsfunctionbestiftheyhavelimitedautonomyandthereisstrongregulatorycontrolovertheiractions.
Researchalsosuggeststhatregulatedmonopoliesfunctionbestwhengovernmentover-seersexerciseadirectivestyleofmanagement,ratherthanthemoreinclusivestylesug-gestedbyMcGregor.
Thisconclusionseemstrueatleastofthenuclearpowerindustry.
Verma,Mitnick,andMarcus(1999)studiedseveralstates'effortstoreplacedirectover-sightofthenuclearpowerindustrywithperformance-basedincentiveprogramsasawaytoincreasesafetyandefciency.
Whattheydiscoveredwasthatincentiveprogramswerelesseffectiveincontrollingindustrybehavior.
Insomecases,incentiveprogramsledtode-creasedefciencyandincreaseddangertothepublic.
Regulatedagenciesoftencannotdel-egatedownwardbecausemanyactionsareillegalorwouldviolateunion-managementagreements.
Otherscholarsndthatdirectedcontrolofagenciesmighthavenegativeef-fects.
Maupin(1993)foundthattheArizonaPrisonsSystem'smethodforfollowingparoleesworkedbestifparoleofcershaddiscretionindealingwithviolations;however,Maupinpointsout(unintentionally)thatmanypeopleassociatedwiththeprogramwereinnovatorsratherthanadapters(335,forexample).
AsecondimplicationfromthisworkisthatweshouldreconsiderwhymanagementmethodssuchasTQMcannotclaimuniversalsuccessorsupport,evenamongpublicad-ministrationtheorists(StawandEpstein2000;Fernando2001).
Wilkinson,Godfrey,andMarchington(1997)summarizeveryeffectivelythedifferencesinopinionovertheutilityandsuccessofTQMtotransformtheworkenvironment;theystatethatTQMattemptsto"empowertheworkforcebydelegatingresponsibilitytothosewhoactuallycarr[y]outthetask"(799).
WhenaTQMsystemfailstotransformtheworkenvironment,blameisoftenlaidatthefeetofmiddle-levelmanagers,whoresistanymethodthatreducestheirpowerorroleas"experts"inasystem(Wilkinson,Godfrey,andMarchington1997,810;BermanandWest1995).
Theissueismorecomplicatedthantantrumsfrommiddlemanagers.
Managersveryoftenunderstandsystemsbetterthantheirsubordinatesdo.
Onceagain,thosewhosupportTQMareusuallydiscussingnonroutinetasksorspecialprojects,whilethecomplaintofmiddlemanagersisthatTQMisnotappropriateformoreroutinetasksandday-to-dayop-erations(LeideckerandHall1986).
WenditinterestingthatWilkinson,Godfrey,andMarchington(1997)concedethatdifferentmanagersimplementTQMdifferently.
ManymanagersadaptedtoTQMreadilybecause"thisapproachmatchedtheirpreferredstyle.
.
.
.
"258JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory(810).
Theobviousimplicationisthatanymethodthatexpectscreativitytobeuniversallyinnovativeisunlikelytosucceedinthelongrun.
CONCLUSIONThisarticlebeganbyexaminingthethreefoundationsofMcGregor'sTHSE.
Thisanalysishasrevealedweaknessesinthesekeyfoundations:Workersfaceadifferentworkenviron-mentthantheydidinthe1960s,Maslow'shierarchyofneedshasfallenintoquestion,andtheconceptofcreativityismultidimensional.
ThefoundationsofTheoryYmanagementandtheassumptionthatTheoryYmanagementisinherentlybetterthanTheoryXmanage-mentmustbesubstantiallyreconsidered.
Ontheotherhand,combiningKirton'sideaswithMcGregor'shelpstoexplainthestandardanomaliesassociatedwithTheoryYmanagement.
TothosewhoclaimTheoryYisjustahypocriticalformofTheoryX(Salaman1979)orthatitdoesnotworkintherealworld,onemayrespondthatthefailureisnotinthemethodbutinthemismatchofmethodtomanager.
ThesendingsalsoexplainwhyTheoryXmanagementpersistsandwhysomestudentsofmanagementpreferTheoryXassumptions:thistheorytsmorecloselywiththeirstylesofcreativity.
ThendingsalsoexplainwhyStawandEpstein(2000)foundnoevidenceofperformanceimprovementwhenexaminingvariousmanagementmethods:Itisnotamatterofmanagementstrategy,butofmanagingpeople—whichwasMcGregor'soriginalpoint.
Weconcludewithacommentonwhatallthismightmeanforthefutureofmanage-ment.
Ifpeoplearedifferent(someadaptiveandothersinnovative)andpersonalityisrela-tivelyinvariant,thenthemanagementtaskbecomesincreasinglycomplex.
(Foradifferentlookatthisaspectofmanagement,seeMoussaviandAshbaugh1995.
)Itismorethansim-plytrainingmanagersandinstillingasenseofobligation:Itbecomesamatterofcoordinat-ingmanagers,teammembers,andtasksinawaythattakesadvantageoftheindividualabil-itiesandteamdynamicsofone'semployees(Buijs1998).
Thekeyistounderstandwhichtasksrequireanadaptiveapproachandwhichrequireaninnovativeapproach,tobuildworkteamsaccordingly,andtoselectthemostappropriatemanager(Buijs1998;Kirton1989a).
Inotherwords,improvingtheworkenvironmentstillrequiresonetopayattentiontoTHSEandtondwaysformanagersandemployeestocapitalizeontheirstrengthsandrelyoneachothertoovercomeweaknesses.
Suchisthekeytoeffectivemanagement.
REFERENCESAeppel,Timothy.
1997.
Missingtheboss:Notallworkersndideaofempowermentasneatasitsounds.
WallStreetJournal,8September,1.
Arbet,Ladislav.
1991.
Reexionsoncreativity.
Studia-Psychologica33,nos.
3–4:175–80.
Aron,Adrianne.
1977.
Maslow'sotherchild.
JournalofHumanisticPsychology17:2.
Bailyn,Bernard,DavidDavis,DavidDonald,JohnThomas,RobertWiebe,andGordonWood.
1981.
Thegreatrepublic:AhistoryoftheAmericanpeople.
Lexington,MA:Heath.
Barrows,David,andTomWesson.
2000.
Acomparativeanalysisofjobsatisfactionamongpublicandprivatesectorprofessionals.
TheInnovationJournal.
Fromwww.
innovating.
com.
Beene,J.
Morris,andPaulF.
Zelhart.
1988.
FactoranalysisoftheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory.
PerceptualandMotorSkills66,no.
2:667–71.
Bennis,Warren,EdgarH.
Schein,andCarolineMcGregor.
1966.
Leadershipandmotivation:EssaysofDouglasMcGregor.
Cambridge:TheMITPress.
BobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX259Bennis,Warren,GaryHeil,andDeborahStephens.
2000.
DouglasMcGregor,revisited:Managingthehumansideofenterprise.
NewYork:JohnWiley.
Berman,EvanM.
,andJonathanP.
West.
1995.
TQMinAmericancities:Hypothesesregardingcommitmentandimpact.
JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory5:213–30.
Blai,Boris.
1964.
Anoccupationalstudyofjobsatisfactionandneedsatisfaction.
TheJournalofExperimentalEducation32,no.
4:383–88.
Bobic,Michael,EricDavis,andRobertCunningham.
1997.
TheKirtonAdaptation-InnovationInventory:Validityissues,practicalquestions.
ReviewofPublicPersonnelAdministration18(spring):18–31.
Buijs,Jan.
1998.
Viewpoint:TowardsanewTheoryX.
CreativityandInnovationManagement7,no.
1:17–22.
Buss,A.
R.
1979.
Humanisticpsychologyasliberalideology:Thesocio-historicalrootsofMaslow'stheoryofself-actualization.
JournalofHumanisticPsychology193:43–55.
Camp,ScottD.
1995.
Assessingtheeffectsoforganizationalcommitmentandjobsatisfactiononturnover:Aneventhistoryapproach.
ThePrisonJournal74,no.
3:279–305.
Carne,G.
C.
,andMichaelJ.
Kirton.
1982.
Stylesofcreativity:Test-scorecorrelationsbetweenKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventoryandMyers-BriggsTypeIndicator.
PsychologicalReports50,no.
1:31–36.
Caruth,Don,andRobertM.
NoeIII.
1986.
Motivate!
InMotivationofpersonnel,editedbyA.
DaleTimpe.
NewYork:FactsonFile.
Ciulla,JoanneB.
2000.
Theworkinglife:Thepromiseandbetrayalofmodernwork.
NewYork:RandomHouse.
Clapp,R.
G.
,andS.
M.
DeCiantis.
1989.
Adaptersandinnovatorsinlargeorganizations:DoescognitivestylecharacterizeactualbehaviorofemployeesatworkAnexploratorystudy.
PsychologicalReports65,no.
2:503–13.
Collins,James.
1996.
Tappinghumanpotentialtoenhanceperformance.
Inc.
18:1–2.
ComputerWorld.
1999.
1999satisfactionsurvey.
ComputerWorld.
Fromwww.
computerworld.
com/cwi.
TheConferenceBoard(TCB).
2000.
Specialconsumersurveyreport:Americanworkersgrowincreasinglydissatisedwiththeirjobs.
NewYork:TheConferenceBoard.
Crewson,PhilipE.
1997.
Public-servicemotivation:Buildingempiricalevidenceofincidenceandeffect.
JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory7(October):499–518.
DEVAPartnership,Ltd.
n.
d.
Kirtonadaptionandinnovationinventory.
RetrievedonMay21,2003,fromDevapartner.
com/kai.
html.
Elder,RichardL.
1989.
Relationshipsbetweenadaption-innovation,experiencedcontrol,andstate-traitanxiety.
PsychologicalReports65,no.
1:47–54.
Faulkner,HaroldUnderwood,andTylerKepner.
1950.
America:Itshistoryandpeople.
NewYork:McGraw-Hill.
Fernando,Mario.
2001.
ArepopularmanagementtechniquesawasteoftimeAcademyofManagementExecutive15,no.
3:138–40.
Fleenor,JohnW.
,andSylvesterTaylor.
1994.
Constructvalidityofthreeself-reportmeasuresofcreativity.
Educational&PsychologicalMeasurement54,no.
2:464–70.
Foxall,GordonR.
1990.
Anempiricalanalysisofmid-careermanagers'adaptive-innovativecognitivestylesandtaskorientationsinthreecountries.
PsychologicalReports66,no.
3,pt.
2:1115–24.
Foxall,GordonR.
,andSeemaBhate.
1993.
Cognitivestylesandpersonalinvolvementofmarketinitiatorsfor"healthy"foodbrands:Implicationsforadoptiontheory.
JournalofEconomicPsychology14,no.
1:33–56.
Foxall,GordonR.
,andPaulM.
Hackett.
1992a.
ThefactorstructureandconstructvalidityoftheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory.
PersonalityandIndividualDifferences3,no.
9:967–75.
———.
1992b.
Cognitivestyleandextentofcomputeruseinorganizations:Relevanceofsufciencyoforiginality,efciencyandrule-conformity.
PerceptualandMotorSkills74,no.
2:491–97.
Foxall,GordonR.
,andAdrianPayne.
1989.
Adaptersandinnovatorsinorganizations:Across-culturalstudyofthecognitivestylesofmanagerialfunctionsandsubfunctions.
HumanRelations42,no.
7:639–49.
260JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheoryFoxall,GordonR.
,AdrianF.
Payne,andDeborahA.
Walters.
1992.
Adaptive-innovativecognitivestylesofAustralianmanagers.
Australian-Psychologist27,no.
2:118–22.
Furnham,Adrian.
1990.
Fakingpersonalityquestionnaires:Fabricatingdifferentprolesfordifferentpurposes.
CurrentPsychologyResearchandReviews9,no.
1:46–55.
Gabor,Andrea.
2000.
Thecapitalistphilosophers.
NewYork:TimesBusiness.
Goble,Frank.
1970.
Thethirdforce:ThepsychologyofAbrahamMaslow.
NewYork:Pocket.
Goldsmith,RonaldE.
1984.
Personalitycharacteristicsassociatedwithadaption-innovation.
JournalofPsychology117,no.
2:159–65.
———.
1985.
Adaption-innovationandcognitivecomplexity.
JournalofPsychology119,no.
5:461–67.
———.
1986a.
Convergentvalidityoffourinnovativenessscales.
EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement46,no.
1:81–87.
———.
1986b.
Personalityandadaptive-innovativeproblemsolving.
JournalofSocialBehaviorandPersonality1,no.
1:95–106.
———.
1987.
Creativelevelandcreativestyle.
British-Journal-of-Social-Psychology26,no.
4:317–23.
Goldsmith,RonaldE.
,andTimothyMatherly.
1986.
TheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory,faking,andsocialdesirability:Areplicationandextension.
PsychologicalReports58,no.
1:269–70.
Groves,DavidL.
,HarveyKahalas,andDavidL.
Erickson.
1975.
AsuggestedmodicationofMaslow'sneedshierarchy.
SocialBehaviorandPersonality3,no.
1:65–68.
Hamermesh,DanielS.
2001.
Thechangingdistributionofjobsatisfaction.
JournalofHumanResources36:1–30.
Hammond,SeanM.
1986.
Somepitfallsintheuseoffactorscores:ThecaseoftheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory.
PersonalityandIndividualDifferences7,no.
3:401–7.
Hansen,JamesT.
2000.
Psychoanalysisandhumanism:Areviewandcriticalexaminationofintegrationisteffortswithsomeproposedresolutions.
JournalofCounselingandDevelopment78,no.
1:21–30.
Hart,PeterD.
,andAssociates.
1998.
Study#5184.
SurveyconductedforShellCorporation,17–20July.
Helmich,D.
L.
,andW.
B.
Brown.
1972.
Successortypeandorganizationalchangeinthecorporateenterprise.
AdministrativeScienceQuarterly17,no.
3:1148–55.
Heylighen,Francis.
1992.
Acognitive-systematicreconstructionofMaslow'stheoryofself-actualization.
BehavioralScience37,no.
1:39–58.
Holland,PeterA.
1987.
Adaptersandinnovators:ApplicationoftheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventorytobankemployees.
PsychologicalReports60,no.
1:263–70.
Horn,LauraJ.
,andLisaZahn.
2001.
Frombachelor'sdegreetowork:Majoreldofstudyandemploymentoutcomesof1992-93bachelor'sdegreerecipientswhodidnotenrollingraduateeducationby1997.
Washington,D.
C.
:NationalCenterforEducationStatistics.
RetrievedonMay21,2003,fromhttp://nces.
ed.
gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.
asppubid=2001165.
Isaksen,ScottG.
,andGerardJ.
Puccio.
1988.
Adaption-innovationandtheTorrancetestsofcreativethinking:Thelevel-styleissuerevisited.
PsychologicalReports63,no.
2:659–70.
Jacobson,CarolynM.
1993.
Cognitivestylesofcreativity:RelationsofscoresontheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventoryandtheMyers-BriggsTypeIndicatoramongmanagersintheU.
S.
A.
PsychologicalReports72,no.
3,pt.
2:1131–38.
Joniak,AndrewJ.
,andScottG.
Isaksen.
1988.
TheGregoricStyleDelineator:InternalconsistencyanditsrelationshiptoKirton'sadaptive-innovativedistinction.
EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurement48,no.
4:1043–49.
Keller,RobertT.
,andWinfordE.
Holland.
1978.
Across-validationstudyoftheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventoryinthreeresearchanddevelopmentorganizations.
AppliedPsychologicalMeasurement2,no.
4:563–70.
Kiel,JoanM.
1999.
ReshapingMaslow'shierarchyofneedstoreecttoday'seducationalandmanagerialphilosophies.
JournalofInstructionalPsychology26,no.
3:167–68.
Kirton,MichaelJ.
1976.
Adaptersandinnovators:Adescriptionandameasure.
JournalofAppliedPsychology61:622–29.
———.
1978.
Fielddependenceandadaption-innovationtheories.
PerceptualandMotorSkills47,no.
3,pt.
2:1239–45.
BobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX261———.
1980.
TheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory:AreplytoMulliganandMartin.
PsychologicalReports46,no.
3,pt.
1:950.
———.
1984.
Adaptersandinnovators:Cognitivestylesandpersonality.
OccupationalResearchCentreWorkingPaper,HateldPolytechnicalSchool,London.
———.
1985a.
KAIReportBackForm.
Author.
———.
1985b.
Adapters,innovators,andparadigmconsistency.
PsychologicalReports57,no.
2:487–90.
———.
1989.
Cognitivestyleandalcoholics:AcommentonRobertsonetal.
PsychologicalReports65,no.
2:456–58.
———.
1989b.
Adaptersandinnovators:Stylesofcreativityandproblemsolving.
London:Routledge.
———.
1992.
Avelvetcommentonthelevel-styledebate.
Studia-Psychologica34,nos.
4–5:399–401.
Kirton,MichaelJ.
,andS.
M.
DeCiantis.
1986.
Cognitivestyleandpersonality:TheKirtonAdaption-InnovationandCattell'ssixteenpersonalityfactorinventories.
PersonalityandIndividualDifferences7:141–46.
Kirton,MichaelJ.
,S.
M.
DeCiantis,andSeanHammond.
1980.
Levelsofself-actualizationofadaptersandinnovators.
PsychologicalReports46,no.
3,pt.
2:1321–22.
Kirton,MichaelJ.
,S.
M.
DeCiantis,andR.
M.
McCarthy.
1985.
PersonalandgroupestimatesoftheKirtonInventoryscores.
PsychologicalReports57,no.
3,pt.
2:1067–70.
Koppel,JonathonG.
S.
1999.
Thechallengeofadministrationbyregulation:PreliminaryndingsregardingtheU.
S.
government'sventurecapitalfunds.
JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory9,no.
4:641–66.
Korth,SharonJ.
2000.
Singleanddouble-looplearning:Exploringpotentialinuencesofcognitivestyle.
OrganizationDevelopmentJournal,18,no.
3:87–98.
Kubes,Marian.
1992.
Cognitivestyleandinterpersonalbehaviour:TheKirtonAdaption-InnovationandSchutz'sFIRO-Binventories.
Psychology:AJournalofHumanBehavior29,no.
2:33–38.
Lan,Zhiyong,andHalG.
Rainey.
1992.
Goals,rules,andeffectivenessinpublic,private,andhybridorganizations:Moreevidenceonfrequentassertionsaboutdifferences.
JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory2,no.
1:5–28.
Leidecker,JoelK.
,andJamesJ.
Hall.
1986.
Motivation:Goodtheory—poorapplication.
InMotivationofPersonnel,editedbyA.
DaleTimpe.
NewYork:FactsonFile.
Lethbridge,D.
1986.
AMarxisttheoryofself-actualization.
JournalofHumanisticPsychology26,no.
2:84–103.
Locke,EdwinA.
1982.
Employeemotivation:Adiscussion.
JournalofContemporaryBusiness11,no.
2:71–82.
Maccoby,Michael.
1976.
Thegamesman:Thenewcorporateleaders.
NewYork:SimonandSchuster.
Maddi,S.
1976.
Personalitytheories:Acomprehensiveanalysis.
Homewood,IL:DorseyPress.
Manchester,William.
1974.
Thegloryandthedream:AnarrativehistoryofAmerica,1932–1972.
2vols.
Boston:Little,Brown.
Markus,Anton.
1992.
Adaptation-Innovationcognitivestyleandproblemcoping.
Studia-Psychologica34,no.
1:85–92.
Maslow,Abraham.
1968.
Towardapsychologyofbeing.
2ded.
NewYork:VanNordstrand.
———.
1970.
Motivationandpersonality.
2ded.
NewYork:HarperandRow.
———.
1998.
MaslowonMaslow.
NewYork:JohnWiley.
———.
1999.
Towardapsychologyofbeing.
3ded.
NewYork:JohnWiley.
———.
2000.
TheMaslowbusinessreader.
NewYork:JohnWiley.
Masten,WilliamG.
,andA.
ToyCaldwell-Colbert.
1987.
RelationshipoforiginalitytoKirton'sscaleforinnovatorsandadapters.
PsychologicalReports61,no.
2:411–16.
Maupin,JamesR.
1993.
Control,efciency,andthestreet-levelbureaucrat.
JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory3,no.
3:335–57.
McGregor,Douglas.
1944.
Conditionsofeffectiveleadershipintheindustrialorganization.
JournalofConsultingPsychology8,no.
2:55–63.
———.
1960.
Thehumansideofenterprise.
NewYork:McGraw-Hill.
———.
1961.
Newconceptsofmanagement.
TheTechnologyReview63,no.
4:2–4.
262JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory———.
1967.
Theprofessionalmanager.
NewYork:McGrawHill.
McNeilly,KevinM.
,andRonaldE.
Goldsmith.
1992.
Themoderatingeffectofsalesmanagers'approachtoproblemsolvingonthesalespersonsatisfaction/intentiontoleaverelationship.
JournalofSocialBehaviorandPersonality7,no.
1:139–50.
Mihal,W.
L.
,P.
A.
Sorce,andT.
E.
Comte.
1984.
Aprocessmodelofindividualcareerdecision-making.
AcademyofManagementReview9,no.
1:93–103.
Mook,D.
G.
1987.
Motivation:Theorganizationofaction.
NewYork:Norton.
Moussavi,Farzad,andDonaldL.
Ashbaugh.
1995.
Perceptualeffectsofparticipative,goal-orientedperformanceappraisal:Aeldstudyinpublicagencies.
JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory5:331–44.
Mulligan,Glenn,andWilliamMartin.
1980.
Adapters,innovators,andtheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory.
PsychologicalReports46,no.
3,pt.
1:883–92.
Oswald,Andrew.
1999.
Britainonly17innewJob-SatisfactionLeaguetable.
WestMidlands,UnitedKingdom:UniversityofWarwickCoventry.
Pearson,ElaineM.
1994.
AnewlookatMaslow'shumanismthroughradicalandpostmoderncriticism.
AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganDissertationServices.
———.
1999.
Humanismandindividualism:Maslowandhiscritics.
AdultEducationQuarterly50,no.
1:41–55.
Pettigrew,AmyC.
,andMargaretO.
King.
1993.
AcomparisonbetweenscoresonKirton'sinventoryfornursingstudentsandageneralstudentpopulation.
PsychologicalReports73,no.
1:339–45.
Porat,Benjamin.
1977.
GuttmanscaletestforMaslowneedhierarchy.
JournalofPsychology97:85–92.
Prato-Previde,Guido.
1984.
Adaptersandinnovators:TheresultsoftheItalianstandardizationoftheKAI(KirtonAdaptation-InnovationInventory).
Ricerche-di-Psicologia8,no.
4:81–134.
———.
1991.
Italianadaptersandinnovators:IscognitivestyleunderlyingculturePersonalityandIndividualDifferences12,no.
1:1–10.
Prato-Previde,Guido,andCarliMassimo.
1987.
Adaption-innovationtypologyandright-lefthemisphericpreferences.
PersonalityandIndividualDifferences8,no.
5:681–86.
PRNNewsService(PRN).
2001.
U.
S.
workerscontinuetochangejobsatanalarmingpacein2001.
SurveycompletedforCareerBuilders,RetrievedonFebruary6,2001,fromwww.
careerbuilders.
com.
Rabinow,P.
,andH.
Dreyfuss.
1983.
MichelFoucault,beyondstructuralismandhermeneutics.
Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Robertson,E.
,GlennP.
Fournet,PaulZelhart,andRobertEstes.
1988.
AfactoranalysisoftheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventoryusinganalcoholicpopulation.
PerceptualandMotorSkills66,no.
2:659–64.
———.
1989.
Cognitivestyleandalcoholics:AcommentonRichardsonetal.
responsetoKirton.
PerceptualandMotorSkills69,no.
3,pt.
1:1037–38.
Rosenfeld,RobertB.
,MichaelWinger-Bearskin,DorothyMarcic,andCharlesL.
Braun.
1993.
Delineatingentrepreneurs'styles:Applicationofadaption-innovationsubscales.
PsychologicalReports72,no.
1:287–98.
Rowan,John.
1998.
Maslowamended.
JournalofHumanisticPsychology38,no.
1:81–93.
———.
1999.
AscentanddescentinMaslow'stheory.
JournalofHumanisticPsychology39,no.
3:125–33.
Salaman,Graeme.
1979.
Workresistanceandcontrol.
NewYork:Longman.
Schmidt,StefanieR.
1999.
Long-runtrendsinworkers'beliefsabouttheirownjobsecurity:EvidencefromtheGeneralSocialSurvey,JournalofLaborEconomics17,no.
4:S127–41.
Schmidt,StefanieR.
,andShirleyV.
Svorny.
1998.
Recenttrendsinjobsecurityandstability.
JournalofLaborResearch194:647–68.
Schott,R.
,andAbrahamMaslow.
1992.
Humanisticpsychologyandorganizationleadership:AJungianperspective.
JournalofHumanisticPsychology32,no.
1:106–20.
Schrage,Michael.
2000.
Thethingsaboutmanagementthatwillneverchange.
AcrosstheBoard37,no.
7:67.
BobicandDavisAKindWordforTheoryX263Selby,EdwinC.
,DonaldJ.
Trefnger,ScottG.
Isaksen,andStephenV.
Powers.
1993.
UseoftheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventorywithmiddle-schoolstudents.
JournalofCreativeBehavior27,no.
4:223–35.
Shaw,R.
,andK.
Colimore.
1988.
Humanisticpsychologyasideology:AnanalysisofMaslow'scontradictions,JournalofHumanisticPsychology28,no.
3:51–74.
Shostram,E.
1965.
Aninventoryforthemeasurementofself-actualization,EducationalandPsychologicalMeasurementIssues24:207–18.
Singer,MingS.
1990.
Individualdifferencesinadaption-innovationandtheescalationofcommitmentparadigm.
JournalofSocialPsychology130,no.
4:561–63.
———.
1992.
Individualdifferencesinadaption-innovation:Aclarication.
JournalofSocialPsychology132,no.
1:145–46.
Skinner,NicholasF.
1989.
Behavioralimplicationsofadaption-innovation:I.
Managerialeffectivenessasafunctionofsexdifferencesinadaption-innovation.
SocialBehaviorandPersonality17,no.
1:51–55.
Staw,BarryM.
,andLisaD.
Epstein.
2000.
Whatbandwagonsbring:Effectsofpopularmanagementtechniquesoncorporateperformance,reputation,andCEOpay.
AdministrativeScienceQuarterly45,no.
3:523–55.
Strauss,George.
1968.
ReviewofTheprofessionalmanager,byDouglasMcGregor.
TheJournalofBusiness41:121–22.
Tausky,Curt.
1992.
Workisdesirable/loathsome:Marxv.
Freud.
WorkandOccupation191:3–18.
Taylor,WilliamG.
1989a.
TheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory:ShouldthesubscalesbeorthogonalPersonalityandIndividualDifferences10,no.
9:921–29.
———.
1989b.
TheKirtonAdaption-InnovationInventory:Areexaminationofthefactorstructure.
JournalofOrganizationalBehavior10,no.
4:297–307.
Torrance,E.
Paul,andRueyYunHorng.
1980.
Creativityandstyleoflearningandthinkingcharacteristicsofadaptersandinnovators.
CreativeChildandAdultQuarterly5,no.
2:80–85.
Traut,CarolAnn,RickLarsen,andStevenFeimer.
2000.
HangingonorfadingoutJobsatisfactionandthelong-termworker.
PublicPersonnelManagement29,no.
3:343–50.
UnitedPressInternational(UPI).
2001.
UPIhears.
.
.
Newsrelease,4April,p1008094u0700.
Valetta,Robert.
1999.
Decliningjobsecurity.
JournalofLaborEconomics17,no.
4:S170–97.
Verma,Kiran,BarryMitnick,andAlfredMarcus.
1999.
Makingincentivesystemswork:Incentiveregulationinthenuclearpowerindustry.
JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory9,no.
3:395–436.
Wahba,M.
A.
,andL.
G.
Bridwell.
1976.
Maslowreconsidered:Areviewofresearchontheneedhierarchytheory.
OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanPerformance15:210–240.
Walesh,StuartG.
1997.
Jobsecurityisanoxymoron.
CivilEngineering(February):62–63.
Weinstein,Dianne.
2001.
"TheoryX"and"TheoryY"fortoday'ssoon-to-bemanagers.
InTheexecutiveandcorporatecoach,LongIslandExperts.
RetrievedMay19,2001,fromhttp://experts.
longisland.
com/careercoaching/print_article.
phpID=454.
Whyte,WilliamH.
1956.
Theorganizationman.
NewYork:SimonandSchuster.
Wilkinson,Adrian,GrahamGodfrey,andMickMarchington.
1997.
Bouquets,brickbats,andblinkers:Totalqualitymanagementandemployeeinvolvementinpractice.
OrganizationStudies18,no.
5:799–819.
Yankelovich,Daniel,andImmerwahr,John.
1986.
Let'sputtheworkethictowork.
InMotivationofpersonnel,editedbyA.
DaleTimpe.
NewYork:FactsonFile.
264JournalofPublicAdministrationResearchandTheory