英语adalovelace
adalovelace 时间:2021-05-04 阅读:()
Unit1Outline:Listening:1)Atechnicalteamputsmicroscopeoncellphone.
Itisa60-secondreportselectedfromScientificAmerican.
Listening:2)Diversepersonalnetworksinfluenceslocaleconomy.
ItisalsoselectedfromScientificAmerican.
Speaking:Howtomakeyourspeakingeasierandmoreeffective.
Reading:"Whatiscomputerscience"and"historyofcomputerscience"fromWikipedia.
Writing:IntroductiontowritinginEnglishforanEnglishacademicaudiencefromnon-nativespeakers.
InsideAcademics:Howtowriteemailorwhatisemailetiquette.
Objectives:Listenandbeabletounderstandgeneraltopicsincomputerscienceandtechnology.
Learnsomeoverallideasforeasyandeffectivespeech.
Obtainaglobaloverviewoncomputerscience,includingitssubtopicsandhistory.
WordsareselectedfromWikipedia,whichisarecommendedstartingpointfortutorialinformationoncomputerscience.
Keepinmindanalertonthinkingmodeinthewriting.
Thatis,writeinEnglishculturemannersforEnglishaudience.
Thisguidanceanalyzesorganizationpatternsbetweendifferentculturesorlanguages,providesavisualshockandbrainstorm.
Thematerialsaimtohelpnon-nativespeakerstowriteforacademicaudience.
LearntowritepoliteEmailandattaingoodEmailwritingstyle.
计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)21.
1Listening:TechTeamPutsMicroscopeonCellPhone1.
ChoosetheProperWordsorExpressionsListentoashortpassage.
Pickouttheunderlinedwordsorexpressionswhicharetheclosesttowhatyouhaveheard.
Afterhundredsofyears,themostcommon,basicmicroscopesstilloperatebymeansofthesameoldhardware:thelens.
ButwhatifyoucoulddoawaywiththatlensandcreateamicroscopethatfitsonacellphoneThat'swhatresearchersledbyAydoganOzcanatU.
C.
L.
A.
havedeveloped.
Ozcanrecently①run;②wonanNSF(NationalScienceFoundation)EarlyCareerDevelopmentawardforhiswork.
Normalmicroscopesimagecellsthemselves.
ButOzcan'steamisimagingtheirshadows.
Tissuecellsandbacteriaaresemi-transparent—lightpenetrating①through;②bluecellscausesshadingsandrevealstexture.
OzcanusesanLEDashislightsource,creatingcellularshadows.
Analgorithmturnsthoseshadowsintoanimageofthecells.
Millionsofpeopleinthedevelopingworldsufferbecausethey'remisdiagnosed,orbecausesimple①diseases;②disasteraremissed.
Withthissystem,abloodsamplecanbeloadedintoasmallimagingdeviceattachedtoacellphone.
Thecellularimagegeneratedfromthesamplecanbetransmittedtoacentralcomputerinanearby①hostel;②hospital.
Theimagecanbeassessedfordisease,withtheresultingdiagnosissentbacktothefieldinjustminutes.
TestsofthedevicebegininAfricathissummer.
(CynthiaGraber,TechTeamPutsMicroscopeonCellPhone,ScientificAmerican60-SecondScience,June2,2010)VocabularyMicroscope[5maikrEsk[Jp]n.
显微镜UCLAUniversityofCaliforniaLosAngeles加州大学洛杉矶分校tissue[5tiFju:]n.
组织bacteria[bAk5ti[riE]n.
细菌semi-transparentadj.
半透明的texture[5tekstFE]n.
质地,纹理assess[E5ses]v.
评估Unit132.
AnswertheQuestionsListentothepassageagain.
Tryyourbesttounderstandthelinesandanswerthefollowingquestionswithoutlookingatthetranscript.
1)WhatpartofcellsisimagedbyOzcan'steam2)Whatcanbeloadedintoasmallimagedeviceattachedtoacellphone3)Whycansuchsystemhelpthepeopleinthedevelopingworld3.
DictationListentoanothershortpassageandfillintheblankswiththewordsyouhaveheard.
Socialnetworkingisalltherage.
Seemsthemorepeopleweknow,thebetterwefeel.
Butthatdriveforbeingconnectedmayenrichmorethanoursociallives.
BecauseastudyinthejournalScienceshowsthatthemore①ourpersonalnetworks,thestrongerthelocaleconomy.
Thefactthathavingbroadsocialtiescanfinanciallybenefitanindividualmakessense.
Themorepeopleyouknow,themorejobopportunitiesyoumightbemade②of.
Afterall,that'swhatnetworkingisallabout.
Butjusthowfardothebenefitsofthesefar-reachingassociationsreallyreachUsingreamsofphonerecords,bothlandlineandcell,scientistsmappedoutsocialnetworksacrosstheentireUnitedKingdom.
Andtheycomparedthosemapswithdetailedinformationonregionaleconomicconditions.
Theresultsshowedthat③inwhichresidentshavemoreextensiveconnectionsareindeedmoreprosperous.
Presumablybecauseeconomicopportunitiesaremorelikelytocomefromcontactsoutsideatightlyknitlocalgroupoffriends.
Sokeepbuildingthosesocialnetworks.
It'snotatotalwasteoftime.
Itjustmightbeyourownpersonaleconomicstimuluspackage.
(KarenHopkin,DiversePersonalNetworksLinkedtoStrongLocalEconomy,May24,2010)Remarks:TheScientificAmerican60-secondpodcastisanoutstandingsourceforpopularscienceandtechnologyforbroaderaudiences.
Accessingitinstantlywillassistyouingrabinglatestupdatingofcomtemporyscienceandtechnology.
计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)4Vocabularyrage[reidV]n.
愤怒,情绪激动enrich[in5ritF]v.
使充实diverse[dai5vE:s]adj.
不同的,多种多样的ream[ri:m]n.
大量prosperous[5prRspErEs]adj.
繁荣的presumably[pri5zju:-mEbli]adv.
大概,推测起来stimulus[5stimjulEs]n.
刺激;激励Answer:1.
②①①②3.
①diverse;②aware;③communities1.
2Speaking:HowtoMakeYourSpeakingEasierandMoreEffective1.
FollowtheGuidancePleasereadtheguidancebelowandlearnhowtomakeyourspeakingeasierandmoreeffective.
1.
AudienceAnalysisRememberthatthemembersoftheaudiencearesupposedtobethebeneficiariesofyourcommunication.
1)Don'tmaketoomanyassumptionsaboutyouraudience.
Butyoudohavetomakesome.
2)Figureoutthebasics.
Whoarethesepeopledemographics(age,ethnicity,gendermix,etc).
predispositions(hopes,fears,positives/negatives,levelofinterest).
knowledgeof/experiencewithsubject/me.
Inwhatkindofsettingwilltheyreceivethisinformationlargelecturehallorsmallseminarroomorclassroom.
lightingandsoundissues.
timeofday.
受益人人口统计;种族素质与倾向Unit153)Takeintoaccountthe"me,here,now.
"Pictureyourselfasamemberoftheaudienceandask"Howdoesthismessageaffectme,here,now"Me,here,nowtranslatesintowhatyouasasenderhavetoofferyourstudents/receivers—whattheywillbeabletounderstand,accept,support,considerimportant—becauseitmatterstothem.
4)Establishcognitive/behavioralobjectivesforyouraudience:WhatdoIwantmystudentstoknowWhatdoIwantmystudentstodo2.
OpeningsandClosings1)Openings.
Stayawayfromthepredictable(Goodmorning.
OnMonday,wetalkedabout.
.
.
,Today,I'dliketomoveonto.
.
.
).
Instead:Beginwithaprovocativequestion,anecdote,orcurrentevent—andhowitrelatestothecontent.
Asktheaudienceaquestion.
Setupaproblem—andpromisethatthey'llhaveallthetoolsforasolutionbytheendoftheclass.
2)Closings.
Manyspeakerssimplytalkuntiltheendofthetimeorbeyondit—andsay"ISeeWe'reOutOftime.
"Instead:Planarhythmforyourspeaking-plantoendwithcontent5minutesearly,soyoucansummarizeandraisequestions.
Setasideatimeforquestions—andstructurethattime.
3.
PreparationYouprobablycan'tcovereverythingyouwanttoinalecture.
1)Decidewhatisessential,whatisimportant,andwhatishelpful(whatwouldbenice).
Coverthefirst;trytocoverthesecond;forgetaboutthethird.
Releasealittlecontroloverthematerialandrelyonthetextbookoralistofsupplementaryreadingsforthenonessentials.
2)Setobjectives.
Whatdoyouwanttohaveaccomplishedattheendof认知的煽动性的节奏补充的计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)6thelectureWhatdoyouwantthestudentstoknowattheendofthelecture3)Planalecturetocoverlessthantheentireperiod.
Ittakessometimetogetgoing.
Questionsalwaystakeupmoretimethanyouexpect.
4)Dividethelectureintodiscretesegmentsandfollowthestandardspeechstructure.
Divideitbothintermsoftimeandintermsofmaterial.
Tryfortenorfifteenminuteblocks,eachoneofatopic.
Unlikeinapieceofwriting,youshouldtellthemwhatyou'llsay,sayit,andtellthemwhatyou'vesaid.
5)Lecturefromnotesoranoutline,ratherthanacompletetext.
It'stootemptingtosimplyread,ratherthanlecture,fromacompletetext.
Readingalsocreatesabarrierbetweenlecturerandaudience.
Writingupanentirespeechisverytimeconsuming.
Awrittenlectureoftenbecomesafossilthatnevergetsupdated.
4.
Delivery1)Beconversational;speaknaturally;beyourself(oryourbestself).
Thatselfmaybeformal,"laidback,"understated,orhyper.
Usethosetraits;don'tfightagainstthem.
Talkaboutthematerial;don'tlectureaboutit.
(Talkingiseasierifyoudon'treadverbatim.
)2)Varyyourpacingandvoice.
Gaugeaudiencereaction,and.
Repeatcriticalpointsimmediatelyifyousensethenecessity.
Useyourvoicetounderlineanditalicizetheimportantpoints.
Pausebeforenewpoints.
Usetransitionalstatementstomovetothenextidea.
3)Usegesturestoemphasizepoints.
Considergesturestobeamirrorofyourvoice.
Adjustyourgesturestothesizeoftheroom.
4)Lookattheaudience.
Trytocoverallpartsoftheroombydividingitintofour块吸引人的交付亢奋的;特性逐字地步调,语速估计斜体手势Unit17quadrants.
Ifdirecteyecontactmakesyouforgetyourplace,trylookingjustoverastudent'shead,orbetweentwostudents(Theywon'tseethedifference).
5)Uselanguagetocreatepictures.
Usemetaphors,analogies,andsimiles.
6)Observethetechniquesofothers.
Tryoutinyourownclasstechniquesyouadmireinothers.
Likeanyskill,deliveryisnotinnate,butmustbelearned.
5.
Credibility&CommitmentAlthoughteachingisn'ttheater,wedoknowthataudiencefindconcepts,knowledge,skills,andideasmostaccessibleandcrediblefromsomeonetheyconsider.
.
.
well,notdull.
1)Thinkaboutantecedentimage—perceptionisoftenstrongerthanreality.
2)Credibilityisenhancedby:Yourownsenseofcomfortandconfidencepresentingmaterial.
Yourenthusiasmandinterestinteaching.
Yourresearchandownideas.
3)Commitmentisenhancedby:Relatingyourownexperience,ideas,andfeelings.
Takingthefirstpersonapproach,notseparatingyourselffromyoursubject.
Relatingyour"passion"foryoursubject.
4)Deliveryistiedtobothcommitmentandcredibility.
AnoldUCLAstudyofeffectivepresentationsanalyzed3elements(verbal,vocal,visual).
Here'swhatitfoundwasimportantinestablishingcredibility/believability:Verbal(wordsyousay):7%.
Vocal(howyousoundwhenyousaythem):38%.
Visual(howyoulookwhenyousaythem):55%.
5)Yourenergyandintensitywillmoveyouraudience—andhelpyou(them)reachyourobjectives.
6.
BuildingInteraction1)Learningtakesplacebestinanactive,notapassive象限隐喻;类比承诺知觉激情被动的计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)8environment.
2)Interactionisacontinuouswayto:Assessthe"me,here,now".
Determinewhetherornotyourcontentisunderstood.
Sharetheresponsibilityoflearningmoreequitablyandappropriately.
3)HowtobuildinteractionHavequestionsprepared—beginwithrelativelyeasy,accessibleones.
Worktogeteveryoneinvolved,eveninlargeclasses.
4)Askaudiencetoconsiderissueswiththepersonsittingnexttothem/jotdownideas,questions,concerns.
Discussasalargergroup.
5)Moveyourself!
Don'tscurrybackandforth,butdon'tgetlockedintooneposition.
7.
HandlingQuestions1)Explicitlyrequestandencouragequestions.
Theaudiencewillseethatyouhaveagenuineinterestinwhatthey'rethinking.
2)Beawareofhowyourbehaviorandcommentscansetthetoneforquestioning.
Anegativeresponse(e.
g.
,"We'vealreadycoveredthat")discouragesfurtherquestionsandmaymakeaudiencethinkyoudon'treallywantquestions.
3)Makesureeveryonehearsthequestion.
Repeatitifnecessary.
Butdon'tmakeahabitofsimplyrepeatingeveryquestion.
Asktheaudienceiftheyheardthequestion;thenaskthestudenttorepeat.
4)Clarifyquestions.
Say,"Doyoumeanthat.
.
.
,"or"I'msorry,Idon'tunderstandthequestion,"ratherthan"Yourquestionisn'tclear.
"5)Answerquestionsasdirectlyaspossible.
Addressyouranswertothewholeaudience.
Askwhetheryouhaveansweredthequestion.
6)Bediplomaticwhenpeopleraisetangential,overly-complicatedquestions,orpersistentlyaskquestionsjustto公正地适当地略记急跑真实的语气老练的;离题的Unit19beasking.
Askthemtostopbyafterthepresentationortocontactyou.
Ifsomeoneissimplyconfused,say,"Letmegooverthispointabitmoreslowly.
"8.
GettingFeedback1)Getregularfeedback.
Asktheaudiencetospendthelastfiveminutesofclasswritingdownthemostimportantthingtheylearnedthatdayoronequestiontheyhaveasaresultofthetalk.
Oraskthemtowritedownquestionstheystillhave.
2)Useeyecontactasatoolforcontinuousfeedback.
Ifyounoticepeoplewithquestioninglooks,stopwhatyou'redoingandaskifyouneedtoclarify.
Ifyougetnoresponse,goaheadandclarify.
(fromhttp://teaching.
berkeley.
edu/docs/speakingtips.
pdf)困惑的Remarks:ThisarticleisselectedfromUCBerkeleyandguideoverallinstructionstogiveaneasyandeffectivespeech.
2.
OralPracticePleasediscussthefollowingproblemswithyourpartner.
Makeadialoguebasedonthepreviousguidanceandyouranswer.
Questions:1)Howcanyoumakeyourspeakingeasierandmoreeffective2)Whatcanyoulearnfromopeningandclosing1.
3Reading:WhatisComputerSciencefromWikipediaPassageⅠComputerScienceComputerscienceorcomputingscience(sometimesabbreviatedCS)isthestudyofthetheoreticalfoundationsofinformationandcomputation,andofpracticaltechniquesfortheirimplementationandapplicationincomputersystems.
Itisfrequentlydescribedasthesystematicstudyofalgorithmicprocessesthatcreate,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)10describe,andtransforminformation.
Computersciencehasmanysub-fields;some,suchascomputergraphics,emphasizethecomputationofspecificresults,whileothers,suchascomputationalcomplexitytheory,studythepropertiesofcomputationalproblems.
Stillothersfocusonthechallengesinimplementingcomputations.
Forexample,programminglanguagetheorystudiesapproachestodescribecomputations,whilecomputerprogrammingappliesspecificprogramminglanguagestosolvespecificcomputationalproblems,andhuman-computerinteractionfocusesonthechallengesinmakingcomputersandcomputationsuseful,usable,anduniversallyaccessibletopeople.
Thegeneralpublicsometimesconfusescomputersciencewithcareersthatdealwithcomputers(suchasthenounInformationTechnology),orthinkthatitrelatestotheirownexperienceofcomputers,whichtypicallyinvolvesactivitiessuchasgaming,web-browsing,andword-processing.
However,thefocusofcomputerscienceismoreonunderstandingthepropertiesoftheprogramsusedtoimplementsoftwaresuchasgamesandweb-browsers,andusingthatunderstandingtocreatenewprogramsorimproveexistingones.
HistoryTheearlyfoundationsofwhatwouldbecomecomputersciencepredatetheinventionofthemoderndigitalcomputer.
Machinesforcalculatingfixednumericaltasks,suchastheabacus,haveexistedsinceantiquity.
WilhelmSchickardbuiltthefirstmechanicalcalculatorin1623.
CharlesBabbagedesignedadifferenceengineinVictoriantimeshelpedbyAdaLovelace.
Around1900,punch-cardmachineswereintroduced.
However,allofthesemachineswereconstrainedtoperformasingletask,oratbestsomesubsetofallpossibletasks.
Duringthe1940s,asnewerandmorepowerfulcomputingmachinesweredeveloped,thetermcomputercametorefertothemachinesratherthantheirhumanpredecessors.
Asitbecameclearthatcomputerscouldbeusedformorethanjustmathematicalcalculations,thefieldofcomputersciencebroadenedtostudycomputationingeneral.
Computersciencebegantobeestablishedasadistinctacademicdisciplineinthe1950sandearly1960s.
ThefirstcomputersciencedegreeprogramintheUnitedStateswasformedatPurdueUniversityin1962.
Sincepracticalcomputersbecameavailable,manyapplicationsofcomputinghavebecomedistinctareasofstudyintheirownright.
Althoughmanyinitiallybelieveditwasimpossiblethatcomputersthemselvescouldactuallybeascientificfieldofstudy,inthelatefiftiesitgraduallybecameacceptedamongthegreateracademicpopulation.
Itisthenowwell-knownIBMbrandthatformedpartofthecomputersciencerevolutionduringthistime.
IBM(shortforInternationalBusinessMachines)releasedtheIBM704andlatertheIBMUnit111709computers,whichwerewidelyusedduringtheexplorationperiodofsuchdevices.
"Still,workingwiththeIBM[computer]wasfrustrating.
.
.
ifyouhadmisplacedasmuchasoneletterinoneinstruction,theprogramwouldcrash,andyouwouldhavetostartthewholeprocessoveragain".
Duringthelate1950s,thecomputersciencedisciplinewasverymuchinitsdevelopmentalstages,andsuchissueswerecommonplace.
Timehasseensignificantimprovementsintheusabilityandeffectivenessofcomputersciencetechnology.
Modernsocietyhasseenasignificantshiftfromcomputersbeingusedsolelybyexpertsorprofessionalstoamorewidespreaduserbase.
MajorachievementsDespiteitsshorthistoryasaformalacademicdiscipline,computersciencehasmadeanumberoffundamentalcontributionstoscienceandsociety.
Theseinclude:Thestartofthe"digitalrevolution,"whichincludesthecurrentInformationAgeandtheInternet.
Aformaldefinitionofcomputationandcomputability,andproofthattherearecomputationallyunsolvableandintractableproblems.
Theconceptofaprogramminglanguage,atoolforthepreciseexpressionofmethodologicalinformationatvariouslevelsofabstraction.
Incryptography,breakingtheEnigmamachinewasanimportantfactorcontributingtotheAlliedvictoryinWorldWarII.
Scientificcomputingenabledadvancedstudyofthemind,andmappingofthehumangenomebecamepossiblewiththeHumanGenomeProject.
DistributedcomputingprojectssuchasFolding@homeexploreproteinfolding.
Algorithmictradinghasincreasedtheefficiencyandliquidityoffinancialmarketsbyusingartificialintelligence,machinelearning,andotherstatisticalandnumericaltechniquesonalargescale.
AreasofcomputerscienceAsadiscipline,computersciencespansarangeoftopicsfromtheoreticalstudiesofalgorithmsandthelimitsofcomputationtothepracticalissuesofimplementingcomputingsystemsinhardwareandsoftware.
TheComputerSciencesAccreditationBoard(CSAB)—whichismadeupofrepresentativesoftheAssociationforComputingMachinery(ACM),theInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineersComputerSociety(IEEE),andtheAssociationforInformationSystems(AIS)—identifiesfourareasthatitconsiderscrucialtothedisciplineofcomputerscience:theoryofcomputation,algorithmsanddatastructures,programmingmethodologyandlanguages,andcomputerelementsandarchitecture.
Inadditiontothesefourareas,CSABalsoidentifiesfieldssuchassoftwareengineering,artificialintelligence,computernetworkingandcommunication,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)12databasesystems,parallelcomputation,distributedcomputation,computer-humaninteraction,computergraphics,operatingsystems,andnumericalandsymboliccomputationasbeingimportantareasofcomputerscience.
TheoreticalcomputerscienceThebroaderfieldoftheoreticalcomputerscienceencompassesboththeclassicaltheoryofcomputationandawiderangeofothertopicsthatfocusonthemoreabstract,logical,andmathematicalaspectsofcomputing.
TheoryofcomputationAccordingtoPeterJ.
Denning,thefundamentalquestionunderlyingcomputerscienceis,"Whatcanbe(efficiently)automated"Thestudyofthetheoryofcomputationisfocusedonansweringfundamentalquestionsaboutwhatcanbecomputedandwhatamountofresourcesarerequiredtoperformthosecomputations.
Inanefforttoanswerthefirstquestion,computabilitytheoryexamineswhichcomputationalproblemsaresolvableonvarioustheoreticalmodelsofcomputation.
Thesecondquestionisaddressedbycomputationalcomplexitytheory,whichstudiesthetimeandspacecostsassociatedwithdifferentapproachestosolvingacomputationalproblem.
Thefamous"P=NP"problem,oneoftheMillenniumPrizeProblems,isanopenprobleminthetheoryofcomputation.
Unit113AlgorithmsanddatastructuresComputerelementsandarchitectureComputationalscienceComputationalscience(orscientificcomputing)isthefieldofstudyconcernedwithconstructingmathematicalmodelsandquantitativeanalysistechniquesandusingcomputerstoanalyseandsolvescientificproblems.
Inpracticaluse,itistypicallytheapplicationofcomputersimulationandotherformsofcomputationtoproblemsinvariousscientificdisciplines.
ArtificialIntelligenceThisbranchofcomputerscienceaimstocreatesyntheticsystemswhichsolvecomputationalproblems,reasonand/orcommunicatelikeanimalsandhumansdo.
Thistheoreticalandappliedsubfieldrequiresaveryrigorousandintegratedexpertiseinmultiplesubjectareassuchasappliedmathematics,logic,semiotics,electricalengineering,philosophyofmind,neurophysiology,andsocialintelligencewhichcanbeusedtoadvancethefieldofintelligenceresearchorbeappliedtoothersubjectareaswhichrequirecomputationalunderstandingandmodellingsuchasinfinanceorthephysicalsciences.
Itallstartedwiththegrandfatherofcomputerscienceandartificialintelligence,AlanTuring,whoproposedtheTuringTestforthepurposeofansweringtheultimate计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)14question.
.
.
"Cancomputersthink".
SoftwareEngineeringTheIEEEComputerSociety'sSoftwareEngineeringBodyofKnowledgedefines"softwareengineering"astheapplicationofasystematic,disciplined,quantifiableapproachtothedevelopment,operation,andmaintenanceofsoftware,andthestudyoftheseapproaches;thatis,theapplicationofengineeringtosoftware.
[24]In2004,anewlyestablisheddegreeofsoftwareengineeringestablishedbybothACMandIEEEwasformedtoaddresstheseissues;adocumentcalledCCSEwaswrittentoexplainthedetails.
Inadditionthosewithdegreesininformationtechnologyormanagementinformationsystemsareoftenfoundtobenecessarysupportiverolesforbothsoftwareengineeringandcomputationalwork.
Unit115RelationshipwithotherfieldsDespiteitsname,asignificantamountofcomputersciencedoesnotinvolvethestudyofcomputersthemselves.
Becauseofthis,severalalternativenameshavebeenproposed.
Certaindepartmentsofmajoruniversitiespreferthetermcomputingscience,toemphasizepreciselythatdifference.
DanishscientistPeterNaursuggestedthetermdatalogy,toreflectthefactthatthescientificdisciplinerevolvesarounddataanddatatreatment,whilenotnecessarilyinvolvingcomputers.
ThefirstscientificinstitutiontousethetermwastheDepartmentofDatalogyattheUniversityofCopenhagen,foundedin1969,withPeterNaurbeingthefirstprofessorindatalogy.
ThetermisusedmainlyintheScandinaviancountries.
Also,intheearlydaysofcomputing,anumberoftermsforthepractitionersofthefieldofcomputingweresuggestedintheCommunicationsoftheACM—turingineer,turologist,flow-charts-man,appliedmeta-mathematician,andappliedepistemologist.
Threemonthslaterinthesamejournal,comptologistwassuggested,followednextyearbyhypologist.
Thetermcomputicshasalsobeensuggested.
IncontinentalEurope,namessuchasinformatique(French),Informatik(German)orinformatica(Dutch),derivedfrominformationandpossiblymathematicsorautomatic,aremorecommonthannamesderivedfromcomputer/computation.
TherenownedcomputerscientistEdsgerDijkstrastated,"Computerscienceisnomoreaboutcomputersthanastronomyisabouttelescopes.
"Thedesignanddeploymentofcomputersandcomputersystemsisgenerallyconsideredtheprovinceofdisciplinesotherthancomputerscience.
Forexample,thestudyofcomputerhardwareisusuallyconsideredpartofcomputerengineering,whilethestudyofcommercialcomputersystemsandtheirdeploymentisoftencalledinformationtechnologyorinformationsystems.
However,therehasbeenmuchcross-fertilizationofideasbetweenthevariouscomputer-relateddisciplines.
Computerscienceresearchhasalsooftencrossedintootherdisciplines,suchasphilosophy,cognitivescience,linguistics,mathematics,physics,statistics,andeconomics.
Computerscienceisconsideredbysometohaveamuchcloserrelationshipwithmathematicsthanmanyscientificdisciplines,withsomeobserverssayingthatcomputingisamathematicalscience.
EarlycomputersciencewasstronglyinfluencedbytheworkofmathematicianssuchasKurtGdelandAlanTuring,andtherecontinuestobeausefulinterchangeofideasbetweenthetwofieldsinareassuchasmathematicallogic,categorytheory,domaintheory,andalgebra.
Therelationshipbetweencomputerscienceandsoftwareengineeringisacontentiousissue,whichisfurthermuddiedbydisputesoverwhattheterm"softwareengineering"means,andhowcomputerscienceisdefined.
DavidParnas,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)16takingacuefromtherelationshipbetweenotherengineeringandsciencedisciplines,hasclaimedthattheprincipalfocusofcomputerscienceisstudyingthepropertiesofcomputationingeneral,whiletheprincipalfocusofsoftwareengineeringisthedesignofspecificcomputationstoachievepracticalgoals,makingthetwoseparatebutcomplementarydisciplines.
Theacademic,political,andfundingaspectsofcomputersciencetendtodependonwhetheradepartmentformedwithamathematicalemphasisorwithanengineeringemphasis.
Computersciencedepartmentswithamathematicsemphasisandwithanumericalorientationconsideralignmentcomputationalscience.
Bothtypesofdepartmentstendtomakeeffortstobridgethefieldeducationallyifnotacrossallresearch.
ComputerscienceeducationSomeuniversitiesteachcomputerscienceasatheoreticalstudyofcomputationandalgorithmicreasoning.
Theseprogramsoftenfeaturethetheoryofcomputation,analysisofalgorithms,formalmethods,concurrencytheory,databases,computergraphics,andsystemsanalysis,amongothers.
Theytypicallyalsoteachcomputerprogramming,buttreatitasavesselforthesupportofotherfieldsofcomputerscienceratherthanacentralfocusofhigh-levelstudy.
Othercollegesanduniversities,aswellassecondaryschoolsandvocationalprogramsthatteachcomputerscience,emphasizethepracticeofadvancedprogrammingratherthanthetheoryofalgorithmsandcomputationintheircomputersciencecurricula.
Suchcurriculatendtofocusonthoseskillsthatareimportanttoworkersenteringthesoftwareindustry.
Thepracticalaspectsofcomputerprogrammingareoftenreferredtoassoftwareengineering.
However,thereisalotofdisagreementoverthemeaningoftheterm,andwhetherornotitisthesamethingasprogramming.
(fromhttp://en.
wikipedia.
org/wiki/Computer_science)Vocabularycomputergraphics计算机图形学computationalcomplexitytheory计算复杂性理论computabilitytheory可计算性理论computationallyunsolvableandintractableproblems计算不可解和计算不可行问题scientificcomputing科学计算artificialintelligence人工智能machinelearning机器学习ACM美国计算机学会IEEE电气电子工程师协会Unit117algorithmsanddatastructures算法和数据结构programmingmethodologyandlanguages程序设计方法与语言softwareengineering软件工程computerelementsandarchitecture计算机组成与架构computernetworkingandcommunication计算机网络与通信databasesystems数据库系统parallelcomputation并行计算distributedcomputation分布式计算numericalandsymboliccomputation数值和符号计算mathematicallogic数理逻辑automatatheory自动机理论numbertheory数论graphtheory图论typetheory类型论categorytheory范畴论computationalgeometry计算几何quantumcomputingtheory量子计算理论cryptography密码学digitallogic数字逻辑microarchitecture微架构multiprocessing多处理domaintheory畴理论algebra代数numericalanalysis数值分析computationalphysics计算物理bioinformatics生物信息学computervision计算机视觉imageprocessing图像处理patternrecognition模式识别cognitivescience认知科学datamining数据挖掘evolutionarycomputation演化计算informationretrieval信息检索knowledgerepresentation知识表达naturallanguageprocessing自然语言处理robotics机器人学human-computerinteraction人机交互operatingsystems操作系统computersecurity计算机安全计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)18ubiquitouscomputing普适计算compilerdesign编译器设计1.
Translation1)Computerscienceorcomputingscience(sometimesabbreviatedCS)isthestudyofthetheoreticalfoundationsofinformationandcomputation,andofpracticaltechniquesfortheirimplementationandapplicationincomputersystems.
2)Thegeneralpublicsometimesconfusescomputersciencewithcareersthatdealwithcomputers(suchasthenounInformationTechnology),orthinkthatitrelatestotheirownexperienceofcomputers,whichtypicallyinvolvesactivitiessuchasgaming,web-browsing,andword-processing.
3)Asadiscipline,computersciencespansarangeoftopicsfromtheoreticalstudiesofalgorithmsandthelimitsofcomputationtothepracticalissuesofimplementingcomputingsystemsinhardwareandsoftware.
4)Inanefforttoanswerthefirstquestion,computabilitytheoryexamineswhichcomputationalproblemsaresolvableonvarioustheoreticalmodelsofcomputation.
Thesecondquestionisaddressedbycomputationalcomplexitytheory,whichstudiesthetimeandspacecostsassociatedwithdifferentapproachestosolvingacomputationalproblem.
5)Thisbranchofcomputerscienceaimstocreatesyntheticsystemswhichsolvecomputationalproblems,reasonand/orcommunicatelikeanimalsandhumansdo.
Unit1192.
AnswertheQuestions1)Whatisthemajorachievementofcomputerscience2)WhatarethemajorareasofcomputersciencePassageⅡHistoryofComputerScienceThehistoryofcomputersciencebeganlongbeforethemoderndisciplineofcomputersciencethatemergedinthetwentiethcentury,andhintedatinthecenturiesprior.
Theprogression,frommechanicalinventionsandmathematicaltheoriestowardsthemodernconceptsandmachines,formedamajoracademicfieldandthebasisofamassiveworldwideindustry.
1.
Earlyhistory(1)EarlycomputationTheearliestknowntoolforuseincomputationwastheabacus,anditwasthoughttohavebeeninventedinBabyloncirca2400BCE.
Itsoriginalstyleofusagewasbylinesdrawninsandwithpebbles.
Thiswasthefirstknowncomputerandmostadvancedsystemofcalculationknowntodate—precedingGreekmethodsby2,000years.
Abaciofamoremoderndesignarestillusedascalculationtoolstoday.
In1115BCE,theSouthPointingChariotwasinventedinancientChina.
Itwasthefirstknowngearedmechanismtouseadifferentialgear,whichwaslaterusedinanalogcomputers.
TheChinesealsoinventedamoresophisticatedabacusfromaroundthe2ndcenturyBCE,knownastheChineseabacus.
Inthe5thcenturyBCEinancientIndia,thegrammarianPaniniformulatedthegrammarofSanskritin3959rulesknownastheAshtadhyayiwhichwashighlysystematizedandtechnical.
Paniniusedmetarules,transformationsandrecursions.
TheAntikytheramechanismisbelievedtobetheearliestknownmechanicalanalogcomputer.
Itwasdesignedtocalculateastronomicalpositions.
Itwasdiscoveredin1901intheAntikytherawreckofftheGreekislandofAntikythera,betweenKytheraandCrete,andhasbeendatedtocirca100BC.
Technologicalartifactsofsimilarcomplexitydidnotreappearuntilthe14thcentury,whenmechanicalastronomicalclocksappearedinEurope.
MechanicalanalogcomputingdevicesappearedagainathousandyearslaterinthemedievalIslamicworld.
ExamplesofdevicesfromthisperiodincludetheequatoriumbyArzachel,themechanicalgearedastrolabebyAbūRayhānal-Bīrūnī,andthetorquetumbyJabiribnAflah.
MuslimengineersbuiltanumberofAutomata,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)20includingsomemusicalautomatathatcouldbe'programmed'toplaydifferentmusicalpatterns.
ThesedevicesweredevelopedbytheBanūMūsābrothersandAl-JazariMuslimmathematiciansalsomadeimportantadvancesincryptography,suchasthedevelopmentofcryptanalysisandfrequencyanalysisbyAlkindus.
WhenJohnNapierdiscoveredlogarithmsforcomputationalpurposesintheearly17thcentury,therefollowedaperiodofconsiderableprogressbyinventorsandscientistsinmakingcalculatingtools.
Around1640,BlaisePascal,aleadingFrenchmathematician,constructedthefirstmechanicaladdingdevicebasedonadesigndescribedbyGreekmathematicianHeroofAlexandria.
Noneoftheearlycomputationaldeviceswerereallycomputersinthemodernsense,andittookconsiderableadvancementinmathematicsandtheorybeforethefirstmoderncomputerscouldbedesigned.
(2)AlgorithmsInthe7thcentury,IndianmathematicianBrahmaguptagavethefirstexplanationoftheHindu-Arabicnumeralsystemandtheuseofzeroasbothaplaceholderandadecimaldigit.
Approximatelyaroundtheyear825,PersianmathematicianAl-Khwarizmiwroteabook,OntheCalculationwithHinduNumerals,thatwasprincipallyresponsibleforthediffusionoftheIndiansystemofnumerationintheMiddleEastandthenEurope.
Aroundthe12thcentury,therewastranslationofthisbookwrittenintoLatin:AlgoritmidenumeroIndorum.
Thesebookspresentednewerconceptstoperformaseriesofstepsinordertoaccomplishatasksuchasthesystematicapplicationofarithmetictoalgebra.
Byderivationfromhisname,wehavethetermalgorithm.
Algorithm-isthecomputerinusingamathematicalequation.
(3)BinarylogicAroundthe3rdcenturyBC,IndianmathematicianPingaladiscoveredthebinarynumeralsystem.
Inthissystem,stillusedtodayinallmoderncomputers,asequenceofonesandzeroscanrepresentanynumber.
In1703,GottfriedLeibnitzdevelopedlogicinaformal,mathematicalsensewithhiswritingsonthebinarynumeralsystem.
Inhissystem,theonesandzerosalsorepresenttrueandfalsevaluesoronandoffstates.
ButittookmorethanacenturybeforeGeorgeBoolepublishedhisBooleanalgebrain1854withacompletesystemthatallowedcomputationalprocessestobemathematicallymodeled.
Bythistime,thefirstmechanicaldevicesdrivenbyabinarypatternhadbeeninvented.
Theindustrialrevolutionhaddrivenforwardthemechanizationofmanytasks,andthisincludedweaving.
PunchedcardscontrolledJosephMarieJacquard'sloomin1801,whereaholepunchedinthecardindicatedabinaryoneandanunpunchedspotindicatedabinaryzero.
Jacquard'sloomwasfarfrombeingaUnit121computer,butitdidillustratethatmachinescouldbedrivenbybinarysystems.
(4)BirthofcomputerscienceBeforethe1920s,computers(sometimescomputers)werehumanclerksthatperformedcomputations.
Theywereusuallyundertheleadofaphysicist.
Manythousandsofcomputerswereemployedincommerce,government,andresearchestablishments.
Mostofthesecomputerswerewomen,andtheywereknowntohaveadegreeincalculus.
Someperformedastronomicalcalculationsforcalendars.
Afterthe1920s,theexpressioncomputingmachinereferredtoanymachinethatperformedtheworkofahumancomputer,especiallythoseinaccordancewitheffectivemethodsoftheChurch-Turingthesis.
Thethesisstatesthatamathematicalmethodiseffectiveifitcouldbesetoutasalistofinstructionsabletobefollowedbyahumanclerkwithpaperandpencil,foraslongasnecessary,andwithoutingenuityorinsight.
Machinesthatcomputedwithcontinuousvaluesbecameknownastheanalogkind.
Theyusedmachinerythatrepresentedcontinuousnumericquantities,liketheangleofashaftrotationordifferenceinelectricalpotential.
Digitalmachinery,incontrasttoanalog,wereabletorenderastateofanumericvalueandstoreeachindividualdigit.
Digitalmachineryuseddifferenceenginesorrelaysbeforetheinventionoffastermemorydevices.
Thephrasecomputingmachinegraduallygaveaway,afterthelate1940s,tojustcomputerastheonsetofelectronicdigitalmachinerybecamecommon.
Thesecomputerswereabletoperformthecalculationsthatwereperformedbytheprevioushumanclerks.
Sincethevaluesstoredbydigitalmachineswerenotboundtophysicalpropertieslikeanalogdevices,alogicalcomputer,basedondigitalequipment,wasabletodoanythingthatcouldbedescribed"purelymechanical.
"ThetheoreticalTuringMachine,createdbyAlanTuring,isahypotheticaldevicetheorizedinordertostudythepropertiesofsuchhardware.
2.
Emergenceofadiscipline(1)ThetheoreticalgroundworkThemathematicalfoundationsofmoderncomputersciencebegantobelaidbyKurtGdelwithhisincompletenesstheorem(1931).
Inthistheorem,heshowedthattherewerelimitstowhatcouldbeprovedanddisprovedwithinaformalsystem.
ThisledtoworkbyGdelandotherstodefineanddescribetheseformalsystems,includingconceptssuchasmu-recursivefunctionsandlambda-definablefunctions.
1936wasakeyyearforcomputerscience.
AlanTuringandAlonzoChurchindependently,andalsotogether,introducedtheformalizationofanalgorithm,withlimitsonwhatcanbecomputed,anda"purelymechanical"modelforcomputing.
计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)22ThesetopicsarecoveredbywhatisnowcalledtheChurch-Turingthesis,ahypothesisaboutthenatureofmechanicalcalculationdevices,suchaselectroniccomputers.
Thethesisclaimsthatanycalculationthatispossiblecanbeperformedbyanalgorithmrunningonacomputer,providedthatsufficienttimeandstoragespaceareavailable.
TuringalsoincludedwiththethesisadescriptionoftheTuringmachine.
ATuringmachinehasaninfinitelylongtapeandaread/writeheadthatcanmovealongthetape,changingthevaluesalongtheway.
Clearlysuchamachinecouldneverbebuilt,butnonetheless,themodelcansimulatethecomputationofanyalgorithmwhichcanbeperformedonamoderncomputer.
TuringissoimportanttocomputersciencethathisnameisalsofeaturedontheTuringAwardandtheTuringtest.
HecontributedgreatlytoBritishcode-breakingsuccessesintheSecondWorldWar,andcontinuedtodesigncomputersandsoftwarethroughthe1940s,butcommittedsuicidein1954.
Atasymposiumonlarge-scaledigitalmachineryinCambridge,Turingsaid,"Wearetryingtobuildamachinetodoallkindsofdifferentthingssimplybyprogrammingratherthanbytheadditionofextraapparatus".
In1948,thefirstpracticalcomputerthatcouldrunstoredprograms,basedontheTuringmachinemodel,hadbeenbuilt—theManchesterBaby.
In1950,Britain'sNationalPhysicalLaboratorycompletedPilotACE,asmallscaleprogrammablecomputer,basedonTuring'sphilosophy.
(2)ShannonandinformationtheoryUptoandduringthe1930s,electricalengineerswereabletobuildelectroniccircuitstosolvemathematicalandlogicproblems,butmostdidsoinanadhocmanner,lackinganytheoreticalrigor.
ThischangedwithClaudeElwoodShannon'spublicationofhis1937master'sthesis,ASymbolicAnalysisofRelayandSwitchingCircuits.
Whiletakinganundergraduatephilosophyclass,ShannonhadbeenexposedtoBoole'swork,andrecognizedthatitcouldbeusedtoarrangeelectromechanicalrelays(thenusedintelephoneroutingswitches)tosolvelogicproblems.
Thisconcept,ofutilizingthepropertiesofelectricalswitchestodologic,isthebasicconceptthatunderliesallelectronicdigitalcomputers,andhisthesisbecamethefoundationofpracticaldigitalcircuitdesignwhenitbecamewidelyknownamongtheelectricalengineeringcommunityduringandafterWorldWarII.
Shannonwentontofoundthefieldofinformationtheorywithhis1948papertitledAMathematicalTheoryofCommunication,whichappliedprobabilitytheorytotheproblemofhowtobestencodetheinformationasenderwantstotransmit.
Thisworkisoneofthetheoreticalfoundationsformanyareasofstudy,includingdatacompressionandcryptography.
Unit123(3)WienerandCyberneticsFromexperimentswithanti-aircraftsystemsthatinterpretedradarimagestodetectenemyplanes,NorbertWienercoinedthetermcyberneticsfromtheGreekwordfor"steersman.
"Hepublished"Cybernetics"in1948,whichinfluencedartificialintelligence.
Wieneralsocomparedcomputation,computingmachinery,memorydevices,andothercognitivesimilaritieswithhisanalysisofbrainwaves.
3.
ThefirstcomputerbugThefirstactualcomputerbugwasamoth.
ItwasstuckinbetweentherelaysontheHarvardMarkII.
Whiletheinventionoftheterm'bug'isoftenbuterroneouslyattributedtoGraceHopper,arearadmiralintheU.
S.
Navy,whosupposedlyloggedthe"bug"onSeptember9,1945,mostotheraccountsconflictatleastwiththesedetails.
Accordingtotheseaccounts,theactualdatewasSeptember9,1947whenoperatorsfiledthis'incident'—alongwiththeinsectandthenotation"Firstactualcaseofbugbeingfound".
(fromhttp://en.
wikipedia.
org/wiki/History_of_computer_science)Remarks:Whenyouareconfusedinnewtermsincomputerscience,Wikipediaalwaysisoneofthebeststartingpointtogiveyouaccessabletutorialsandguidancetofurtherreadings.
Vocabularyautomata[C:5tCmEtE]n.
自动装置(automaton的复数)logarithm[5lC^EriTEm]n.
对数Church-TuringthesisChurch-Turing论题TuringMachine图灵机Gdel歌德尔incompletenesstheorem不完备理论TuringAward图灵奖Turingtest图灵测试Informationtheory信息论Adhoc临时的Cybernetics控制论Babylonn.
巴比伦Circaprep.
大约于Pebblen.
鹅卵石Recursionn.
递归,循环Astronomicaladj.
天文学的Medievaladj.
中世纪的计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)24Equatoriumn.
行星Astrolaben.
天体观测仪Torquetumn.
赤基黄道仪Apparatusn.
装置1.
Translation1)Thethesisstatesthatamathematicalmethodiseffectiveifitcouldbesetoutasalistofinstructionsabletobefollowedbyahumanclerkwithpaperandpencil,foraslongasnecessary,andwithoutingenuityorinsight.
2)ThemathematicalfoundationsofmoderncomputersciencebegantobelaidbyKurtGdelwithhisincompletenesstheorem(1931).
Inthistheorem,heshowedthattherewerelimitstowhatcouldbeprovedanddisprovedwithinaformalsystem.
3)ATuringmachinehasaninfinitelylongtapeandaread/writeheadthatcanmovealongthetape,changingthevaluesalongtheway.
Clearlysuchamachinecouldneverbebuilt,butnonetheless,themodelcansimulatethecomputationofanyalgorithmwhichcanbeperformedonamoderncomputer.
4)Whiletakinganundergraduatephilosophyclass,ShannonhadbeenexposedtoBoole'swork,andrecognizedthatitcouldbeusedtoarrangeelectromechanicalrelays(thenusedintelephoneroutingswitches)tosolvelogicproblems.
2.
AnswertheQuestions1)Describethebirthofcomputerscience.
2)SummarizetheShannon'sandWiener'scontributions.
Unit1251.
4Writing:IntroductiontoWritinginEnglishforanEnglishAcademicAudienceTheMajorProblemwhenWritingforaUSAcademicAudienceOrganizationofideaswithinessaysisoftenthegreatestweaknessofmanybeginningwritingstudentsinUScollegesanduniversities.
Mostbeginningcompositioncoursesthere—evenfornativeEnglishspeakers—focusspecificallyonorganization.
Fornon-nativeEnglishspeakingstudents,organizationofideaswithinessaysisproblematicbecausedifferentculturalbackgroundsrequiredifferentorganizationalpatterns.
RobertKaplanhaswrittenabouttheorganizationaldifferencesamongavarietyofculturalgroupswhichherepresentsasfollows:(Kaplan1-20)TheclassicorganizationalpatternthatreadersofEnglishexpectisastraightlineofdevelopmentwhichincludesintroductions,mainideas,topicsentences,supportingdetails,conclusions,etc.
Thisorganizationalpatterncanbestatedsimply:"Tellyouraudiencewhatyouaregoingtotellthem;thentellthem;thentellthemwhatyoutoldthem.
"Althoughtheorganizationalpatternsoftheculturessuchasthoseidentifiedaboveareallvalid,inordertosucceedwhenwritingforanEnglishspeakingacademicaudience,itisnecessarytoadapttothoseexpectations.
However,adaptingtotheculturalexpectationsofanEnglishspeakingacademicaudienceisnotaneasytask.
AJapanesewriter,forexample,willoftenbeginbywritingaboutavarietyofitemssurroundingatopicbeforearrivingatthemainpointwhichisstatedintheconclusion.
AtypicalcommentthatareaderofanessaywrittenbyaJapanesewritermightbe"Whenishe/shegoingtogettothepoint"andtheJapanesewritermightrespond,"ButIdonotliketobesodirect;itisnottheJapanesenaturetobesodirect.
"Likewise,aMexicanwriterwilloftenbeginwithabriefintroductionandthenwriteaboutonesideofanissueandthen计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)26another—oftenwithmuchadornment—beforecomingtothemainpointintheconclusion.
AtypicalcommentthatareaderofanessaywrittenbyaMexicanwritermightbe"ButIdon'tunderstandhis/hermainpoint;it'sneverreallystated,andit'snotclear.
"TheMexicanwritermightrespond,"ButIwouldlikeyoutounderstandallthepossibilitiesandthecontextsoyoucangetinvolvedinwhatIhavetosay.
"AlthoughadaptingtotheculturalexpectationsofanEnglishspeakingacademicaudiencemaynotbeaneasytask,itisanecessaryone,especiallyifonewantstobeheard.
WhataboutthosewriterswhosucceedinadaptingtotheorganizationalexpectationsoftheEnglishspeakingacademicaudienceDotheylosetheirabilitytowriteintheirnativelanguageAnswer:Theycan.
ThereisthestoryoftheKoreanwhoearnedhisDoctorateintheUnitedStatesaftereightyearsofstudy.
WhenhewroteascholarlyarticleinKoreanabouthisareaofconcentration,thearticlewasrejectedbecauseitwas"notgoodKorean.
"Thus,ifawriteradjuststotheexpectationsofaforeignaudience,itisimportanttorememberthatasimilar"readjustment"willbenecessarywhenrevertingbacktowritinginthenativelanguage(Kaplan).
Finally,animportantreasonforwriting,especiallyfornon-nativespeakersofEnglish,istoinfluenceone'ssocial,economic,orpoliticalenvironment.
Thus,meaningfulwritingoftenchallengestheexistingpowerstructures.
Researchersineducationwhoarecommittedtochangingthepowerstructuresthatexistbetweenthosewhohavepowerandthosewhohavelittleornopower(nativeEnglishspeakersvs.
non-nativeEnglishspeakersinmanycases)saythat"Studentsshouldunderstandthepowerrealities",andthatteachersshouldteachthe"communicativecodesofthepowerful"includingwaysofwriting.
Onlybyadaptingtothecommunicativecodesofthepowerfulwillwritersstrengthentheircapacitytobeheard.
PerhapsthroughwritingthatmeetstheexpectationsoftheUSacademicaudience,non-nativespeakersofEnglishcaninfluencesocial,economic,andpoliticaldevelopmentstoconformtotheirvisionofabetterworld.
(fromhttp://eslbee.
com/advanced_composition.
htm,IntroductiontoWritinginEnglishforanEnglishAcademicAudience)Remarks:Thisarticlediscussesacademicwritingproblemfromaspecialviewpoint—thinkingmode.
Itespeciallypinpointsacommonmistakeinorganizationofexpression:non-nativespeakerswriteintheirculturemodes,notinaudience'sculturemode.
Fornon-nativespeakers,theyshouldadjusttheirpatterntoadapttheexpectationofEnglishaudience—astraightlineofdevelopment,statingdirectly,andpresentingimportancepreempatively.
Unit127Vocabularyadapt[E5dApt]v.
适应adornment[E5dC:nmEnt]n.
装饰context[5kCntekst]n.
上下文1.
5InsideAcademics:HowtoWriteEmailorWhatisEmailEtiquetteWhydoyouneedemailetiquetteEtiquetterulesneedtobeimplementedforthefollowingreasons:Professionalism:byusingproperemaillanguageyourstudentorganizationwillconveyaprofessionalimage.
Efficiency:emailsthatgettothepointaremuchmoreeffectivethanpoorlywordedemails.
1.
WhataretheetiquetterulesTherearemanyetiquetteguidesandmanydifferentetiquetterules.
Someruleswilldifferaccordingtothenatureofyourbusinessandtheculture.
Belowwelistwhatweconsiderasthe32mostimportantemailetiquetterulesthatapplytonearlyallsettings.
2.
32mostimportantemailetiquettetips:1)Beconciseandtothepoint2)Answerallquestions,andpre-emptfurtherquestions3)Useproperspelling,grammar&punctuation4)Makeitpersonal5)Usetemplatesforfrequentlyusedresponses6)Answerswiftly7)Donotattachunnecessaryfiles8)Useproperstructure&layout9)Donotoverusethehighpriorityoption10)DonotwriteinCAPITALS11)Don'tleaveoutthemessagethread12)Adddisclaimerstoyouremails13)Readtheemailbeforeyousendit礼节,规矩先占,先取得即刻布局免责声明计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)2814)DonotoveruseReplytoAll15)Mailings>usethebcc:fieldordoamailmerge16)Takecarewithabbreviationsandemoticons17)Becarefulwithformatting18)TakecarewithrichtextandHTMLmessages19)Donotforwardchainletters20)Donotrequestdeliveryandreadreceipts21)Donotasktorecallamessage.
22)Donotcopyamessageorattachmentwithoutpermission23)Donotuseemailtodiscussconfidentialinformation24)Useameaningfulsubject25)Useactiveinsteadofpassive26)AvoidusingURGENTandIMPORTANT27)Avoidlongsentences28)Don'tsendorforwardemailscontaininglibelous,defamatory,offensive,racistor29)Don'tforwardvirushoaxesandchainletters30)Keepyourlanguagegenderneutral31)Don'treplytospam32)Usecc:fieldsparingly(fromhttp://getinvolved.
rutgers.
edu/documents/organizations/why-do-you-need-email-etiquette.
pdf)E-mailEtiquetteTobeagoodnetworkcitizenandtoprotectyourselfandothers,followtheseguidelineswhenwritingandsendingelectronicmail.
1.
WhattoDo.
.
.
Writecarefully.
Onceyousendane-mailmessage,youcannottakeitbackormakeitdisappear.
Therealityisthatyourmessagesmaybesavedforaverylongtime.
Theymayalsobereadinadvertentlybyothers,orforwardedtootherswithoutyourknowledge.
Useupperandlowercasetext.
UsingalluppercaselettersmeansSHOUTINGandcanbeoffensive.
Signyourmessageswithatleastyourname.
It'snicetoaddyoure-mailaddress,too,sincesomee-mail表情符诽谤的;中伤的恶作剧病毒性别中立少量的非故意地Unit129programsmakeitdifficulttoseewhothesenderofthemessagewas.
Addressyourmessagescarefully.
Someaddressesmaybelongtoagroup,eventhoughtheaddressappearstobelongtojustoneperson.
Respectcopyrights.
E-mailmessagesandnewspostsareincludedinthetypesofworksthatcanbecopyrighted.
Indicatehumororjokeswithasidewayssmileyface.
(Thebasicsmileyisacolon,dash,andrightparenthesis.
Therearemanyvariations.
)Youcanalsoincludesomethinglike""or""toshowyourstateofmind.
Bediplomatic.
Criticismisalwaysharsherwhenwritten,ande-mailcanbeeasilyforwarded.
Becalm.
Youmayhavemisunderstoodwhatwasmeant.
Don'treplywhileyou'restillangry(thisiscalled"flaming").
Bebrief.
Don'tincludebackgroundimages,pictures,animations,etc.
unlesstheyarecriticaltoyourmessage.
Whenreplyingtoamessage,youdon'thavetoincludetheentiretextoftheoriginalmessage.
Includejustenoughtogivethecontextofyourresponse.
Watchoutforvirusesandotherthreatsinattachedfiles.
Attachedfilesareacommonwaytospreadcomputerviruses.
InEudora,justreceivinganattachmentcannotinfectyourcomputer.
Butopeningorrunninganattachmentcan.
2.
WhatNottoDo.
.
.
Don'tforwardchainmail!
Thesemessagestellyoutosendorforwardthemtoseveralotherpeople.
Don'tstartingorcontinuingchainmailviolatesuniversitypolicy.
Don'tgetfooledbyInternethoaxesandcomputervirusmyths.
Beforeyouforwardaso-calledvirusalerttoeveryoneyouknow,checkwiththeCITHelpDeskoroneofthewebsiteslinkedheretoseeifit'sforreal.
Don'tsendunwantede-mail.
Itcanberegardedasharassment,whichisgovernedbyuniversitypoliciesandcodes.
Sendinge-mailthatsomeoneelseperceives更加苛刻计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)30asabusiveorthreateningmayconstitutecriminalharassment.
Don'tsendnumerousunsolicitedmesssages("junkmail"or"spam").
Mostpeoplehategettingjunkmail.
Italsoslowsdownthenetworksandisgenerallyawasteofvaluable,limitedresources.
Don'tforgemessages.
Alteringelectroniccommunicationstohideyouridentityorimpersonateanotherpersonisconsideredforgeryandviolatesuniversitypolicy.
Forgeriesintendedaspranksorjokesarestillconsideredviolations.
Don'tforwarde-mailsunlessyouhavethepermissionoftheauthor.
Whattheywrotemaynothavebeenintendedforwiderdistribution,soit'salwaysbettertoask.
(fromCornellInformationTechnology,CornellUniversity,http://www2.
cit.
cornell.
edu/email/polite.
html)骚扰未经请求的恶作剧
Itisa60-secondreportselectedfromScientificAmerican.
Listening:2)Diversepersonalnetworksinfluenceslocaleconomy.
ItisalsoselectedfromScientificAmerican.
Speaking:Howtomakeyourspeakingeasierandmoreeffective.
Reading:"Whatiscomputerscience"and"historyofcomputerscience"fromWikipedia.
Writing:IntroductiontowritinginEnglishforanEnglishacademicaudiencefromnon-nativespeakers.
InsideAcademics:Howtowriteemailorwhatisemailetiquette.
Objectives:Listenandbeabletounderstandgeneraltopicsincomputerscienceandtechnology.
Learnsomeoverallideasforeasyandeffectivespeech.
Obtainaglobaloverviewoncomputerscience,includingitssubtopicsandhistory.
WordsareselectedfromWikipedia,whichisarecommendedstartingpointfortutorialinformationoncomputerscience.
Keepinmindanalertonthinkingmodeinthewriting.
Thatis,writeinEnglishculturemannersforEnglishaudience.
Thisguidanceanalyzesorganizationpatternsbetweendifferentculturesorlanguages,providesavisualshockandbrainstorm.
Thematerialsaimtohelpnon-nativespeakerstowriteforacademicaudience.
LearntowritepoliteEmailandattaingoodEmailwritingstyle.
计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)21.
1Listening:TechTeamPutsMicroscopeonCellPhone1.
ChoosetheProperWordsorExpressionsListentoashortpassage.
Pickouttheunderlinedwordsorexpressionswhicharetheclosesttowhatyouhaveheard.
Afterhundredsofyears,themostcommon,basicmicroscopesstilloperatebymeansofthesameoldhardware:thelens.
ButwhatifyoucoulddoawaywiththatlensandcreateamicroscopethatfitsonacellphoneThat'swhatresearchersledbyAydoganOzcanatU.
C.
L.
A.
havedeveloped.
Ozcanrecently①run;②wonanNSF(NationalScienceFoundation)EarlyCareerDevelopmentawardforhiswork.
Normalmicroscopesimagecellsthemselves.
ButOzcan'steamisimagingtheirshadows.
Tissuecellsandbacteriaaresemi-transparent—lightpenetrating①through;②bluecellscausesshadingsandrevealstexture.
OzcanusesanLEDashislightsource,creatingcellularshadows.
Analgorithmturnsthoseshadowsintoanimageofthecells.
Millionsofpeopleinthedevelopingworldsufferbecausethey'remisdiagnosed,orbecausesimple①diseases;②disasteraremissed.
Withthissystem,abloodsamplecanbeloadedintoasmallimagingdeviceattachedtoacellphone.
Thecellularimagegeneratedfromthesamplecanbetransmittedtoacentralcomputerinanearby①hostel;②hospital.
Theimagecanbeassessedfordisease,withtheresultingdiagnosissentbacktothefieldinjustminutes.
TestsofthedevicebegininAfricathissummer.
(CynthiaGraber,TechTeamPutsMicroscopeonCellPhone,ScientificAmerican60-SecondScience,June2,2010)VocabularyMicroscope[5maikrEsk[Jp]n.
显微镜UCLAUniversityofCaliforniaLosAngeles加州大学洛杉矶分校tissue[5tiFju:]n.
组织bacteria[bAk5ti[riE]n.
细菌semi-transparentadj.
半透明的texture[5tekstFE]n.
质地,纹理assess[E5ses]v.
评估Unit132.
AnswertheQuestionsListentothepassageagain.
Tryyourbesttounderstandthelinesandanswerthefollowingquestionswithoutlookingatthetranscript.
1)WhatpartofcellsisimagedbyOzcan'steam2)Whatcanbeloadedintoasmallimagedeviceattachedtoacellphone3)Whycansuchsystemhelpthepeopleinthedevelopingworld3.
DictationListentoanothershortpassageandfillintheblankswiththewordsyouhaveheard.
Socialnetworkingisalltherage.
Seemsthemorepeopleweknow,thebetterwefeel.
Butthatdriveforbeingconnectedmayenrichmorethanoursociallives.
BecauseastudyinthejournalScienceshowsthatthemore①ourpersonalnetworks,thestrongerthelocaleconomy.
Thefactthathavingbroadsocialtiescanfinanciallybenefitanindividualmakessense.
Themorepeopleyouknow,themorejobopportunitiesyoumightbemade②of.
Afterall,that'swhatnetworkingisallabout.
Butjusthowfardothebenefitsofthesefar-reachingassociationsreallyreachUsingreamsofphonerecords,bothlandlineandcell,scientistsmappedoutsocialnetworksacrosstheentireUnitedKingdom.
Andtheycomparedthosemapswithdetailedinformationonregionaleconomicconditions.
Theresultsshowedthat③inwhichresidentshavemoreextensiveconnectionsareindeedmoreprosperous.
Presumablybecauseeconomicopportunitiesaremorelikelytocomefromcontactsoutsideatightlyknitlocalgroupoffriends.
Sokeepbuildingthosesocialnetworks.
It'snotatotalwasteoftime.
Itjustmightbeyourownpersonaleconomicstimuluspackage.
(KarenHopkin,DiversePersonalNetworksLinkedtoStrongLocalEconomy,May24,2010)Remarks:TheScientificAmerican60-secondpodcastisanoutstandingsourceforpopularscienceandtechnologyforbroaderaudiences.
Accessingitinstantlywillassistyouingrabinglatestupdatingofcomtemporyscienceandtechnology.
计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)4Vocabularyrage[reidV]n.
愤怒,情绪激动enrich[in5ritF]v.
使充实diverse[dai5vE:s]adj.
不同的,多种多样的ream[ri:m]n.
大量prosperous[5prRspErEs]adj.
繁荣的presumably[pri5zju:-mEbli]adv.
大概,推测起来stimulus[5stimjulEs]n.
刺激;激励Answer:1.
②①①②3.
①diverse;②aware;③communities1.
2Speaking:HowtoMakeYourSpeakingEasierandMoreEffective1.
FollowtheGuidancePleasereadtheguidancebelowandlearnhowtomakeyourspeakingeasierandmoreeffective.
1.
AudienceAnalysisRememberthatthemembersoftheaudiencearesupposedtobethebeneficiariesofyourcommunication.
1)Don'tmaketoomanyassumptionsaboutyouraudience.
Butyoudohavetomakesome.
2)Figureoutthebasics.
Whoarethesepeopledemographics(age,ethnicity,gendermix,etc).
predispositions(hopes,fears,positives/negatives,levelofinterest).
knowledgeof/experiencewithsubject/me.
Inwhatkindofsettingwilltheyreceivethisinformationlargelecturehallorsmallseminarroomorclassroom.
lightingandsoundissues.
timeofday.
受益人人口统计;种族素质与倾向Unit153)Takeintoaccountthe"me,here,now.
"Pictureyourselfasamemberoftheaudienceandask"Howdoesthismessageaffectme,here,now"Me,here,nowtranslatesintowhatyouasasenderhavetoofferyourstudents/receivers—whattheywillbeabletounderstand,accept,support,considerimportant—becauseitmatterstothem.
4)Establishcognitive/behavioralobjectivesforyouraudience:WhatdoIwantmystudentstoknowWhatdoIwantmystudentstodo2.
OpeningsandClosings1)Openings.
Stayawayfromthepredictable(Goodmorning.
OnMonday,wetalkedabout.
.
.
,Today,I'dliketomoveonto.
.
.
).
Instead:Beginwithaprovocativequestion,anecdote,orcurrentevent—andhowitrelatestothecontent.
Asktheaudienceaquestion.
Setupaproblem—andpromisethatthey'llhaveallthetoolsforasolutionbytheendoftheclass.
2)Closings.
Manyspeakerssimplytalkuntiltheendofthetimeorbeyondit—andsay"ISeeWe'reOutOftime.
"Instead:Planarhythmforyourspeaking-plantoendwithcontent5minutesearly,soyoucansummarizeandraisequestions.
Setasideatimeforquestions—andstructurethattime.
3.
PreparationYouprobablycan'tcovereverythingyouwanttoinalecture.
1)Decidewhatisessential,whatisimportant,andwhatishelpful(whatwouldbenice).
Coverthefirst;trytocoverthesecond;forgetaboutthethird.
Releasealittlecontroloverthematerialandrelyonthetextbookoralistofsupplementaryreadingsforthenonessentials.
2)Setobjectives.
Whatdoyouwanttohaveaccomplishedattheendof认知的煽动性的节奏补充的计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)6thelectureWhatdoyouwantthestudentstoknowattheendofthelecture3)Planalecturetocoverlessthantheentireperiod.
Ittakessometimetogetgoing.
Questionsalwaystakeupmoretimethanyouexpect.
4)Dividethelectureintodiscretesegmentsandfollowthestandardspeechstructure.
Divideitbothintermsoftimeandintermsofmaterial.
Tryfortenorfifteenminuteblocks,eachoneofatopic.
Unlikeinapieceofwriting,youshouldtellthemwhatyou'llsay,sayit,andtellthemwhatyou'vesaid.
5)Lecturefromnotesoranoutline,ratherthanacompletetext.
It'stootemptingtosimplyread,ratherthanlecture,fromacompletetext.
Readingalsocreatesabarrierbetweenlecturerandaudience.
Writingupanentirespeechisverytimeconsuming.
Awrittenlectureoftenbecomesafossilthatnevergetsupdated.
4.
Delivery1)Beconversational;speaknaturally;beyourself(oryourbestself).
Thatselfmaybeformal,"laidback,"understated,orhyper.
Usethosetraits;don'tfightagainstthem.
Talkaboutthematerial;don'tlectureaboutit.
(Talkingiseasierifyoudon'treadverbatim.
)2)Varyyourpacingandvoice.
Gaugeaudiencereaction,and.
Repeatcriticalpointsimmediatelyifyousensethenecessity.
Useyourvoicetounderlineanditalicizetheimportantpoints.
Pausebeforenewpoints.
Usetransitionalstatementstomovetothenextidea.
3)Usegesturestoemphasizepoints.
Considergesturestobeamirrorofyourvoice.
Adjustyourgesturestothesizeoftheroom.
4)Lookattheaudience.
Trytocoverallpartsoftheroombydividingitintofour块吸引人的交付亢奋的;特性逐字地步调,语速估计斜体手势Unit17quadrants.
Ifdirecteyecontactmakesyouforgetyourplace,trylookingjustoverastudent'shead,orbetweentwostudents(Theywon'tseethedifference).
5)Uselanguagetocreatepictures.
Usemetaphors,analogies,andsimiles.
6)Observethetechniquesofothers.
Tryoutinyourownclasstechniquesyouadmireinothers.
Likeanyskill,deliveryisnotinnate,butmustbelearned.
5.
Credibility&CommitmentAlthoughteachingisn'ttheater,wedoknowthataudiencefindconcepts,knowledge,skills,andideasmostaccessibleandcrediblefromsomeonetheyconsider.
.
.
well,notdull.
1)Thinkaboutantecedentimage—perceptionisoftenstrongerthanreality.
2)Credibilityisenhancedby:Yourownsenseofcomfortandconfidencepresentingmaterial.
Yourenthusiasmandinterestinteaching.
Yourresearchandownideas.
3)Commitmentisenhancedby:Relatingyourownexperience,ideas,andfeelings.
Takingthefirstpersonapproach,notseparatingyourselffromyoursubject.
Relatingyour"passion"foryoursubject.
4)Deliveryistiedtobothcommitmentandcredibility.
AnoldUCLAstudyofeffectivepresentationsanalyzed3elements(verbal,vocal,visual).
Here'swhatitfoundwasimportantinestablishingcredibility/believability:Verbal(wordsyousay):7%.
Vocal(howyousoundwhenyousaythem):38%.
Visual(howyoulookwhenyousaythem):55%.
5)Yourenergyandintensitywillmoveyouraudience—andhelpyou(them)reachyourobjectives.
6.
BuildingInteraction1)Learningtakesplacebestinanactive,notapassive象限隐喻;类比承诺知觉激情被动的计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)8environment.
2)Interactionisacontinuouswayto:Assessthe"me,here,now".
Determinewhetherornotyourcontentisunderstood.
Sharetheresponsibilityoflearningmoreequitablyandappropriately.
3)HowtobuildinteractionHavequestionsprepared—beginwithrelativelyeasy,accessibleones.
Worktogeteveryoneinvolved,eveninlargeclasses.
4)Askaudiencetoconsiderissueswiththepersonsittingnexttothem/jotdownideas,questions,concerns.
Discussasalargergroup.
5)Moveyourself!
Don'tscurrybackandforth,butdon'tgetlockedintooneposition.
7.
HandlingQuestions1)Explicitlyrequestandencouragequestions.
Theaudiencewillseethatyouhaveagenuineinterestinwhatthey'rethinking.
2)Beawareofhowyourbehaviorandcommentscansetthetoneforquestioning.
Anegativeresponse(e.
g.
,"We'vealreadycoveredthat")discouragesfurtherquestionsandmaymakeaudiencethinkyoudon'treallywantquestions.
3)Makesureeveryonehearsthequestion.
Repeatitifnecessary.
Butdon'tmakeahabitofsimplyrepeatingeveryquestion.
Asktheaudienceiftheyheardthequestion;thenaskthestudenttorepeat.
4)Clarifyquestions.
Say,"Doyoumeanthat.
.
.
,"or"I'msorry,Idon'tunderstandthequestion,"ratherthan"Yourquestionisn'tclear.
"5)Answerquestionsasdirectlyaspossible.
Addressyouranswertothewholeaudience.
Askwhetheryouhaveansweredthequestion.
6)Bediplomaticwhenpeopleraisetangential,overly-complicatedquestions,orpersistentlyaskquestionsjustto公正地适当地略记急跑真实的语气老练的;离题的Unit19beasking.
Askthemtostopbyafterthepresentationortocontactyou.
Ifsomeoneissimplyconfused,say,"Letmegooverthispointabitmoreslowly.
"8.
GettingFeedback1)Getregularfeedback.
Asktheaudiencetospendthelastfiveminutesofclasswritingdownthemostimportantthingtheylearnedthatdayoronequestiontheyhaveasaresultofthetalk.
Oraskthemtowritedownquestionstheystillhave.
2)Useeyecontactasatoolforcontinuousfeedback.
Ifyounoticepeoplewithquestioninglooks,stopwhatyou'redoingandaskifyouneedtoclarify.
Ifyougetnoresponse,goaheadandclarify.
(fromhttp://teaching.
berkeley.
edu/docs/speakingtips.
pdf)困惑的Remarks:ThisarticleisselectedfromUCBerkeleyandguideoverallinstructionstogiveaneasyandeffectivespeech.
2.
OralPracticePleasediscussthefollowingproblemswithyourpartner.
Makeadialoguebasedonthepreviousguidanceandyouranswer.
Questions:1)Howcanyoumakeyourspeakingeasierandmoreeffective2)Whatcanyoulearnfromopeningandclosing1.
3Reading:WhatisComputerSciencefromWikipediaPassageⅠComputerScienceComputerscienceorcomputingscience(sometimesabbreviatedCS)isthestudyofthetheoreticalfoundationsofinformationandcomputation,andofpracticaltechniquesfortheirimplementationandapplicationincomputersystems.
Itisfrequentlydescribedasthesystematicstudyofalgorithmicprocessesthatcreate,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)10describe,andtransforminformation.
Computersciencehasmanysub-fields;some,suchascomputergraphics,emphasizethecomputationofspecificresults,whileothers,suchascomputationalcomplexitytheory,studythepropertiesofcomputationalproblems.
Stillothersfocusonthechallengesinimplementingcomputations.
Forexample,programminglanguagetheorystudiesapproachestodescribecomputations,whilecomputerprogrammingappliesspecificprogramminglanguagestosolvespecificcomputationalproblems,andhuman-computerinteractionfocusesonthechallengesinmakingcomputersandcomputationsuseful,usable,anduniversallyaccessibletopeople.
Thegeneralpublicsometimesconfusescomputersciencewithcareersthatdealwithcomputers(suchasthenounInformationTechnology),orthinkthatitrelatestotheirownexperienceofcomputers,whichtypicallyinvolvesactivitiessuchasgaming,web-browsing,andword-processing.
However,thefocusofcomputerscienceismoreonunderstandingthepropertiesoftheprogramsusedtoimplementsoftwaresuchasgamesandweb-browsers,andusingthatunderstandingtocreatenewprogramsorimproveexistingones.
HistoryTheearlyfoundationsofwhatwouldbecomecomputersciencepredatetheinventionofthemoderndigitalcomputer.
Machinesforcalculatingfixednumericaltasks,suchastheabacus,haveexistedsinceantiquity.
WilhelmSchickardbuiltthefirstmechanicalcalculatorin1623.
CharlesBabbagedesignedadifferenceengineinVictoriantimeshelpedbyAdaLovelace.
Around1900,punch-cardmachineswereintroduced.
However,allofthesemachineswereconstrainedtoperformasingletask,oratbestsomesubsetofallpossibletasks.
Duringthe1940s,asnewerandmorepowerfulcomputingmachinesweredeveloped,thetermcomputercametorefertothemachinesratherthantheirhumanpredecessors.
Asitbecameclearthatcomputerscouldbeusedformorethanjustmathematicalcalculations,thefieldofcomputersciencebroadenedtostudycomputationingeneral.
Computersciencebegantobeestablishedasadistinctacademicdisciplineinthe1950sandearly1960s.
ThefirstcomputersciencedegreeprogramintheUnitedStateswasformedatPurdueUniversityin1962.
Sincepracticalcomputersbecameavailable,manyapplicationsofcomputinghavebecomedistinctareasofstudyintheirownright.
Althoughmanyinitiallybelieveditwasimpossiblethatcomputersthemselvescouldactuallybeascientificfieldofstudy,inthelatefiftiesitgraduallybecameacceptedamongthegreateracademicpopulation.
Itisthenowwell-knownIBMbrandthatformedpartofthecomputersciencerevolutionduringthistime.
IBM(shortforInternationalBusinessMachines)releasedtheIBM704andlatertheIBMUnit111709computers,whichwerewidelyusedduringtheexplorationperiodofsuchdevices.
"Still,workingwiththeIBM[computer]wasfrustrating.
.
.
ifyouhadmisplacedasmuchasoneletterinoneinstruction,theprogramwouldcrash,andyouwouldhavetostartthewholeprocessoveragain".
Duringthelate1950s,thecomputersciencedisciplinewasverymuchinitsdevelopmentalstages,andsuchissueswerecommonplace.
Timehasseensignificantimprovementsintheusabilityandeffectivenessofcomputersciencetechnology.
Modernsocietyhasseenasignificantshiftfromcomputersbeingusedsolelybyexpertsorprofessionalstoamorewidespreaduserbase.
MajorachievementsDespiteitsshorthistoryasaformalacademicdiscipline,computersciencehasmadeanumberoffundamentalcontributionstoscienceandsociety.
Theseinclude:Thestartofthe"digitalrevolution,"whichincludesthecurrentInformationAgeandtheInternet.
Aformaldefinitionofcomputationandcomputability,andproofthattherearecomputationallyunsolvableandintractableproblems.
Theconceptofaprogramminglanguage,atoolforthepreciseexpressionofmethodologicalinformationatvariouslevelsofabstraction.
Incryptography,breakingtheEnigmamachinewasanimportantfactorcontributingtotheAlliedvictoryinWorldWarII.
Scientificcomputingenabledadvancedstudyofthemind,andmappingofthehumangenomebecamepossiblewiththeHumanGenomeProject.
DistributedcomputingprojectssuchasFolding@homeexploreproteinfolding.
Algorithmictradinghasincreasedtheefficiencyandliquidityoffinancialmarketsbyusingartificialintelligence,machinelearning,andotherstatisticalandnumericaltechniquesonalargescale.
AreasofcomputerscienceAsadiscipline,computersciencespansarangeoftopicsfromtheoreticalstudiesofalgorithmsandthelimitsofcomputationtothepracticalissuesofimplementingcomputingsystemsinhardwareandsoftware.
TheComputerSciencesAccreditationBoard(CSAB)—whichismadeupofrepresentativesoftheAssociationforComputingMachinery(ACM),theInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineersComputerSociety(IEEE),andtheAssociationforInformationSystems(AIS)—identifiesfourareasthatitconsiderscrucialtothedisciplineofcomputerscience:theoryofcomputation,algorithmsanddatastructures,programmingmethodologyandlanguages,andcomputerelementsandarchitecture.
Inadditiontothesefourareas,CSABalsoidentifiesfieldssuchassoftwareengineering,artificialintelligence,computernetworkingandcommunication,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)12databasesystems,parallelcomputation,distributedcomputation,computer-humaninteraction,computergraphics,operatingsystems,andnumericalandsymboliccomputationasbeingimportantareasofcomputerscience.
TheoreticalcomputerscienceThebroaderfieldoftheoreticalcomputerscienceencompassesboththeclassicaltheoryofcomputationandawiderangeofothertopicsthatfocusonthemoreabstract,logical,andmathematicalaspectsofcomputing.
TheoryofcomputationAccordingtoPeterJ.
Denning,thefundamentalquestionunderlyingcomputerscienceis,"Whatcanbe(efficiently)automated"Thestudyofthetheoryofcomputationisfocusedonansweringfundamentalquestionsaboutwhatcanbecomputedandwhatamountofresourcesarerequiredtoperformthosecomputations.
Inanefforttoanswerthefirstquestion,computabilitytheoryexamineswhichcomputationalproblemsaresolvableonvarioustheoreticalmodelsofcomputation.
Thesecondquestionisaddressedbycomputationalcomplexitytheory,whichstudiesthetimeandspacecostsassociatedwithdifferentapproachestosolvingacomputationalproblem.
Thefamous"P=NP"problem,oneoftheMillenniumPrizeProblems,isanopenprobleminthetheoryofcomputation.
Unit113AlgorithmsanddatastructuresComputerelementsandarchitectureComputationalscienceComputationalscience(orscientificcomputing)isthefieldofstudyconcernedwithconstructingmathematicalmodelsandquantitativeanalysistechniquesandusingcomputerstoanalyseandsolvescientificproblems.
Inpracticaluse,itistypicallytheapplicationofcomputersimulationandotherformsofcomputationtoproblemsinvariousscientificdisciplines.
ArtificialIntelligenceThisbranchofcomputerscienceaimstocreatesyntheticsystemswhichsolvecomputationalproblems,reasonand/orcommunicatelikeanimalsandhumansdo.
Thistheoreticalandappliedsubfieldrequiresaveryrigorousandintegratedexpertiseinmultiplesubjectareassuchasappliedmathematics,logic,semiotics,electricalengineering,philosophyofmind,neurophysiology,andsocialintelligencewhichcanbeusedtoadvancethefieldofintelligenceresearchorbeappliedtoothersubjectareaswhichrequirecomputationalunderstandingandmodellingsuchasinfinanceorthephysicalsciences.
Itallstartedwiththegrandfatherofcomputerscienceandartificialintelligence,AlanTuring,whoproposedtheTuringTestforthepurposeofansweringtheultimate计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)14question.
.
.
"Cancomputersthink".
SoftwareEngineeringTheIEEEComputerSociety'sSoftwareEngineeringBodyofKnowledgedefines"softwareengineering"astheapplicationofasystematic,disciplined,quantifiableapproachtothedevelopment,operation,andmaintenanceofsoftware,andthestudyoftheseapproaches;thatis,theapplicationofengineeringtosoftware.
[24]In2004,anewlyestablisheddegreeofsoftwareengineeringestablishedbybothACMandIEEEwasformedtoaddresstheseissues;adocumentcalledCCSEwaswrittentoexplainthedetails.
Inadditionthosewithdegreesininformationtechnologyormanagementinformationsystemsareoftenfoundtobenecessarysupportiverolesforbothsoftwareengineeringandcomputationalwork.
Unit115RelationshipwithotherfieldsDespiteitsname,asignificantamountofcomputersciencedoesnotinvolvethestudyofcomputersthemselves.
Becauseofthis,severalalternativenameshavebeenproposed.
Certaindepartmentsofmajoruniversitiespreferthetermcomputingscience,toemphasizepreciselythatdifference.
DanishscientistPeterNaursuggestedthetermdatalogy,toreflectthefactthatthescientificdisciplinerevolvesarounddataanddatatreatment,whilenotnecessarilyinvolvingcomputers.
ThefirstscientificinstitutiontousethetermwastheDepartmentofDatalogyattheUniversityofCopenhagen,foundedin1969,withPeterNaurbeingthefirstprofessorindatalogy.
ThetermisusedmainlyintheScandinaviancountries.
Also,intheearlydaysofcomputing,anumberoftermsforthepractitionersofthefieldofcomputingweresuggestedintheCommunicationsoftheACM—turingineer,turologist,flow-charts-man,appliedmeta-mathematician,andappliedepistemologist.
Threemonthslaterinthesamejournal,comptologistwassuggested,followednextyearbyhypologist.
Thetermcomputicshasalsobeensuggested.
IncontinentalEurope,namessuchasinformatique(French),Informatik(German)orinformatica(Dutch),derivedfrominformationandpossiblymathematicsorautomatic,aremorecommonthannamesderivedfromcomputer/computation.
TherenownedcomputerscientistEdsgerDijkstrastated,"Computerscienceisnomoreaboutcomputersthanastronomyisabouttelescopes.
"Thedesignanddeploymentofcomputersandcomputersystemsisgenerallyconsideredtheprovinceofdisciplinesotherthancomputerscience.
Forexample,thestudyofcomputerhardwareisusuallyconsideredpartofcomputerengineering,whilethestudyofcommercialcomputersystemsandtheirdeploymentisoftencalledinformationtechnologyorinformationsystems.
However,therehasbeenmuchcross-fertilizationofideasbetweenthevariouscomputer-relateddisciplines.
Computerscienceresearchhasalsooftencrossedintootherdisciplines,suchasphilosophy,cognitivescience,linguistics,mathematics,physics,statistics,andeconomics.
Computerscienceisconsideredbysometohaveamuchcloserrelationshipwithmathematicsthanmanyscientificdisciplines,withsomeobserverssayingthatcomputingisamathematicalscience.
EarlycomputersciencewasstronglyinfluencedbytheworkofmathematicianssuchasKurtGdelandAlanTuring,andtherecontinuestobeausefulinterchangeofideasbetweenthetwofieldsinareassuchasmathematicallogic,categorytheory,domaintheory,andalgebra.
Therelationshipbetweencomputerscienceandsoftwareengineeringisacontentiousissue,whichisfurthermuddiedbydisputesoverwhattheterm"softwareengineering"means,andhowcomputerscienceisdefined.
DavidParnas,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)16takingacuefromtherelationshipbetweenotherengineeringandsciencedisciplines,hasclaimedthattheprincipalfocusofcomputerscienceisstudyingthepropertiesofcomputationingeneral,whiletheprincipalfocusofsoftwareengineeringisthedesignofspecificcomputationstoachievepracticalgoals,makingthetwoseparatebutcomplementarydisciplines.
Theacademic,political,andfundingaspectsofcomputersciencetendtodependonwhetheradepartmentformedwithamathematicalemphasisorwithanengineeringemphasis.
Computersciencedepartmentswithamathematicsemphasisandwithanumericalorientationconsideralignmentcomputationalscience.
Bothtypesofdepartmentstendtomakeeffortstobridgethefieldeducationallyifnotacrossallresearch.
ComputerscienceeducationSomeuniversitiesteachcomputerscienceasatheoreticalstudyofcomputationandalgorithmicreasoning.
Theseprogramsoftenfeaturethetheoryofcomputation,analysisofalgorithms,formalmethods,concurrencytheory,databases,computergraphics,andsystemsanalysis,amongothers.
Theytypicallyalsoteachcomputerprogramming,buttreatitasavesselforthesupportofotherfieldsofcomputerscienceratherthanacentralfocusofhigh-levelstudy.
Othercollegesanduniversities,aswellassecondaryschoolsandvocationalprogramsthatteachcomputerscience,emphasizethepracticeofadvancedprogrammingratherthanthetheoryofalgorithmsandcomputationintheircomputersciencecurricula.
Suchcurriculatendtofocusonthoseskillsthatareimportanttoworkersenteringthesoftwareindustry.
Thepracticalaspectsofcomputerprogrammingareoftenreferredtoassoftwareengineering.
However,thereisalotofdisagreementoverthemeaningoftheterm,andwhetherornotitisthesamethingasprogramming.
(fromhttp://en.
wikipedia.
org/wiki/Computer_science)Vocabularycomputergraphics计算机图形学computationalcomplexitytheory计算复杂性理论computabilitytheory可计算性理论computationallyunsolvableandintractableproblems计算不可解和计算不可行问题scientificcomputing科学计算artificialintelligence人工智能machinelearning机器学习ACM美国计算机学会IEEE电气电子工程师协会Unit117algorithmsanddatastructures算法和数据结构programmingmethodologyandlanguages程序设计方法与语言softwareengineering软件工程computerelementsandarchitecture计算机组成与架构computernetworkingandcommunication计算机网络与通信databasesystems数据库系统parallelcomputation并行计算distributedcomputation分布式计算numericalandsymboliccomputation数值和符号计算mathematicallogic数理逻辑automatatheory自动机理论numbertheory数论graphtheory图论typetheory类型论categorytheory范畴论computationalgeometry计算几何quantumcomputingtheory量子计算理论cryptography密码学digitallogic数字逻辑microarchitecture微架构multiprocessing多处理domaintheory畴理论algebra代数numericalanalysis数值分析computationalphysics计算物理bioinformatics生物信息学computervision计算机视觉imageprocessing图像处理patternrecognition模式识别cognitivescience认知科学datamining数据挖掘evolutionarycomputation演化计算informationretrieval信息检索knowledgerepresentation知识表达naturallanguageprocessing自然语言处理robotics机器人学human-computerinteraction人机交互operatingsystems操作系统computersecurity计算机安全计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)18ubiquitouscomputing普适计算compilerdesign编译器设计1.
Translation1)Computerscienceorcomputingscience(sometimesabbreviatedCS)isthestudyofthetheoreticalfoundationsofinformationandcomputation,andofpracticaltechniquesfortheirimplementationandapplicationincomputersystems.
2)Thegeneralpublicsometimesconfusescomputersciencewithcareersthatdealwithcomputers(suchasthenounInformationTechnology),orthinkthatitrelatestotheirownexperienceofcomputers,whichtypicallyinvolvesactivitiessuchasgaming,web-browsing,andword-processing.
3)Asadiscipline,computersciencespansarangeoftopicsfromtheoreticalstudiesofalgorithmsandthelimitsofcomputationtothepracticalissuesofimplementingcomputingsystemsinhardwareandsoftware.
4)Inanefforttoanswerthefirstquestion,computabilitytheoryexamineswhichcomputationalproblemsaresolvableonvarioustheoreticalmodelsofcomputation.
Thesecondquestionisaddressedbycomputationalcomplexitytheory,whichstudiesthetimeandspacecostsassociatedwithdifferentapproachestosolvingacomputationalproblem.
5)Thisbranchofcomputerscienceaimstocreatesyntheticsystemswhichsolvecomputationalproblems,reasonand/orcommunicatelikeanimalsandhumansdo.
Unit1192.
AnswertheQuestions1)Whatisthemajorachievementofcomputerscience2)WhatarethemajorareasofcomputersciencePassageⅡHistoryofComputerScienceThehistoryofcomputersciencebeganlongbeforethemoderndisciplineofcomputersciencethatemergedinthetwentiethcentury,andhintedatinthecenturiesprior.
Theprogression,frommechanicalinventionsandmathematicaltheoriestowardsthemodernconceptsandmachines,formedamajoracademicfieldandthebasisofamassiveworldwideindustry.
1.
Earlyhistory(1)EarlycomputationTheearliestknowntoolforuseincomputationwastheabacus,anditwasthoughttohavebeeninventedinBabyloncirca2400BCE.
Itsoriginalstyleofusagewasbylinesdrawninsandwithpebbles.
Thiswasthefirstknowncomputerandmostadvancedsystemofcalculationknowntodate—precedingGreekmethodsby2,000years.
Abaciofamoremoderndesignarestillusedascalculationtoolstoday.
In1115BCE,theSouthPointingChariotwasinventedinancientChina.
Itwasthefirstknowngearedmechanismtouseadifferentialgear,whichwaslaterusedinanalogcomputers.
TheChinesealsoinventedamoresophisticatedabacusfromaroundthe2ndcenturyBCE,knownastheChineseabacus.
Inthe5thcenturyBCEinancientIndia,thegrammarianPaniniformulatedthegrammarofSanskritin3959rulesknownastheAshtadhyayiwhichwashighlysystematizedandtechnical.
Paniniusedmetarules,transformationsandrecursions.
TheAntikytheramechanismisbelievedtobetheearliestknownmechanicalanalogcomputer.
Itwasdesignedtocalculateastronomicalpositions.
Itwasdiscoveredin1901intheAntikytherawreckofftheGreekislandofAntikythera,betweenKytheraandCrete,andhasbeendatedtocirca100BC.
Technologicalartifactsofsimilarcomplexitydidnotreappearuntilthe14thcentury,whenmechanicalastronomicalclocksappearedinEurope.
MechanicalanalogcomputingdevicesappearedagainathousandyearslaterinthemedievalIslamicworld.
ExamplesofdevicesfromthisperiodincludetheequatoriumbyArzachel,themechanicalgearedastrolabebyAbūRayhānal-Bīrūnī,andthetorquetumbyJabiribnAflah.
MuslimengineersbuiltanumberofAutomata,计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)20includingsomemusicalautomatathatcouldbe'programmed'toplaydifferentmusicalpatterns.
ThesedevicesweredevelopedbytheBanūMūsābrothersandAl-JazariMuslimmathematiciansalsomadeimportantadvancesincryptography,suchasthedevelopmentofcryptanalysisandfrequencyanalysisbyAlkindus.
WhenJohnNapierdiscoveredlogarithmsforcomputationalpurposesintheearly17thcentury,therefollowedaperiodofconsiderableprogressbyinventorsandscientistsinmakingcalculatingtools.
Around1640,BlaisePascal,aleadingFrenchmathematician,constructedthefirstmechanicaladdingdevicebasedonadesigndescribedbyGreekmathematicianHeroofAlexandria.
Noneoftheearlycomputationaldeviceswerereallycomputersinthemodernsense,andittookconsiderableadvancementinmathematicsandtheorybeforethefirstmoderncomputerscouldbedesigned.
(2)AlgorithmsInthe7thcentury,IndianmathematicianBrahmaguptagavethefirstexplanationoftheHindu-Arabicnumeralsystemandtheuseofzeroasbothaplaceholderandadecimaldigit.
Approximatelyaroundtheyear825,PersianmathematicianAl-Khwarizmiwroteabook,OntheCalculationwithHinduNumerals,thatwasprincipallyresponsibleforthediffusionoftheIndiansystemofnumerationintheMiddleEastandthenEurope.
Aroundthe12thcentury,therewastranslationofthisbookwrittenintoLatin:AlgoritmidenumeroIndorum.
Thesebookspresentednewerconceptstoperformaseriesofstepsinordertoaccomplishatasksuchasthesystematicapplicationofarithmetictoalgebra.
Byderivationfromhisname,wehavethetermalgorithm.
Algorithm-isthecomputerinusingamathematicalequation.
(3)BinarylogicAroundthe3rdcenturyBC,IndianmathematicianPingaladiscoveredthebinarynumeralsystem.
Inthissystem,stillusedtodayinallmoderncomputers,asequenceofonesandzeroscanrepresentanynumber.
In1703,GottfriedLeibnitzdevelopedlogicinaformal,mathematicalsensewithhiswritingsonthebinarynumeralsystem.
Inhissystem,theonesandzerosalsorepresenttrueandfalsevaluesoronandoffstates.
ButittookmorethanacenturybeforeGeorgeBoolepublishedhisBooleanalgebrain1854withacompletesystemthatallowedcomputationalprocessestobemathematicallymodeled.
Bythistime,thefirstmechanicaldevicesdrivenbyabinarypatternhadbeeninvented.
Theindustrialrevolutionhaddrivenforwardthemechanizationofmanytasks,andthisincludedweaving.
PunchedcardscontrolledJosephMarieJacquard'sloomin1801,whereaholepunchedinthecardindicatedabinaryoneandanunpunchedspotindicatedabinaryzero.
Jacquard'sloomwasfarfrombeingaUnit121computer,butitdidillustratethatmachinescouldbedrivenbybinarysystems.
(4)BirthofcomputerscienceBeforethe1920s,computers(sometimescomputers)werehumanclerksthatperformedcomputations.
Theywereusuallyundertheleadofaphysicist.
Manythousandsofcomputerswereemployedincommerce,government,andresearchestablishments.
Mostofthesecomputerswerewomen,andtheywereknowntohaveadegreeincalculus.
Someperformedastronomicalcalculationsforcalendars.
Afterthe1920s,theexpressioncomputingmachinereferredtoanymachinethatperformedtheworkofahumancomputer,especiallythoseinaccordancewitheffectivemethodsoftheChurch-Turingthesis.
Thethesisstatesthatamathematicalmethodiseffectiveifitcouldbesetoutasalistofinstructionsabletobefollowedbyahumanclerkwithpaperandpencil,foraslongasnecessary,andwithoutingenuityorinsight.
Machinesthatcomputedwithcontinuousvaluesbecameknownastheanalogkind.
Theyusedmachinerythatrepresentedcontinuousnumericquantities,liketheangleofashaftrotationordifferenceinelectricalpotential.
Digitalmachinery,incontrasttoanalog,wereabletorenderastateofanumericvalueandstoreeachindividualdigit.
Digitalmachineryuseddifferenceenginesorrelaysbeforetheinventionoffastermemorydevices.
Thephrasecomputingmachinegraduallygaveaway,afterthelate1940s,tojustcomputerastheonsetofelectronicdigitalmachinerybecamecommon.
Thesecomputerswereabletoperformthecalculationsthatwereperformedbytheprevioushumanclerks.
Sincethevaluesstoredbydigitalmachineswerenotboundtophysicalpropertieslikeanalogdevices,alogicalcomputer,basedondigitalequipment,wasabletodoanythingthatcouldbedescribed"purelymechanical.
"ThetheoreticalTuringMachine,createdbyAlanTuring,isahypotheticaldevicetheorizedinordertostudythepropertiesofsuchhardware.
2.
Emergenceofadiscipline(1)ThetheoreticalgroundworkThemathematicalfoundationsofmoderncomputersciencebegantobelaidbyKurtGdelwithhisincompletenesstheorem(1931).
Inthistheorem,heshowedthattherewerelimitstowhatcouldbeprovedanddisprovedwithinaformalsystem.
ThisledtoworkbyGdelandotherstodefineanddescribetheseformalsystems,includingconceptssuchasmu-recursivefunctionsandlambda-definablefunctions.
1936wasakeyyearforcomputerscience.
AlanTuringandAlonzoChurchindependently,andalsotogether,introducedtheformalizationofanalgorithm,withlimitsonwhatcanbecomputed,anda"purelymechanical"modelforcomputing.
计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)22ThesetopicsarecoveredbywhatisnowcalledtheChurch-Turingthesis,ahypothesisaboutthenatureofmechanicalcalculationdevices,suchaselectroniccomputers.
Thethesisclaimsthatanycalculationthatispossiblecanbeperformedbyanalgorithmrunningonacomputer,providedthatsufficienttimeandstoragespaceareavailable.
TuringalsoincludedwiththethesisadescriptionoftheTuringmachine.
ATuringmachinehasaninfinitelylongtapeandaread/writeheadthatcanmovealongthetape,changingthevaluesalongtheway.
Clearlysuchamachinecouldneverbebuilt,butnonetheless,themodelcansimulatethecomputationofanyalgorithmwhichcanbeperformedonamoderncomputer.
TuringissoimportanttocomputersciencethathisnameisalsofeaturedontheTuringAwardandtheTuringtest.
HecontributedgreatlytoBritishcode-breakingsuccessesintheSecondWorldWar,andcontinuedtodesigncomputersandsoftwarethroughthe1940s,butcommittedsuicidein1954.
Atasymposiumonlarge-scaledigitalmachineryinCambridge,Turingsaid,"Wearetryingtobuildamachinetodoallkindsofdifferentthingssimplybyprogrammingratherthanbytheadditionofextraapparatus".
In1948,thefirstpracticalcomputerthatcouldrunstoredprograms,basedontheTuringmachinemodel,hadbeenbuilt—theManchesterBaby.
In1950,Britain'sNationalPhysicalLaboratorycompletedPilotACE,asmallscaleprogrammablecomputer,basedonTuring'sphilosophy.
(2)ShannonandinformationtheoryUptoandduringthe1930s,electricalengineerswereabletobuildelectroniccircuitstosolvemathematicalandlogicproblems,butmostdidsoinanadhocmanner,lackinganytheoreticalrigor.
ThischangedwithClaudeElwoodShannon'spublicationofhis1937master'sthesis,ASymbolicAnalysisofRelayandSwitchingCircuits.
Whiletakinganundergraduatephilosophyclass,ShannonhadbeenexposedtoBoole'swork,andrecognizedthatitcouldbeusedtoarrangeelectromechanicalrelays(thenusedintelephoneroutingswitches)tosolvelogicproblems.
Thisconcept,ofutilizingthepropertiesofelectricalswitchestodologic,isthebasicconceptthatunderliesallelectronicdigitalcomputers,andhisthesisbecamethefoundationofpracticaldigitalcircuitdesignwhenitbecamewidelyknownamongtheelectricalengineeringcommunityduringandafterWorldWarII.
Shannonwentontofoundthefieldofinformationtheorywithhis1948papertitledAMathematicalTheoryofCommunication,whichappliedprobabilitytheorytotheproblemofhowtobestencodetheinformationasenderwantstotransmit.
Thisworkisoneofthetheoreticalfoundationsformanyareasofstudy,includingdatacompressionandcryptography.
Unit123(3)WienerandCyberneticsFromexperimentswithanti-aircraftsystemsthatinterpretedradarimagestodetectenemyplanes,NorbertWienercoinedthetermcyberneticsfromtheGreekwordfor"steersman.
"Hepublished"Cybernetics"in1948,whichinfluencedartificialintelligence.
Wieneralsocomparedcomputation,computingmachinery,memorydevices,andothercognitivesimilaritieswithhisanalysisofbrainwaves.
3.
ThefirstcomputerbugThefirstactualcomputerbugwasamoth.
ItwasstuckinbetweentherelaysontheHarvardMarkII.
Whiletheinventionoftheterm'bug'isoftenbuterroneouslyattributedtoGraceHopper,arearadmiralintheU.
S.
Navy,whosupposedlyloggedthe"bug"onSeptember9,1945,mostotheraccountsconflictatleastwiththesedetails.
Accordingtotheseaccounts,theactualdatewasSeptember9,1947whenoperatorsfiledthis'incident'—alongwiththeinsectandthenotation"Firstactualcaseofbugbeingfound".
(fromhttp://en.
wikipedia.
org/wiki/History_of_computer_science)Remarks:Whenyouareconfusedinnewtermsincomputerscience,Wikipediaalwaysisoneofthebeststartingpointtogiveyouaccessabletutorialsandguidancetofurtherreadings.
Vocabularyautomata[C:5tCmEtE]n.
自动装置(automaton的复数)logarithm[5lC^EriTEm]n.
对数Church-TuringthesisChurch-Turing论题TuringMachine图灵机Gdel歌德尔incompletenesstheorem不完备理论TuringAward图灵奖Turingtest图灵测试Informationtheory信息论Adhoc临时的Cybernetics控制论Babylonn.
巴比伦Circaprep.
大约于Pebblen.
鹅卵石Recursionn.
递归,循环Astronomicaladj.
天文学的Medievaladj.
中世纪的计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)24Equatoriumn.
行星Astrolaben.
天体观测仪Torquetumn.
赤基黄道仪Apparatusn.
装置1.
Translation1)Thethesisstatesthatamathematicalmethodiseffectiveifitcouldbesetoutasalistofinstructionsabletobefollowedbyahumanclerkwithpaperandpencil,foraslongasnecessary,andwithoutingenuityorinsight.
2)ThemathematicalfoundationsofmoderncomputersciencebegantobelaidbyKurtGdelwithhisincompletenesstheorem(1931).
Inthistheorem,heshowedthattherewerelimitstowhatcouldbeprovedanddisprovedwithinaformalsystem.
3)ATuringmachinehasaninfinitelylongtapeandaread/writeheadthatcanmovealongthetape,changingthevaluesalongtheway.
Clearlysuchamachinecouldneverbebuilt,butnonetheless,themodelcansimulatethecomputationofanyalgorithmwhichcanbeperformedonamoderncomputer.
4)Whiletakinganundergraduatephilosophyclass,ShannonhadbeenexposedtoBoole'swork,andrecognizedthatitcouldbeusedtoarrangeelectromechanicalrelays(thenusedintelephoneroutingswitches)tosolvelogicproblems.
2.
AnswertheQuestions1)Describethebirthofcomputerscience.
2)SummarizetheShannon'sandWiener'scontributions.
Unit1251.
4Writing:IntroductiontoWritinginEnglishforanEnglishAcademicAudienceTheMajorProblemwhenWritingforaUSAcademicAudienceOrganizationofideaswithinessaysisoftenthegreatestweaknessofmanybeginningwritingstudentsinUScollegesanduniversities.
Mostbeginningcompositioncoursesthere—evenfornativeEnglishspeakers—focusspecificallyonorganization.
Fornon-nativeEnglishspeakingstudents,organizationofideaswithinessaysisproblematicbecausedifferentculturalbackgroundsrequiredifferentorganizationalpatterns.
RobertKaplanhaswrittenabouttheorganizationaldifferencesamongavarietyofculturalgroupswhichherepresentsasfollows:(Kaplan1-20)TheclassicorganizationalpatternthatreadersofEnglishexpectisastraightlineofdevelopmentwhichincludesintroductions,mainideas,topicsentences,supportingdetails,conclusions,etc.
Thisorganizationalpatterncanbestatedsimply:"Tellyouraudiencewhatyouaregoingtotellthem;thentellthem;thentellthemwhatyoutoldthem.
"Althoughtheorganizationalpatternsoftheculturessuchasthoseidentifiedaboveareallvalid,inordertosucceedwhenwritingforanEnglishspeakingacademicaudience,itisnecessarytoadapttothoseexpectations.
However,adaptingtotheculturalexpectationsofanEnglishspeakingacademicaudienceisnotaneasytask.
AJapanesewriter,forexample,willoftenbeginbywritingaboutavarietyofitemssurroundingatopicbeforearrivingatthemainpointwhichisstatedintheconclusion.
AtypicalcommentthatareaderofanessaywrittenbyaJapanesewritermightbe"Whenishe/shegoingtogettothepoint"andtheJapanesewritermightrespond,"ButIdonotliketobesodirect;itisnottheJapanesenaturetobesodirect.
"Likewise,aMexicanwriterwilloftenbeginwithabriefintroductionandthenwriteaboutonesideofanissueandthen计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)26another—oftenwithmuchadornment—beforecomingtothemainpointintheconclusion.
AtypicalcommentthatareaderofanessaywrittenbyaMexicanwritermightbe"ButIdon'tunderstandhis/hermainpoint;it'sneverreallystated,andit'snotclear.
"TheMexicanwritermightrespond,"ButIwouldlikeyoutounderstandallthepossibilitiesandthecontextsoyoucangetinvolvedinwhatIhavetosay.
"AlthoughadaptingtotheculturalexpectationsofanEnglishspeakingacademicaudiencemaynotbeaneasytask,itisanecessaryone,especiallyifonewantstobeheard.
WhataboutthosewriterswhosucceedinadaptingtotheorganizationalexpectationsoftheEnglishspeakingacademicaudienceDotheylosetheirabilitytowriteintheirnativelanguageAnswer:Theycan.
ThereisthestoryoftheKoreanwhoearnedhisDoctorateintheUnitedStatesaftereightyearsofstudy.
WhenhewroteascholarlyarticleinKoreanabouthisareaofconcentration,thearticlewasrejectedbecauseitwas"notgoodKorean.
"Thus,ifawriteradjuststotheexpectationsofaforeignaudience,itisimportanttorememberthatasimilar"readjustment"willbenecessarywhenrevertingbacktowritinginthenativelanguage(Kaplan).
Finally,animportantreasonforwriting,especiallyfornon-nativespeakersofEnglish,istoinfluenceone'ssocial,economic,orpoliticalenvironment.
Thus,meaningfulwritingoftenchallengestheexistingpowerstructures.
Researchersineducationwhoarecommittedtochangingthepowerstructuresthatexistbetweenthosewhohavepowerandthosewhohavelittleornopower(nativeEnglishspeakersvs.
non-nativeEnglishspeakersinmanycases)saythat"Studentsshouldunderstandthepowerrealities",andthatteachersshouldteachthe"communicativecodesofthepowerful"includingwaysofwriting.
Onlybyadaptingtothecommunicativecodesofthepowerfulwillwritersstrengthentheircapacitytobeheard.
PerhapsthroughwritingthatmeetstheexpectationsoftheUSacademicaudience,non-nativespeakersofEnglishcaninfluencesocial,economic,andpoliticaldevelopmentstoconformtotheirvisionofabetterworld.
(fromhttp://eslbee.
com/advanced_composition.
htm,IntroductiontoWritinginEnglishforanEnglishAcademicAudience)Remarks:Thisarticlediscussesacademicwritingproblemfromaspecialviewpoint—thinkingmode.
Itespeciallypinpointsacommonmistakeinorganizationofexpression:non-nativespeakerswriteintheirculturemodes,notinaudience'sculturemode.
Fornon-nativespeakers,theyshouldadjusttheirpatterntoadapttheexpectationofEnglishaudience—astraightlineofdevelopment,statingdirectly,andpresentingimportancepreempatively.
Unit127Vocabularyadapt[E5dApt]v.
适应adornment[E5dC:nmEnt]n.
装饰context[5kCntekst]n.
上下文1.
5InsideAcademics:HowtoWriteEmailorWhatisEmailEtiquetteWhydoyouneedemailetiquetteEtiquetterulesneedtobeimplementedforthefollowingreasons:Professionalism:byusingproperemaillanguageyourstudentorganizationwillconveyaprofessionalimage.
Efficiency:emailsthatgettothepointaremuchmoreeffectivethanpoorlywordedemails.
1.
WhataretheetiquetterulesTherearemanyetiquetteguidesandmanydifferentetiquetterules.
Someruleswilldifferaccordingtothenatureofyourbusinessandtheculture.
Belowwelistwhatweconsiderasthe32mostimportantemailetiquetterulesthatapplytonearlyallsettings.
2.
32mostimportantemailetiquettetips:1)Beconciseandtothepoint2)Answerallquestions,andpre-emptfurtherquestions3)Useproperspelling,grammar&punctuation4)Makeitpersonal5)Usetemplatesforfrequentlyusedresponses6)Answerswiftly7)Donotattachunnecessaryfiles8)Useproperstructure&layout9)Donotoverusethehighpriorityoption10)DonotwriteinCAPITALS11)Don'tleaveoutthemessagethread12)Adddisclaimerstoyouremails13)Readtheemailbeforeyousendit礼节,规矩先占,先取得即刻布局免责声明计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)2814)DonotoveruseReplytoAll15)Mailings>usethebcc:fieldordoamailmerge16)Takecarewithabbreviationsandemoticons17)Becarefulwithformatting18)TakecarewithrichtextandHTMLmessages19)Donotforwardchainletters20)Donotrequestdeliveryandreadreceipts21)Donotasktorecallamessage.
22)Donotcopyamessageorattachmentwithoutpermission23)Donotuseemailtodiscussconfidentialinformation24)Useameaningfulsubject25)Useactiveinsteadofpassive26)AvoidusingURGENTandIMPORTANT27)Avoidlongsentences28)Don'tsendorforwardemailscontaininglibelous,defamatory,offensive,racistor29)Don'tforwardvirushoaxesandchainletters30)Keepyourlanguagegenderneutral31)Don'treplytospam32)Usecc:fieldsparingly(fromhttp://getinvolved.
rutgers.
edu/documents/organizations/why-do-you-need-email-etiquette.
pdf)E-mailEtiquetteTobeagoodnetworkcitizenandtoprotectyourselfandothers,followtheseguidelineswhenwritingandsendingelectronicmail.
1.
WhattoDo.
.
.
Writecarefully.
Onceyousendane-mailmessage,youcannottakeitbackormakeitdisappear.
Therealityisthatyourmessagesmaybesavedforaverylongtime.
Theymayalsobereadinadvertentlybyothers,orforwardedtootherswithoutyourknowledge.
Useupperandlowercasetext.
UsingalluppercaselettersmeansSHOUTINGandcanbeoffensive.
Signyourmessageswithatleastyourname.
It'snicetoaddyoure-mailaddress,too,sincesomee-mail表情符诽谤的;中伤的恶作剧病毒性别中立少量的非故意地Unit129programsmakeitdifficulttoseewhothesenderofthemessagewas.
Addressyourmessagescarefully.
Someaddressesmaybelongtoagroup,eventhoughtheaddressappearstobelongtojustoneperson.
Respectcopyrights.
E-mailmessagesandnewspostsareincludedinthetypesofworksthatcanbecopyrighted.
Indicatehumororjokeswithasidewayssmileyface.
(Thebasicsmileyisacolon,dash,andrightparenthesis.
Therearemanyvariations.
)Youcanalsoincludesomethinglike""or""toshowyourstateofmind.
Bediplomatic.
Criticismisalwaysharsherwhenwritten,ande-mailcanbeeasilyforwarded.
Becalm.
Youmayhavemisunderstoodwhatwasmeant.
Don'treplywhileyou'restillangry(thisiscalled"flaming").
Bebrief.
Don'tincludebackgroundimages,pictures,animations,etc.
unlesstheyarecriticaltoyourmessage.
Whenreplyingtoamessage,youdon'thavetoincludetheentiretextoftheoriginalmessage.
Includejustenoughtogivethecontextofyourresponse.
Watchoutforvirusesandotherthreatsinattachedfiles.
Attachedfilesareacommonwaytospreadcomputerviruses.
InEudora,justreceivinganattachmentcannotinfectyourcomputer.
Butopeningorrunninganattachmentcan.
2.
WhatNottoDo.
.
.
Don'tforwardchainmail!
Thesemessagestellyoutosendorforwardthemtoseveralotherpeople.
Don'tstartingorcontinuingchainmailviolatesuniversitypolicy.
Don'tgetfooledbyInternethoaxesandcomputervirusmyths.
Beforeyouforwardaso-calledvirusalerttoeveryoneyouknow,checkwiththeCITHelpDeskoroneofthewebsiteslinkedheretoseeifit'sforreal.
Don'tsendunwantede-mail.
Itcanberegardedasharassment,whichisgovernedbyuniversitypoliciesandcodes.
Sendinge-mailthatsomeoneelseperceives更加苛刻计算机专业英语(学术能力培养)30asabusiveorthreateningmayconstitutecriminalharassment.
Don'tsendnumerousunsolicitedmesssages("junkmail"or"spam").
Mostpeoplehategettingjunkmail.
Italsoslowsdownthenetworksandisgenerallyawasteofvaluable,limitedresources.
Don'tforgemessages.
Alteringelectroniccommunicationstohideyouridentityorimpersonateanotherpersonisconsideredforgeryandviolatesuniversitypolicy.
Forgeriesintendedaspranksorjokesarestillconsideredviolations.
Don'tforwarde-mailsunlessyouhavethepermissionoftheauthor.
Whattheywrotemaynothavebeenintendedforwiderdistribution,soit'salwaysbettertoask.
(fromCornellInformationTechnology,CornellUniversity,http://www2.
cit.
cornell.
edu/email/polite.
html)骚扰未经请求的恶作剧
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