manifestedasp

UnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
UniversityofMassachusettsBostonThereisnodomainofcrimeandviolenceasfraughtwithmisunderstandingandmisconceptionasthatofsexualviolence.
Perhapsthemosttellingindicationofthedegreetowhichsexualviolenceisviewedthroughmultipleveilsofmythisthefollowingparadox:Inthehierarchyofviolentcrimes,asmeasuredbysentencingguidelines,rapetypicallyranksonlysecondtohomicide,andinsomecasesitranksevenhigher.
ConsiderthefollowingstatementbytheAlaskalegislatureinitjustificationofnewsentencingguidelinespassedin2006:InSenateBill218,thelowendoftherangeforthemostserioussexoffensesishigherthanthemandatoryminimumorlowendofpresumptivesentencesforsomecrimesthatresultindeath.
Thisisintentionalandnotanomalous.
Sexoffensescausegreatharmtovictims,theirfamiliesandtotheentirecommunity.
Deathhasalwaysbeenseenasthegreatestharmthatcouldbeinflictedbyanoffender.
Butdeathcanbecausedbyrecklessconduct.
Sexoffensesarenotreckless-theyareattheveryleastknowing,andoftenintentional.
TheproportionalityofthesentencesimposedbySenateBill218tootheroffensesinourcriminalcodewasconsidered.
Theseverityofthesentencesincomparisontoothercrimeswasintentional.
1Suchsentencingstructuresserveasamessagefromthecommunity:"weviewrapeasanextremelyseriouscrime.
"Atthesametime,however,thenumberofrapesthatareactuallyprosecutedisatinyfractionofthenumbercommittedinanyyear.
Betweentwo-third'sandthreequartersofallrapesareneverreportedtothecriminaljusticesystem,andamongthosethatarereported,attritionatvariouslevelsdramaticallyreducesthenumberofactualprosecutions.
Ultimately,onlyatinyhandfulofrapistseverservetimeforrape,ashockingoutcomegiventhatweviewrapeasclosekintomurderinthetaxonomyofviolentcrime.
2-5Underlyingthisparadoxarenumerous,intersectingmythologiesaboutrape.
Therearethe"classic"mythsaboutvictims:"womensecretlyharboraUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
2desiretoberaped;"women"cryrape"onlywhenitsuitsthem;andmenareneverthevictimsofrape.
Therearealso"classic"mythsaboutrapists:theywearskimasks,hideinambush,attackstrangersandinflictbrutalinjuriesontheirvictims.
6-7Thereisalsoasetofnewermythsaboutrape,mythsthathavebeenspawnedbythenewgenerationofvictimizationstudiesthathaveemergedsincethe1980's.
Thesestudiesdocumentedthatrapewasbothfarmoreprevalentthantraditionalcrimesurveysindicated,andthatmostrapevictimsdidnotreporttheirvictimization.
Thesestudiesalsoclearlyrevealedthatmostrapesarenotcommittedbystrangersinskimasks,butratherby"acquaintances"or"non-strangers.
"8-9Theserealizationsledtothegeneraladoptionofnewlanguageandnewcategoriesofrape.
Termssuchas"acquaintancerape"and"daterape"emergedandtookhold.
Unfortunately,thesenewtermshavecreatedanewmythologyaboutrape.
Theterm"daterape,"whichhasbecomewovenintothefabricofpublicdiscourseaboutsexualviolence,carrieswithittheconnotationof"rapelite.
"Victimsofdaterapearetypicallyviewedaslessharmedthanvictimsofstrangerrape;and"daterapists"aretypicallyviewedaslessseriousoffenders,andfranklylessculpablethanstrangerrapists.
Daterapeisoftenviewedmoreintraditionallycivilthanintraditionallycriminalterms:asanunfortunateencounterinwhichthetwopartiesshareculpabilitybecauseoftoomuchalcoholandtoolittleclearcommunication.
10Oneoftheconsequencesofthisnewmythologyofdaterapeisthattherehasbeenverylittle,ifany,cross-communicationbetweenthestudyofdaterape–aliteraturetypicallybasedin,andfocusedoncollegecampuses–andthelong-establishedliteratureonsexoffendersandsexualpredators.
Infact,intheauthor'spersonalexperience,thereistypicallyconsiderableresistancewithincivilianuniversitiestotheuseoftheterm"sexoffender"whenreferringtothestudentswhoperpetrateactsofsexualviolenceoncampuses.
Thisresistanceisoneofthelegaciesoftheterm,"daterape,"andithasservedtoobscureoneoftheunpleasantfactsaboutsexualviolenceinthecollegeenvironment:thatjustasinUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
3thelargercommunity,themajorityofthisviolenceiscommittedbypredatoryindividualswhotendtobeserialandmulti-facetedoffenders.
Inthelargercommunitytherehasbeenagradualreckoningwiththepredatorynatureofsexualviolence.
Thisreckoninghasledtoconcertedeffortstofindeffectivetreatmentandmanagementstrategiesforsexoffenders;andsimultaneouslytoarealisticassessmentoftheefficacyofthosestrategies.
Intheuniversitycommunityasimilarreckoningwouldinfluencestrategiesforthepreventionofsexualviolence,aswellasfortheadjudicationofcasesthatfallwithintheinstitution'sjurisdiction.
SexualPredatorsintheCommunityResearchonsexoffendersspansmanydecadesandhascontributedmuchtoourunderstandingofthebehaviorandcharacteristicsofrapists,theirunderlyingmotivations,andthedevelopmentalantecedentsofsexoffending.
Historically,oneofthefailingsofthisresearchliteratureisthatithasbeenbasedexclusivelyonthestudyofcaptured,andtypicallyincarceratedoffenders.
Thisisunderstandable–itisdifficulttostudysexoffenderswhohavenotbeenidentifiedbythecriminaljusticesystem–butitcarrieswithitpotentiallysignificantlimitations.
Sincethevastmajorityofrapesareneverreported,andthemajorityofrapistsareneverprosecuted,thelargestpopulationofrapists–thoseresponsibleforthevastmajorityofrape–werehistoricallyleftoutoftheresearchliterature.
Thislimitationoftheliteraturehasbeenpartiallycorrectedinrecentyearswiththestudyof"non-incarcerated"rapists(seebelow),whichtendstoshowaconvergenceoffindingswiththeolderliteratureonincarceratedoffenders.
Thestudyofincarceratedrapistshasproducednotableandenduringfindingsabouttheperpetratorsofsexualviolence.
MotivationsandTaxonomiesOneofthemostimportantcontributionsmadebythestudyofincarceratedsexoffenderswastheclarificationoftheroleofsexualityintheperpetrationofrape.
Sincerapeinvolvessexualbehavior,itwaslongbelievedtoUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
4beprimarilymotivatedbysexualimpulse;deviantsexualimpulse,butsexualimpulsenonetheless.
ThisconfusionofcontextwithmotivationwasclarifiedmainlybytheworkofNicholasGroth,whopublishedatypologyofrapistsinthe1970's.
Grothlabeledeachtypebasedontheprinciplemotivationmanifestedbytherapistsinthatgroup.
11ThetwoprimaryandnumericallylargesttypesidentifiedbyGrothwerethe"power"rapistandthe"anger"rapist.
Thepowerrapistwasmotivatedbyhisneedtocontrolanddominatehisvictim,andinversely,toavoidbeingcontrolledbyher.
Theangerrapistwasmotivatedbyresentmentandageneralhostilitytowardswomen,andwasmorepronetoinflictinggratuitousviolenceinthecourseofarape.
Notsurprisingly,thesetypeswererarelyfoundinpureform.
Mostrapistswereactuallyblendsofpowerandangermotivations;however,apredominanceofoneortheotherwasoftendiscernible.
11Thethirdand(thankfully)numericallyfarsmallertypewasthesadisticrapist.
Thisrapistwasmotivatedbythesexualgratificationheexperiencedwhenheinflictedpainonhisvictim.
ThesadisticrapisthasbecomeastapleoftheAmericanmedia,butthese,onceagain,extremelyrarecases.
11Groth'sidentificationofangerandpowerastheprimarymotivationsbehindrapehasendured,andhasbecomethebasisforattemptsatdefiningmorerefinedtaxonomiesofrape.
Theseeffortshavelargelyyieldedmodestresults,andhavefocusedonidentifyingblendsofpowerandangermotivations,andondistinguishingdevelopmentalantecedentsforthevarioustypes.
Notsurprisingly,amongthosedevelopmentalantecedents,oneofthemostprominentisahistoryofchildhoodabuse.
Sexualabuse,physicalabuseandneglectareallsignificantlymoreprevalentinthebackgroundsofrapiststhaninthebackgroundsofnon-offendingmen.
12-15SerialOffendingandRecidivismPerhapsthemostsoberingdatathathaveemergedfromthestudyofincarceratedrapistsarethesheernumbersofvictimsattackedbytheaveragerapist.
Mostrapistswhoareprosecutedareconvictedonasinglecountofrape.
However,whenresearchershavegrantedimmunitytooffendersinexchangeforUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
5atruthfulaccountingoftheirsexoffendinghistorytherealityofrapeemerges.
Inonestudy,theaveragenumberofvictimsforeachrapistwasseven,andinanotherstudyitwas11.
16-17Asimilarpicturehasemergedfromresearchemanatingfromintensivesexoffendermanagementprograms.
Offenderstendtohaveverylengthyoffendingcareers,beginninginadolescenceandoftenspanningseveraldecades.
Bythetimetheyarecaptured–iftheyarecaptured–theyhaveoftenvictimizedscoresorevenhundred'sofindividuals.
16,18-19CrossoverOffendingThereisincreasingattentionbeingpaidtoanotherprominentphenomenonassociatedwithsexoffending:thetendencyoftheseoffenderstobenon-specialists;tooffendagainstdifferentagegroupsanddifferent"classes"ofvictims.
Historically,sexoffendershavebeengroupedintocategoriesdictatedbytheirapparentchoiceofvictim:rapists,whoattackadults;childmolesters,whoattackchildren;incestoffenders,whoattackchildrenwithintheirownfamily.
Thesecategorizationshaverestedontheassumptionthatthesechoicesofvictimswerestable,evenfixedcharacteristicsoftheoffenders.
However,thelabelingofanoffenderaseitherarapist,achildmolester,oranincestoffenderhastypicallybeenbasedonnothingmorethanwhattheoffenderwasconvictedof.
Therealityturnsouttobefarmurkier.
Thereisnowsubstantialevidenceforconsiderable"crossover"amongthesecategories.
Somuchso,infact,thatitisquestionablewhetheritisadvisabletoapplyspecificvictim-categorylabelstoanoffender.
Multiplestudieshavenowdocumentedthatbetween33%and66%ofrapistshavealsosexuallyattackedchildren;thatupto82%ofchildmolestershavealsosexuallyattackedadults;andthatbetween50%and66%ofincestoffendershavealsosexuallyattackedchildrenoutsidetheirfamilies.
16-17,20-21SexualPredatorsonCampusBeginninginthe1980's,socialscienceresearchersbegantosystematicallyexposetherealityofinterpersonalviolenceinAmerica.
ThefirststepinthisprocesswastheonsetofanewgenerationofvictimizationresearchthatUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
6documentedthetrueprevalenceofbothsexualanddomesticviolence.
ShunningthetraditionaldatacollectionmethodsoftheFederalBureauofInvestigation,theseresearchersrevealedthreefundamentalrealities:1)mostinterpersonalviolenceisperpetratedbyindividualswhoinsomewayareknowntothevictim;2)mostofthisviolenceisneverreportedtoauthorities;and3)mostperpetratorsofthisviolenceareneverprosecuted.
8,22Intherealmofadultsexualviolence,theserevelationsspawnednew,andultimatelyunfortunateterms,suchas"daterape.
"Muchofthisresearchwasfocusedoncollegepopulations,notonlybecauseoftheirconvenience,butbecausecollegestudentsfallwithintheagerangeofmaximumvulnerabilitytosexualviolence–18to24years.
9Asthisnewgenerationofvictimizationresearchwasdisseminated,itrevealedwithincreasingclarityanenormousgapintheresearchonsexoffenders.
Therewerestudiesofincarceratedrapists,buttherewasalmostnoresearchonthemenwhowereactuallycommittingthevastmajorityofrape–non-strangerrapistswhosevictimsrarelyreport,andwhowerealmostneversubjecttoprosecution.
23-24Thisgapbegantoclosewithresearchthatbeganinthemid-1980's,andthatfocusedonnon-incarceratedrapists.
Researchersdiscoveredthatitwaspossibletogatheraccuratedatafromthesemenbecausetheydidnotviewthemselvesasrapists.
Theysharedtheverywidespreadbeliefthatrapistswereknife-wieldingmeninskimaskswhoattackedstrangers;sincetheydidnotfitthatdescription,theywerenotrapistsandtheirbehaviorwasnotrape.
Thishasallowedresearcherstostudythemotivations,behaviorsandbackgroundcharacteristicsoftheseso-called"undetectedrapists.
"MotivationsandCharacteristicsManyofthemotivationalfactorsthatwereidentifiedinincarceratedrapistshavebeenshowntoapplyequallytoundetectedrapists.
Whencomparedtomenwhodonotrape,theseundetectedrapistsaremeasurablymoreangryatwomen,moremotivatedbytheneedtodominateandcontrolwomen,moreUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
7impulsiveanddisinhibitedintheirbehavior,morehyper-masculineintheirbeliefsandattitudes,lessempathicandmoreantisocial.
23-28Inthecourseof20yearsofinterviewingtheseundetectedrapists,inbothresearchandforensicsettings,ithasbeenpossibleformetodistillsomeofthecommoncharacteristicsofthemodusoperandiofthesesexoffenders.
Theseundetectedrapists:areextremelyadeptatidentifying"likely"victims,andtestingprospectivevictims'boundaries;planandpremeditatetheirattacks,usingsophisticatedstrategiestogroomtheirvictimsforattack,andtoisolatethemphysically;use"instrumental"notgratuitousviolence;theyexhibitstrongimpulsecontrolanduseonlyasmuchviolenceasisneededtoterrifyandcoercetheirvictimsintosubmission;usepsychologicalweapons–power,control,manipulation,andthreats–backedupbyphysicalforce,andalmostneverresorttoweaponssuchasknivesorguns;usealcoholdeliberatelytorendervictimsmorevulnerabletoattack,orcompletelyunconscious.
SerialandCrossoverOffendingThedatathatmostemphaticallycontradictsthemythologyaboutdaterapists–themisconceptionthattheyaresomehowlessseriousoffendersthantheircounterpartswhoattackstrangers–arethefindingsfromrecentstudiesthatindicatethatthesemenareaslikelytobeserialandmulti-facetedoffendersasareincarceratedrapists.
Inastudyof1,882universitymenconductedintheBostonarea,120rapistswereidentified.
These120undetectedrapistswereresponsiblefor483rapes.
Ofthe120rapists,44hadcommittedasinglerape,while76(63%ofthem)wereserialrapistswhoaccountedfor439ofthe483rapes.
These76serialrapistshadalsocommittedmorethan1,000othercrimesofviolence,fromnon-penetratingactsofsexualassault,tophysicalandsexualabuseofchildren,toUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
8batteryofdomesticpartners.
Noneoftheseundetectedrapistshadbeenprosecutedforthesecrimes.
29Alsomirroringthefindingsfromthestudyofincarceratedsexoffenders,arecentstudyofcollegerapistsfoundthatthemostpowerfulpredictorofcommittingrapeduringcollegewasahistoryofhavingcommittedrapeduringhighschool.
Thissamestudyalsofoundahigherprevalenceofchildhoodabuseinthebackgroundsofrapists,matchingthefindingsfromanearlierstudyofundetectedrapists.
30-31ImplicationsforUniversityCommunitiesTheimplicationsoftheresearchonundetectedrapists–researchthathaslargelyfocusedonmenincollegeenvironments–pointtothesimilarityoftheseoffenderstoincarceratedrapists.
Theysharethesamemotivationalmatrixofhostility,anger,dominance,hyper-masculinity,impulsivenessandantisocialattitudes.
Theyhavemanyofthesamedevelopmentalantecedents.
Theytendtobeserialoffenders,andmostofthemcommitavarietyofdifferentinterpersonaloffenses.
Theyareaccuratelyandappropriatelylabeledaspredators.
Thispictureconflictssharplywiththewidely-heldviewthatrapescommittedonuniversitycampusesaretypicallytheresultofabasically"decent"youngmanwho,wereitnotfortoomuchalcoholandtoolittlecommunication,wouldneverdosuchathing.
Whilesomecampusrapesdofitthismorebenignview,theevidencepointstoafarlessbenignreality,inwhichthevastmajorityofrapesarecommittedbyserial,violentpredators.
Thislessbenignrealityhaspotentiallysignificantimplicationsforhowuniversitiesdealwithsexualviolencewithintheircommunity.
Preventioneffortsgearedtowardpersuadingmennottorapeareveryunlikelytobeeffective.
Lessonscanbedrawnfrommanydecadesofexperienceinsexoffendertreatment,whichhavedemonstratedthatitisextremelydifficulttochangethebehaviorofaserialpredatorevenwhenyouincarceratehimandsubjecthimtoanintensive,multi-yearprogram.
Ratherthanfocusingpreventioneffortsontherapists,itwouldseemfarmoreeffectivetofocusthoseeffortsonthefarmorenumerousbystanders–menandwomenwhoarepartofthesocialandculturalUnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
9milieuinwhichrapesarespawnedandwhocanbemobilizedtoidentifyperpetratorsandinterveneinhigh-risksituations.
Thelessbenignrealityofsexualviolenceintheuniversitysettingalsocarriesimplicationsforuniversityjudicialprocesses.
Ajudicialboardwouldhardlyseemtheappropriatevenuetodealwithasexualpredator.
Further,casesofnon-strangerrapeareextremelydifficulttoproperlyinvestigateandprosecute–theyareinfactfarmorecomplexthanthemajorityofstrangerrapes.
Aproperinvestigationrequiresskilledandspecially-trainedinvestigatorsworkingcloselywithspecially-trainedprosecutors.
Absentaproperinvestigation,almosteverynon-strangerrapecasequicklydevolvesintotheproverbial"he-said-she-said"conundrum,andjudicialboardmembersarelefthelplesstodiscernwhatactuallymayhaveoccurred.
Thissituationincreasesthelikelihoodofinadequatelyorevenpoorly-handledcases,therebyincreasingtheharmdonebothtothevictimandtothelargercommunity.
OneinstitutionthathasbeguntoearnestlywrestlewiththeseimplicationsistheUnitedStatesAirForce.
InthewakeofthesexualassaultscandalattheAirForceAcademy,boththeAcademyandtheAirForceasawholehaveundertakenwhatisperhapsthemostcomprehensiveprogramtoconfrontandpreventsexualviolencethathaseverbeenundertakenbyamajorinstitution.
ItisstilltooearlytodeterminetheoveralleffectivenessoftheAirForce'snewpoliciesandpreventionefforts.
However,ataminimum,theAirForcehasalreadydemonstratedthatitispossibleforamajorinstitutiontohonestlyconfrontsexualviolence,andtodosowiththecomprehensiveinitiativesrequiredforareasonablechanceatsuccess.
Insodoing,theAirForcehasraisedthebarforotherinstitutionsintheUnitedStates,andimplicitlychallengedcollegesanduniversitiestomakeasimilarcommitment.
UnderstandingthePredatoryNatureofSexualViolenceDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
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ContactInformationDavidLisak,Ph.
D.
617-947-4119davelisak@aol.
com