Aquaticoceanbase

MaterialsforaSustainableFutureEditedbyTrevorM.
LetcherSchoolofChemistry,UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Durban,SouthAfricaEmail:trevor@letcher.
eclipse.
co.
ukJanetL.
ScottCentreforSustainableChemicalTechnologies,UniversityofBath,Bath,UKRSCPublishingContentsIntroduction1IElementsThatCouldSoonBeinShortSupplyChapter1BaseMetals11GavinM.
MuddandZhehanWeng1.
1Introduction111.
2TheBaseMetalsandTheirUses131.
3BriefEconomicGeologyandMiningofBaseMetals131.
3.
1EconomicGeologyandMajorMineralDepositTypes131.
3.
2MiningandMetalExtraction161.
3.
3HistoricalProductionTrends181.
4EconomicResourcesofCopper,Lead-ZincandNickel191.
4.
1FormalReportingofEconomicOreReservesandMineralResources191.
4.
2GlobalStatusofBaseMetalReserves:USGSEstimates221.
4.
3Copper231.
4.
4Lead-Zinc261.
4.
5Nickel301.
5StatisticsofBaseMetalMinesAroundtheWorld351.
5.
1Copper351.
5.
2Lead-Zinc401.
5.
3Nickel42MaterialsforaSustainableFutureEditedbyTrevorM.
LetcherandJanetL.
ScottTheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2012PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.
rsc.
orgxxiiixxivContents1.
6SustainabilityIssues,ConstraintsandtheFutureofBaseMetals481.
6.
1EnergyandGreenhouseGasEmissionsIntensity491.
6.
2OtherOreProcessingIssues521.
6.
3OceanBaseMetalResources531.
7Conclusion54References55Chapter2RareEarths60GarethP.
Hatch2.
1Introduction602.
2ApplicationsandEndUsesofRareEarths632.
3Rare-EarthMineralsandGeology672.
4MiningandProcessingofRareEarths702.
5Rare-EarthDemandDrivers722.
6RareEarthSupplyDrivers762.
7SpecificSupplyandDemandIssues812.
8Rare-EarthPricing832.
9FutureSourcesofRare-EarthSupply86References89Chapter3Gold93JulieL.
Stacey3.
1IntroductionandHistory933.
1.
1SustainableDevelopment943.
2WhyisGoldSpecial953.
3TheUsesofGold963.
3.
1Economics973.
3.
2Engineering983.
3.
3IndustrialandElectronics993.
3.
4DentalandMedical993.
3.
5Jewellery1003.
4HowMuchGoldDoWeUse1003.
5WhereandHowisGoldMined1023.
5.
1GoldProduction1023.
5.
2MiningMethodsandProcesses102Contentsxxv3.
6TheSustainabilityofGold1043.
6.
1IssuesofSustainabilityinGoldProduction1043.
6.
2IssuesofSustainabilityinGoldUse1073.
6.
3HowCanGoldContributetoSustainableDevelopment1083.
7Conclusion113References114Chapter4PlatinumGroupMetals119GavinM.
Mudd4.
1Introduction1194.
2ThePlatinumGroupMetalsandTheirUses1204.
3BriefGeologyofPlatinumGroupMetals1214.
3.
1PrincipalOreTypes1214.
3.
2TheBushveldComplex,SouthAfrica1214.
4EconomicResourcesofPlatinumGroupMetals1244.
4.
1ReportedOreReservesandMineralResources1244.
4.
2ComparisonofReserveResourceEstimates1384.
5PlatinumGroupMetalMinesAroundtheWorld1384.
5.
1Overview1384.
5.
2ProductionTrends1394.
6SustainabilityIssues,ConstraintsandtheFutureofPlatinumGroupMetals1464.
7Conclusion148References149Chapter5Helium152TrevorM.
Letcher5.
1Introduction1525.
2Properties1535.
3Isotopes1545.
4Applications1545.
4.
1CryogenicsandMRIScanners1545.
4.
2PressurisedPurgingandtheSpaceProgramme1555.
4.
3ShieldGasforWelding1565.
4.
4ControlledAtmosphere1565.
4.
5LeakDetection156xxviContents5.
4.
6BreathingMixtures1565.
4.
7AirshipsandBalloons1575.
4.
8CoolingandCondensingOtherGasestoLiquids1575.
4.
9Lasers1575.
4.
10PartyBalloonsandtheDonaldDuckVoice1575.
4.
11OtherUses1585.
5SubstitutesforHelium1585.
6ExtractionofHeliumfromOilWells1585.
7WorldSupplyandDemand1605.
8Conclusion160References161Chapter6Phosphorus163Tina-SimoneS.
Neset6.
1Introduction1636.
2PropertiesandNaturalCycles1646.
3Applications1656.
3.
1Fertilisers1656.
3.
2FeedAdditives1666.
3.
3FoodAdditives1666.
3.
4Detergents1676.
3.
5PyrotechnicandMilitaryApplications1676.
3.
6IndustrialApplications1676.
3.
7Phosphate-LithiumBatteries1676.
4GlobalPhosphorusReserves1686.
5IndustrialMiningofPhosphorus1696.
5.
1GlobalProductionandConsumption1706.
5.
2Pollution1706.
6AlternativeSourcesandSustainablePathways1716.
7Conclusion172References173Chapter7Jranhim175javinM.
Mudd7.
1Introduction1757.
2UraniumandItsUses178Contentsxxvii7.
3BriefHistoryofUranium1807.
4EconomicResourcesofUranium1837.
4.
1BasicGeologyofUraniumandDepositTypes1837.
4.
2EconomicUraniumResources1837.
5UraniumMinesAroundtheWorld1917.
5.
1Overview1917.
5.
2BriefReviewofUraniumOreMiningandMilling1927.
5.
3StatisticsofCurrentUraniumMines1937.
6SustainabilityIssues,ConstraintsandtheFutureofUranium1977.
6.
1ProjectionsofNuclearPower1977.
6.
2EnergyandGreenhouseGasEmissionsIntensityofMining2007.
6.
3UraniumMineRehabilitation-SomeKeyIssues2047.
7Conclusion206References207IISustainabilityRelatedtoBiomassChapter8AquaticBiomassfortheProductionofFuelsandChemicals215AngelaDibenedettoandAntonellaColucci8.
1Introduction2158.
2TheAquaticBiomass:Macro-algae,Micro-algaeandPlants2168.
2.
1Micro-algae2178.
2.
2Macro-algae2208.
2.
3AquaticPlants2218.
3HarvestingofAquaticBiomass2218.
4AquaticBiomassComposition2218.
4.
1ExtractionTechniques2238.
5EnergyProducts2258.
5.
1Bio-oilProduction2258.
5.
2ProductionofBioalcohol2288.
5.
3ProductionofBiogasandBiomethane2298.
5.
4ProductionofMaterials2308.
6Conclusion238References239xxviiiContentsChapter9ChemicalsfromSugarcane246FernandoGalembeck,GabrielaAlvesMacedoandYarnCsordas9.
1Introduction2469.
2ChemicalsfromSucroseandEthanol2479.
2.
1EstersfromSucroseandMolasses2489.
2.
2Sucrose-basedFoodIngredients2529.
3CarboxylicAcids2589.
4EthersandSucrogels2629.
5ChemicalsfromBagasse2659.
6C02:fromExhausttotheMarket2679.
7FromAshestoNewRawMaterials2699.
8Conclusion270Acknowledgements270References271Chapter10ChemicalsfromBiomass279JanetL.
ScottandGianfrancoUnali10.
1Introduction27910.
1.
1SourcesofBiomassandtheBiorefineryConcept28010.
1.
2Bio-based/Renewable/Sustainable28210.
1.
3Scope28310.
2Bio-basedPlatformChemicals28310.
2.
1PlatformChemicalsfromCarbohydrates28410.
2.
2ChemicalsfromLignin28510.
2.
3ChemicalsfromFatsandOils29010.
2.
4ChemicalsfromGlycerol29210.
2.
5ChemicalsfromProteinsandOtherHigh-valueProducts29710.
3TheReductionistApproachVersusUsingNature'sComplexity29810.
4Bio-basedChemicalsBasedonChemicalTypeandApplication29910.
4.
1Solvents30010.
4.
2Surfactants30910.
5Conclusion314References315ContentsxxixIIISustainabilityRelatedtoFeedstocks-CH4andC02Chapter11MethaneforTransportationFuelandChemicalProduction327ArnodeKlerkandVinayPrasad11.
1Introduction32711.
1.
1Sustainability32911.
2NaturalSourcesofMethane33011.
2.
1ProductionofNaturalGas33011.
2.
2CompositionofNaturalGas33111.
3TransportationFuels33311.
3.
1SparkIgnitionEngineFuel33411.
3.
2CompressionIgnitionEngineFuel33611.
3.
3TurbineFuel33711.
3.
4ProductionofTransportationFuels33811.
4IndustrialGas-to-Liquids(GTL)Technologies33911.
4.
1LiquefiedNaturalGasProduction34011.
4.
2IndustrialGTLMethanolProduction34111.
4.
3IndustrialGTLFischer-Tropsch.
Production34211.
5SynthesisGasProductionfromNaturalGas34411.
5.
1NaturalGasPretreatmentandPre-reforming34511.
5.
2SteamReforming34611.
5.
3PartialOxidation34711.
5.
4AutothermalReforming34811.
5.
5WaterGasShiftConditioning34911.
6SynthesisGasConversionTechnologies35011.
6.
1MethanolSynthesis35311.
6.
2Fischer-TropschSynthesis35511.
7RefiningtoCommercialTransportationFuels35811.
7.
1MethanolRefiningtoTransportationFuels36111.
7.
2Fischer-TropschSyncrudeRefiningtoTransportationFuels36511.
8PetrochemicalsandLubricantsfromMethane36811.
8.
1PetrochemicalsviaSynthesisGas36911.
8.
2PetrochemicalsandLubricantsviaMethanolSynthesis37011.
8.
3PetrochemicalsandLubricantsviaFischer-TropschSynthesis37111.
8.
4PetrochemicalsfromDirectOxidativeCouplingofMethane37311.
8.
5PetrochemicalsfromDirectMethaneSulfurisation374XXXContents11.
8.
6PetrochemicalsfromDirectMethaneHalogenationandRelatedReactions37511.
8.
7PetrochemicalsfromDirectMethaneConversionwithNH3andHN0337611.
9NaturalGasUseforaSustainableFuture377References378Chapter12CarbonCapture:MaterialsandProcessEngineering385NickH.
Florin,NiallMacDowell,PaulS.
FennellandGeoffreyC.
Maitland12.
1Introduction38512.
2CarbonCaptureOverview38712.
3CarbonCaptureProcessesandMaterials39012.
3.
1Liquid-basedCaptureProcesses39012.
3.
2SolidSorbents40012.
3.
3OtherSeparationTechniques40912.
4IntegrationofCaptureProcessesandMaterialswithC02SourceProcesses41512.
4.
1IntegrationofC02CapturePlantwithPowerProduction41512.
4.
2IntegrationofC02CapturePlantwithIndustrialProcesses41612.
4.
3NetworkDesignandOperation41712.
5Conclusion418Acknowledgements419References419Chapter13CarbonDioxideUtilisationintheProductionofChemicals,FuelsandMaterials430MicheleArestaandPaoloStufano13.
1Introduction43013.
2Carbonates43313.
2.
1OrganicMolecularCompounds43513.
2.
2C02asComonomerintheSynthesisofPolycarbonates44613.
3Carbamates44913.
3.
1SynthesisofMolecularCarbamates44913.
3.
2ProductionofPolyurethanes455Contentsxxxi13.
4TheEnergyIssueintheProductionofFuelsfromC0245913.
4.
1C02ConversionintoFuelsasaStoreofElectricalEnergy46213.
4.
2TheDirectReductionofC02toFuelsinWater46413.
5OtherMonomersProducedfromC0246513.
5.
1Urea46513.
5.
2Olefins46613.
5.
3EnhancedFixationintoAquaticBiomass46613.
6ProductionofInorganicCarbonates46713.
7Conclusion469References470Chapter14CarbonDioxideintheManufactureofPlastics482MatthewD.
Jones14.
1Introduction48214.
2Polymers48414.
3InitiatorSystems49014.
3.
1CobaltInitiators49014.
3.
2ChromiumInitiators49314.
3.
3ZincInitiators49514.
3.
4Ambient-pressureInitiators49514.
4OtherEpoxides49814.
5OtherPolymericMaterials49814.
6Conclusion498References499Chapter15CarbonDioxideasaSustainableIndustrialSolventtoReplaceOrganicSolvents503StevenM.
Howdle,StefanPollak,NatashaA.
BirkinandMarieWarren15.
1Introduction50315.
1.
1TheSupercriticalState50515.
2Extraction50715.
2.
1ExtractionofNaturalSubstances50815.
2.
2CleaningandPurification51015.
2.
3DecaffeinationofCoffeeandTea511xxxiiContents15.
3Impregnation51215.
3.
1TextileDyeing51315.
3.
2WoodImpregnation51415.
4ReactionsinCarbonDioxide51515.
4.
1Hydrogenation51515.
4.
2PolymerSynthesis51615.
5CarbonDioxideasaProcessAid51715.
5.
1PolymerFoamingandModification51815.
5.
2ParticleProduction51915.
6FutureTrends52115.
6.
1TanningofLeather52215.
6.
2MedicalApplications52315.
6.
3PolymerSynthesis-NewOpportunities52515.
7Conclusion527References528IVMaterialsRelatedtoEnergyConversion,StorageandDistributionChapter16BatteryandFuelCellMaterials537JustinSalminenandTanjaKallio16.
1Introduction53716.
2RechargeableLithiumIonBatteryMaterials53916.
3FuelCellComponentsandRecyclability54416.
4DurabilityIssueswithFuelCellMaterials54816.
5FuelsforFuelCells55016.
6Discussion55416.
7Conclusion555References556Chapter17MaterialsforPhotovoltaics558IanForbesandLaurenceM.
Peter17.
1Introduction55817.
2EfficiencyLimitsforPhotovoltaicSolarEnergyConversion561Contentsxxxiii17.
3OverviewofCurrentPVTechnology56317.
3.
1Mono-/MulticrystallineSiliconSolarCells56417.
3.
2CdTeThin-filmSolarCells56517.
3.
3CIGSThin-filmCells56517.
4EmergingPVTechnologies56717.
4.
1Dye-sensitisedSolarCells56717.
4.
2BulkHeterojunctionOrganicCells56717.
5EfficiencyRecordsintheLaboratory56817.
6LifeCycleAnalysis,EnergyBalanceandC02FootprintofPV56817.
7ResourceImplicationsofLarge-scaleDeploymentofPV57317.
8LogisticGrowthModelforEstimationofResourceRequirementsforPV58417.
9OutlookandConclusion585References586Chapter18MaterialsforWaterSplitting592MarkD.
SymesandLeroyCronin18.
1IntroductionandScope59218.
2WaterSplittingbyElectrolysis59418.
2.
1Fundamentals59418.
2.
2ElectrolyticWaterOxidationonCobaltOxophosphates(CoPi)59718.
2.
3ElectrolyticWaterOxidationonManganeseOxides59818.
2.
4OtherElectrocatalystsforWaterOxidation60018.
2.
5ElectrolyticProtonReductiononMolybdenumSulfides60118.
2.
6ElectrolyticHydrogenProductionUnderBasicConditions60118.
3PhotocatalyticWaterSplitting60318.
3.
1BasicConcepts60318.
3.
2PhotocatalyticWaterOxidation60518.
3.
3PhotocatalyticHydrogenEvolution60818.
3.
4OverallWaterSplittinginPhotocatalyticCellsUsingOnlyLight60918.
4ConclusionandOutlook610References612xxxivContentsVSustainabilityRelatedtoMaterialsintheUrbanEnvironmentandtoWaterChapter19MaterialsUsedinMembranesforWaterPurificationandRecycling617XiaoyingZhu,Kin-BoWeeandRenbiBai19.
1IntroductiontoMembraneTechnology61719.
2PolymericMaterialsforMembraneFabrication62019.
2.
1MF/UFMembraneMaterials62219.
2.
2NF/ROMembraneMaterials62719.
2.
3Ion-exchangeMembraneMaterials62919.
2.
4CompositeMembrane(Top-layer)Formation63119.
3PolymericMaterialModifications63419.
3.
1BulkModifications63419.
3.
2SurfaceModifications63619.
4InorganicMaterialsforMembraneFabrication638References639Chapter20GlassandNewTechnologies644AndreasKafizasandIvanP.
Parkin20.
1Introduction64420.
2Low-emissivityCoatings64620.
3IntelligentWindowCoatings64820.
3.
1ElectrochromicWindows64920.
3.
2ThermochromicWindows65220.
3.
3PhotochromicGlass65520.
4Anti-frictionCoatings65620.
5Self-cleaningCoatings65720.
6Water-repellentWindows66020.
7Anti-foggingCoatings66120.
8PrivacyCoatings66220.
9Thin-filmPhotovoltaicWindows66320.
10Conclusion665References665ContentsxxxvChapter21SustainableMaterialsinBuildingandArchitecture668LlewellynVanWyk,JoeMapiravanaandNaaLamkaiAmpofo-Anti21.
1Introduction66821.
2GlobalIndustryTrends66921.
3BackgroundandContexttoSustainableBuildingandConstruction67021.
4BulkConstructionMaterialResourceReserves67221.
5ThreatsFacingtheBulkConstructionMaterialSector67421.
5.
1EmbodiedEnergy67421.
5.
2EmbodiedWater67521.
5.
3EmbodiedToxicity67621.
6AFive-pillaredApproachtoConstructionMaterials67721.
6.
1OptimiseExistingTechnologies67721.
6.
2IntegrateEnvironmentallySoundFringeTechnologiesintoMainstreamTechnologies67821.
6.
3AccelerateHybridTechnologiesintoMainstreamTechnologies67921.
6.
4DevelopBiotechnologyApplications67921.
6.
5DevelopNanotechnologyApplications68121.
7Trends68421.
7.
1TrendsinConventionalBulkConstructionMaterials68421.
7.
2TrendsinBio-basedConstructionMaterials68721.
7.
3AgriculturalCropProducts69321.
8Conclusion694References695Chapter22BiomassinCompositeMaterials698MarianneLabet,KaziM.
ZakirHossain,IftyAhmedandWimThielemans22.
1Introduction69822.
2Bio-basedPolymers70022.
2.
1Polysaccharides70122.
2.
2Lignin70422.
2.
3PlantOils70622.
2.
4Polyhydroxyalkanoates707xxxviContents22.
2.
5PolylacticAcid70922.
2.
6NaturalRubber71022.
3Reinforcements71122.
3.
1FibreReinforcement71222.
3.
2CellulosicFibres71722.
3.
3StarchComposites72422.
4OtherNaturalFibres-Reinforcements72522.
5Conclusion727References727SubjectIndex740